Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

Plato

INTRODUCTICN
lVe begin our journey into the minds of tire great thinkers !V studying the
u'as
i*port"u.r, contriUutions of the Greeks. Our first stop is Athens where Plato
born. Here, we will examine his major work entitled [Link] us try
to
how we can go about
understand what he thinks is the best political system and
achieving that ideal system' Are you ready? Here we go'

oBJEclvEs
6
After studying this module, you should be able to'

identiff the core political ideas of Plato, particularly his concept of the ideal
state and the philosoPher-ruler,
2. discuss the contributions of Plato to the study of politics; and
J- explain the relevance of Plato's ideas by applying these to current issues '

10
Module 2: Plato
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli UP opqn]Jqvg1gL

HER.E'S PLATO!
That *,e are beginning our journey with Plato
does not mean that Greek philosophy began
with him That rvould be totally unfair to
those thinkers, like Socrsi€s, [Link] came
beiore hinr and Aristotle. However, our study'
begiirs rvith llm pai-tlv because very few of
the i,iorks of earlier philoscphers have
sun'[Link]. Or, as in the case of some of them
they never wrote dorvn their thoughts.
Nevertheless, by studying the r,vcrks of Flato
and Aristotle, we can get a glimpse of ihe
ideas of these early thinkers.
Source: llicrosofi Encarta 2000

Plato was born to an aristocratic family in Athens around 427 B.C. He was a
student of Socrates, one of the earlier thinkers who never r,l'rote his ideas but
whose ideas are nevertheless reflected in Plato's works. Referred to by some as
"perhaps the greatest thinker of ali time", Plato presented the first systematic
analysis of politics. He estabiished the first college, the Academy, in 388 B.C. It
was here that another great Greek philosopher, Aristotle, studied and later taught.
The Academy offered a wide range of courses, including philosophy, politics,
biology, mathematics and astronomy. Since Plato was interested in combining the
study of philosophy and the practice of politics, he traveled to Sicily around 367
B.C. to act as a tutor to Dionysius II, then the ruier of Syracuse. Plato spent the
iast years of his life writing and teaching at the Academy. He died at the age of 80
in Athens.

Can you guess how many works Plato wrote during his lifetime? Actually,
nobody really kno*'s the total number because the authenticity of some of the
works earlier attributed to him has been questioned. Of those that are accepted
and recognized as his, among the more well-known are Gorgias, Apologlt, Phaedo
and, of course, Republic. The style that Plato uses in several of his works has
come to be known as the Socratic method. Do you know what this means? Earlier
we said that Socrates never wrote down any of his ideas. What we know of
Soerates we gather from, among others, Plato's ideas. You see, Socrates plays a
central role in several of Plato's works. In Republic, for instance, Socrates is the
one asking questions and-the other characters take their turns answering. Thus, the
Socratic method has to do with the process of continuously asking questions and
questioning answers until one arrives at a satisfactory answer to the question.
Republic, for example, begins with Socrates posing the question "What is
justice?" Then, the other characters in the dialogue try to come up with their
answers which are, unfortunateiy for them, not satisfadory to Socrates. In the end,
Socrates provides the answer to his own questions.

11 Module 2: Plato
 Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

So, do you have a better idea oi Plato now? That's good. At this
point in our
a

journey, it is time for you to grab your book of readings and go through the
a'
N

i excerpt fro m Republic. I hope you will like your very first exposure to the works
of the great thinlers. Remember, do not be intimidated by thern and their ideas.
They are only human after all. Good luck and enjoyl

THE MAJOR IDEAS OF PLATO II{ REPUBLIC

l

How are you after going through Republic? Did you like it? Did You find it easy
Elt
to read? Did Plato's work excite you or confuse you? Do not worry if after
reading the excerpt you have lotsof questions in your mind' In fact, formulating
and asking questiins is highly encouraged. In this section, we will attempt
to
answer soml of yo,,. qr"ti"t. However, since it is impossible to respond to all
of
then feel
them, hang on to those questions that you feel wereaot answered and
you
free to ask them during the st:dy sessions, okay? After the serious reading
just did, let us first taki a fun brlak. Try your hand at completing the puzzie
excerpt
below. The answers to this puzzle are taken from the introduction and the
you just read.

A
( sAe 2-1

\\hat -word crossword puzzle. Using the clues, fill in the

w'e have here is a 2 1

luck!
crossrvorC and comptete it. Okay, it's time to do the crosswordl Good

Clues:

ACROSS
1 The best ruler is a
5. Exists when there is justice in the state
7. Another name for 1-Across
8. Plato Advocates the abolition of the
*E 9. Plato's most famous student
--king
13. The rulers should not possess private
E
E
E
Ei 14. The same elements exists in the state and the
fi
i6. Metai found in the auxiliaries
ii: 17. Most important characteristic shared by the state and the ruler
18. Third element of the soul in addition to 6-Down and l9-Across
6
H
19. Element that forms the greater part of each man's soul by nature
g
+
20. Rulers are passionate about gaining this
-$]

"oJ
'':a

fl
]:
+
E

:.:
.:

ai 12
Module 2: Plalo
I
1
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ii
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli UP Open University

? a SAQ 2-1

DOWN
2. Plato's teacher
3 The right will prevent the rulers from abusing the citizens
4. Metal found in 1-Across
6. This is the dominant element in the rulers
10 The ideal state
11. Ortly the can be rulers
12. Plato's birthplace
.15. The important concept discussed first in Plato's greatest work
17. and children must be held in common

13 Module 2: Plato
 Universit Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

t:'*,"d
iWj AsAe 2-{
Horv long did it take you to finish the puzzle? Was it easy? Time to find out hor'v
you iared and see what your score means. Your complete crossword should lcok
like this.

U
P H I L o P H E

D
I
o R D E R t-;
I
U R D I N

L E R c

D A
l' A M I L

R D T o T L T
:]
I

E E B A
U I

c
P N S
l,l* P E R T

L.,l
Y

U L J N u\

B U T E
?2

S I L E R s N

I T w I
I E

e P I R I T I

A P P E T I T E E

W I
a D o M

Ifyou obtained a score of:

18-21 You get a gold medal! Excellent work!

t4-17 A silver medal is on its way to you! Good jobl
10-13 Your prize is a bronze medal!
00-09 Here's a happy face to cheer you up. @! Don't give up. As Plato said,
proper education is the way to being the best, so just study- harder.

Module 2: Plato 14
 Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli UP Open Universitv

PLATO ON THE STATE

Since Plato was passionate about his concept of the ideal state, it is not surprising
that we start our discussion on Plato's vie-ws on the state. Of course, the state that
the Greek philosophers were talking about was the Greek city-state since that was
the one they were familiar with. However. Plato went beyond the, state as it
existed then by putting forward his idea of the republic. what exactly is the
republic? Is it like our country, the Republic of the Philippines? Or is it something
else? In the following sectisn, we wili try to see what Plato meant by the republic.

THE NATURE, ORIGIN, AND END OF THE STATE

Have you ever wondered how the first state was formed? How and why do people
come together to form a community? Well, that is one of the issues that Plato was
concerned with in Republic. Through a dialogue involving Socrates,
Thrasymachus and Glaucon, among others, Plato explains how societies and
states come about. According to Flato, speaking through Socrates, "a state comes
into existence because nc individual is self-sufficing". Since no man is capabie of
meeting all his needs, he has to seek the assistance of other men. Once several
men have come together, there now exists the state. Wow, that was easy and
quick! But life is not that simple.

What needs was Plato talking about? The primary need of man is food which will
keep him alive. This is followed by his need for shelter and clpthing. AII these
needs point to the need for a farmer, a builder and a weaver ih the first state or
community. As other needs surface, other men will become part of the
community. This community Plato calls the commonwealth. In this
corlmonwealth, given that men have different competencies, each man should do
the task for vrhich he is most suited. For instance, if you are better at planting
rather than sewing, then you should be a farmer rather than a weaver, right? In
this way, you will be able to perform your task to the best of your abiliry and so
will the other men in the commonwealth.

But waitl Where and how will the farmers, builders and weavers get the materials
they will need to accomplish their work? This points to the need for more
members of the society--in particular, those who will supply the seeds, the wood
and cement, and the needles anci threads that the farmers, builders and weavers
will be using. There will also be a need for merchants who will bring goods from
other countries and who will sell the commonwealth's goods to foreign shores. As
the commonwealth begins to import and export goods, there will be a need to get
more craftsmen anc farmers to produce the goods. Shipowners will also be
required to operate the ships that will make trading possible. Is that all? Nope!
Since people wiil now be exchanging goods, there will be need for a rnarket place
and a currency or money they can use to buy and sell goods. Shopkeepers and
re
Fr::
ril
s
15 Module 2: Plato hi
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 Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

Iaborers wiil also be required to run the market place. So, the first state that was
originally composed of the farmer, builder and weaver is now a little bit bigger.

What are the implications of the expansion of the first state? The most immediate
impact is the need for more territory so that all the new members of the
cofirmonwealth will be accommodated. Where exactly will they get the new
territory? Why, frcm the territories of other countriesl Of course, if other
countries need new territcry, they could just as well grab a piece of the
cornmonwealth's territory. This now leads to war. This means that the
commonwealth also needs an army to defend the territory and its people. The
people who will be engaged in war are called the auxiliaries. Like the farmers,
|uiliers and weavers, they should also be most fitted for the role and should
receive the proper education and training for the proper performanee of their
duties. Who will guide the auxiliaries? This is when the rulers or the guardians
comg into the picture. They are the ones responsible for rnaking sure that the
auxiliaries (and other mernbers of the commonwealth) receive the proper
education and training and that they perform their rightful tasks. Watching over
the education and training ofthe auxiliaries and future guardians is an important
task because this is the means by which the nght values can be instilled among
these groups of people. In additiorq they are the ones who choose the auxiliaries
anO tfrl future guarciians. Tough job, huh! That is why only the best can becorne
rulers. We will discuss the specific characteristics of the rulers in a latter section.

Let's pause here for a while and look back at the state that began with on-ly lbout
four mennbers. Now, we have farmers, buiiders, weavers, Shopkeepers, hired
laborers, merchants, shipowners, traders and the army. ph, we should not forget
the rulers, of course! At this point, you can see that the original state that resulted
from man's need for help to meet his needs has become a larger and more
complex society. And while the state that Plato discussed initially is "the product
of unconscious growth, the ideal city or the republic is the product of rational
direction' (Ebenstein & Ebenstein, 1991 .21-22). That is, while the original state is
natural, the ideal state evolves from the use of reason and through conscious
planning on the part of men. Moreover, the end for which the state exists is "to
r""r.. ihe greatest possible happiness for the community as a whole" and not for
any one particr:lar class or group of people.

This is Plato's version of how the state is born. On the whole, the state exists
because it is necessary for the highest development of man and for the attainment
of self-sufficiency. Moreover, it is through the state that men are able to
experience the good life (Frost, 1962:182).

Module 2: Plato 16
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli UP Open University

Is this the ideal state that Plato is talking about? Is this the republic?

The answer: YES and NO. "Yes" because we have already discussed some of the
significant characteristics of Plato's ideal state but also "no" since we have not
mentioned other important traits of the republic. The picture is not yet complete.
To recall, we mentioned that in the ideal state, each man should perform the task
for which he is most suited. In this way, there will be order in the'commonwealth.
Also, as Plato tells us, the "ideal state is an ordered state in which all fulfilled
their functions and worked for the good of the whole" (Curtis, 1981:28). But,
Piato does not stop there. In the next section, we will discuss the virtues of the
state or the traits that charactenzethe iCeal state.

THE VIRTT]ES OF THE STATE

After ciiscussing the e.*olution of the ideal state, Plato proceeds to identi$ the
qualities or virtues of this state. Plato's ideal state, or the republic, is one that is
wise, brave, temperate and just since it is founded and buiit along the right lines.
These [Link] are possessed by the different parts of the state.

Plato tells us the same parts that make up the state are the same ones that compose
the state. Can you name these elements? Okay, these elements are reason, spirit
and appetite. As we said earlier, these parts correspond to the virtues of the state.
How so? Reason makes the state and the individual wise; spirit has to do with the
state and the individual being brave; and appetite is linked to the state and the
individual's temperance. Plato does not stop here. He teils us further that, to a
certain extent, these elements and virtues correspond to the three classes that exist
in the state. Wtrich class possesses which virtue? In which class can we find
reason? You're right! It is the guardians or the rulers. This class is usually the
smallest class in the state. How about spirit? Right again! Since spirit has to do
with courage, it is that element found in the warrior class or the auxiliaries. And
the third, appetite or temperance, is found in the "whole gamut of the state".
Temperance enables the state and the individual to master their appetites and
desires. This three-fold ordering of society is an extension of the dMsion of labor
that existed in the first city, which was geared to meet man's needs.

This brings us to the next question: What element brings all of these together?
How come there is order-among reason, spirit and appetite? The answer begins
with the letter "I'. Do you know what element Plato was talking about? If you
said 'Justice", you are absolutely correct! Bravo! For Plato, justice is the fourth
virtue of the state which directs every one to perform the role in the state most
suited to his nature. Hence, when the various classes are in their proper places,
there is justice and the society can truly be called just.

17 Module 2: Plato
 Unit l: From Plato to lnggllgyg]].!
UP

the different classes

If we look at it from a different angle, we can say that when
rightful
ire,[Link] the firnctions of othei, then they are not doing their
there is injustice' there
f,rrJion. dhat is the result? Injustice! In a situation where likened
is no order among the elementt. th.."is constant tension and strife. Plato
to performing
in;urti"" to a disease in the soul. Only when the elements go back
For the answer,
i-h.i, prop., roles will justice be restored. How will this happen?
sure the citizens
*. *tutt iurn to duty of the ruler. A duty of the ruler is to make
assigned to them' When the
are doing their work-+hat is, the work which nature
each part in
rul", is uUt. to do that, the state trecomes one well-oiled machine with
its proper place and doing its proper function'

plato,s ideal state is one where there is justice, and consequently, order among the
led by that class
different elements. With justice follows that the ideal state be
part which is
ruled by reason or wisdoln. Just as the soul is ruled by the smallest
guardian
,.rron, th" state should also be led by the smallest part which is the
class--the class dominated by reason or wisdom. This leads us
to Plato's
discussion on who should lead the ideal state'

THE [Link]
Let usbegin this section with a few words from Plato:

Unless either philosophers become kings in their countries or

those
rvho are ,o* tail"d kings and rulers corne to be sufficiently
inspired with a genuine desire for wisdom; unlesB, that is to
say,
poiitical po*ur *d philosophy meet together.-.there can be no rest
iro* [Link] for stites, nor yet...for all marrkind, nor can this
light
commonwealth which we have imagined ever till then see the
of day and grow to its ful1 stature.

does the
Why is it important for philosophers to be rulers? What characteristics
Plato prefer
philtsopher-ruler po*r.., that makes him most fit to ruie? Why does
it" ptiforopher king to rule? To answer these questions, let us turn to Plato's
.
discussion as to who should rule.

Have you ever wondered what it takes to become the president

of a country?
the hi-ghest
iVfrut q"Aities should a person possess before he or she can occupy
qualifications
position in government? Our Constitution tells us that there are five
40 years of age)'
!i4, ifru, u pot.n"tlut president needs to meet. These are age (at least
voter,
ts residency (at least l0-year residency in the Philippines), registered
(ability to-read and
citizenship (natural-born Filipino), and functional literacy
F
EA

E
..2
write)'Doyoupossessthesequalifications?onceapotentialcandidatemeets
thesarequiiements, then he oishe is pretty much legally free to launch
e a
put
presideniial campaign. How do these qualifications compare with those
ar

H
e
.4
forward by Plato?
s
'E
18
1!
Module 2: Plato
:1

?
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli UP Open University

2
I SAQ 2.2
Describe Plato's iciea of the phiiosopher-ruler by identifying at least five
characteristics that the ruler shouid possess. Write down your answers on the
space provided below.

5.

FooD FoR THOUGHT: Here's something to think about: would you like to
live under the leadership of a philosopher-ruler as Plato described it? Why or
why not?

19 Module 2: Plato
ry- Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

,,,,,,;,:MASAQ
2-2
piato discussed several traits that philosopher-rulers should possess. Without
these characteristics, the philosopher-rulers will not be the most ideal ruler. Can
you think of anybodi,, living or dead, w'ho meets these characteristics? Is it
possible for one person to possess ali these virtues?
Here's the list of traits philosopher-rulers should possess. Check your answers
against this and see ho'uv many )'ou got. On the whole, Plato tells us that
philoscpher-rulers:

1. Must be the best there is.

2. Must possess the right sort of intelligence and ability.

3. Must be naturally-fitted to watch over a commonwealth.

4. Must be passronate about gaining wisdom or knowledge. Of the different

elernents, it is n'isdom or reason that is dominant in the rulers. Moreover"
philosopher-ruters are passionate about seeking the truth'

5. N{ust be iemperate and free frorr the love of money, rneanness,

pretentiousness, and covrardice. He is also fair-minded, gentle and sociable.

o. Must be quick to learn and remember, magnanimout and gracious.

Philosopher-rulers should support truth, justice, courage and temperance.

7. Must zealously do everything possible for the good of the commonwealth'

8. Must not possess any private property. If they should come to own land or
other resources, they have to give up their rulership. Their homes must be
open to the citizens.

9. Must not desire gold nor silver because the divine counterparts of these metals
already exist in their souls.

If you were able to list five virtues of the philosopher-ruler, well done! You
Ceserve a big round of applause! If you got four, good work! A score of 1-3 is
not that bad, but surely you .un do better next time, right? For the prolific who
were able to identify more than those listed here, you did excellent w'ork!
Perhaps you can share your insights with us during the study sessions, okay?

Module 2: Plato 20
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

So, were you able to come up with the name of a person who fits Plato's
description of the philosopher-ruler? Pretty difficult, huh? Do not despair for even
during Plato's time, they found it hard to find a man or a group of men who met
theseiriteria. (Speaking of which, do note that Plato was not so concerned with
how many peopli actually ruled. His idea of the philosopher-ruler may have
meant on. or afew rulers. However, he was certainly not in favor of the majority
ruling the commonwealth because according to him, the majority'of people are
controlled or dominated by their pleasures and desires. Plato certainly did not
want them, the inferior ones, ruling the commonwealth.) Even Plato admitted that
the task is "difficult ... but not impossible". Howevqr, some scholars believe that
the republic is unattainable---not now, not ever. But dOn't despair, we can always
hope to find a philosopher-ruler in our midst. Do you think it is possible? Do you
thirk the idealiociety led by a philosopher-ruler can ever become a reality?'ilIhy?

Aside from the difficulty of finding a philosopher-ruler, there are other obstacles
along the road towards the ideal state. The first obstacle concerns the dangers
faceJ by a born philosopher. Plato says that once a born philosopher is singled
out, even in his childhood, he should already be given the proper education and
training worthy of a future guardian. Why so? The reason is that without the
proper education and training, or the right upbringing, the talents and virtues of
the born philosopher may go to waste. There is thus the danger that without the
right guidance, those who possess the traits of a philosopher-ruler will be led
astray. Who will lose in this case? It will be the people for they will be deprived
of a philosopher-ruler and the ideal state will never come to be.

A second obstacle has to do with the view that the philosopher-ruler is useless to
the public. Plato responds to tiris criticism by saying that wtrile this may be true,
the blame should be the people's and not the philosopher's. You see, the
uselessness arises not from the virtues of the philosopher or the reluctance of the
philosopher to ruie; it resuits from the refusal of the peopie to make use of the
philcsophers as rulers of the highest caliber. So in the end, it is the people who are
to blame for the perceived uselessness of philosopher-rulers.

What conclusion can we draw from all these? Again, let us turn to Plato for the
final words on this subject matter:

There never witl be a perfect state or constitution, nor yet a perfect

man, until some happy circumstance compels these few
philosophers who have escaped comrption but are now called
useless, to take charge, whether they like it or not, of a state which
will submit to their authority; or else until kings and rulers or their
sons are divinely inspired with a genuine passion for true
philosophy.

21 Module 2: Plato
 From Plato to Machiavelli

that only with the -

We|l, that says it all, don't you think? The bottom line is -
l;;;..hip of*," ptitosoptLr-ruler can Plato's ideal state become a reality' Only
then can the good of the whole community be attained'

ADDITIONAL MATTERS ON REPUBLIC

AND THE PHILOSOPHER-RULER
very
In Plato's discussion of the ideal state or the republic, he talks of two
These t'wo
important issues that have to do with the characteristics of the republic'
need to
,i

ur" Pluto', view on the role of women in the commonwealth and the
aboiish the familY.

EQUALITY OF WOMEN
in the
For the feminists among you, Plato's views on women and their place
who lived during the
coflrmonwealth can be causefor celebration. For somebody
time when cnly men were considere<i citizens, Plato was quite a progressive
thinker. Or was he? On the positive side, Plato was open to the idea of
men and

wome1r training and studying together-as long as both possess

the qualifications
necessafy for icertain oicrpatior. Since women are "expected to take
their full
things and
share" ir: the comrnonwealth then they should also be taught the same
receive the same treatment as men-

But, on the down side, Plato's view on the equality of l$omen is somewhat
limited. In what sense, you might ask. If you go back to the excerpt from
iepwblic, you will noiii" that the qualities women should possess should be like
be fit by
those of the men. According to Plato, "it follows that some women will
whether they possess
nature to be a guardian, while others will not, depending on
the qualities foi which men guardians are selected". Thus, men and women
who
qualities. Their natures
are d'estined for guardianship should possess the same
should be the szLme, except ihut *o*"n are weaker, Plato adds. It is in
this context
that we qualify Plato's views on equality of men and women in the
are simply
commonwealth. In this case, the oft-quoted adage holds true that some
more equal than others.

ABOLTTION OF THE FAMILY

private
Remember what we discussed earlier about philosopher-rulers and
property? What did Piato say regarding this issue? If you recall, Plato said that
pfritotoit"r-rulers shouid not own private properby. What possible reason can
bUto hare for saying this? Plato says that philosopher-rulers should have no
conCeptionS of "mine" and "yours" because they should be concerned with
the
promotion and protection of the common good. The happiness of the entire

tulodule 2: Plato
22
Unit l: From Plato to Machiavelli

comrnunity is their objective-aot their own personal happiness. Owning private

property will create a distinction between what is perscnal and what is communal.
To ivoid this and to keep the philosopher-rulers from getting distracted from their
original objective, they can either give up their private property (except for the
barest necessities) or they can give up their guardianship and attend to their
property.

Following this line of thinking, families are to be abolished and wives and
children are to be held in common so that the iabels "mine" and "yours" will no
longer hold true. As a result of the abolition of the family, no parent rvill know his
or her child, anC no child will kno.r his or her parent. The abolition of the family
is irnportant, according to Plato, because, if this is not done, there will be disunion
and disorder in the state. The ideal state then will be one where the guardian treats
everyone as family and the guardian will be treated by everyone as their father.
This vrill make the commonwealth like a single body or one big happy family.

What is the role of the guardian in this matter? Well, not only does the
philosopher-ruler neeC to make sure that wives and children are held in common,
they are also responsibie for pairing the best women with the best men (e.g., the
guardian and the auxiliaries) in order to prcduce the best children. in line with
this, the guardians u,illalso identify the best among the offsprings and ensure that
these children get the proper education and training. In all of these activities, only
the guardians must know how selection is done. Pretty big responsibilities, right?
That is why it is important to remember that only the best can become guardians
for only they can nrcasure up to the tasks that Plato assigne{ to them.

SUMMARY
What you learned and read about Plato and his ideas in this module are but a
fraction of this great philosopher's works. Of course, since we are interested in
Plato's political philosophy, we focused our attention on his most important
political worh [Link] this volume, he speaks to us about his ideal
society-a society that is ordered, just, wise, courageous and temperate; a society
that is geared towards the good of the entire community and not just one class; a
society that is ruled by the philosopher-ruler. Is this an attainable society?
Unfortunately, that is a question that is difficult to answer. Plato admits that
although it is difficult to attain the ideal society, it is not impossible. However,
some scholars say that Plato's republic is a utopia-something that is and will
remain in the realm of ideas. Others disagree with this and argue that while the
republic is ideal, it is realizable. What do you think?

23 Module 2: Platc