Biotechnology

kingdom monera (bacteria)

- oldest and most abundant organims
- prokaryotic (before nucleus) -- single-celled organisms and are the simplest and smallest
organisms
- unicellular and microscopic
- undergo sexual reproduction

characteristics of bacter
- two kingdoms:
1. archaebacteria
- found in anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions with high salt concentrations
- believed to be the conditions of primitive earth
- earth's early atmosphere had no oxygen (anaerobic)
- phyla are based on their habitats
-- anaerobic methanogens -- live in the gut of animals, etc., and produces all the methane
gas found in the earth's atmosphere
-- halophiles - found in salt lakes such as the dead sea (salt-lovers)
-- thermophiles - inhabit hot environments such as hot springs

eubacteria
- called true bacteria
- not classified into shape but rather the composition of their cell walls and reaction to gram
stain
- eubacteria are modern bacteria (inhabit every habitat, some cause death but most are
harmless)

bacteria
- found in nearly every habitat
- have a cell membrane but no membrane-bound organelles
- covered in a layer of slime called capsule
- some have flagellas for motion

3 basic shapes
1. cocci - spherical (coccus)
- separate cells (monococci)
- pairs (diplococci)
- chains (streptococci)
- grapelike clusters (staphlococci)
2. bacilli - rod-shaped (bacillus)
- exist as single cells
- pairs (diplobacilli)
- chains (streptobacilli)
3. spirilla - spiral (spirillum)
- only exist as single cells
staining bacteria results in two forms
- gram-positive (purple)
- gram-negative (pink)

nutrition
- heterotophs although some are autotrophs
- autotrophics
== uses chemicals as energy (chemoautotrophs)
== are photosynthetic (photoautotrophs)
- some are parasites (live off a living host)
- some are saprobes (feed off dead organisms or waste)

production
- prokaryotes have a single cell chromosome attached to the plasma membrane

asexual (no exchange of genetic material)

- binary fission
-- dna is copied, splitting into two identical organisms

sexual (combines genetic information from two different individuals and increases variation)
- conjugation
-- two cells join briefly and one cell donates dna (plasmid) to the other one.
-- genetic recombination is used through the pili (tubes that allow passage of bacterial
chromosomes from the donor cell to the recipient cell)
-- when growth becomes unfavorable, gram-positive cells form endosopores (dna and a
small amount of cytoplasm enclosed in a tough cell wall), they are resistnt to extremes

endospores
- dormant state
- no reproduction
- protects bacteria agaisnt hostile environments

mode of transmission
direct contact - person to person

syphilis
- sexually transmitted disease
- caused by the spirochete (treponema pallidum)
stages:
primary stage - painless sores appear at site of infection
secondary stage - rash wil appear with flu-like symptoms, infection will go to dormant period
if not treated
tertiary stage - permanent damage occurs to the various parts of the body (cardiovascular
and nervous systems)

indirect contant - vehicle borne

food poisoning
- campylobacter jejuni
- [Link] lives in the gut of animals as part of their normal flora
- transmitted by eating contaminated food

bacterial dysentery
- shigella bacterium
- flied spread when they carry infected feces on their food to water or food
- symptoms can be mild diarhea or to water or bloody diarrhea

portals of entry - urogenital tract

cystitis
- symptoms
-- burning sensation when peeing
-- urgent need to pass small amounts of pee
-- blood in urine
-- lower back pain
- can be treated with antibiotics

protals of entry - breaking on the surface of the skin

tetanus
- lockjaw, neuromuscular
- bacterium clostridium tetani
- found in soil, dust, and guts
- produces endospores
- endospores enter through the puncture wound
- causes muscles to contrat uncontrollably, leading to symptoms of clenching jaw and
arching back
- death is of paralized muscles that control breathing
- preventable using vaccine, can be treated using an antitoxin

streptococcus pyogenes
- bacteria responsibke for common human diseases
- spherical shape
escherichia coli ([Link])
- causes gastrointestinal diseases
- rod-shaped

vibrio cholerae
- outbreak of cholera, killing many peaople
- comma-shaped

enteritis salmonella
- food poisoning
- rod-shaped

antrax
- bacillus anthracis
- spore-forming
- inhale or handle contaminated animal products
- show withing 7 days

lyme disease
- borrelia burgdorferi
- deer tick
- skin rash, inflammation

salmonella typhi
- typhoid fever
- eating or drinking things that have been handled by a person with s. typhi

streptococcus pneumoniae
- close person to person contact
- drsp
- acute otitis media, pneumonia

rickettsia rickettsii
- rocky mountain spotted fever
- infected tick
- armerical dog tick and rocky mountain wood tick are primary arthropods (vectors) which
transmit rmsf

neisseria gonorrhoeae
- direct contact from sex
- infected pregnant person may pass infection to baby as it passes through the birth canal
mycobacterium tuberculosis
- tuberculosis
- droplets from cough secretions

enterotoxigenic [Link]
- gastroenteritis
- consumption of water with human sewage
- prepared from infected food handler

clostridium botulinum
- botulism
- canned food not processed properly
- consuming spores of botulinum bacteria (infant botulism)

protists
- unicellular and some are multicellular with a nucleus

similarities to bacteria
- unicellular
- one of first group of living things
- microscopic
- can cause disearse
- can be parasites

differences
- has a nucleus
- live in watery places
- live as individual cells
- vary in appearance and function

1. animal-like protists
- protozoans (first animal)
- contain a nucleus
- lack a cell wall
- heterotrophs
- can move on their own

a. sarcodines
= have pseudopods (false foot)
= extensions of cell membrane and cytoplasm
= pseudopods used for movement and to capture food
= have shells
= form limestone, marble, and chalk
i. amoeba
-- most familiar sarcodine
-- contractive vacuoles - controls amount of water
-- food vacuole - food is digested
-- reproduce by binary fission
-- respond to environment
-- sensitive to light and chemicals

b. ciliates
- have cilia
- tiny hair projections used for movement, and to gather food
i. paramecium
-- pellicle - outher wall
-- slipper-shaped
-- oral groove - mouth
-- gullet - holds food
-- anal pore - removes waste
-- 2 contractile vacuoles and 2 nuclei
-- reproduce by binary fission or conjugation

c. flagellites (zooflagellates)
- flagellum - long whip structure used for movement
- live in animals
- symbiosis - close, at least one benefits
- mutualism - both benefit
- trichonympha companulata

d. sporozoans
- all are parasites
- feed on cells and body fluids
- form from spores (reproductive cells)
- pass from one to another
- pass form ticks, mosquitoes
- aedes aegypti - vectors of dengue (anopheles)

2. plant-like protists
- both uni and multicellular
- colonies (groups of unicellular protists)
- move on their own
- autotrophs - make their own food from simple materials using light energy (photosynthesis)
- pigments - chemicals that produce color

a. euglenoids
- green
- unicellular
- live in freshwater
- autotrophs, but can be heterotrophs
- eyespot - sensitive to light

b. diatoms
- unicellular
- aquatic
- glass-like cell wall
- diatomaceous earth: coarse powder that comes from dead diatoms

c. dinoflagellates
- unicellular
- cell walls are like plates of armor
- 2 flagella
- spin when it moves
- causes red tide

d. red algae
- multicellular seaweeds
- live in deep ocean waters
- used for ice cream and hair conditioner
- used as food

e. green algae
- most are unicellular
- some form colonies
- can live in fresh and salt water and on land in damp places
- closely related to green plants

f. brown algae
- called seaweed
- contain brown, green, yellow, orange, and black pigments
- attach to rocks
- have air bladders
- used as food thickeners

3. fungus-like protists
- heterotrophs
- cell walls
- many have flagella and are able to move
- reproduce with spores (cell that is able to grow into a new organism)

a. water and downy molds

- water or moist places
- tiny threads that look like fuzz
- attack food crops
- caused irish potato famine

b. slime molds
- reproduce by fruiting bodies (contain spores)
- first look like amoeba but later look like mold
- live in moist, shady places
- feed on bacteria and others

kingdom fungi
1. phylum zygomycota (zygospores)
- bread molds
- rhizopus -- black bread mold
2. oomycota (oospores)
- water molds
- potato blight, mildew
3. phylum ascomycots (ascus)
- sac fungi
- yeast, morels, truffles
4. phylum basidiomycota (basidia)
- club fungi
- mushrooms, puffballs, rusts, smuts, toadstools
5. phylum deuteromycota
- fungi imperfecti

fungal characteristics
1. cell wall made of chitin
2. heterotrophs and major decomposers
3. body is made of filaments of hyphae which form mycelium
4. reproduce sexually (mating of hyphae filaments) and asexually (spores)

zygomycota (rhizopus) -- common molds

- primarily decomposers
- asexual spores produced in sporangia
- sexual reproduction between - and + strains forming a 2n zygote; a zygospore develops and
may lie dormant for a long period of time -- meiosis occurs before germination
- only zygot is diploid; all hyphae and asexual spores are haploid
- fungal mass of hyphae (mycelium) penetrates the bread and produces the fruiting bodies on
top f the stalks
- rhizoids = root-like hyphae (meet underground and mating occurs between hyphae of different
molds)
water molds -- oomycota
- water molds are better known as mildews
- protist-like molds share common characteristics with plant-like protists, such as the cell wall

things to know about oomycete fungi

1. water molds or mildew
2. cause diseases such as potato blight
3. cell walls made of cellulose
4. hyphae habe multiple nuclei
5. spore swims away like a flagellate

cup fungi -- ascomycete fungi

- truffles
= round, warty fungi
= has been used in europe as aphrodisiacs, delicacies, and medicines
= most expensive natural food
= harvested in europe with the aid of female pigs or truffle dogs -- able to detect the smellf of
natural truffles underneath the surface. the pig becomes excited when it sniffs something close
to the male sex.

basidiomycete or club fungi

- bracket fungi
- mushrooms, jelly fungi, puff balls all produce basiospores

deuteromycota (imperfect fungi)

- important because they have no sexual stage
- do not share common ancestry
- polyphyletic - coming from many ancestors
- resemnle ascomycetes, but no reproductive cycle has been observed

lichen
- mutualistic symbiotic organisms
- have fungal portion and algal portion
- 3 fungal that are predominant in nature: crustose, fruticose, foliose
- soredia - asexual reproductive part of lichens
- rhizines - to anchor the lichen

mycorrhizae
- fungus-foot
- mutualistic between plant and fungi
- the plant photosynthetsizes while the fungi takes up nutrients and water from the rhizosphere
than the roots would alone

plant benefits include: IMPROVED...

- improved nutrient/water intake
- root growth
- plant growth and yield
- disease resistant
- reduces transplantn shock
- reduced drought stress

viruses
- don't belong to any kingdom
- an infectious agent made up of necleic acid (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein coat called
capsid
- no nucleus, no organelles, non-cellular
- may have dna or rna but not both
- with rna that transcribe into dna are called retroviruses
- are parasites (organism that depends on another living organism for its existence in such a
way that it harms that organism)

1. bacteriophage - viruses that infect bacteria

- capsid -- protein coat --- contains either rna or dna
2. flu, hiv
- dna or rna in the capsid
- surface maker are the spikes on it
3. nonviral particle
- has protein only, no dna or rna (cause of mad cow disease and creutfeldt-jacob disease)
- prions - affects the brain and is always fatal
4. replication is how virus spreads
- virus cannot reproduce by itself
- must invade host cell and take over the cell activities, causing destruction and killing the cell
- (enters the cell and makes copies of itself and causes the cell to burst, releasing more viruses)
steps
1. virus attaches to cell
2. dna/rna injected into cell
3. dna/rna is copied
4. virus copies itself
5. cell brusts (lyses) and releases virus
5. certain viruses can only attack certain cell types
6. a virus recognizes cells it can infect by matching its surface maker with receptor sites on a
cell
7. viruses disrupt the body's normal balance
8. can be prevented with vaccines