MEDSCI 111 - GROSS ANATOMY LECTURE
The Skeletal System
Dr. Chrysteler Clet, MD | 08-29-2023
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM CONSIST OF MORE THAN BONES ○ Vertebral column
● Ligaments - bands of dense and fibrous connective ○ Thoracic cage
tissue that are the key to the function of joints. ● Appendicular - Facilitate movement
● Cartilage - more flexible than bone but stiffer than ○ Girdle
muscle. Helps give structure to the Larynx and ○ Limbs
nose. It also found between the vertebrae and at Bones are classified into 5 types (according to shape and
the ends of bones like the femur function)
1. Long bone - ex. Femur
- Outside, it consists of a layer of compact
When you look at the human skeleton the 206 bones and
bone surrounding the spongy bone.
32 teeth stand out. But look closer it has even more
- Inside, it has medullary cavity filled with
structures.
yellow bone marrow
2. Flat bone - ex. Frontal bone
3. Sesamoid bone - ex. Kneecap or Patella
4. Short bone - ex. Carpals (hand), Tarsals (feet)
5. Irregular
SOME BONES PRODUCE RED BLOOD CELLS
● Red bone marrow is soft tissue located in
networks of spongy bone tissue inside some bones
● Red marrow in bones of; (all produces blood cells)
○ Cranium
○ Vertebrae
○ Scapulae
○ Sternum
○ Ribs
○ Pelvis
The adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones: These ○ At the epiphyseal ends of the large long
bones provide structure and protection and facilitate bone
motion. Bones articulate to form structures.
● Skull protects the brain and gives shape to the JOINTS (RANGE OF MOTION)
face. ● Immovable joints
● Thoracic cage surrounds the heart and lungs. ○ Suture of the skull
● Vertebral column, commonly called the spine, is ○ Articulations between teeth and the
formed by over 30 small bones. mandible
● Limbs (upper and lower) ○ Joints located between first pair of ribs
● Girdles that attach the four limbs to the vertebral ○ Sternum
column ● Slight movement
○ Distal joints between tibia and fibula
The skeleton protects vital organs ● Lot of motion (located at the upper and lower
● Brain - surrounded by bones that form part of the limbs)
skull. ○ Shoulder
● Heart and Lungs - Located within the thoracic ○ Wrist
cavity. ○ Hip
● Vertebral column - provides structure and ○ Ankle
protection for the spinal cord.
An infant skeleton has almost a hundred more bones than
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE SKELETON, MUSCLES, AND the skeleton of an adult. Bone formation begins at about
NERVES MOVE THE BODY three months gestation and continues after birth into
● Muscles throughout the human body are attached adulthood.
to bones. Nerves around a muscle can signal the Example: Sacrum
muscle to move. When the nervous system sends - A five vertebrae with disc in between them that
commands to skeletal muscles, the muscles fuses over time into one bone (usually by the
contract. That contraction produces movement at fourth decade of life)
the joints between bones.
Bones are grouped into two:
● Axial - Protects the internal organ
○ Skull
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AXIAL SKELETON ANATOMY ● Radius - one of two long bones of the forearm,
● The adult axial skeleton consists of 80 bones found on the thumb side
● bones that form the vertical axis of the body ● Ulna - second long bone of the forearm, found on
● bones of the head, neck, chest, and pine. the pinky finger side
● Carpals - group of eight bones found in the wrist
SKULL BONES (22 bones) area
● 8 Cranial bones - forms the skull ● Metacarpals (5 bones) - found in the middle area
● 14 Facial bones - found on the front of the skull of the hand
and make up the face. ● Phalanges (14 bones) - make up the fingers
AUDITORY OSSICLES PELVIC GIRDLE (Hips)
● Small bones found within the inner ear canal in the ● where the legs attach to the axial skeleton
skull ● made up of two hip bones — one for each leg.
● 3 auditory ossicles: Malleus (Hammer), Incus ● Each hip bone consists of three parts, known as
(Anvil), Stapes (Stirrup) the:
○ Ilium - top portion of each hip bone
HYOID ○ Ischium - curved bone that makes up the
● a U-shaped bone found at the base of the jaw base of each tip bone
● serves as a point of attachment for muscles and ○ Pubis - located in the front part of the hip
ligaments in the neck
LOWER LIMBS
VERTEBRAL COLUMN (26 bones) ● Each leg is composed of 30 bones, known as the:
● First 24 bones are all vertebrae; ○ Femur- the large bone of the upper leg
○ 7 Cervical vertebrae- in the head and neck ○ Tibia- the main bone of the lower leg. It
○ 12 Thoracic vertebrae- in the upper back forms the shin
○ 5 Lumbar vertebrae- in the lower back ○ Fibula- the second bone in the lower leg,
● Followed by 1 sacrum and 1 coccyx (tailbone) found in the outer leg
○ Patella- also called the kneecap
THORACIC CAGE ○ Tarsals- the 7 bones that make up the
● made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs ankle
of ribs ○ Metatarsal- 5 bones that make up the
● Some of the ribs attach directly to the sternum, middle area of the foot
while others are linked to the sternum via cartilage ○ Phalanges- 14 bones that comprise the
● Some have no attachment point and are referred toes
to as “floating ribs”
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM?
● Main function: to provide support for the body
The bones of the body are grouped into two major
○ the spinal column provides support for
divisions:
the head and torso
○ legs, on the other hand, support and bear
Axial skeleton: Consist of the bones, which lie around the
the weight of the upper body while a
longitudinal axis of the body. (Skull, Vertebral column,
person stands
Sternum, Ribs)
● Protecting internal organs from injury.
○ For example, the skull protects the brain,
Appendicular skeleton: Consists of the bones of the Limbs,
while the thoracic cage protects the heart
pectoral (shoulder) girdle, & Pelvic (hip) girdle.
and lungs
● Allowing for movement. Muscles attach to bones
APPENDICULAR SKELETON ANATOMY through tendons. This connection allows the body
● Total of 126 bones to move in many different ways
● It consists of the bones that make up the arms and ● Producing blood cells. The soft bone marrow
legs, as well as the bones that attach them to the inside of many bones produces red blood cells,
axial skeleton white blood cells, and platelets
● Storing minerals and nutrients. Bones can store
PECTORAL GIRDLE and release minerals, including calcium and
● Where the arms attach to the axial skeleton; made phosphorus, and adipose (fat)
up of clavicle (collarbone) and scapula (shoulder
blade) CARTILAGE
● Two; one for each arm. ● Cartilage is an avascular form of connective tissue
consisting of extracellular fibers embedded in a
UPPER LIMBS (30 bones) matrix that contains cells localized in small cavities.
● Humerus - long bone of the upper arm ● The amount and kind of extracellular fibers in the
matrix vary depending on the type of cartilage.
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● In heavy weight-bearing areas or areas prone to Classification of Bones
pulling forces, the amount of collagen is greatly ● Long bones - tubular (e.g., humerus in the upper
increased and the cartilage is almost inextensible. limb; femur in the lower limb).
● In contrast, in areas where weight-bearing ● Short bones - cuboidal (e.g., bones of the wrist
demands and stress are less, cartilage containing and ankle).
elastic fibers and fewer collagen fibers are ● Flat bones - consist of two compact bone plates
common. separated by spongy bone (e.g., skull).
● Irregular bones are bones with various shapes
Function: (e.g., bones of the face).
● Support soft tissues, ● Sesamoid bones - round or oval bones that
● Provide a smooth, gliding surface for bone develop in tendons.
articulations at joints, and
● Enable the development and growth of long CLINICAL APPLICATION
bones.
Bone Marrow transplants
3 types of Cartilage ● Infection and malignancy
● Hyaline—most common; matrix contains a ● In bone marrow malignancy (e.g., leukemia),
moderate amount of collagen fibers (e.g., articular ● Harvest non malignant cells from the patient’s
surfaces of bones) ● Bone marrow or cells from another person’s bone
● Elastic—matrix contains collagen fibers along with marrow
a large number of elastic fibers (e.g., external ear); ● The patient’s own marrow is destroyed with
● Fibrocartilage—matrix contains a limited number chemotherapy or radiation and the new cells
of cells and ground substance amidst a substantial infused
amount of collagen fibers (e.g., intervertebral
discs). Bone fractures
● Fractures occur in normal bone and in
BONE osteoporosis
● calcified, living, connective tissue ● In children - greenstick fractures - partial cortical
● forms the majority of the skeleton. Contains; disruption
○ intercellular calcified matrix ● In children whose bones are still developing,
○ collagen fibers fractures may occur across the growth plate or
○ several types of cells within the matrix. across the shaft. These shaft fractures typically
● vascular and are innervated. Generally, an adjacent involve partial cortical disruption, similar to
artery gives off a nutrient artery, usually one per breaking a branch of a young tree
bone, which directly enters the internal cavity of
the bone and supplies the marrow, spongy bone, Avascular necrosis
and inner layers of compact bone. ● Cellular death of bone resulting from a temporary
● Developmentally, or permanent loss of blood supply
○ Intramembranous ossification in which ● A fracture across the femoral neck in an elderly
mesenchymal models of bones undergo patient
ossification ● Replace the femoral head with a prosthesis.
○ Endochondral ossification in which
cartilaginous models of bones form from Osteoporosis
mesenchyme and undergo ossification. ● The bone mineral density is significantly reduced
● At risk of fracture
Functions: ● Fractures occur in the femoral necks, the
● supportive structures for the body, vertebrae, and the wrists
● protectors of vital organs, ● The typical patients are postmenopausal women
● reservoirs of calcium and phosphorus, transgender or gender-diverse patients
● levers on which muscles act to produce
movement, and Epiphyseal fractures
● containers for blood-producing cells. ● Intense growth typically around the ages of 7 to 10
years and later in puberty.
Bone types ● These growth spurts are associated with increased
● Compact bone - dense bone that forms the outer cellular activity
shell of all bones and surrounds spongy bone. ● Around the growth plate and the metaphyseal
● Spongy bone - consists of spicules of bone region
enclosing cavities containing blood-forming cells ● Growth plate compression, destroying that region
(marrow). of the growth plate, which may result in
asymmetric growth
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JOINTS ● Sutures: The joints that hold the plates of your
● The sites where two skeletal elements come skull together
together ● Gomphoses: Joints that hold your teeth in place in
● any place in your body where two bones meet your jaw bones (mandibles)
● usually classified based on: ● Syndesmoses: Joints that hold two closely related
○ Function: How they move bones together in place - tibia (shin bone)
○ Composition: What they’re made of connected to your fibula (calf bone)
(histologically)
What do joints do?
● Structural support and movement
Depending on how much a joint moves, it fits into one of 3
categories:
● Synarthroses: Joints that don’t move at all -
provide structural support
● Amphiarthroses: Joints with limited movement -
mixture of stability and some motion
● Diarthroses: These are joints you can move freely
in most directions - allow the most movement.
Cartilaginous joints
● Cushioned by a layer of cartilage that joins the
bones together ribs meet the sternum
(breastbone)
● Synchondroses - where two ossification centers in
a developing bone remain separated by a layer of
cartilage
○ the growth plate that occurs between the
head and shaft of developing long bones
● Symphyses - where two separate bones are
interconnected by cartilage
○ the pubic symphysis between the two
pelvic bones
What are joints made of? ○ intervertebral discs between adjacent
● Made of bones and the connective tissues that vertebrae
hold them together, including:
○ Cartilage
○ Tendons
○ Ligaments
○ Nerves
3 categories depending on how much connective tissue
they contain:
● Fibrous joints
● Cartilaginous joints
● Synovial joints
Fibrous joints
● aren’t very flexible - some of them don’t move at
all
● made of thick connective tissue that’s tightly
woven together like fiber
● usually contain much collagen
Synovial joints
3 types of fibrous joints: ● Freely movable
● Made of a cavity in one bone that another bone
fits into
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● Slippery hyaline cartilage covers the ends of bones ● Condyloid joints: made of two oval-shaped bones
that make up a synovial joint that fit together
● A synovial membrane — a fluid-filled sac that ○ They’re similar to ball and socket joints,
lubricates and protects the joint — lines the space except they can’t rotate in a full circle
between the bones (360 degrees)
● This extra cushioning helps synovial joints move ○ wrist and the joints where your toes meet
with as little friction as possible the rest of the foot
● Pivot joints: rotate in place without moving out of
Characteristics of Synovial joints their original position
1. Presence of hyaline cartilage - covers the ○ neck lets the head move from one side to
articulating surfaces of the skeletal elements another
● In normal radiographs, a wide gap seems ● Planar joints: formed when two mostly flat bones
to separate the adjacent bones because come together
the cartilage that covers the articulating ○ move by one piece of bone sliding over
surfaces is more transparent to X-rays the other without rotating
than bone. ○ carpal bones that join the wrist to
2. Presence of a joint capsule consisting of an inner forearm and the joints between
synovial membrane and an outer fibrous ○ the vertebrae in the spine
membrane ● Saddle joints: formed when two curved bones
3. Presence of additional structures within the area meet
enclosed by the capsule or synovial membrane ○ two U-shaped bones fitting together in
the curved space between each other
● Articular discs (usually composed of fibrocartilage) ○ can move in any direction, but can’t twist
absorb compression forces, adjust to changes in or rotate
the contours of joint surfaces during movements, ○ thumb joins in the hand
and increase the range of movements that can
occur at joints. CLINICAL APPLICATION
● Fat pads occur between the synovial membrane
and th capsule and move into and out of regions as Joint replacement
joint contour change during movement ● Joint replacement is undertaken for a variety of
● Tendons reasons. These predominantly include
degenerative joint disease and joint destruction.
Joints that have severely degenerated or lack their
normal function are painful
Degenerative joint disease - osteoarthritis or
osteoarthrosis
● Disorder is related to aging but not caused by
aging. Typically, there are decreases in water and
proteoglycan content within the cartilage. The
cartilage becomes more fragile and more
susceptible to mechanical disruption. As the
cartilage wears, the underlying bone becomes
fissured and also thickens.
Arthroscopy
● Technique of visualizing the inside of a joint using a
small camera placed through a tiny incision in the
skin. Arthroscopy can be performed in most joints,
including the elbow and wrist joints. However, it is
most commonly performed in the knee, shoulder,
ankle, and hip joints.
Types of Synovial Joints
● Hinge joints: Joints that open and close in one
direction
○ knees and elbows
● Ball and socket joints: the rounded end of one
bone fits into an indentation in another bone- can
rotate and turn in almost any direction
○ shoulders and hips
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