INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

MODULE 1

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

ANSHUL SHEKHAR
BCE BHAGALPUR
LT system wiring components, Selection of cables, wires,

switches, distribution box, metering system, Tariff structure,

Protection components- Fuse, MCB, MCCB, ELCB, inverse

current characteristics, symbols, Single line diagram (SLD)

of a wiring system, Contactor, Isolator, Relays, MPCB,

Electric shock and Electrical safety practices

 Electrical Wiring
A process of connecting various accessories for
distribution of electrical energy from supplier’s meter
board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other
domestic appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.
 Switch
Switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It
should so operate that it must make or break the circuit.

At the instant of breaking the switch, it should break the

current so that there is no formation of arc between
switch blades and contact terminals.

Formation of arc may damage the switch contacts. Such

an arc is avoided usually by means of providing a spring
to movable blade so as to have a quick action.
 Types of Switches
(a) Surface switches or Tumbler switch.

(b) Flush switches

(c) Pull switches or Ceiling switches.

(d) Grid switches
(e) Push button switch
(f) Rotary switch

(f) Iron-clad switch

(g) Knife switch

Surface Switch or Tumbler Switch
The surface switches are those which are mounted on the mounting
block directly fixed over the surface of the wall, i.e., such types of
switches project out of the surface of the wall.

The surface switches can be classified as

One-way Switch – This switch is provided with a single pole to

control one light point at a time.

Two-way Switch – These are used for wiring circuits which are to be
controlled from two points independently such as stair case wiring.
Flush Switch- The flush switches are fixed in flush with the wall and do not
project out. Such types of switches are used where high quality performance
and appearance are desired. Sometimes these switches are called Piano type
switches.

Flush Switch Pull Switch

Pull Switch or Ceiling Switches- The pull switches are fixed on the ceiling
and all the alive parts are out off reach of the operator. The switch has a
strong mechanical action and is usually operated with a single pull on the
cord for the on and off position. These switched are used in bath rooms
where water heaters are used, bed rooms and restaurants.
Grid Switch- The grid switches are similar to tumbler switches, except that
they are lighter and are portable type, so that they are quite useful for
the portable machines such as hand-drill, portable grinder etc. They are
manufactured either in single-way or two-way pattern.

Grid Switch Push Button Switch

Push Button Switches- These switches are used for bell circuit, refrigerator
lighting circuit etc.
Rotary Switches

The rotary switches are much different from that of ordinary tumbler
switch. It consists of an insulated handle to which blades are fixed.
These blades move in steps by the movement of the handle and
make contact with the terminals to which are connected the wires
in the electric circuits.

The handle motion is controlled by a cam or a spring as the handle is

moved through a quarter turn, the blade is released and moves over
quickly (with the help of spring) to make or break the circuit.
 Iron-clad Switches

Such switches are of cast iron and have very robust construction. cork
gasket is fitted between the case and the cover which makes it water-
tight. These are used for outdoor lamp control.

Iron-clad Switch

Knife Switches Knife Switch

The knife switch consists of blades hinged at one end and are arranged
to go into forked terminals or jaws at the other end. These are
available as single throw switches or double throw switches.
 Lamp Holder
A lamp-holder is used to hold the lamp required for
lighting purposes.
Earlier, brass lamp-holders were quite popular, but now-a-
days these have been superseded by the all insulated
pattern.
A lamp-holder has either moulded or porcelain interior
with a solid or spring plunger and easily wired terminals.
 Types of Lamp Holders

 Switched Bayonet cap lamp holder

 Small Bayonet Cap Holder

 Swivel Lamp-holder

 Fluorescent Lamp holder and starter holder

• Switched Bayonet cap lamp holder- The switched bayonet bayonet
cap lamp-holder has a push bar switch and is used only to carry an
electric load not exceeding 2 amp.
a) Pendent holder or cord grip holder
b) Screwed lamp holder
• Small Bayonet Cap Holder- The small bayonet cap holders possess all
the features of larger patterns. They are designed for carrying small
sizes of lamps. There is no shading rings. They are again of:
a) Cord grip type.
b) Batten type.
c) Screwed pattern.

Small Bayonet Cap Holder Cord grip type Batten type Screwed pattern
• Swivel Lamp-holder- The swivel lamp holders are designed for
controlled wide angle directional lighting which are used for lighting
of shop windows, show cases etc.
• Fluorescent Lamp holder and starter holder- The fluorescent
holders are either of bi-pin type or of bayonet cap type, but pin
type holders are generally used for ordinary fluorescent tubes.
 Ceiling Roses
These are used to provide a tapping to the pendant lamp-holders,
fan or fluorescent tube. According to Indian standard

a) A ceiling rose of any other similar attachment shall not be used on

a circuit, the voltage of which normally exceeds 250 volts.

b) Normally only one flexible cord shall be attached to a ceiling rose.

Specially designed ceiling roses shall be used for multiple
pendants.

c) A ceiling rose shall not embody fuse terminal as integral part of it.
Ceiling Roses
 Socket Outlet
The socket outlets have all insulated base with moulded or socket base
having 3 terminal sleeves. The two thin terminal sleeves are meant for
making connection to the cable, with the third terminal sleeve, thicker in
cross-section, is used for an earth connection. The cover is again
moulded and has corresponding 3 holes.

These are made for 5 amp and 15 amp loads.

15 Amp 5 Amp
Socket Socket
 Plugs
For taking power from socket outlets, plugs are used. The thicker
pin is used for an earth connection to the portable appliances. They
are also made for 5 amps and 15amps load.
 Terminal Blocks
Terminal blocks used for termination and connection to the other
circuits. A single-way terminal block is used for differentiating the live
line from the neutral when the domestic connection is given and is
called as Connector.
 Main Switch
The main switches are used to control the whole supply for a house or
office. These are of following types:
ICDP (Iron Clad Double Pole)- use for single phase supply control (15 A,
30A, 60A, 100A, 250 V)
ICTP (Iron Clad Three Pole)- use for three phase-three wire and three
phase four wire supply control (15A, 30A, 60A, 100A, 150A, 200A, and
500V)

ICDP ICTP
 Distribution Box
A distribution board is the main electrical supply system for any
commercial or residential entity. The main cable comes into
the distribution board and then via breakers get distributed in the
secondary circuits such as lights and plugs.

Distribution board is set of MCBs, ELCBs/RCCBs which are installed in a

metal box & is used to distribute electrical power to different loads.
 Distribution Box
Classification of DB – 1) according to usage 2) according to supply

(1) Classification of DB according to usage –

LDB (Lighting DB) – It is used to distribute power to lighting circuits, 6A power
points, exhaust fans etc. It is used for maximum 6A/10A current loads.

PDB (Power DB) – It is used to distribute electrical power /supply to power loads
such as Geyser, Fridge, AC etc. All these items draw high current. MCBs of current
rating 16A,20A,25A are used.

L&P DB – When DB is use for both lighting & power loads.

NDB (Normal DB) – It is used for normal AC supply where load is to be fed from
normal power.

UPS DB – It is used for UPS supply where load is to be fed from UPS power.
(2) Classification of DB according to supply –

Three phase DB – A 3 Phase DB consists of one no. three phase incoming

MCB and a set of single phase outgoing MCBs. A 3 phase DB can be used for
Lighting & Power load.

Single phase DB – A Single phase DB consists of one incoming and a set of

outgoing MCBs.
IMPRTANT TERMS –

SP – Single Pole (only one point isolation contact where one phase is connected). Application –
Switching & protection is done in one phase only.

SPN – Single Pole with Neutral. Application – same as above.

DP – Double Pole (Two point isolation contacts where Phase & Neutral are
connected). Application – Switching & protection is done in one phase & neutral only.

TP – Triple Pole (Three point isolation contacts where R,Y,B phase are connected). Application –
Switching & protection is done in all 3 phases only.

TPN – Triple Pole with Neutral (Four point isolation contacts). R,Y,B phase & Neutral are
connected but protection is given for 3 phases only, not for neutral.

4P – Four Pole (Four point isolation contacts. R,Y,B & Neutral are isolated & protection is given for
3 phases & neutral)

4/6/8.. Way TPN DB – In this, each phase has 4/6/8/.. MCBs that is why 4 Way TPN DB has 12
outgoing MCBs while 6 Way TPN has 18 MCBs & so on.
 Wires
 Whenever a circuit is extended or rewired, or when any new circuit is
installed, it is critical that the new wiring is made with wire conductors
that are properly sized for the amperage rating of the circuit, as
determined by the size of the circuit breaker controlling it.

 Manufacturers have labeled the outer coating of the wire with types
and size of wire.

 Wires are available with different sizes and their current carrying
capacities are also varying according to their size.
 Wire Size and Uses
The wires dimensions are defined in terms of [Link]. of cross-section and sizing is
determined based on current-carrying capacity. For house wiring, the sizing is
generally in the range of 1 to 6 [Link] with current-carrying capacity determined
in accordance with IS 3961 (Part V)-1968 as under:

Current carrying
Purpose Size of wire
capacity in Amp.

Earthing Purpose 1 Sq mm Wires 12

Distribution purpose, from switchboard to

1.5 Sq mm Wires 16
lighting/fan points
Distribution Board (DB) to main boards in a
2.5 Sq mm Wires 22
room
Geyser/Heaters, Electrical Induction stove,
other electrical appliances which require 15 4 Sq mm Wires 29
Amperes
For Air conditioners (up to 1.5/2 Tons
6 Sq mm Wires 37
capacity)
 Types of Wire
There are two types of wires available:

• Single-Core

• Multi-Core

• Usually, single-core stranded wires are used for house wiring & multi-core wires
are used for connection of an appliance with the plug.

• There is no protective sheathing (or black covering in the image above) available
in single-core stranded wires whereas the same is given in the multi-core cable to
keep all the core together.

• In any case, the copper conductor is covered with PVC insulation to prevent any
current leakage. (Indian Standard: IS 694 for the PVC insulation)
 Selection of cables
Important factors that determine the selection of cables

Rated Voltage- the rated voltage of cable should always be equal to

or grater than the system voltage.

Current Carrying Capacity- Each power cable is designed to

operate under certain temperature conditions. The current carrying
capacity depends on operating temperature. Higher the temperature,
lower is the current carrying capacity of the cable and vice versa.

Current carrying capacity of power cable is also dependent on

conductor material (Copper/ Aluminium) and insulation type.
 Selection of cables
Derating Factor- A power cable designed with standard operating
conditions may not operate so in practical. Therefore, the current
carrying capacity may get impacted due to this.

For example: Cables installed deep under the ground will have reduced
current carrying capacity than cables installed in air. This is impacted
due to multiple factors like soil temperature, soil thermal resistivity
etc.

Actual Current Carrying Capacity = Derating Factor x Cable current

carrying capacity under std. conditions.
 Selection of cables
Voltage Drop- A voltage drop across the length of the power cable is
very important. It is expressed as: mV / A-m.

The voltage drop per unit length of cable should be as minimum as

possible so as to get voltage at delivery end approximately same as
supply side. A power cable manufacturer provides this as part of their
data sheet.

Short circuit Withstand- A power cable in case of short circuit

event should be able to withstand the high current values without any
damage to the cable and insulation.
 Selection of cables
Bending Radius- This can be a practical problem during installation.
Large sized multi-core cables have bigger bending radius than small
sized. Therefore a same size of multi-core XLPE cable has more
bending radius than a PVC. In order to overcome this, a contractor
might have to opt separate single core cables.
 Selection of cables
Availability of Cables- This needs to be checked with
manufacturer or the dealer of a particular cable. Cables are
manufactured in certain minimum length segments. Therefore, it will
be difficult to procure a 30 meter length of 300 sq-mm cable than a
300 meter length of same cable. Also, the costing may vary largely
between the two quantities.
Data Sheet of Cable
Data Sheet of Cable
Data Sheet of Cable
 Metering System
Electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of
electrical energy consumed. The most common unit of measurement on
the electricity measurement is the kilowatt hour [kWh], which is equal
to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of
one hour.

Energy meter measures the instantaneous voltage and currents,

calculate its product and gives instantaneous power. Energy meter
designed to meet consumer’s specific requirements.

Electric utilities use these energy meters installed at customer’s

premises for billing purpose. They are typically calibrated in billing units,
the most common one being in kilowatt hour (kWh).
 Types of Energy Meter
These may be single phase or three phase meters depending upon the
supply utilized by domestic or commercial installation. For small service
measurements like domestic customers, these can be directly connected
between line and load. But for larger loads, step down current
transformers must be placed to isolate energy meters from high
currents. Basically three types of energy meters are present.

1. Electro Mechanical Induction Type Energy Meter

2. Electronic Energy Meter

3. Smart Energy Meter

1. Electro Mechanical Induction Type Energy Meter: Such type of energy meters are
universally used for energy measurements at home and industries. Government and
energy companies charge customers according to these readings. They are cheap to
manufacture and accurate.

These meters operates through electromagnetic induction by counting the revolutions of a

non-magnetic but electrically conductive metal disc which is made to rotate at a speed
proportional to the power passing through the meter.
It comprises of two silicon steel laminated electromagnets that are shunt and series
magnets. Series magnet carries a coil which is few turns of thick wire connected in series
with line. Series magnet produces the flux which is proportional to the current flowing.
Whereas shunt magnet carries coil with many turns of thin wire connected across the supply
and produces the flux proportional to the voltage. These two fluxes lag by 90 degree due to
inductive nature. The interaction of these two fields produce eddy current in the disk,
exerting a force, which is proportional to product of instantaneous voltage, current and
phase angle between them.
Breaking magnet is a permanent magnet which applies the force opposite to normal disc
rotation to move the disc at balanced position and to stop the disc while power is off.
Vertical spindle of the aluminum disc is connected to gear arrangement which records a
number, proportional to the number of revolutions of the disc, this gear arrangement sets
the number in a series of dials and indicates energy consumption over a time.

This type of meter is simple in construction and accuracy is somewhat less due to creeping
and other external fields. A major problem with these type of meters is their easy prone to
tempering, leading to a requirement of an electrical energy monitoring system. These are
very common used in domestic and industrial applications.
2. Electronic Energy Meter: It is based on Digital Micro technology (DMT) and uses no
moving parts. So the electronic energy meter is known as Static Energy meter. In
Electronic energy meter the accurate functioning is controlled by a specially designed IC
Called Application specified integrated circuit (ASIC). ASIC is constructed only for specific
applications using embedded system technology. In addition to ASIC, analogue circuits,
voltage transformer, current transformer etc. are also present in Electronic energy meter to
sample current and voltage.

The input data (voltage) is compared with a programmed Reference Data (voltage) and
finally a “voltage rate” will be given to the output. This output is then converted into digital
data by the Analogue-Digital converter (ADC) presented in the ASIC.

The Digital Data is then converted into an Average

Value. Average value/mean value is the measuring unit
of power. The output of ADC is available in pulses
indicated by the Light Emitting Diode (LED) placed on
the front panel of Electronic energy meter. These
pulses are equal to average kwh/unit.
Measurement accuracy of
the electronic meter is better
than that of a mechanical
meter, while power
consumption is lower.

The electronic energy meter

is also having better
protection against tampering
than mechanical type energy
meter and units for prepaid
operation (e.g. card readers)
and remote meter reading
(e.g. wireless, telephone
line, or internet) can easily
be included.
3. Smart Energy Meter: It is an advanced metering technology involving placing
intelligent meters to read, process and feedback the data to customers. It measures
energy consumption, remotely switches the supply to customers and remotely controls the
maximum electricity consumption.

Smart metering system uses the advanced metering infrastructure system technology for
better performance. These are capable of communicating in both directions. They can
transmit the data to the utilities like energy consumption, parameter values, alarms, etc.
and also can receive information from utilities such as automatic meter reading system,
reconnected/disconnected instructions, upgrading of meter software’s and other important
message.
These meters reduces the need to visit while taking or
reading monthly bill. Modems are used in these smart
meters to facilitate communication systems such as
telephone, wireless, fiber cable, power line
communications. Another advantage of smart metering
is complete avoidance of tampering of energy meter
where there is scope of using power in an illegal way.
 Protective Devices
When a failure occurs on any part of the electrical power system, it must be
quickly detected and disconnected from the system. There are two reason for it.
Firstly, if the fault not cleared quickly , it may cause unnecessary interruption of the
service to the customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulty apparatus limit the
amount of damage to it and prevent the effects of fault from spreading into the
system.

The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty part can be achieved by using
fuses or relays in connection with circuit breakers. A fuse can perform both the
function but for low voltage circuit only. For high voltage circuits, relays and circuit
breakers are employed to serve the desire function for automatic protective gear.
 Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the circuit.

It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected. Under normal operating

conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. Therefore,
it carries the normal current without overheating. However, when a short-circuit or
overload occurs, the current through the fuse increases beyond its rated value. This
raises the temperature and fuse element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the
circuit protected by it.

The fuse element is generally made of

materials having low melting point, high
conductivity and least deterioration due to
oxidation e.g., silver, copper etc.
Advantages
1. It is the cheapest form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.

3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which

requires an elaborate equipment for automatic action.

4. It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke.

5. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under
short-circuit conditions.

6. The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for over-

current protection.

7. The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the
circuit breakers.
Disadvantages

1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.

2. On heavy short-circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be

obtained unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.

3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that

of the protected apparatus.

Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

(i) low melting point e.g., tin, lead.

(ii) high conductivity e.g., silver, copper.

(iii) free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.

(iv) low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.

For small currents upto 10 A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin 63%) is
used for making the fuse element. For larger currents, copper or silver is employed.
Important Terms-
(i) Current rating of fuse element: It is the current which the fuse element
can normally carry without overheating or melting. It depends upon the
temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder, fuse material and the
surroundings of the fuse.
(ii) Fusing current: It is the minimum current at which the fuse element melts
and thus disconnects the circuit protected by it. Obviously, its value will be
more than the current rating of the fuse element.

For a round wire, the approximate relationship between fusing current ‘I’ and
diameter ‘d’ of the wire is I = k d3/2 where ‘k’ is a constant, called the fuse
constant.

(iii) Fusing factor: It is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current
rating of the fuse element. Its value is always more than one.
(iv) Cut-off current: It is the maximum value of fault current actually reached
before the fuse melts.

(v) Pre-arcing time: It is the time between the commencement of fault and the
instant when cut off occurs.

(vi) Arcing time: This is

the time between the end
of pre-arcing time and
the instant when the arc
is extinguished.

(vii) Total operating

time: It is the sum of
pre-arcing and arcing
times.
(viii) Prospective Current: Before melting, the fuse element has to carry the
short circuit current through it.

The prospective current is defined as the value of current which would

flow through the fuse immediately after a short circuit occurs in the
network.

(ix) Breaking capacity: The breaking capacity of a fuse is the maximum

available current, at the rated voltage that the device can safely open
without physically rupturing. The breaking capacity of the fuse must
be greater than the potential fault (short circuit) current of the circuit.
Types of Fuses
DC FUSES
1. CARTRIGE FUSES: This is the most common type of fuse. The fuse element is enclosed in
a glass envelope that is terminated by metal caps. The fuse is placed in an appropriate holder.
Since the glass envelope is clear, it is easy to visually determine if the fuse is blown.

2. AUTOMOTIVE FUSES: These fuses are specifically designed for automotive systems that
run up to 32V and occasionally 42V. They come in ‘blade’ form (a transparent plastic envelope
with flat contacts) and are colour coded according to rated current. Some of these types are
also used in other high-power circuits. Each colour of fuse has specific rating.

Cartidge Fuse Automotive Fuse

DC FUSES
3. RESETTABLE FUSES/POLYFUSE: These fuses are self-resetting. They contain carbon
black particles embedded in organic polymers. Normally, the carbon black makes the mixture
conductive. When a large current flows, heat is generated which expands the organic polymer.
The carbon black particles are forced apart, and conductivity decreases to the point where no
current flows. Conductivity is restored as temperature decreases. Thus, the fuse does not have
to be physically replaced. This kind of fuse is also called a PTC, meaning positive temperature
coefficient, since resistance increases with temperature. PTC Fuse is popularly use in computer
power supplies and phone chargers. PTCs are easily identified by their yellow-orange colour
and disc (and occasionally rectangular) shape.

Resettable Fuses
DC FUSES
4. SEMICONDUCTOR FUSES: The power dissipated by a semiconductor increases
exponentially with current flow, and hence semiconductors are used for ultrafast fuses. These
fuses are usually used to protect semiconductor switching devices that are sensitive to even
small current spikes.
AC FUSES
HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES: These fuses are used in high voltage AC transmission lines where
voltages can exceed several hundreds of kilovolts.
1. HRC (High Rupture Current) fuses: HRC fuses are cartridge type fuses consisting of a
transparent envelope made of magnesium silicate. The fuse is filled with quartz powder (and
in the case of a liquid-filled HRC fuses, a non-conducting liquid like mineral oil) that acts as an
arc extinguishing agent. These fuses are used for very high fault currents.
AC FUSES
2. Expulsion Fuses: These fuses are filled with chemicals like boric acid that produce gases
on heating. These gases extinguish the arc and are expelled from the ends of the fuse. The
fuse element is made of copper, tin or silver.
AC FUSES
LOW VOLTAGE FUSES: Used in the relatively low voltage distribution networks.
1. Cartridge fuses: They are very similar to cartridge type DC fuses. They consist of a
transparent envelope surrounding the fuse element. They can be plugged in (blade type) or
screwed into a fixture (bolt type).
2. Rewireable fuses: They are a simple reusable fuse used in homes and offices. They
consist of a carrier and a socket. When the fuse is blown, the carrier is taken out, rewired
and put back in the socket to resume normal operation. They are somewhat less reliable
than HRC fuses.

Cartridge Fuse

Rewireable Fuse
 Miniature Circuit Breaker

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is mechanically operated switch cum circuit

protection device. It is an electro-mechanically operated automatic circuit protection
devices. An MCB is used to interrupt a circuit during overload and short circuits.
 Construction of MCB
Every MCB consists of the following part:
•External Casing: It holds all internal components firm and protects them from dust. It is
made of insulating materials such as plastic or ceramics.
•Contacts: A pair of contacts is present inside an MCB. One of them is fixed and the other is
movable.
•Knob: MCBs can be turned ON and OFF using this knob.
•Mechanical Latch: A latch arrangement is made inside MCBs to hold the contacts under
spring tension at ON position.
•Bimetallic strip: The bimetallic strip offers delayed overload protection by sensing the
prolonged flow of current greater than its rated current.
•Solenoid/Trip Coil: Solenoid offers instantaneous protection against short circuit by
releasing the mechanical latch. Solenoid gets activated when the current through the coil
exceeds a particular value, normally more than 3 times of its rated current. This solenoid is not
activated by overloads.
•Arc Chutes: Arc chutes are used for splitting and quenching of arcs.
Construction of MCB
Principle of Operation of MCB
In the case of overloads, a current more than the rated current is driven through
the MCB. As the current flows through the bimetallic strip, it gets heated up and
deflects by bending and releases the mechanical latch. Deflection time of bimetallic
strip depends on the amount of current flowing through the strip. Higher the current
faster will be the deflection of the bimetallic strip.

ON STATE
Principle of Operation of MCB
During short circuits, a transient current flowing through the solenoid forces the
plunger towards the latch. This action instantaneous releases the mechanical latch
and opens the contacts immediately. When we switch it on, we reset the displaced
operating latch to its previous on position and the MCB is ready for another switch
off or trip operation.

OFF STATE
 Types of MCB
MCBs are available with different current ratings of 0.5, 1.2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.5,
10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 35, 40, 63, 100, 125, 160 A and voltage rating of 240/415 V
AC and up to 220 V DC. Operating time is very short (less than 5 ms). They are
suitable for the protection of important and sophisticated equipment, such as air-
conditioners, refrigerators, computers etc. MCBs are available in single, two,
three and four-pole versions. MCB is also categorized based on trip current, which
is the minimum current at which a MCB will trip instantaneously.
Trip class Trip Current

CLASS B Above 3 to 5 times rated current. Suitable for cable protection

Above 5 to 10 times the rated current. Suitable Domestic and resiential

CLASS C applications and electromagnetic starting loads with medium starting
currents

Above 10(excluding 10) to 20 times the rated current. Suitable for

CLASS D
inductive and motor loads with high starting currents.

Above 8 to 12 times the rated current. Suitable for inductive and

CLASS K
motor loads with high inrush currents

Above 2 to 3 times the rated current. These types of MCBs are highly
CLASS Z sensitive to short circuit and are used for the protection of highly
sensitive devices such as semiconductor devices.
Fuse Vs MCB
Nowadays miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are much more commonly used in low voltage
electrical networks instead of fuses. The MCB has many advantages compared to a fuse:

•It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during the abnormal conditions of the network
(both overload and fault conditions). The MCB is much more reliable in the detection of such
conditions because it is more sensitive to change in current.

•As the switch operating knob comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty zone of the
electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of a fuse, the fuse wire should be checked
by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse wire.

•Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse, as fuses have to be replaced for
restoring the supply. But in the case of an MCB, quick restoration is possible by flipping a
switch.

•The handling of an MCB is more electrically safe than a fuse.

The only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is costlier than a fuse unit
system.
 MCCB
A Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) is a type of electrical protection device
that is used to protect the electrical circuit from excessive current, which can cause
overload or short circuit.

It is mainly used for high current applications and in a place where adjustable
tripping requires. With a current rating of up to 2500A, MCCBs can be used for a wide
range of voltages and frequencies with adjustable trip settings.

These breakers are used instead of miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) in large scale
systems for system isolation and protection purposes.

The MCCB uses a temperature sensitive device (the thermal element) with a current
sensitive electromagnetic device (the magnetic element) to provide the trip
mechanism for protection and isolation purposes.
 MCCB
MCCB has main three functions

They offer protection in case of electrical faults by immediately interrupting a

current that is extremely high due to a line fault or a short circuit.

They protect in the event of an overload where the current is higher than the
rated value and lasts a longer time than normal.

The on and off function can be used to switch the circuit on or off for repairs and
replacements.
MCCB Icu: Ultimate Short Circuit Breaking
Capacity- If the fault current exceeds
this value, the MCCB will be unable to
trip.
Ics: Operating Short Circuit Breaking
Capacity- This is the highest fault
current value that the MCCB can
handle.
Ue: Rated Working Voltage- It is the
rated voltage for the continuous
operation of MCCB, same as or close
to the system voltage.
Ui: Rated Insulation Voltage -This
value indicates the maximum voltage
which the MCCB can resist in lab
conditions.
Uimp: Rated Impulse Withstand
Voltage- This value is the transient peak
voltage, the circuit breaker can
withstand from switching surges or
lightning strikes.
 MCB Vs MCCB
Sl. No MCB MCCB

It stands for Miniature Circuit It stands for Molded Case Circuit

1
Breaker. Breaker.
Rated current not more than 125
2 Rated Current up to 1600A
Ampere.

Its interrupting current rating is Their interrupting current ranges

3
under 10KA from around 10KA -85KA

Judging from their power

MCCB is mainly used for both low
capacities, MCB is mainly used for
4 and high Breaking capacity
low Breaking capacity requirement
requirements mainly industrial.
mainly domestic.

Its trip characteristics are normally Its trip current may be fixed as well
5 not adjustable since they basically as adjustable for overload and
cater to low circuits. magnetic setting.
 Types of MCCB
Type of Operating Operating Surge Installation
Application Suitability
MCCB Current Time Current Location

Trips between 3 Domestic applications Sub feeder of

0.04-13 Resistive load
Type B and 5 times rated (lighting and resistive Low Distribution
seconds application
current (In) elements) board

At incoming/
Trips between 5
0.04-5 Commercial or Inductive load outgoing of
Type C and 10 times Moderate
seconds industrial applications applications Distribution
rated current (In)
Board

Inductive –
capacitive load
Trips between 10 At incoming of
0.04-3 Commercial or applications
Type D and 20 times High Distribution
seconds industrial applications (Pumps, motor,
rated current (In) Board/Panels
large winding
motors etc.)

Inductive and
Trips between8 At incoming of
0.04-5 motor loads
Type K and 12 times Industrial applications High Distribution
seconds with high inrush
rated current (In) Board/Panels
currents.
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
If any current leaks from any electrical installation, there must be any insulation
failure in the electrical circuit, it must be properly detected and prevented otherwise
there may be a high chance of electrical shock if anyone touches the installation. An
earth leakage circuit breaker does it efficiently. Means it detects the earth leakage
current and makes the power supply off by opening the associated circuit breaker.

An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical

installations with high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages
on the metal enclosure of electrical equipment and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous
voltage is detected.

Also, the ELCB is used to protect the circuit from the electrical leakage. When
someone gets an electric shock, then this circuit breaker cuts off the power at the
time of 0.1 sec. for protecting the personal safety and avoiding the gear from the
circuit against short circuit and overload.
 ELCB

2-pole ELCB 4-pole ELCB

There are two types of ELCB, Voltage ELCB and Current ELCB.

Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil
is connected to the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth
leakage and other terminal is connected to the earth directly.

If any insulation failure occurs

or live phase wire touches the
metal body of the equipment,
there must be a voltage
difference which appears across
the terminal of the coil
connected to the equipment
body and earth. This voltage
difference produces a current to
flow through the relay coil.
If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the
relay becomes sufficient to actuate the relay for tripping the associated circuit
breaker to disconnect the power supply to the equipment.
Current ELCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)

A current ELCB has a toroidal iron core over which phase and neutral windings are
wound. A sensing coil is also wound on the same iron core which in turn is connected
to the trip coil. Figure below shows the constructional detail of Current ELCB.

Under normal operating condition, the current through the phase winding and neutral
winding are same but both the windings are wound in such a manner to oppose the
mmfs of each other, therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron core will be zero.
Consider a condition where earth leakage current exists in the load side. In this case
the current through the phase and neutral will no longer be equal rather phase
current will be more than the neutral current.

Thus mmf produced by phase winding will be more than the mmf produced by
neutral winding because of which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.

This net mmf in the core will link with the sensing coil and an emf will be induced
across the terminals of the sensing coil. This emf will in turn drive a current
through the Trip/Sensing Coil which will pull lever to open supply contacts to isolate
the power supply.
Schneider 125 A 4 Pole RCCB Siemens 25 A 2 Pole RCCB
 ELCB Vs RCCB
Sl. No RCCB ELCB

RCCB refers to Residual Current ELCB stands for Earth Leakage Circuit
1.
Circuit Breaker. Breaker.

It refers to current operated ELCB refers to voltage operated earth

2.
devices. leakage device.

It ensures 100% detection of

It is not preferable as it can only detect
leakage current & is available to
3 current that flow back through the main
sense the AC as well as DC
earth wire.
leakage current.

ELCB is working based on Earth leakage

RCCB has no connection with the
current. These devices measured the
earth wire and that’s why it can
4 voltage on the earth conductor; if this
trip when both currents (phase
voltage was not zero this indicated a
and neutral) are different.
current leakage to earth.
 Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB)
A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker (MPCB) is a simple electromechanical device that
protects an individual electric motor against overload, fluctuations in input current or
unscheduled interruptions to the main circuit. This includes line faults and phase
loss or imbalance in three phase motors.

A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker safely disconnect the current in the event of a
short circuit. Main Functions of MPCB are as follows:
a) Protection against electrical faults such as short circuits, L-G faults etc.

b) Motor overload protection

c) Protection against phase unbalances and phase loss

The reliability of the MPCB is greater than MCCB or fuse. MPCB > MCCB > Fuse
Construction & Working of MPCB
MPCB contains 6 different parts such as thermal overload release, magnetic trip unit,
main contact, auxiliary switches, arc chute, plunger, and enclosure.
Thermal Overload Release: Used to protect the motor from overload or
high balanced current which is more than a preset value. The thermal overload is
designed along with the current adjuster to limit the current flow to the motor. It is
made up of bimetallic strip (usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel and
brass). It operates when the current flow is higher than the preset value.

The current adjuster is nothing but

a spring mechanism that increases
or decreases the distance between
bimetallic contact and operating
mechanism. i.e when you increase
the current flow through the MPCB,
the adjuster increases the distance
between the bimetallic strips on the
operating mechanism.
Magnetic Trip: The magnetic strip
is a short circuit fault protective
mechanism. Three number of
the CT will be placed at the
outgoing terminal. A plunger will be
placed inside of the CT. Under
normal conditions, CT’s plunger
does not operate the tripping
mechanism.

Main Contact: The main contacts of the Motor Protection Circuit Breaker are
responsible for the current flowing from the source to the load circuits. It is divided
into two-part fixed contacts and moving contacts.
Both contacts are made up of Copper tungsten and copper tungsten carbide. The
fixed contacts will be stabled at the MPCB enclosure and moving contact will be
fixed with the trip mechanism.
Arc Chute: Arc chute is used to quenching the arc developed at that time of MPCB
circuit is opening. The outer body It is made up of glass sole to withstand high
temperature during the circuit breaker is opening. The arc chute contains copper
plates to cut the continuity of the arc.

Auxiliary switches: Auxiliary switches are the NO or NC and which is used to

send the MPCB status to the external circuits.

Enclosure: An insulative enclosure is used to cover the inner mechanism from the
outside world. It is made up of molded plastic resins. To increase the strength, the
enclosure, fillers such as glass fibers are added to the plastic resin.
Advantages:
 The high degree of protection such as Short circuit, Unbalanced, phase loss, and over
current protection are available in one pack.
 Easy adjustment
 Compact size
 Less maintenance
 No need for external thermal overload relay

Disadvantage:
 High cost
 Cannot be repaired (use & through)
 Cannot adjust the short circuit current tripping limit

Application:
 Induction Motor starting (DOL/Star-delta)
 Lighting circuit applications
 Direct starting applications
 Isolator
 The isolator is a switch which isolates a part of the circuit from the system
as per requirement.

 Isolator mainly used in electrical wiring system at home/commercial places

for making the circuit ON/OFF.

 Electrical isolators are the separate part of the system that is created for the
safe maintenance. Isolators are generally used before MCB for repair or
replacement work.
 Main Supply

What will happen if

ISOLATOR we replace isolator
by MCB?

M M M
C C C
B B B

ROOM 1 ROOM 2 ROOM 3

Isolator is available in single pole, two pole, three pole or four pole and
mostlty the colour of operating knob is RED

Single Pole 40 Double Pole 40 Three Pole 40 Four Pole 40

Amp Isolator Amp Isolator Amp Isolator Amp Isolator

All four isolators are able to flow current up to 40Amp

Symbol on Isolator Symbol on MCB
 Contactors
 A contactor is an electrical device which is used for switching an electrical
circuit ON or OFF.

 It is considered to be a special type of relay. However, the basic

difference between the relay and contactor is that the contactor is used in
applications with higher current carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used
for lower current applications.

 Contactors can be mounted easily and are compact in size. Generally,

these electrical devices having multiple contacts. These contacts are in most
cases normally open and provide operating power to the load when the
contactor coil is energized.

 Contactors are most commonly used for controlling electric motors.

 Principle of Operation of Contactors
 When the coil is energized a magnetic field is produced in the magnetic circuit. This
attracts the hinged armature, against the tension of the spring, to complete the
magnetic circuit.

 The movable contact attached

to, but insulated from, the
armature closes against the
fixed contact.

 When the coil is de-energized

the armature springs open and
also opens the contact.
 Contacts of Contactors
Contactors may have many contacts. In most contactors there are at least three power
contacts. These contacts are designed to carry the full rated current of the contactor.

The other contacts on the

contactor are termed
auxiliary contacts, or
control contacts.

The contacts of the

contactors are known for
their rapid open and close
action.
 Normally
Open ON
Push Button

Normally
Closed OFF
Push Button

Connection of Contactor
with Single Phase Motor
 Relays
Relay is a device that detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty element from the rest of the system.

The relay circuit can be divided in three parts:

1. First is primary winding of the CT, which is connected in series with

the line to be protected.

2. Second part is secondary of CT and the relay operating coil.

3. Third is the tripping circuit which may be either ac or dc. It consists of

a source of supply, the trip coil of the CB and the relay stationary
contacts.
Basic Circuit of Relay
Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f. of the secondary winding of C.T. is
small and the current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to
close the relay contacts. This keeps the trip coil of the circuit breaker
unenergized. Consequently, the contacts of the circuit breaker remain closed
and it carries the normal load current. When a fault occurs, a large current
flows through the primary of C.T. This increases the secondary e.m.f. and
hence the current through the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are
closed and the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized to open the
contacts of the circuit breaker.
 Fundamental Requirements of Relay
The main features of protective devices :

1. Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part
of the system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the
rest of the system

2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible.

3. Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of
actuating quantity.

4. Reliability: It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-
determined conditions.

5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily

maintained. Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection
scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
 Types of Protective Relays
According to construction and principle of operation:

1. Attracted armature type

2. Solenoid type

3. Electrodynamics type

4. Induction type

5. Thermal type

6. Moving coil type

220/240V AC Small Relay

According to applications

1. Over Voltage/Over Current/Over Power Relay

2. Under Voltage /Under Current /Under Power relay

3. Directional or Reverse Power Relay

4. Directional or Reverse Current Relay

5. Differential Relay

6. Distance Relay

According to time characteristics

1. Instantaneous Relay

2. Definite Time Relay

3. Inverse Time Relay

4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

 Contactor Vs Relay
Contactor Relay
A device by means of which contacts in one
A device for repeatedly establishing and
circuit are operated by a change in conditions
interrupting an electric circuit under normal
in the same circuit or in one or more associated
conditions
circuits
Used for loads that have high voltages or
Used for loads having low voltages & low
high currents or both (more than 10 A
current (10A or less current, Up to 250V AC)
current up to 10 KA, Up to 1000V AC)
Relatively sizes are more Relatively smaller in size
Control relays are mainly used for 1 phase
used for both 1 & 3 phase circuits
circuit
Minimum one set of 3 phase power
Control relay consists of at least two NO/NC
contacts are available and additionally
contacts
auxiliary contacts are also present
Switching speed of contactor is lower than Switching speed of relay is very much faster
relay than switching speed of contactor
Contactors consume more power than Relay consumes less power due to use of small
relay electromagnets
Cost is relatively high Cost is less
 Single Line Diagram
A one-line diagram or single-line diagram is a simplified notation for
representing an electrical system. The single line diagram is similar to a block
diagram except that electrical elements such as switches, circuit breakers and
other components are shown by standardized schematic symbols.

Importance of single line diagram

1. Identification of the problem location, in safety conformity and the staff

safety can be benefited by the use of single line diagram.

2. If in any case the inaccuracy in the connection and the failure arises the
updation of the single diagram becomes easy even on the regular basis.

3. The information from one line diagram can be widely used to enhance the
performance of service activities.
Single Phase Wiring
Three Phase Wiring
 Tariff
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.

Tariff should include the total cost of producing and supplying electrical energy
plus the profit, yet it cannot be the same for all types of consumers. Therefore, a
tariff should include the following items :

(i) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.

(ii) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution

systems.

(iii) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy

e.g., metering equipment, billing etc.

(iv) A suitable profit on the capital investment.

 Types of Tariff
1. Simple tariff: When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is
called a simple tariff or uniform rate tariff.

In this type of tariff, the price charged per unit is constant i.e., it does not vary with
increase or decrease in number of units consumed. The consumption of electrical
energy at the consumer’s terminals is recorded by means of an energy meter.

Disadvantages

(i) There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every

consumer has to pay equitably for the fixed charges.

(ii) The cost per unit delivered is high.

(iii) It does not encourage the use of electricity.

2. Flat rate tariff: When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per
unit rates, it is called a flat rate tariff.

In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class of
consumers is charged at a different uniform rate. For instance, the flat rate per kWh for
lighting load may be 60 paise, whereas it may be slightly less (say 55 paise per kWh) for
power load. The different classes of consumers are made taking into account their diversity
and load factors. The advantage of such a tariff is that it is more fair to different types of
consumers and is quite simple in calculations.

Disadvantages

(i) Since the flat rate tariff varies according to the way the supply is used, separate meters
are required for lighting load, power load etc. This makes the application of such a tariff
expensive and complicated.

(ii) A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the magnitude
of energy consumed. However, a big consumer should be charged at a lower rate as in his
case the fixed charges per unit are reduced.
3. Block rate tariff: When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the
succeeding blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates, it is called a block
rate tariff.

In block rate tariff, the energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per unit is
fixed in each block. The price per unit in the first block is the highest and it is progressively
reduced for the succeeding blocks of energy.

For example, the first 30 units may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per unit ; the next 25
units at the rate of 55 paise per unit and the remaining additional units may be charged at the
rate of 30 paise per unit.

The advantage of such a tariff is that the consumer gets an incentive to consume more
electrical energy. This increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation
is reduced. However, the disadvantage is that it lacks a measure of the consumer’s actual
demand. This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and small commercial
consumers.
4. Two-part tariff: When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum
demand of the consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.

In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components
viz., fixed charges and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum
demand of the consumer while the running charges depend upon the number of units
consumed by the consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of
maximum demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.,

Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)

where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum
demand.
 Two-part tariff

Advantages

(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.

(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer
but are independent of the units consumed.

Disadvantages

(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has
consumed or not consumed the electrical energy.

(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.
Energy Charge: Rs
5.75 x 59 = Rs 339.25

Fixed/Demand
Charge: Rs 40/kW x
1.72 kW = Rs 68.80

Electricity Duty: 6%
of Rs 339.25
5. Three-part tariff: When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three
parts viz., fixed charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it is known as a three-part
tariff. i.e.,

Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)

where a = fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes interest and depreciation
on the cost of secondary distribution and labour cost of collecting revenues, b = charge per
kW of maximum demand, c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.

It may be seen that by adding fixed charge or consumer’s charge (i.e., a) to two-part tariff, it
becomes three-part tariff. The principal objection of this type of tariff is that the charges are
split into three components. This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.
Tariff of HT Consumer having 100 KVA Contract Demand, Supply Voltage (kV) : 11 KV

Maximum Demand
Recorded: 120 KVA

Max Demand Charge:

Rs 300/KVA x 100
KVA = Rs 3,00,000

Electricity Duty: 6%
of Rs 246636.98
 Electric Shock
An electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with an electrical
energy source. Electrical energy flows through a portion of the body
causing a shock.

Factors determining the severity of electric shock

• The type of current (AC/DC)

• The amount of current

• Duration of contact

• Surface area of contact or Electrical field strength

• The pathway the electricity takes through the body

• Overall health of person

What happens when you get an electric shock

a) An electric shock can have no injury at all

b) Burns (which are the most common)

c) Cardiac arrest due to the electrical effect on the heart

d) Muscle, nerve, and tissue destruction from a current passing through the body

e) Death (electrocution)

Causes of Electrical Accidents

Accidents and injuries with electricity are caused by one or a combination of the
following:

• Unsafe equipment and/or installation.

• Unsafe workplaces caused by environmental factors.

• Unsafe work practices.

Prevention to be taken to prevent electric shock

1. Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch
or try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It
increases the conductivity of electric current.

2. Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken

plugs.

3. Always use insulated tools while working.

4. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while

working on any branch circuit or any other electrical circuit.

5. Never try repairing energized equipment. Check all the wires, the
outer metallic covering of the service panel and any other hanging
wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.
6. Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any
receptacle at height in your home. An electrical surge will ground you
and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a
wooden or a fiber glass ladder instead.

7. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current

rating.

8. Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The

damp soil around the cable is a good conductor of electricity and
ground faults are quite common in the case of underground cabling.
Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it
is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.

9. Replace immediately broken switches and plugs etc.

10. Check that all metallic parts of electrical equipments are effectively
earthed.

11. Always turn off the mains when perform electric work at your home.

12. Never place bare wire of leads in plugs. Fit a plug top.
 References

1. Principles of Power System” by [Link], Rohit Mehta, S Chand & Co Ltd, 2005
2. [Link]
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

MODULE 2

RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL ELECTRICAL

SYSTEMS

ANSHUL SHEKHAR
BCE BHAGALPUR
 Topics to be covered
Types of residential and commercial wiring systems, general
rules and guidelines for installation, load calculation and sizing
of wire, rating of main switch, distribution board and
protection devices, earthing system calculations, requirements
of commercial installation, deciding lighting scheme and
number of lamps, earthing of commercial installation, selection
and sizing of components.
 Electrical Wiring
A process of connecting various accessories for
distribution of electrical energy from supplier’s meter
board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other
domestic appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.

The wiring system selected will depend to a large

extent on the types of service required.
Factors Affecting the Selection of Wiring

1. Durability

2. Safety

3. Appearance

4. Cost

5. Accessibility

6. Maintenance Cost
 System of Internal Wiring
1. Cleat wiring
2. Casing and capping wiring
3. Batten wiring
a) CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
b) Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
4. Conduit wiring
a) Surface or open Conduit type
b) Concealed or underground type Conduit
 Cleat Wiring
In this system of wiring, cables are supported and gripped
between porcelain cleats and above the wall or roof.

The main part is base, which is grooved to accommodate the

cables, the other part is the cap which is put over the base
Cleats are either of porcelain, plastic or wood and are placed
above the wall or roof, at an interval of 30 to 60 cm.

The cables recommended for this type of wiring are VIR

cables (Vulcanized Indian Rubber) or PVC cables and any
other approved insulated cables.
Advantages
1. It is the cheapest system.
2. Installation and dismantling is easy.
3. Less skilled persons are required.
4. Inspection is easy.
5. Alterations and additions are easy.
Disadvantages
1. It is purely temporary wiring system.
2. Appearance is not good.
3. Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there is a possibility of
mechanical injury.
4. This system should not be used in damp places other wise
insulation gets damaged.
 Casing and Capping Wiring
It consists of rectangular blocks made from seasoned and knots
free wood , Now a days PVC is also used for manufacturing.

The casing has usually two (or three) shaped grooves, into
which the VIR or PVC cables are laid in such a way that the
opposite polarity cables are laid in different grooves.

The casing is covered by means of a rectangular strip of the

same width as that of casing known as capping and is screwed
to it.

This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage installations.

Casing & Capping Wiring
Components
Advantages
1. It provides good insulation as conductors are apart.
2. It provides good mechanical strength.
3. Easy to inspect by opening the capping.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system if we use seasoned knot free wood.
2. There is every risk of fire.
3. The labor cost is more because it requires skilled carpenters.
4. This system can not be used in damp places.
Batten Wiring: CTS or TRS or PVC Sheath Wiring
T.R.S: Tough Rubber Sheath & C.T.S: Cab Tyre Sheath

In this type of wiring system, wire sheathed in tough

rubber are used which are quite flexible.

They are clipped on wooden battens with brass or tin clips

(spaced at an interval of 10 cm) and fixed on walls or ceiling
by flat head screws.

The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of
cables to be carried by it.

CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water proof, steam

proof and hence suitable for damped location also.

This system is suitable for low voltage installations.

Advantages
1. It’s appearance is good, if carried properly.
2. It’s life is sufficiently long.
3. It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
4. Installation is easy and quick compared to casing capping.
5. It is cheap compared to casing c–apping, metal conduit and lead
sheathed wiring.
Disadvantages
1. This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun
and rain, unless preventive steps are taken.
2. Good work man ship is required to make a sound job.
3. Only suitable for voltage below 250V.
Batten Wiring: Lead or Metal Sheathed Wiring
In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the cables used are
insulated wires, TRS or PVC, with metal outer covering of
about 1 mm thick. The metal covering is known as
sheathing and is made of lead-aluminium alloy containing
about 95% of lead.
The metal sheathed cables are
run on wooden batten and
are fixed to it by link clips. The
whole metal sheathing
efficiently earthed as per IS:
732-1983
Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical injury.
2. It can be used in damp situations.
3. It can be usedin situations exposed to sun and rain provided
no joint is exposed.
4. It has longer life.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system of wiring.
2. It is not suitable where chemical (acids and alkalies)
corrosion may occur.
3. In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath become
alive and gives shock.
 Conduit Wiring System
Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or PVC cables taken
through tubes or pipes and terminated at the outlets or switches /
sockets. The tube or pipe is known as conduit. C onduit wiring
may run over the surface of the walls and ceiling or may be
concealed under masonary work.
Types of Conduits
1. Rigid steel / metal conduit.
2. Rigid PVC / non- metallic conduit.
3. Flexible steel conduit.
4. Flexible PVC /non- metallic conduit.
Surface Conduit Wiring

In this type of wiring system, the wiring components

are laying on the surface of wall/roof. Metallic
conduits (steel) or PVC materials are used for surface
conduits wiring.

The conduit should be laid over the wooden gutties, and

should be fixed to the wall by means of saddles at an interval
of not more than 1.2 m.

All steel conduits should be coated or finished with

galvanized or enameled surface.
Surface Conduit Wiring
Concealed Conduit Wiring

The conduits (metal or PVC) are embedded along walls or

ceiling in plaster at the time of building construction. The
conduits are fixed by means of saddles not more than 60
cm. apart. The VIR or PVC cables are drawn into the
concealed by means of GI wire of size 18 SWG.

PVC conduits are increasingly being used in place of steel

conduits. PVC conduits are less expensive and the labour
time saved may be as much as 25% to 50% compared to
the time taken when installing steel conduits. PVC conduits
are resistant to acids alkalies, oil and moisture.
Concealed Conduit Wiring
Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical damage.
2. Metal conduits provides protection against fire due to short
circuit etc.
3. The whole system is water proof.
4. It’s life is long.
5. Replacement of defective wiring is easy.
6. It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.
7. PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is cheap.
8. PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
9 . C oncealed conduit wiring appearance is very good.
Disadvantages
1. PVC conduit does not provide protection against fire.
2. Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
3. Metal conduit wiring requires more time.
4. Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
5. Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
6. Very complicated to manage additional connection in the
future.
 General Rules for Wiring
The following general rules should be kept in mind while executing
the electrical wiring work:
1. The current rating of the cable/conductor should be slightly greater (at
least 1.5 times) than the load current.
2. Every live wire/line should be protected by a fuse of suitable rating as
per load requirements.
3. Every sub- circuit should be connected with the fuse distribution board.
4. All metal coverings used for the protection of earth must be connected to
earth.
5. No switch or fuse is used in earth or neutral conductor.
6. Every apparatus should be provided with a separate switch.
7. A caution notice (danger plate) should be fixed on high voltage
equipment.
 General Rules for Wiring

8. No additional load should be connected to the existing installation until

it has been satisfied that the installation can safely carry the additional
load.

9. All the switches and starters should be accessible to the operator.

10. Light wiring and power wiring should be kept separately.

11. When the installation has been completed it should be tested before
giving the supply.

12. In 3-phase, 4 – wire installation the load should be distributed almost

equally on all the phases.

13. In case of 3-phse, 4-wire system, at the main board, indication should
be done in Red, Yellow and Blue. Neutral should be indicated in black.
 Electrical Installation Rules & Guidelines
Various standards are being followed for low-voltage installations. IS 4648-
1968 “Indian Standard Guide for Electrical Layout in Residential Building”
is one of them.
 Electrical Energy Distribution System
(as per electrical connection)

As per the recommendations of IS, each circuit shall not have more than
800 Watt connected load or more than 10 points which is less. In case of
CFL points where load per point may be less, number of points may be
suitably increased.
Hence, in case of more load or more points to be connected to the supply
system, then it is to be done by having more than one circuit through

(a) Distribution board system

(b) Tree system

 Distribution Board Systems
Most commonly adopted for distribution of electrical energy in a building.
The fuses of various circuits are grouped together on a distribution board,
known as fuse board.
Suitable for connecting two or more than two circuits, each consisting of 10
or less number of lamps is shown in fig.
The two copper strips known as bus bars fixed in a distribution board of
hard wood or metal case are connected to the supply mains through a
double pole iron clad (DPIC) switch so that the installation can be switched
off. A fuse is inserted in the positive or phase pole of each circuit so that
each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse. The number of
circuits and sub-circuits is decided as per number of points to be wired and
load to be connected to the supply system.
Distribution Board Systems
Distribution Board Systems
 Tree Systems
Another system of distribution of electrical energy in a building is a tree
system. In this system smaller branches are taken from the main branch
as shown in fig and the wiring system resembles a tree. As each branch
is taken off, a fuse is inserted. This system used to be employed in early
days.
Now a days it is no more adopted due to the following drawbacks.
(i) The voltage across all the lamps does not remain the same. Voltage
across last branch will have least voltage due to voltage drop.
(ii) A number of joints are involved in every circuit.
(iii) Fuses are scattered.
(iv) In case of occurrence of faults all the joints have to be located.
Tree Systems
 Methods of Wiring
(as per electrical connection)

There are two methods of electrical wiring

(a) Joint Box or Tee System

(b) Loop-in system

 Joint Box or Tee System
In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through joints
made in joint box by means of suitable connectors or joint cutouts.
In this method though there is a saving in the quantity of wire or cable
required but the same is offset by the extra cost of joint boxes. The other
disadvantage of tee connection is that number of ‘T’ connections made in
wiring system results in weakness if not properly made.
Now a days the use of this
system is limited to temporary
installations only as its cost is
low.
 Loop-in System
This system is universally used for connections of various lamps or other
appliances in parallel. In this system when a connection is required at a
light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it direct to the
terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed. The
switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from
one point to another until the last point on the circuit is reached.

The phase or line conductors

are looped either in switch
board or box and neutrals are
looped either in switch board or
from light or fan. Line or phase
should never be looped from
light or fan
 Loop-in System
Advantages:
Joint boxes are not required.
Identification of fault location is easy.
Disadvantages:
Length of wire required is more and hence losses are more.
Looping-in in lamp holders and switches are little bit more difficult.
 Distribution Board
A distribution board is the main electrical supply system for any commercial
or residential entity. The main cable comes into the distribution board and
then via breakers get distributed in the secondary circuits such as lights and
plugs.
Distribution board is set of MCBs, ELCBs/RCCBs which are installed in a
metal box & is used to distribute electrical power to different loads.
Distribution Board
 Sub Circuits
 After the main switch the supply is taken tothe various load points.

 In the given circuit same circuit contains light, fan and power circuit which

has various drawbacks.

 Dividing the wiring into a number of smaller circuit is called sub- circuit.

 Sub-circuit divided into two parts:

a) Light and fan sub-circuit

b) Power Sub-circuit
 Determination of number of sub-circuits: It is decided as per number of

points to be wired & total load to be connected to the supply system.

In one light & fan circuit the maximum load that can be connected is 800
watts & the maximum number of points which can be wired is 10.

In one power sub-circuit the maximum load that can be connected is 3,000
watts and the number of socket-outlets which can be provided is 2.

 Determination of rating of main switch & distribution box (DB): The

current rating of main switch is decided as per total current of the circuit
to be controlled by it.

The number of ways and current rating of the DB is decided as per number
of sub-circuits to be connected to it and current of the sub-circuit having
highest current rating.
Single Phase Wiring
Three Phase Wiring
 Load calculation & sizing of wire
 Determination of number of points: Number of fan/light points is
determined as per the measure (length, height and width) of room and the
size/rating of fan/light. Higher the size of the fan (900 mm, 1200 mm, 1400
mm) higher will be delivery of air (in m3/minute) and lesser will be number of
fan required. Similarly, higher rating of light causes lesser number of installation
of light (high rating means high illumination). For determination of number of
socket-outlets, IS 4648-1968 shall be referred.

 Determination of total load: The total load of any premises may be

calculated by adding ratings of each electrical items.
 As per IS 4648-1968

Location No. of 5 Amp Socket-Outlet No. of 15 Amp Socket-Outlet

Bed Room 2 to 3 1

Living Room 2 to 3 2

Kitchen 1 2

Dining Room 2 1

Bathroom 1 1

For AC 0 1

For Refrigerator 0 1
 Rating of commonly used electrical items are

Appliances Ampere Used Watt Used

Laptop <0.5 65 - 100

Mobile phone charger <0.5 <12

Hair straightner <0.5 60 - 100

Fridge 0.65 150

Freezer 0.86 200

Kettle 13 3000

Printer <0.5 50

Hair dryer 10.0 2200

 Rating of commonly used electrical items are

Appliances Ampere Used Watt Used

Satellite TV box <0.5 30

Desk lamp (with 60 W lamp) <0.5 60

Computer monitor <0.5 100

Television 0.5 120

Washing machine 10 2200

Iron 12.5 2800

Microwave 4.5 1000

Vacuum cleaner 9.0 2000

 Calculation of loads

Example: Available loads are

Tube point - 1x40 = 40 watt

Lamp point – 1x100 = 100 watt
Fan point - 1x 60 = 60 watt
5 amp socket – 1x100= 100 watt
Total load in amperes = 300/230 = 1.3 A
Hence, Main switch of 5 Amp rating, 250 volt grade is selected.
 As per IS 4648-1968, recommended level of illumination for different parts of
residential building are as follows. This will help to decide number of lamps
required.
Location Illumination Level (Lux)

Bed Room 300

Living Room 300

Kitchen 200

Dining Room 150

Bathroom 100

Entrance 100

Stair 100

Study Room 300

Garage 70
Determination of size of wires: The wires dimensions are defined in terms
of [Link]. of cross-section and sizing is determined based on current-
carrying capacity. The conductor used in house wiring (except flexible &
fitting wires) must not be of size less than 1/1.12 mm in copper or 1/1.40
mm (1.5 mm2) in aluminium wire.

• Important factors that determine the selection of cables

 Rated Voltage

 Current Carrying Capacity

 Voltage Drop

 Short circuit Withstand

Cable current rating for copper & aluminium conductors is shown below
The selection of wires, switches, MCB’s, Main MCB, plug tops etc. depends
upon the current to be drawn by load.
Example:
Power : 1500W (AC load)
Voltage : 220 Volt
Current : Power/(Voltage x P.F.) = 1500/ (220 x 0.8) = 8.5 Amp

Therefore, use of items for AC load based upon its current is as under:
Switch : 16A - 220V
Socket : 16A – 220V
Plug Top : 16A – 220V
MCB/SPN : 16A – 220V
PVC wires : 2.5 mm2
 Protective Devices
When a failure occurs on any part of the electrical power system, it must be
quickly detected and disconnected from the system. There are two reason for it.
Firstly, if the fault not cleared quickly , it may cause unnecessary interruption of the
service to the customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulty apparatus limit the
amount of damage to it and prevent the effects of fault from spreading into the
system.

The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty part can be achieved by using
fuses or relays in connection with circuit breakers. A fuse can perform both the
function but for low voltage circuit only. For high voltage circuits, relays and circuit
breakers are employed to serve the desire function for automatic protective gear.

Other protective devices are MCB, MCCB, MPCB, ELCB, RCCB, Relay, Isolator
 General items required as per load
 PVC wires: Generally 4.0 mm2, 2.5 mm2, 1.5 mm2, 1.0 mm2, 0.75

 Distribution Board: 6 Way, 8W, 10W, 12W, 16W

 MCB’s: 6 AMP,10A, 16A, 20A, 25A, 32A, (SP/SPN)

 RCCB or ELCB: 16A, 25A, 32A

 Switches: 6Amp, 16 Amp, 20 Amp

 Sockets: 5 Pin 6 Amp, 6 Pin-16Amp, 20A, 25A, 32A

 2-Way Switch: 6 Amp

 Various loads in rooms

 DP Isolator, etc.
 6A switch is used for all light points, fan points, etc.

 6A, 5-pin socket is used for refrigerator, Iron, washing machine, LED TV,

chimney, exhaust fan, charging mobile, etc.

 16A/20A switch and 16A/20A 6-pin socket is used for geyser point, high

rating washing machine, AC load etc.

 2way switches are used for stair case light control and entry gate

lights.

 All accessories should be of ISI marked, branded bearing good look and as

per choice of owner.

General Requirements of Electrical Installation
1. Layout wiring
2. Conductors
3. Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
4. Reception and distribution of main supply
5. Arrangement of apparatus on switchboards
6. Single phase supply/ Three phase four wire supply
7. Distribution board
8. Sub circuits
9. Service connection
1. Layout Wiring

2. Conductors
4. Reception and distribution of main supply

 At the entry level there should be a circuit breaker or linked switch

on live conductor.

 No break in the neutral wire in the form of switch or fuse

throughout the installation

 All main switches should be either metal clad enclosed or of any

insulated enclosed pattern and should be fixed at close proximity to
the point of entry of supply.
4. Reception and distribution of main supply
5. Arrangement of Apparatus on Switchboards
6. Single Phase Supply

The consumer’s main switch fuse is connected after the meter and feed a
distribution fuse board. It is important to note that fuses should be connected
only in live wire and never in the neutral wire. Similarly all switches installed
on live wire only and never on the neutral wire.
Simple Diagram of Single Phase Installation
Single Phase Installation with a number of sub-distribution boards
having a common main switch fuse
Single Phase Installation with a number of sub-distribution boards each
connected to the mains through a separate fuse
9. Service Connection
 The line bringing electric power from supplier’s low voltage distribution up
to the energy meter installed at the consumer’s premises is called the service
connection.
 The electric supply authority supplies power to the consumers through a low
voltage three phase four wire distribution system called the secondary
distribution system.
 Large consumers supplied at higher voltages through three-wire high voltage
distribution system called the primary distribution system (6.6, 11, 33 kV)
 Service connection may be by mean of underground cables or by mean of
overhead conductors or cables.
Overhead Service Connection
This system is used when the consumer’s premises are more than
45 meter away from the supplier’sdistribution pole.
a) PVC or weather proof cable service line
b) Bare conductor service line
Estimating and Costing of Electrical Installation
• Quantity and specification of material
• Price list
• Labour charges
• Overhead charges
• Contingencies
• Profit purchase system
 Electrical Installations for Residential
building: Estimating and Costing of Material

• Choice of particular type of wiring depending upon a particular

use, financial implication and personal preferences.
• Installation work should be as per Indian Electricity Rules 1956.
• The planning and designing of electrical wiring should be done
before civil work start.
• Layout of electrical wiring prepare in advance and handed over
the civil engineer to make necessary provisions in the building
for electric work.
Example of Estimating and Costing of materials
Installation Plan
Schematic and Wiring Diagram
Electrical Installations for Commercial Building

Electric service and supply

• Supply authority supplies power to the consumer through low
voltage i.e. 415V/240V three phase four wire distribution
• Large consumers are supplied at higher voltage: 6.6, 11, 33 kV
three wire high voltage feeder
 Internal Distribution
• Small residential installation
• Medium Large Installation
• Large Installation
Large Installation
 Module 4: Industrial Electrical Systems I

Industrial Substation
At many places in the line of the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to
change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply.
This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation.

For example, generation voltage (11 kV or 6·6 kV) at the power station is stepped up to
high voltage (say 220 kV or 132 kV) for transmission of electric power. The assembly of
apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose is the sub-station. Similarly, near
the consumers localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level.
This job is again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called substation. At some places
in the line of the power system, it may be desirable to convert large quantities of a.c.
power to d.c. power e.g. for traction, electroplating, *d.c. motors etc. This job is again
performed by suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) called sub-station. It is clear that type of
equipment needed in a sub-station will depend upon the service requirement.

Definition: The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g.

voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply is called a sub-station. Sub-
stations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a
considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations.

The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a
sub-station:

(i) It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be located at the
centre of gravity of load.
(ii) It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration must be
given to the maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out repairs
and maintenance, abnormal occurrences such as possibility of explosion or fire etc.
(iii) It should be easily operated and maintained.
(iv) It should involve minimum capital cost.

Industrial sub-stations: Those sub-stations which supply power to individual

industrial consumers/purposes are known as industrial sub-stations.
Classification of Sub-Station:
1. According to constructional features: A sub-station has many components (e.g.
circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which must be housed properly to
ensure continuous and reliable service. According to constructional features, the sub-
stations are classified as:
(i) Indoor sub-stations: For voltages upto 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is
installed indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the atmosphere is
contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for voltages upto 66 kV.
(ii) Outdoor sub-stations: For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invariably installed
outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the
space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great
that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor.
(iii) Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for
equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the
sub-station is created underground.
(iv) Pole-mounted sub-stations: This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment
installed overhead on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-station
for voltages not exceeding 11kV (or 33 kV in some cases). Electric power is almost
distributed in localities through such substations. For complete discussion on pole-
mounted sub-station.

The comparison between outdoor and indoor sub-stations is given below in the tabular
form:

From the above comparison, it is clear that each type has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
2. According to service requirement. A sub-station may be called upon to change
voltage level or improve power factor or convert a.c. power into d.c. power etc.
According to the service requirement, sub-stations may be classified into:
(i) Transformer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the voltage level of
electric supply are called transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive power at
some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage. Obviously, transformer will be the
main component in such substations. Most of the sub-stations in the power system are
of this type.
(ii) Switching sub-stations. These sub-stations do not change the voltage level i.e.
incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However, they simply perform the
switching operations of power lines.
(iii) Power factor correction sub-stations. Those sub-stations which improve the
power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-stations. Such sub-
stations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. These sub
stations generally use synchronous condensers as the power factor improvement
equipment.
(iv) Frequency changer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the supply
frequency are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change may
be required for industrial utilisation.
(v) Converting sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change a.c. power into d.c.
power are called converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive a.c. power and
convert it into d.c. power with suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for such
purposes as traction, electroplating, electric welding etc.
(vi) Industrial sub-stations. Those sub-stations which supply power to individual
industrial concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.

Fig. 4.1 shows the block diagram of a typical electric supply system indicating the
position of above types of sub-stations. It may be noted that it is not necessary that all
electric supply schemes include all the stages shown in the figure. For example, in a
certain supply scheme there may not be secondary sub-stations and in another case, the
scheme may be so small that there are only distribution sub-stations.
Symbols for equipment in sub-station:
It is a usual practice to show the various elements (e.g. transformer, circuit breaker,
isolator, instrument transformers etc.) of a sub-station by their graphic symbols in the
connection schemes. Symbols of important equipment in sub-station are given below:
Equipment used in a transformer sub-station:
The equipment required for a transformer sub-station depends upon the type of sub
station, service requirement and the degree of protection desired. However, in general, a
transformer sub-station has the following main equipment:
1. Bus-bars. When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus-bars
are copper or aluminum bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at
constant voltage. The incoming and outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the
bus-bars. The most commonly used bus-bar arrangements in sub-stations are:
(i) Single bus-bar arrangement
(ii) Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation
(iii) Double bus-bar arrangement
2. Insulators. The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors (or bus-
bars) and confine the current to the conductors. The most commonly used material for
the manufacture of insulators is porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin
type, suspension type, post insulator etc.) and their use in the sub-station will depend
upon the service requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus-bars. A post
insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast iron base. The hole
in the cap is threaded so that bus-bars can be directly bolted to the cap.
3. Isolating switches. In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the
system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch
or isolator. An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit
under no load. In other words, isolator switches are operated only when the lines in
which they are connected carry *no current.
4. Circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit
under normal as well as fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated
manually (or by remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault
conditions. For the latter operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.
Generally, bulk oil circuit breakers are used for voltages upto 66kV while for high (>66
kV) voltages, low oil circuit breakers are used. For still higher voltages, air-blast, vacuum
or SF6 circuit breakers are used.
5. Power Transformers. A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or
step-down the voltage. Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-stations use
step-down transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally
deliver it at utilisation voltage. The modern practice is to use 3-phase transformers in
sub-stations ; although 3 single phase bank of transformers can also be used. The power
transformer is generally installed upon lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having
foundations 1 to 1·5 m deep. For ratings upto 10 MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed
transformers are used. For higher ratings, the transformers are generally air blast
cooled.
6. Instrument transformers. The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and
carry current of thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and protective
devices are designed for low voltages (generally 110 V) and currents (about 5 A).
Therefore, they will not work satisfactorily if mounted directly on the power lines. This
difficulty is overcome by installing instrument transformers on the power lines. The
function of these instrument transformers is to transfer voltages or currents in the
power lines to values which are convenient for the operation of measuring instruments
and relays. There are two types of instrument transformers viz. (i) Current transformer
(C.T.) (ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
(i) Current transformer (C.T.): A current transformer in essentially a step-up
transformer which steps down the current to a known ratio. The primary of this
transformer consists of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line.
The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and provides for the
measuring instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of the current
in the line. Suppose a current transformer rated at 100/5 A is connected in the line to
measure current. If the current in the line is 100 A, then current in the secondary will be
5A. Similarly, if current in the line is 50A, then secondary of C.T. will have a current of
2·5 A. Thus the C.T. under consideration will step down the line current by a factor of 20.
(ii) Voltage transformer: It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the
voltage to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of
turns of fine wire connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few
turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is a known
fraction of the line voltage. Suppose a potential transformer rated at 66kV/110V is
connected to a power line. If line voltage is 66kV, then voltage across the secondary will
be 110 V.
7. Metering and Indicating Instruments. There are several metering and indicating
instruments (e.g. ammeters, voltmeters, energy meters etc.) installed in a sub-station to
maintain watch over the circuit quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably
used with them for satisfactory operation.
Key diagram of a typical 66/11 kV sub-station:
(i) There are two 66 kV incoming lines marked ‘incoming 1’ and ‘incoming 2’ connected
to the bus-bars. Such an arrangement of two incoming lines is called a double circuit.
Each incoming line is capable of supplying the rated sub-station load. Both these lines
can be loaded simultaneously to share the sub-station load or any one line can be called
upon to meet the entire load. The double circuit arrangement increases the reliability of
the system. In case there is a breakdown of one incoming line, the continuity of supply
can be maintained by the other line.
(ii) The sub-station has duplicate bus-bar system; one ‘main bus-bar’ and the other
spare busbar. The incoming lines can be connected to either bus-bar with the help of a
bus-coupler which consists of a circuit breaker and isolators. The advantage of double
bus-bar system is that if repair is to be carried on one bus-bar, the supply need not be
interrupted as the entire load can be transferred to the other bus.
(iii) There is an arrangement in the sub-station by which the same 66 kV double circuit
supply is going out i.e. 66 kV double circuit supply is passing through the sub-station.
The outgoing 66 kV double circuit line can be made to act as incoming line.
(iv) There is also an arrangement to step down the incoming 66 kV supply to 11 kV by
two units of 3-phase transformers; each transformer supplying to a separate bus-bar.
Generally, one transformer supplies the entire sub-station load while the other
transformer acts as a standby unit. If need arises, both the transformers can be called
upon to share the sub-station load. The 11 kV outgoing lines feed to the distribution sub-
stations located near consumers localities.
(v) Both incoming and outgoing lines are connected through circuit breakers having
isolators on their either end. Whenever repair is to be carried over the line towers, the
line is first switched off and then earthed.
(vi) The potential transformers (P.T.) and current transformers (C.T.) and suitably
located for supply to metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits (not shown
in the figure). The P.T. is connected right on the point where the line is terminated. The
CTs are connected at the terminals of each circuit breaker.
(vii) The lightning arresters are connected near the transformer terminals (on H.T. side)
to protect them from lightning strokes.
(viii) There are other auxiliary components in the sub-station such as capacitor bank for
power factor improvement, earth connections, local supply connections, d.c. supply
connections etc. However, these have been omitted in the key diagram for the sake of
simplicity.
Selection of Transformer

A three phase transformer is designed to transform a three phase input (source)

voltage to the three phase output (load) voltages required for our equipment.

In order to select the correct three phase transformer we must first determine:
(1) The equipment being installed operates on a three phase supply- If both
single phase and three phase equipment are connected at the load end; the single
phase equipment is connected to only one phase of the transformer.

(2) The Primary Voltage of the transformer- This is the same as the line input
(or source) voltage.

(3) The Secondary Voltage of the transformer- This is the transformer's output
voltage and must be the same as the voltage required by the equipment being
installed (see equipment nameplate).

(4) Frequency- The Frequency of the input (source) voltage must be the same as
the operating frequency of the equipment being supplied. The transformer
selected must operate at the same frequency. Typical operating frequency is 50
Hz.

(5) Rating- The rating of the load is determined by the product of the voltage
supplied across the load and the current passing through it. This is normally
expressed in VA or kVA on the equipment nameplate. The total load is often as
combination of various loads (i.e. lights, heaters, motors). We must calculate
these individual loads and add them together to obtain the total load of the
transformer.

The transformer must have a kVA rating greater than the load
requirement. The three phase transformer must be selected in a way that any
one phase is not overloaded.
Full Load Current Table - 3 Phase Transformer
Different Types of Electrical Loads

An electrical load is a device or an electrical component that consumes

electrical energy and converts it into another form of energy. Example: Electric
lamps, air conditioners, motors, resistors etc.
Electrical loads can be classified according to their nature as Resistive,
Capacitive, Inductive and combinations of these.
Resistive loads: Incandescent lamps and electric heaters.
Capacitive loads: Capacitor banks, cables, capacitors used in various circuits
such as motor starters etc.
Inductive load: Transformers, motors etc.
Most of the loads are not purely resistive or purely capacitive or purely
inductive. Many practical loads make use of various combinations of resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Power factor of such loads is less than unity and
either lagging or leading.
Loads in a Power System may also be categorized as:
 Domestic Load / Residential Load
 Commercial Load
 Industrial Load

Different Types of Industrial Loads

Industrial load consists of small, medium, large and heavy scale industries.
The induction motor forms a high proportion of the industrial load. The
industrial load is a function of frequency and voltage and it cover a major part of
the system load.

The three different types of industrial loads under which electric motors are
required to work are as under:

(i) Continuous load

(ii) Intermittent load and
(iii) Variable or fluctuating load.
The size of the motor depends on two factors for use in small, medium, large
and heavy scale industries.
 On the temperature rise which in turn, will depend on whether the motor
is to operate on continuous, intermittent or variable load.
 It will depend on the maximum torque to be developed by the motor.

(i) Continuous Load: In such cases, the calculation of motor size is simpler
because the loads like pumps and fans require a constant power input to keep
them operating. However, it is essential to calculate the KW rating of the motor
correctly. If the KW rating of the motor is less than what is required, the motor
will overheat and consequently burn out. If, on the other hand, KW rating is
more than what is needed by the load, the motor will remain cool but will
operate at lower efficiency and power.

(ii) Intermittent Loads: Such loads can be of the following two types:
(a) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then shut off for a
long time, allowing the motor to cool down to room temperature as shown in
Fig 1. In such cases, a motor with a short time rating is used.
(b) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then it is shut off for
a short time. The shut off time is so short that the motor cannot cool down to the
room temperature as shown in Fig.2. In such cases, a suitable continuous or
short-time rated motor is chosen which, when operating on a given load cycle,
will not exceed the specified temperature limit.

Fig: 1 Fig: 2
(iii) Variable Loads: In the case of such loads, the most accurate method of
selecting a suitable motor is to draw the heating and cooling curves as per the
load fluctuations for a number of motors. The motor which does not exceed the
permitted temperature rise when operating on the particular load cycle should be
chosen for the purpose.

However, a simpler but sufficiently accurate method of selection of a suitable

rating of a motor is to assume that heating is proportional to the square of the
current and hence the square of the load. The suitable continuous rating of the
motor would equal the r.m.s. value of the load current.
Selection of a Motor

The selection of a motor depends primarily on the conditions under which it has
to operate and the type of load it has to handle. Main factors for such a selection
are as follows:

(a) Electrical characteristics

1. Starting characteristics
2. Running characteristics
3. Speed control
4. Braking
(b) Mechanical considerations
1. Type of enclosure
2. Type of bearings
3. Method of power transmission
4. Type of cooling
5. Noise level
(c) Size and rating of motors
1. Requirement for continuous, intermittent or variable load cycle
2. Overload capacity
(d) Cost
1. Capital cost
2. Running cost
In addition to the above factors, one has to take into consideration the type of
current available whether alternating or direct. However, the basic problem is
one of matching the mechanical output of the motor with the load requirement
i.e. to select a motor with the correct speed/torque characteristics as demanded
by the load.
Motors for Different Industrial Drives

Which type of motor is mostly used in an industry?

1. D.C. Series Motor
Since it has high starting torque and variable speed, it is used for heavy duty
applications such as electric locomotives, steel rolling mills, hoists, lifts and
cranes.
2. D.C. Shunt Motor
It has medium starting torque and a nearly constant speed. Hence, it is used for
driving constant-speed line shafts, lathes, vacuum cleaners, wood-working
machines, laundry washing machines, elevators, conveyors, grinders and small
printing presses etc.
3. Cumulative Compound Motor
It is a varying-speed motor with high starting torque and is used for driving
compressors, variable-head centrifugal pumps, rotary presses, circular saws,
shearing machines, elevators and continuous conveyors etc.
4. Three-phase Synchronous Motor
Because its speed remains constant under varying loads, it is used for driving
continuously-operating equipment at constant speed such as ammonia and air
compressors, motor-generator sets, continuous rolling mills, paper and cement
industries.
5. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
This motor is quite simple but rugged and possesses high over-load capacity. It
has a nearly constant speed and poor starting torque. Hence, it is used for low
and medium power drives where speed control is not required as for water
pumps, tube wells, lathes, drills, grinders, polishers, wood planers, fans,
blowers, laundry washing machines and compressors etc.
6. Double Squirrel Cage Motor
It has high starting torque, large overload capacity and a nearly constant speed.
Hence, it is used for driving loads which require high starting torque such as
compressor pumps, reciprocating pumps, large refrigerators, crushers, boring
mills, textile machinery, cranes, punches and lathes etc.
7. Slip-ring Induction Motor
It has high starting torque and large overload capacity. Its speed can be changed
upto 50% of its normal speed. Hence, it is used for those industrial drives which
require high starting torque and speed control such as lifts, pumps, winding
machines, printing presses, line shafts, elevators and compressors etc.
8. Single-phase Synchronous Motor
Because of its constant speed, it is used in teleprinters, clocks, all kinds of
timing devices, recording instruments, sound recording and reproducing
systems.
9. Single-phase Series Motor
It possesses high starting torque and its speed can be controlled over a wide
range. It is used for driving small domestic appliances like refrigerators and
vacuum cleaners etc.
10. Repulsion Motor
It has high starting torque and is capable of wide speed control. Moreover, it has
high speed at high loads. Hence, it is used for drives which require large starting
torque and adjustable but constant speed as in coil winding machines.
Estimation of Motor Rating
Since primary limitation for the operation of an electric motor is its temperature
rise, hence motor rating is calculated on the basis of its average temperature rise.
The average temperature rise depends on the average heating which itself is
proportional to the square of the current and the time for which the load persists.
For example, if a motor carries a load L1 for time t1 and load L2 for time t2 and
so on, then

In fact, heating is proportional to square of the current but since load can be
expressed in terms of the current drawn, the proportionality can be taken for
load instead of the current.
Starting of Motors:
The induction motor, the most common type of motor utilized in building and
industry processes. Induction motors work by generating rotation power through
electrical conversion. This is with interacting magnetic fields. The back
electromagnetic force (EMF), which is coupled with magnetic field build-up at
the time of motor start, injects transient events that happen in the electrical
system. Such transitory conditions affect all equipment connected to the system
and its electrical supply. Motor starting is carefully studied and inspected in
industrial applications to limit such transient influence and to correctly
accelerate the mechanical load of the motor.

Direct-on-Line
Direct-on-line (DOL) is a straightforward method that is done by connecting the
motor to the supplier directly at a specific voltage. Not every system can use this
method; the most common examples are in well-dimensioned and mechanically
stiff shaft systems. It can also be used for pumps and other equipment that have
a stable supply. Direct-on-line is the most common method particularly since it
is the cheapest and simplest. It also causes the tiniest rise in temperature out of
all the techniques in motor starting. The issue with DOL is that the current can
be as high as eight times or more than its normal load.

Star-delta
Star-delta starting method is used in three-phase motors. It is applied to
minimize the starting current. At the motor start-up, the supply is connected to
the star end for the stator windings to commence. As soon as it achieves running
position, the current supply is reattached to the delta windings. The advantage of
using star-delta is the reduced starting voltage. The current at start-up for this
technique is only a third of the DOL method. This system is applied to high
inertia models wherein loads are initiated at the time full loading speed is
achieved. The setback to using star-delta is that around 33% reduction in
starting torque occurs. The effective changeover is required from star to delta so
that the speed is maintained. If this fails or happens at a low speed, the current
surge rises as much as in DOL, which can be detrimental to the entire system.

Auto-transformer
The auto-transformer starting is perhaps the fanciest of these three methods
since it uses an auto-transformer that is coupled with the induction motor at the
start-up. This technique utilizes dual voltage reductions brought about by
transformers, which also minimizes the voltage (around 50-80% of the full
voltage) using the secondary auto-transformer voltage. This system causes
reduced torque and locked-rotor current. It also causes a concurrent increase in
possible torque per ampere line. The auto-transformer start may also cause a
pulsing current due switching from secondary voltage to the main one.
……………………………………………………………………………………
Assignment: Explain different methods of starting induction motor.
……………………………………………………………………………………
Selection of Cable

Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by

underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as
less liable to damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less
chance of faults, smaller voltage drop and better general appearance. However,
their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce
insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent overhead
system. For this reason, underground cables are use where it is impracticable to
use overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas.

An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered

with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.

Conductors: A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor). The
conductors are made of copper or aluminum and are usually stranded in order to
provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of
insulation, the thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by
the cable. The insulating materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India
rubber, impregnated paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
Metallic sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath
of lead or aluminum is provided over the insulation.
Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists
of a fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to
protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to
armoring.
Armoring: Over the bedding, armoring is provided which consists of one or two
layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable
from mechanical injury.
Serving: In order to protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of
fibrous material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armoring.
This is known as serving.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
The selection and satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent
upon the characteristics of insulation used. The insulating materials used in
cables should have the following properties:
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
 It should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to
decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable.
 Non-inflammable
 Low cost

Classification of Cables:
(i) Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
(ii) High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
(iii) Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
(iv) Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV

A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service
for which it is intended. It may be (i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core
(iv) four-core etc. For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core
cable can be used depending upon the operating voltage and load demand.
 (i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core (iv) four-core
Selection Parameters:
(i) Voltage Rating: This is the rated voltage of the system, in which the cable
is to be installed & used. It is also important to know the method of system
earthing. The rated voltage of the cable is generally specified as a dual rating
(e.g.) 6.6kV (UE)/11kV (E).
‘UE’ means that the cable can be used for the specified voltage in an unearthed
or in a non-effectively earthed system. ‘E’ means that the cable can be used for
the specified voltage in a solidly earthed system. Thus, a cable whose rated
voltage is specified as 6.6kV (UE)/11kV (E) can be used either in a 6.6kV
unearthed or in a 6.6kV non-effectively earthed system or in an 11kV solidly
earthed system.
(ii) Type of Conductor: The most generally used conductor in a cable is either
Copper or Aluminum. For the same voltage rating, type, insulation, cross
sectional area and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short
time current rating and the per unit length; cost of a Copper cable is
considerably higher than that of an Aluminum cable.
(iii) Type of Insulation: Most of today’s cables are insulated either with PVC
(Polyvinyl chloride) or with XLPE (Cross-linked polyethylene). Obviously, for
the same conductor material, voltage rating, type, insulation, cross sectional area
and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short time current
rating and the per unit length; cost of an XLPE insulated cable is considerably
higher than that of a PVC insulated cable.
(iv) Type of Cables: Armored or Unarmored cables are used in indoor
installations and on above ground installations. But armored cables are
mandatory for any underground cable installation.
(v) Continuous Current Rating: The continuous current rating of cables with
Aluminium / Copper conductor is provided by manufacturer but, it should be
noted that the continuous current ratings are given for certain standard
conditions. In practice, it is not possible to get or to maintain these standard
conditions. Thus, certain rating factors are applied to arrive at the practical
continuous current rating.
(vi) Rating Factors: The following are the general rating factors to be
considered:
 Rating factor for variation in ground temperature or in duct temperature
 Rating factor for variation in ambient temperature
 Rating factor for variation in thermal resistivity of soil
 Group Rating Factor – Vertical Spacing
 Group Rating Factor – Horizontal Spacing
(vii) Voltage Drop: Cables consist of resistance & reactance and hence the
current flowing though such impedance will cause a voltage drop. This drop
should not affect the loads connected by the cable. Actual voltage drops in
cables are given in V/km/A. It is also given in Indian Standard IS 1255. This
voltage drop should not be more than 10%.
(viii) Short Circuit Current Withstand: Any cable’s short time current
withstand capacity can be calculated using the following formula:
S = [(I √t) / K]
Where, I = Short Circuit Current in Amperes, t = Duration of Short Circuit in
seconds, K = Adiabatic Constant (= 115 for PVC /Copper; = 143 for XLPE /
Copper; = 76 for PVC / Aluminum and = 92 for XLPE / Aluminum)
Switchgear selection

The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical
circuits and equipment is known as switchgear. The switchgear equipment is
essentially concerned with switching and interrupting currents either under
normal or abnormal operating conditions.

Essential Features of Switchgear

(i) Complete reliability: With the continued trend of interconnection and the
increasing capacity of generating stations, the need for reliable switchgear has
increased. When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear
must operate to isolate the faulty section from the rest of the circuit.

(ii) Absolute discrimination: When fault occurs on any section of the power
system, the switchgear must be able to discriminate between the faulty section
and the healthy section. It should isolate the faulty section from the system
without affecting the healthy section. This will ensure continuity of supply.

(iii) Quick operation: When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the
switchgear must operate quickly so that no damage is done to generators,
transformers and other equipment by the short-circuit currents. If fault is not
cleared by switchgear quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts, thus
complete shutdown of the system may occur.
(iv) Provision for manual control: Switchgear must have provision for manual
control. In case the electrical (or electronics) control fails, the necessary
operation can be carried out through manual control.

(v) Provision for measuring instruments: There must be provision for

measuring instruments. These may be in the form of ammeter or voltmeter on
the unit itself or the necessary current and voltage transformers for connecting
to the main switchboard or a separate instrument panel.
Lightning Protection

Lightning is a natural electrical phenomenon consisting of short time high

current discharge. Lightning causes two kinds of voltage surges (overvoltage),
one by direct stroke to a line conductor, and the other induced by indirect stroke
when charges are dissipated following a lightning discharge to an object near
the line conductor.

A direct stroke to a phase (line) conductor is the most severe lightning stroke as
it produces the highest overvoltage for a given stroke current. Direct lightning
stroke approximates to a constant current source.

In case of indirect stroke the amplitudes of voltages induced on lines indirectly

by lightning strokes on a tower, ground wire or nearby ground or object, are
however normally much less than those caused by direct strokes to lines. Such
strokes, however, are of real concern on low voltage lines (33 kV and below)
supported on small insulators. They are of little importance on high-voltage
lines whose insulators can withstand hundreds of kilovolts without a flashover.

Methods of protection:
(i) Ground wires: The most generally accepted and effective method of
protecting lines against direct strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires
(also called earth wire). This method of protection is known as shielding
method which does not allow an arc path to form between the line conductor
and ground.

Ground wires are conductors running parallel to the main conductors of

the transmission line, supported on the same towers (or supports) and
adequately grounded at every tower or support. They are made of galvanized
steel wires or ACSR conductors. They are provided to shield the lines against
direct strokes by attracting the lightning strokes to themselves rather than
allowing them to strike the lines (phase conductors). When a ground wire is
struck by direct lightning stroke, the impedance through which the current flows
is very much reduced and a correspondingly higher current is required to cause
flashover.

(ii) Lightning Arresters or Surge Diverters: They are connected between the
line and ground at the substation and always act in shunt (parallel) with the
equipment to be protected.

 They perform their protective function by providing a low-impedance

path for the surge currents so that the surge arrester’s protective level is
less than the surge voltage withstanding capacity of the insulation of
equipment being protected.
 A lightning arrester’s protective level is the voltage appearing across the
terminals of the arrester at spark-over or during the flow of current
through the arrester after spark-over.
 The main purpose of lightning arresters is to divert or discharge the surge
to the ground.
 It is however, essential that the low-impedance path to ground must not
exist before the overvoltage appears and it must cease to exist
immediately after the voltage returns back to its normal value.
Earthing

The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of
electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a
star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to
earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing.

Earthing or Grounding may be classified as: (i) Equipment grounding (ii)

System grounding.

Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current carrying metal parts
of the electrical equipment.

Fig: Ungrounded enclosure

Fig: Ground wire connected to enclosure

If a person touches the metal enclosure, nothing will happen if the equipment is
functioning correctly. But if the winding insulation becomes faulty, the
resistance Re between the motor and enclosure drops to a low value (a few
hundred ohms or less). A person having a body resistance Rb would complete
the current path as shown in fig. If Re is small, the leakage current IL through the
person’s body could be dangerously high. As a result, the person would get
severe electric shock which may be fatal. To get rid of this problem, we install a
third wire, called ground wire, between the enclosure and the system ground as
shown in fig.
System grounding: The process of connecting some electrical part of the power
system (e.g. neutral point of a star connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called system grounding.

Fig (i) shows the primary winding of a distribution transformer connected

between the line and neutral of an 11 kV line. The secondary conductors are
ungrounded. Suppose that the high voltage line (11 kV in this case) touches the
230 V conductors as shown in Fig. (i), this could be caused by an internal fault
in the transformer or by a branch or tree falling across the 11 kV and 230 V
lines. Under these circumstances, a very high voltage is imposed between the
secondary conductors and ground. This would immediately puncture the 230V
insulation, causing a massive flashover. This flashover could occur anywhere on
the secondary network, possibly inside a home or factory.

Neutral Grounding: The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system

to earth (i.e. soil) either directly or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance,
reactance etc.) is called neutral grounding.

Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and equipment. It is because

during earth fault, the current path is completed through the earthed neutral and
the protective devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the faulty conductor
from the rest of the system.
Above fig shows a 3-phase, star-connected system with neutral earthed (i.e.
neutral point is connected to soil). Suppose a single line to ground fault occurs
in line R at point F, this will cause the current to flow through ground path as
shown in fig. The current flows from R phase to earth, then to neutral point N
and back to R-phase. Since the impedance of the current path is low, a large
current flows through this path. This large current will blow the fuse in R-phase
and isolate the faulty line R. This will protect the system from the harmful
effects (e.g. damage to equipment, electric shock to personnel etc.) of the fault.

Grounding Transformer: Sometimes we have to create a neutral point on a 3

phase, 3-wire system (e.g. delta connection etc.) to change it into 3-phase, 4
wire system. This can be done by means of a grounding transformer.

It is a core type transformer having three limbs built in the same fashion as that
of the power transformer. Each limb of the transformer has two identical
windings wound differentially (i.e. directions of current in the two windings on
each limb are opposite to each other) as shown in fig. Under normal operating
conditions, the total flux in each limb is negligibly small. Therefore, the
transformer draws very small magnetizing current.
If we connect a single-phase load between one line and neutral, the load current
I divide into three equal currents in each winding. Because the currents are
equal, the neutral point stays fixed and the line to neutral voltages remain
balanced as they would be on a regular 4-wire system. In practice, the single-
phase loads are distributed as evenly as possible between the three phases and
neutral so that unbalanced load current I is relatively small.

The impedance of grounding transformer is quite low. Therefore, when

line to earth fault occurs, the fault current will be quite high. The magnitude of
fault current is limited by inserting a resistance in the neutral circuit. Under
normal conditions, only iron losses will be continuously occurring in the
grounding transformer. However, in case of fault, the high fault current will also
produce copper losses in the transformer but for a small time interval.
Types of Earthing system:

There are different types of earthing system mostly used, which are

 Plate earthing: Either copper or galvanized iron plate is used in the

plate earthing system. This plate selected should of certain specified
dimensions, which is placed inside the earth at a depth less than 3 meters
from the bottom. This plate is connected to the electrical conductors to
divert the electric charge inside the earth.
 Pipe earthing: A galvanized iron pipe is used for pipe earthing. A pipe
should have holes pierced at regular intervals and the pipe is narrow at the
bottom end. A clamp is attached to the G.I pipe to which an earth wire is
connected. This pipe diverts the electrical conductance inside the earth.

Procedure for Plate Earthing:

 Earth pit: Excavate and make an earth pit of size 900 mm x 900 mm x
minimum 3.0 meter deep. Level the bottom surface.
 Plate electrode: Use GI plate of minimum size 600 Mm x 600 Mm x 6 mm
thickness. In case of a Copper plate, a minimum thickness of 3.15 mm can
be used.
 Earthing connection: Fix two numbers of 50 mm x 6 mm GI strips to GI
plate with GI nuts, bolts and washer with each strip fixed to GI plate at two
locations. Weld the GI strips to GI plate. Join the two strips at the top with a
 GI strip of the same size. Any loose earthing connection with the earth plate
will have an adverse effect on the electrode system resistivity.

 Water connection: Fix a 25 mm diameter GI pipe attached at the top with a

funnel covered with wire mesh. Water poured through this pipe will keep
the area surrounding the earth plate moistened.
 Backfill the excavated pit with soil free of stones and lumps.
 Inspection chamber: Construct brick chamber of size 450 x 450 x 450 mm
with 100 mm thick brick walls over a P.C.C. layer. Keep 100 mm of the
chamber above ground level. Cover the top with a cast iron (CI) cover.
 Follow the approved design and drawing for fixing and laying of earth wires
or GI/copper strips between the earth electrode and the electrical room.
Procedure for Pipe Earthing:

 Make a borehole of 500 mm diameter and 3.5 meters deep or as per the
approved design and drawing.
 Lower the Pipe electrode made of a 65 mm diameter GI perforated pipe of
3.0-meter length attached at the top with a funnel covered with wire mesh. A
G.I. strip is fixed to the electrode to act as an earthing connection. For rod
earthing, a copper rod of required diameter is used in place of the pipe.
 Fill the annular space between the electrode and borehole walls with
alternating layers of coke or charcoal and common salt.
 Inspection chamber: Construct brick chamber of size 450 x 450 x 450 mm
with 100 mm thick brick walls over a P.C.C. layer. Keep 100 mm of the
chamber above ground level. Cover the top with a cast iron (CI) cover.
 Follow the approved design and drawing for fixing and laying of earth wires
or GI/copper strips between the earth electrode and the electrical room.
Comparison between pipe and plate earthing:

 Plate earthing is costly compare to pipe earthing

 Plate earthing is more reliable and efficient
 Less maintenance cost involved in Pipe earthing

Reference:
1. “Principles of Power System” by [Link], Rohit Mehta, S Chand & Co Ltd, 2005
2. [Link]
 Module 5: Industrial Electrical Systems II

DG System

 Distributed generation (DG) refers to a variety of technologies that

generate electricity at or near where it will be used.
 Distributed generation (DG) is an electric power source connected directly
to the distribution network or on the customer site of the meter.
 Distributed generation may serve a single structure, such as a home or
business, or it may be part of a microgrid (a smaller grid that is also tied
into the larger electricity delivery system). When connected to the
electric utility’s lower voltage distribution lines, distributed generation
can help support delivery of clean, reliable power to additional
customers and reduce electricity losses along transmission and
distribution lines.
 Distributed generation can include resources such as:
 Solar photovoltaic panels
 Wind power generation
 Small hydropower
 Biomass combustion
 Municipal solid waste incineration
 Fuel cells fired by natural gas or biomass
 Reciprocating combustion engines, including backup generators,
which are may be fueled by oil

Definition of Micro-Grid: A micro-grid is defined as a group of interconnected loads and

distributed energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundary that act as a single
controllable entity with respect to the grid.

 A group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources means all DG

and storage devices
 Clearly defined electrical boundary means boundary of BCE Bhagalpur
  A single controllable entity with respect to the grid means point of common
coupling (one side conventional grid and other side micro-grid)
A micro-grid can be connected or disconnected from the grid to enable it to operate
from either disconnected or islanded mode thus preventing power outage. It may be
connected or disconnected from point of common coupling.

Components of Micro-Grid:
(1) Distributed Generator: is an electric power source connected directly to the
distribution network or on the customer side of the meter to fulfil the power
demand. This DG may be of any rating/size depending upon various factors. Also
it may be either conventional or non-conventional type of power source. Some of
the examples are Wind Power, Solar PV, Solar Thermal, Natural Gas, Bio Gas, Fuel
Cell, Combined Heat & Power, and Micro Turbine.
(2) Load Centre: the power generated from distributed generator shall be
distributed to the load centre for the utilization.
(3) Electric Power Storage: Microgrid can have storage as backup while operating
in stand-alone mode of operation. When there is renewable source of power,
excess power from renewable (after the load demand is fulfilled), can be stored
in batteries. This can then be used as backup when needed. Therefore, the
electric power storage in microgrid is able to improve the power quality,
flexibility and reliability by providing grid support functions. The electric power
storage system may be classified as Electrochemical: Battery (Lead Acid, Li-ion);
Electromagnetic: Super Capacitor, Super Conductor; Mechanical: Pumped
Hydro, Compressed Air, Flywheel; Chemical: Hydrogen, Synthetic Natural Gas;
and Thermal: Water Tank.
(4) Controller: Control unit is one of major component of microgrid. The flow of
power from generation to the load centers should be monitored, controlled and
managed properly. Even before, the generation of electric power must have
controller to maintain power quality (voltage, frequency and sin wave within
limit).
(5) Point of common coupling: A micro-grid can be connected or disconnected
from the grid to enable it to operate from either disconnected or islanded mode
thus preventing power outage. It may be connected or disconnected from point
of common coupling, which is basically a power electronic interface.
 The purpose of DG is to provide Active Power. According to the
definition, a DG is not able to provide only reactive power.
 If an energy source generating active power only……..may
only…….. be
considered as DG
 If an energy source generating active and reactive power
both……may
may be considered as DG
 If an energy source generating reactive power only…………..cannot
only………….. be
considered as DG

Classification based on rating of DG: DG may be classified as per their

ratings.

DG

Micro Small Medium Large

1 Watt to 5 kW to 5 5 MW to 50 MW to
5 kW MW 50 MW 300 MW

Classification from electrical point of view: This will help to study their
impact on the electric system. Different classifications can be obtained to
differentiate between DG types according to their electrical applications,
supply duration, generated power types, electric ratings and renewable and
non-renewable technologies. Several types of DG classification are
mentioned below:
(i) Standby: DG can be used as a standby to supply the required power
for sensitive loads, such as process industries and hospitals, during
grid outages.
(ii) Stand alone: Usually, isolated areas use DGs as a power provider
instead of connecting to the grid. These areas have geographical
obstacles, which make it expensive to be connected to the grid.
(iii) Peak load shaving: The electric power cost varies according to the
load demand curves and the corresponding available generation at
the same time. Hence, DGs can be used to supply some loads at peak
periods, which reduce the electricity cost for large industrial
customers who used to pay time-of-use rates (TOU).
(iv) Rural and remote applications: DG can provide the stand-alone
remote applications with the required power. These applications
include lighting, heating, cooling, communication, and small
industrial processes. Even more, DGs can support and regulate the
system voltage at rural applications (sensitive loads) connected to the
grid.
(v) Providing combined heat and power (CHP): DGs providing CHP as a
cogeneration has a high overall energy utilization efficiency. The
produced heat, from converting fuel into electric power process, is
used onsite for a wide range of applications in hospitals, large
commercial areas and process industries.
(vi) Base load: Utility owned-DGs are usually used as a base load to
provide part of the main required power and support the grid by
enhancing the system voltage profile, reducing the power losses and
improving the system power quality.

Classification according to type of fuel used: DG classification can be

done according to the type of the fuel used. It can be either fossil or non-
fossil fuel. But this type of classification is not very much popular as the
main concern is technology used not the fuel.
 DG

Non-Fossil
Fossil Fuels
Fuels
Technology
Technology

Micro Storage Renewable

Fuel Cell
turbine Device Device

(i) Micro-turbine (MT): They are small capacity combustion turbines,

which can operate using natural gas, propane, and fuel oil. In a simple
form, they consist of a compressor, combustor, recuperator, small
turbine, and generator. They can be installed on-site
on site especially if
there are space limitations. Also they are compact in size and light in
weight with respect to traditional combustion engines.
(ii) Fuel Cell (FC): The fuel cell is a device used to generate electric
power and provide thermal energy from chemical energy through
electrochemical processes. It can be considered as a battery
supplying electric energy
energy. FC capacities vary from kW to MW for
portable and stationary
tionary units.
units
(iii) Storage devices: It consists of batteries, flywheels, and other devices,
which are charged during low load demand and used when required.
It is usually combined with other kinds of DG types to supply the
required peak load demand.
(iv) Renewable Devices:
(a)) Photovoltaic (PV)-
(PV) The basic unit of PV is a cell made of doped
silicon crystal. Cells are connected to form a module or panel and
modules are connected to form an array to generate the required
power. Cells absorb solar energy from the sunlight, where the light
photons forcece cell electrons to flow, and convert it to dc electricity.
Practically, each cell provides 2 2–44 A according to its size with an
output voltage of 0.5 V. Normally an array, cells connected in series,
provides 12 V to charge batteries.
(b) Wind-turbines
turbines (WT)-
(WT A WT consists of a rotor, turbine blades,
generator, drive or coupling device, shaft, and the nacelle (the turbine
head) that contains the gearbox and the generator drive. Modern
wind turbines can provide clean electricity as individuals or as wind
farms.
s. Wind turbine blades usually are two or three blades each
 nearly 10–30 m long. The wind rotates the windmill-like blades,
which in turn rotate their attached shaft. This shaft operates a pump
or a generator that produces electricity.
 Benefits of Distributed Generation (DG):
 DGs can provide the required local load increases by installing them in certain
locations so they can reduce T&D lines.
 They can be installed in a very short period at any location.
 The total capacity can be increased or decreased by adding or removing more
modules, respectively
 DGs are not restricted by the centralization of the power as they can be placed
anywhere. Thus, DG location flexibility has a great effect on energy prices.
 DGs increase the system equipment’s, transformer’s lifetimes, and provide fuel
savings.
 DGs have a positive impact on the distribution system voltage profile and power
quality problems.
 DGs can help in “peak load shaving” and load management programs.
 They can help in system continuity and reliability, as there are many generation
spots not only one centralized large generation. Especially in the case of end-user
customers with low reliability since when combined with DGs there will be new
customer classifications between high need for reliability with high service cost
and others with less service cost and relatively lower reliability.
 DGs can be used as on-site standby to supply electricity in case of emergency and
system outages (provide local reliability).
 DG’s capacities vary from micro to large size so they can be installed on medium
and/or low voltage distribution network which give flexibility for sizing and
sitting of DGs into the distribution network.
 With regard to, environment and society, renewable DGs eliminate or reduce the
output process emission.
Diesel Power Station/DG Set
A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation
of electrical energy is known as diesel power station/DG Set.
In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns
inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the “working fluid” to
produce mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to
high price of diesel, therefore, such power stations are only used to produce small
power.
Although steam power stations and hydro-electric plants are invariably used to
generate bulk power at cheaper cost, yet diesel power stations are finding favor at
places where demand of power is less, sufficient quantity of coal and water is not
available and the transportation facilities are inadequate. These plants are also used as
standby sets for continuity of supply to important points such as hospitals, radio
stations, cinema houses and telephone exchanges.
Advantages
(i) The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
(ii) It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries is small.
(iii) It can be located at any place.
(iv) It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time.
(v) There are no standby losses.
(vi) It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
(vii) The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of the same
capacity.
(viii) The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a steam power station.
(ix) It requires less operating staff.
Disadvantages
(i) The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel) used is costly.
(ii) The plant does not work satisfactorily under overload conditions for a longer
period.
(iii) The plant can only generate small power.
(iv) The cost of lubrication is generally high.
(v) The maintenance charges are generally high.
Schematic Arrangement of Diesel Power Station:
A schematic arrangement of a typical diesel power station is shown below. Apart from
the diesel-generator set, the plant has the following auxiliaries:
(i) Fuel supply system: It consists of storage tank, strainers, fuel transfer pump and
all day fuel tank. The fuel oil is supplied at the plant site by rail or road. This oil is
stored in the storage tank. From the storage tank, oil is pumped to smaller all day
tank at daily or short intervals. From this tank, fuel oil is passed through strainers to
remove suspended impurities. The clean oil is injected into the engine by fuel
injection pump.
(ii) Air intake system: This system supplies necessary air to the engine for fuel
combustion. It consists of pipes for the supply of fresh air to the engine manifold.
Filters are provided to remove dust particles from air which may act as abrasive in
the engine cylinder.
(iii) Exhaust system: This system leads the engine exhaust gas outside the building
and discharges it into atmosphere. A silencer is usually incorporated in the system to
reduce the noise level.

(iv) Cooling system: The heat released by the burning of fuel in the engine cylinder is
partially converted into work. The remainder part of the heat passes through the
cylinder walls, piston, rings etc. and may cause damage to the system. In order to keep
the temperature of the engine parts within the safe operating limits, cooling is provided.
The cooling system consists of a water source, pump and cooling towers. The pump
circulates water through cylinder and head jacket. The water takes away heat form the
engine and itself becomes hot. The hot water is cooled by cooling towers and is
recirculated for cooling.
(v) Lubricating system: This system minimizes the wear of rubbing surfaces of the
engine. It comprises of lubricating oil tank, pump, filter and oil cooler. The lubricating oil
is drawn from the lubricating oil tank by the pump and is passed through filters to
remove impurities. The clean lubricating oil is delivered to the points which require
lubrication. The oil coolers incorporated in the system keep the temperature of the oil
low.
(vi) Engine starting system: This is an arrangement to rotate the engine initially, while
starting, until firing starts and the unit runs with its own power. Small sets are started
manually by handles but for larger units, compressed air is used for starting. In the
latter case, air at high pressure is admitted to a few of the cylinders, making them to act
as reciprocating air motors to turn over the engine shaft. The fuel is admitted to the
remaining cylinders which makes the engine to start under its own power.

(vii) Alternator: Alternator is salient pole type synchronous generator, self excited and
self regulated by an excitation unit. The excitation unit consists of choke, CT, diodes and
condenser. Voltage is adjustable to within 2.5% of the nominal voltage from no-load to
full load at rated pf. The choke is meant for adjusting the terminal voltage at no load. The
CT is meant for adjusting the terminal voltage at load condition.
Sizing of a DG Set
(a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP /
kVA should be added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG
set can be found out.

Example :
Connected Load = 650 kW
Diversity Factor = 0.54
(Demand / connected load)
Max. Demand = 650 x 0.54 = 350 kW
% Loading = 70
Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW
At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA

(b) For an existing installation, record the current, voltage and power factors (kWh /
kVAh) reading at the main bus-bar of the system at every half-an-hour interval for a
period of 2–3 days and during this period the factory should be having its normal
operations. The non-essential loads should be switched off to find the realistic current
taken for running essential equipment. This will give a fair idea about the current taken
from which the rating of the set can be calculated.

Example: For existing installation:

kVA = √3 V I
kVA Rating = kVA / Load Factor
where Load factor = Average kVA / Maximum kVA

(c) For a new installation, an approximate method of estimating the capacity of a DG set
is to add full load currents of all the proposed loads to be run in DG set. Then, applying a
diversity factor depending on the industry, process involved and guidelines obtained
from other similar units, correct capacity can be arrived at.

Reference:
1. Distributed generation: a definition, Thomas Ackermann, Goran Andersson,
Lennart Soder, Electric Power Systems Research 57 (2001) 195–204, 05
December 2000
2. “Principles of Power System” by [Link], Rohit Mehta, S Chand & Co Ltd, 2005
3. [Link]
UPS & Battery System
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is defined as a piece of electrical
equipment which can be used as an immediate power source to the
connected load when there is any failure in the main input power source.
So, the prime role of UPS is to supply power for a short time when there is
any failure in main power source.
Types of UPS
(i) Standby UPS/Offline UPS
(ii) Hybrid/ Ferroresonant UPS
(iii) Line Interactive UPS
(iv) Online UPS

Offline UPS Online UPS

(i) Standby UPS/Offline UPS: It is the most common type of UPS system used
on a day to day basis for our personal and office computers.
Design: Here, the primary source is the filtered AC mains. The input line
voltage is routed through a surge suppressor, filter, and transfer switch
before finally being routed to the output of the UPS device.

Fig. 1- Simplified block diagram of the Standby UPS

The filter is designed to smooth out any noise present in the line that may
be coming from the AC source, while the inverter on the standby side takes
care of any noise experienced while the battery is powering the output.
When the output of the device is not completely isolated from the input line
voltage, there is a need to protect the output equipment from current
spikes that can occur on the input line. This is done with the help of surge
suppressor, which is a highly inductive component. The inductors will
resist any sudden changes in current that occur during spikes.
The battery will supply voltage to inverter circuit when needed to create
the AC output voltage. In order to charge the battery we are using battery
charger.
Working: When the power breakage occurs, the transfer switch will select
the backup source. The stand by system will start working only when there
is any failure in mains. In this system, the AC voltage is first rectified and
stored in the storage battery connected to the rectifier. When power
breakage occurs, this DC voltage is converted to AC voltage by means of a
power inverter, and is transferred to the load connected to it.
The benefits of this design are in its simplicity. The battery only starts
(within a few milliseconds) when the power fails; therefore the Standby
UPS has a very high efficiency, small size and low cost.
(ii) Hybrid/ Ferroresonant UPS: Hybrid UPS is an improvement on the design
of the standby UPS. Similar to the case of standby UPS, in case of hybrid UPS
the primary power source is line power from the utility and the secondary
power source is the battery. The battery and inverter are still waiting "on
standby" until needed. The big difference is that the standby UPS's transfers
switch that selects between power sources has been replaced by a
ferroresonant transformer.
A ferroresonant transformer has three windings. Two are inputs, and one is
an output. This allows the transformer to act as a switch. Initially, the
primary power is supplied through upper input winding of the transformer
to the output. During this time the core of the ferroresonant transformer
stores energy in its magnetic field and this acts a buffer in the event that the
primary power cuts off and the connection switched to secondary power
source through lower input winding.
 Fig. 2- Ferroresonant UPS simplified schematic
The benefit of such UPS is that they are usually available in a size range of
up to about 15,000 VA, making them suitable for even the largest servers.
But now a day, this particular design is in less use.
(iii) Line Interactive UPS: It uses a totally different design than any type of
stand-by UPS. In this UPS the internal components are replaced by an
inverter/converter assembly.
Working: The inverter/converter receives the line voltage and then
conditions it for output. The device also delivers a DC charging voltage to
the battery of the UPS. In the event of a power failure the battery will then
begin to discharge through the inverter/converter where the DC voltage
will be inverted to an AC signal for output to the connected device.
The main advantage of this type of unit is that the inverter/converter is
continuously tied to the output. This will decrease the amount of time it
takes to switch in the event of a power failure i.e the time taken during
switching is significantly less than the time taken by back-up style UPS
units. For small business and departmental servers and webs, line
interactive UPS is used. This line interactive UPS is better than the standby
type, but is does however still have some transitioning times that will
elapse when the line input power fails. This is the only drawback to the line
interactive UPS.

Fig. 3- Line Interactive UPS

(iv) Online UPS: This type of uninterruptible power supply in also
sometimes referred to as a "true" UPS and is the most costly type of UPS. Its
internal components are similar to the standby UPS, but the way in which
they are used is much different.
Working: The online power supply gets its name from the fact that the
input line power is not connected to the output during normal operation.
Here, the input power first goes through an AC to DC converter where the
DC voltage is used to charge the UPS' main battery. Then, the battery is
discharged through a DC to AC inverter and routed through a transfer
switch for the output voltage. This process can be referred to as a double
conversion of the input power. Figure 4 is a simplified block diagram of the
online UPS.

Fig. 4- Simplified block diagram of Online UPS

The online UPS will only use the line input as output when battery charger,
battery or inverter fail. In this case the line voltage will go through a surge
suppressor and filter before reaching the output of the device.
The major advantage of this type of UPS is the total isolation between the
input line voltage and the output voltage. A second, but no less important
advantage, is the switching time when the input line power fails. In this
case, the switching time is non-existent. The only component that fails
during the outage is the charger for the battery. This allows there to be zero
interruption when a power failure occurs.
A draw back to the online UPS is that the large amount of power is consumed
in this double conversion process. This power consumption is given off as
heat and greatly affects the efficiency of the unit. The double conversion is
also occurring constantly. Therefore, the reliability of components like the
charger (AC to DC), the inverter (DC to AC), and the battery used have to be
of a higher quality. This drives the cost of these types of units very high
compared to the lower quality back-up UPS.
SUB-COMPONENTS OF UPS:
A. Surge Suppressor: The surge suppressor is an important component in the
UPS. When the output of the device is not completely isolated from the
input line voltage there is a need to protect the output equipment from
current spikes that can occur on the input line. This surge suppression is
usually done by placing large inductors on the input voltage lines. The
inductors will resist any sudden changes in current that occur during
spikes. This will in turn help to reduce the chance for any damage to the
connected equipment.
B. Line Filter: The line filter usually comes after the surge suppressor in the
input line power circuit. This filter is designed to remove any noise that
may be getting introduced from the input power supply line. The filter is
designed with inductors, resistors, and capacitors in a "tuned" design to
allow passing the voltage having only the 50 Hz frequency by removing any
unwanted higher or lowering harmonic frequencies.
C. Battery: The battery is a key element of the UPS device. The battery will
supply voltage to inverter circuit when needed to create the AC output
voltage. Some UPS systems contain only a single battery while others have
multiple batteries. There are some large UPS systems which have external
cabinets dedicated to housing the large batteries required to generate the
output AC power in case of line failures.

Fig 5: (a) 12V, 18AH, VRLA Gel Type Battery (b) Battery Bank

Most commonly used batteries (at home for UPS) are usually of the sealed
lead acid or gel cell type which prevents spilling of any dangerous and
harmful chemicals from inside the battery into the UPS device itself. If the
acids from inside the battery leaked out into the device cabinet they would
destroy the electronic components inside the system rendering it useless.
Other than the internal make up of the battery they can differ in two other
ways.
 The first is the actual physical size of the battery. Most are shaped like
the battery in figure 5 above, but the dimensions of length, width, and
height can be almost any combination.
 Another key specification of the battery is its current capacity. This is
usually rated in milliamp-hours/amp-hours. The amp hour rating tells
the amount of current the battery will supply in an hour. Example: If
the current capacity of a battery is 20 amp hour and the load is drawing
0.5 amps then this battery is able to supply its rated voltage to the load
for 40 hours.

Battery Types and Classifications:

Electrical storage batteries can be divided into two major categories,
primary and secondary batteries.
Primary Batteries: Primary batteries are non-rechargeable but they can
store and deliver electrical energy. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium
batteries are commonly used as primary battery. Primary batteries are not
used in PV systems because they cannot be recharged.
Secondary Batteries: Secondary batteries are rechargeable and they can
store and deliver electrical energy. Common lead-acid batteries used in
automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries.
The batteries can be selected based on their design and performance
characteristics. Some of the important parameters to be considered for the
selection of battery are lifetime, deep cycle performance, tolerance to high
temperatures and overcharge, maintenance and many others.
Different manufacturers have variations in their battery construction, but
some common construction features can be described for almost all
batteries. Batteries are generally produced in mass; it consists of several
sequential and parallel processes to construct a complete battery unit. The
manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use of
hazardous and toxic materials. After production, initial charge and
discharge cycles are conducted on batteries before they are shipped to
distributors and consumers.
D. Battery Charger: With the exception of the online UPS, an uninterruptible
power supply cannot run on its battery power indefinitely. The amount of
time it can run depends on the load connected to it and the current capacity
of the battery. When the line power comes back on, the amount of power
that has been depleted (discharged) from the battery has to be restored.
To restore the power a battery charger is used. The charger is essentially an
AC to DC converter. It will receive an AC input voltage and rectify it to a DC
current. This can be done in many different ways. The most efficient way to
rectify an AC signal to DC is the use of the full wave rectifier or bridge
rectifier.
When the AC source output current
is positive, the diode Dl and D2
conduct, creating a positive output
across the resistor RL. When the AC
source output current is negative,
diodes Dl and D2 no longer conduct,
but diodes D3 and D4 begin to
conduct and then fully turn on. When
this happens the current direction
through RL stays the same keeping
the output voltage positive. This
causes the output of the circuit to be
a purely DC output. Fig 6: A bridge or full wave rectifier

Three stages of the battery charging is: (i) Normal or Bulk stage (ii)
Absorption/Equalization stage and (iii) Float stage.
Bulk/ Normal stage: It is the initial portion of a charging cycle performed
at any charge rate and it involves 80 % state of charge, hence called bulk
stage of charging. In this case the charger current is held constant (in a
constant current charger), and voltage increases. The properly sized
charger will give the battery as much current as it will accept up to charger
capacity.
Absorption/Equalization stage: The absorption/equalization has the
charger holding the voltage and decreasing the current until the battery is
charged nearly up to 95-97%. The portion of charging cycle covered in this
stage is called “cool-down” cycle.
Float Stage: The float stage is where the charge voltage is reduced and held
constant, while the current is reduced to less than 1% of battery capacity
(i.e supplying steady current). This mode can be used to maintain a fully
charged battery indefinitely. At that time, the charger will continue to
monitor the battery and apply a charge if it detects any loss.

Battery Discharging
Depth of Discharge (DOD): It is defined as the percentage of capacity that
has been withdrawn from a battery compared to the total fully charged
capacity. OR, Depth of Discharge is defined as the total amount of energy
that is discharged from a battery, divided by the battery nominal capacity.
Depth of discharge is normally expressed as a percentage.
Example: If a 90 Ah battery is discharged for 20 minute at a constant
current of 50 A, then find the value of depth of discharge.
Ans: DoD = (50 amps * (20 mins / 60 mins) / 90Ah
= (50A * 0.33333h)) / 90Ah
= 16.67Ah / 90Ah = 0.18522 can be written as 18.522%
State of Charge (SOC): The state of charge (SOC) is defined as the amount
of energy as a percentage of the energy stored in a fully charged battery.
Discharging a battery results in a decrease in state of charge, while charging
results in an increase in state of charge. Ex: If a battery that has had three
quarters of its capacity removed, or been discharged 75 %, is said to be at
25 % state of charge.

Self-Discharge Rate: In open-circuit mode without any charge or

discharge current, a battery undergoes a reduction in state of charge, due to
internal mechanisms and losses within the battery. Different battery types
have different self discharge rates, the most significant factor being the
active materials and grid alloying elements used in the design.
Temperature Effects: As the temperature increases by 100C, the rate of an
electrochemical reaction doubles and hence battery life decreases by a
factor of two. Higher operating temperatures accelerate corrosion of the
positive plate grids, resulting in electrolyte loss hence battery life
decreases.
E. Inverter: The inverter section of the UPS is conversion device that will
convert a DC signal to an AC signal. It takes the DC power supplied by the
battery and converts it to a usable AC power for the component.
In figure 7 a single phase bridge inverter is shown. VS is the battery voltage
of the UPS. To allow a positive output voltage on the load both switches Q 1
and Q2 must be on. When the voltage and current is driven negative,
switches Q1 and Q2 must turn off and switches Q3 and Q4 must turn on. This
process would be repeated at a frequency of 50 Hz. The diodes in the
inverter circuit are freewheeling diodes used to prevent voltage spikes
during the transitioning time of the switches.

Fig. 7- Single phase bridge inverter

All uninterruptible power supplies have an inverter/ converter at some
point. When high power devices are connected to the output a three phase
inverter could be used. The three phase inverter is basically three single
phase inverters connected in parallel to form the configuration of a three
phase inverter.
To obtain the desired three phases, the gate signals should be advanced
delayed 120 degrees to obtain a balanced three phase inverter. With the
three single phase inverters connected in parallel, there will be six
transistors and six diodes. Only two transistor switches will be on at any
one time.
There are six modes of operations in a cycle and each mode is 60 degrees.
This allows there to be three separate phase outputs. When switches Q1 and
Q6 are on there is a positive voltage developed across nodes a and b. To
transition from a positive to negative voltage across node a and b Q1 and Q6
must turn off and then Q4 and Q3 would turn on.

Fig. 8- Three phase bridge inverter

To complete the remaining two sets of phase voltages across nodes b and c
as well as nodes a and c we will turn on the following switches. Switches Q 3
and Q2 will be on for a positive voltage across node b and c, then switches
Q6 and Q5 for a negative voltage across node b and c. Finally, to obtain a
positive voltage across nodes a and c switches Ql and Q2 will be on, and to
develop a negative voltage across these same two nodes switches Q4 and Q5
need to be on.
Example: The a.c. load for a remote home is 2200 Wh/day. A PV system
with battery storage is considered for powering this home. If the inverter
efficiency is taken as 85%, coulomb efficiency is taken as 80%, PV de-rating
is 90% (10% losses due to dirt and temperature) and system voltage is 24
V. Calculate the size of batteries for maximum 5 days of storage if a 12V
battery with 100Ah is considered.
Answer:
d.c. load input to inverter 2200 Wh / 0.85 = 2588 Wh d.c
Battery storage capacity (Wh) = [total daily load demand × No. of no sun
days] / ηCoulomb = [2588 x 5] / 0.8 = 16175 wh
Since 12V battery @ 100Ah is considered and the system voltage is 24V, 2
batteries will be in series.
Ah for battery is = 16175 wh / 24 V = 674 Ah
Number of parallel strings is = 674 Ah / 100 Ah = 6.74 i.e 7 parallel string
Altogether there are 2 batteries in series with 7 parallel strings = 14
batteries in total.
Selection and Sizing of UPS Batteries
The techniques and application considerations used to determine a battery
size are described below:
(i) Operating considerations: The UPS maintains a constant ac output
voltage for a constant load and hence the required power (in kilowatts) is
constant. When the battery is supplying DC power to the system, the DC
input voltage to the inverter stage of the UPS decreases slowly as the active
materials in the battery are converted to the discharged state. To maintain
a constant power output, the discharge current increases accordingly.
Based on operating condition two types of batteries are available- Long
duration, low-discharge rate batteries and High-rate, short-duration
batteries. Long-duration, low-discharge rate batteries are rated in ampere
hours. For example, an 800 AH lead-acid, 8 h battery that can supply 100 A
continuously for 8 h or a 640 AH battery may supply 160 A continuously for
4 h. High-rate, short-duration batteries sometimes do not have specified
ampere hour rating. Many manufacturers now provide UPS battery sizing
charts with kilowatt/discharge time parameters.
(ii) Design and aging margins: The size/capacity of UPS battery is
generally chosen to accommodate the full load capacity of the UPS. The
installed battery capacity should be adjusted so that the battery is capable
of supporting the full UPS load at the end of the battery life.
For example, a lead-acid battery has reached the end of its life when the
available capacity drops to 80% of rated value. Therefore, to ensure that
the battery will support the fully loaded UPS for the entire battery life
interval, battery size should be increased by a 25% margin.
(iii) Voltage window design: The UPS voltage window determines the
voltage range over which the battery is allowed to operate. The maximum
allowable voltage of the UPS and other connected loads is the maximum
voltage that may be applied to the battery. This voltage is generally used for
high-rate charging (also called equalizing or boost charging). This allows
for more rapid recharge after a discharge. The minimum allowable system
voltage determines the final voltage to which the battery may be
discharged.
In general, it is more economical to select the number of cells in the battery
that gives the lowest possible end-of-discharge voltage, provided that the
battery may be charged in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations within the maximum voltage limit for the system.
(iv) UPS charging limitations: For charging battery we convert AC into DC
using rectifier. So, when calculating the battery size the user should
consider the battery charging capability of the rectifier and the charge
acceptance capability of the battery. The UPS system should minimize the
discharge cycles imposed on the battery, because higher discharge of
battery due to load changes will demand more charging capability so the
required rectifier output will be high. In addition, the rating of rectifier
should be selected so that it will meet the full system load and system loss.
(v) Specific considerations: Lead acid battery
Initial capacity: Batteries may have less than rated capacity when
delivered. Its initial capacity can be as low as 90% of rated capacity. This
will rise to rated capacity in normal service after several discharge cycles or
after several years of operation.
Specific Gravity: Battery performance increase with the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. Cells designed with lower specific gravity electrolyte would
have the least performance capability, but have the longest design life and
require the lowest float voltage, whereas identical cells designed with
higher specific gravity electrolyte would have the greatest performance
capability, but exhibit shorter design life and require a higher float voltage.
The user should determine which of these factors is most critical to the
required application.
Temperature: Operating batteries at temperatures below 25 °C decreases
performance. The temperature derating factors apply to the discharge rate
and not the discharge time. For example, a temperature derating factor of
1.11 for a certain cell type at 15.6 °C indicates that battery performance is
approximately 10% less than at 25 °C. If this battery can supply, say, 100
kW for 15 min at 25 °C, it will be capable of delivering 90 kW for 15 min at
15.6 °C.
(vi) Warranty considerations: Since the warranties vary widely among
manufacturers, the warranty deserves careful consideration when selecting
a battery. In evaluating a warranty the following items should be
considered:
 Full replacement period
 Installation costs
 Warranty start date
 Defective battery disposal
 Claim
Battery Sizing:
Manufacturers provide sizing information for their batteries. Generally this
information assumes a room temperature of 250C. Batteries which will be
operated at different temperatures continuously should be calculated
specifically for that temperature. Batteries are generally sized using; Watts
per cell method or Ampere per cell method.

Watts per cell method

Normally information supplied for lead acid batteries designed for short
discharge times (5-120 minutes) is in the form of kilowatts per cell
tabulated for various backup times.
The required Watts per cell are given by:
𝐴ampere = ( ×𝑝𝑓) / (×𝑁) + 𝐴1
Where:
VA = VA of the load
pf = power factor
η = efficiency of the UPS
N = Number of cells
A1 = any additional load connected to the batteries (in VA)

Amperes per cell method

Long term discharge lead acid batteries and most nickel cadmium batteries
are sized using charts expressed in available amps for specified periods of
time.
The required Amperes per cell is:
𝐴ampere = ( ×𝑝𝑓) / (×Vdc) + 𝐴1
Where:
VA = VA of the load
pf = power factor
η = efficiency of the UPS inverter (dc to ac)
Vdc = Average Discharge Voltage
A1 = any addition load connected to the batteries (in A)
Reference:
1. “An Overview of Uninterruptible Power Supplies” Matthew S. Racine', James D.
Parham2, and M. H. Rashid, Ph. D. Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering University of West Florida.
2. IEEE Guide for the Selection and Sizing of Batteries for Uninterruptible Power
Systems, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 345 East 47th
Street, New York, NY 10017-2394, USA
3. “Principles of Power System” by [Link], Rohit Mehta, S Chand & Co Ltd, 2005
4. [Link]
 Unit-5- Industrial Electrical Systems-II
Elevators
An elevator can be defined as an electric lift which is used as vertical
transportation of goods as well as people among the floors in buildings
using bins otherwise silos. These are activated with the electrical motors
that also to drive counterweight system cables for drive transaction. These
are used in many areas like agriculture, manufacturing, multistory
constructions etc.
Parts of Elevator and Its Function:
The elevator can be constructed with various elevator Components or
elevator parts that mainly include speed controlling system, electric
motor, rails, cabin, shaft, doors (manual and automatic), drive unit, buffers,
and safety device.
Speed Governors: The speed regulating system of elevators is known as
the speed governor. If the elevator runs more than the speed limit, the
speed governor controls the speed. It is usually attached to the bottom of
the car and is also known as governor rope.
Electric Motor: In case the lift faces any serious condition, Electric Motors
help in preventing it and provide a smooth functioning of lifts.
Elevator Rails: Sliding up and down in the elevators is possible with the
proper functioning of Elevator Rails.
Cabin: This is the main part of Elevator which is designed for the shipment
of goods and services or the passage of persons.
Elevator Shaft: Lift cabin moves in this space. Depending upon the type of
elevator, the location of the shaft can be varied.
Doors: As normal doors, elevator doors are also meant for entry and exit.
Elevator door is of two types: Manual doors and Automatic doors.
Drive unit: Everything that works under electricity must have a motor
attached for the functioning. Drive unit is the part which contains a motor
that drives the lift.
Buffers: The buffer is an apparatus located at the bottom of elevator
designed to protect people. Buffers can stop a descending car by
accumulating or dissipating the kinetic energy of the car.
Safety device: This is a mechanical device attached to the elevator for
safety reasons. In case the lift travels downward with a maximum speed or
over the speed limit, safety device can maintain a safety and secure
traveling.

Fig: Geared Traction System

Working Principle:
The working principle of an elevator or lift is similar to the pulley
system. A pulley system is used to draw the water from the well. This
pulley system can be designed with a bucket, a rope with a wheel. A bucket
is connected to a rope that passes throughout a wheel. This can make it
very easy to draw the water from the well. Similarly, present elevators use
the same concept. But the main difference between these two are; pulley
systems are operated manually whereas an elevator uses sophisticated
mechanisms for handling the elevator’s load.
Basically, an elevator is a metal box in different shapes which is connected
to a very tough metal rope. The tough metal rope passes through a sheave
on the elevator in the engine room. Here a sheave is like a wheel in pulley
system for clutching the metal rope strongly. This system can be operated
by a motor. When the switch is turned ON, the motor can be activated when
the elevator goes up and down or stops.

Elevator Machine and Drive System

Driving machine, this is the power unit of the elevator, and usually located
at the elevator machine room. The Driving machine used to refer to the
collection of components that raise or lower the elevator. These include the
drive motor, brake, speed reduction unit, sheaves and encoders.
Types of Driving Machines: Generally, there are two standard types of
driving machines provided for elevators. These are
1. Gearless Machine
2. Geared Machine
Gearless Machine:
 Generally, Gearless machines are used for high speed lifts between 2.5
m/s to 10 m/s and they can be also used for lower speeds for special
applications.
 Their sizes and shapes vary with load, speed and manufacture but the
underlying principles and components are the same.
 It is used in high rise applications where the drive motor and drive
sheave are connected in line on a common shaft, without any
mechanical speed reduction unit located between the drive motor and
drive sheave.
Geared Machine:
 It used in low and mid rise applications. This design utilizes a
mechanical speed reduction gear set to reduce the rpm of the drive
motor (input speed) to suit the required speed of the drive sheave and
elevator (output speed).
 Generally, geared machines are used for speeds between 0.1 m/s and
2.5 m/s and are suitable for loads from 5 Kg up to 50,000 Kg and above.
 Their sizes and shapes vary with load, speed and manufacture but the
underlying principles and components are the same.
Main Component of Machine Drive System:
Electrical Motor: Electrical Motor is used to raise and lower the elevator
cab, the direction of motor rotation and speed (revolutions per minute) are
directed and supervised by devices located within the elevator controller,
The motor component of the elevator machine can be either a DC motor or
an AC motor as follows:

(i) DC motor: Direct current motors use carbon brushes to control or

regulate the operational speed of its motor. It is an important maintenance
task to regularly inspect, repair and replace these brushes. Failure to do so
in a timely fashion can result in equipment miss-operation and lead to
significant motor damage. The advantages of use DC motors are as follows:
 Has a good starting torque.
 Ease of speed control using a DC generator with a variable output
or static converters.
 The elevator motor not only raises or lowers the load but one of its
principle duties is to accelerate or decelerate the car rapidly without
any jerk. So, the starting torque should be at least 2.25 times of the
rated full load torque. Motor having more than 15% speed variation
from no load to full load are not recommended for the use.
 Compound wound motors are used for heavy duty work like freight
services because series winding provide high starting torque.
 Compound wound or shunt wound motor are used for passenger
services.

(ii) AC motor: The advantages of use AC motors are as follows:

 More regularly used because of its ruggedness and simplicity.
 More ride quality.
Two general type of AC motor suitable for elevator purposes are-
(a) Squirrel cage motor
(b) Slip ring motor
 Squirrel cage motor is used extensively upto 20 HP because of its
simplicity and requires relatively a simple control unit.
 The power consumption of squirrel cage motor is slightly higher than
slip ring type motor but due to lack of slip ring motor and its control
parts, Squirrel cage motor is more reliable.
 The slip ring motor of same rating is more expensive and having lower
power factor than Squirrel cage motor. AC motor of low speed type is
available and can be used if speed is more than 400ft per minute.
Types of Electrical Traction Drive Systems: Generally, the electrical
traction drive can be grouped into several categories based on the motor
type and its control as follows:

(i) Geared traction control, which includes:

 Single speed AC motor.
 Two speed AC motor.
 Variable voltage AC motor (VVAC).
 Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor (VVVFAC).
 Variable voltage DC motor (VVDC).

(ii) Gearless traction drives, which include:

 Variable voltage DC motor (VVDC).
 Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor (VVVFAC).
 Module 6: Industrial Electrical Systems Automation
Study of basic PLC, Role of PLC in automation, advantages of process automation,
PLC based control system design, Panel Metering and Introduction to SCADA system
for distribution automation.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a microcomputer-based controller that

uses instructions stored in programmable memory to implement logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic functions through digital or analog
modules, for controlling machines and processes.

A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial computer control

system that continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes
decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output devices.

In other words, PLC is industrial computer used to control different electro

mechanical processes for use in manufacturing, plants, or other automation
environments.

Actually, before the development of microprocessors (i.e before 1980’s),

industrial logic and sequence control used to be performed using control panels
containing electromechanical or solid-state relays, contactors and switches,
indicator lamps, mechanical or electronic timers and counters etc., all hardwired
by complex and elaborate wiring. In fact, for many applications such control
panels are used even today. However, the development of microprocessors
quickly led to the development of the PLCs.

PLCs are widely used in a variety of industries because they’re fast, easy to
operate and are considered easy to program. PLCs can be programmed in
several ways, from ladder logic, which is based on electromechanical relays, to
specially adapted programming languages of BASIC and C. Most PLCs today
use one of the following 5 programming languages: Ladder Diagram, Structured
Text, Function Block Diagram, Instruction List, or Sequential Function Charts.

PLC act as the physical interfaces between device on the plant or manufacturing
floor and a SCADA system. PLCs communicate, monitor and control automated
processes like assembly lines, machine functions, or robotic devices.

Significant advantages of PLC over conventional control panels are-

 Programming the PLC is easier than wiring physical components; the only
wiring required is that of connecting the I/O terminals.
  The PLC can be reprogrammed using user-friendly programming devices.
Controls must be physically rewired.
 PLCs take up much less space.
 Installation and maintenance of PLCs is easier, and in present day reliability
is grater compared with solid-state technology.
 The PLC can be connected to a distributed plant automation system,
supervised and monitored.
 Ability of PLCs to accept digital data in serial, parallel and network modes
imply a drastic reduction in plant sensor and actuator wirings, since single
cable runs to remote terminal I/O units can be made. Wiring only need to be
made locally from that point

Comparing Logic and Sequence Control with Analog Control

The salient points of difference between Analog Control and Logic/Sequence

control are presented in the table below:
Issue Logic/Sequence Control Analog Control
Model Logical Numerical
State-Transition Differential/ Difference Eqn.
Simple Model/ Easy to build Complex Model/ Hard to build
Infrequent Liable to change
Signal Signal range/status Signal value
Temporal
(Timed) sequence (Timed)Function/Trajectory
Property
Control On-off/logical linear/non linear analog
Redesign/ Supervisory automatic
Tuning Open/Closed Loop Open/Closed Loop
Infrequent Tuning needed

Application of PLC:

Programmable Logic Controllers are suitable for a variety of automation tasks.

They provide a simple and economic solution to many automation tasks such as

 Logic/Sequence control
 PID control and computing
 Coordination and communication
 Operator control and monitoring
 Plant start-up, shut-down

PLC is suitable for any manufacturing application that involves controlling

repetitive, discrete operations e.g. machine tool, automatic assembly equipment,
molding and extrusion machinery, textile machinery and automatic test
equipment. Some Industrial Areas for use of PLC are-
 Chemical/ Petrochemical Metals Manufacturing/Machining
Batch process Blast Furnace Material Conveyors, Cranes
Pipeline Control Continuous Casting Assembly
Weighing, Mixing Rolling Mills Milling, Grinding, Boring
Finished Product Handling Soaking Pit Plating, Welding, Painting
Water/ Waste Treatment Steel Melting Shop Molding/ casting/forming

Basic Component of PLC

A PLC’s functions are divided into three main categories: inputs, outputs and the CPU. PLCs
capture data from the plant floor by monitoring inputs that machines and devices are
connected to. The input data is then processed by the CPU, which applies logic to the data,
based on the input state. The CPU then executes the user-created program logic and outputs
data or commands to the machines and devices it is connected to.
Central Processing units
The CPUs are generally micro programmed processors sometimes capable of handling
multiple data width of either 8, 16 or 24 bits. In addition sometimes additional circuitry is
provided, since much of the computing involves logical operations involving digital inputs
and auxiliary quantities. Memory with battery backup is also provided for the following:

 Flags (internal relays), timers and counters;

 Operating system data
 Process image for the signal states of binary inputs and outputs.
The user program is stored in memory modules. During each program scan, the processor
reads the statement in the program memory, executes the corresponding operations. The bit
processor, if it exists, executes binary operations. Often multiple central controllers can be
configured in hot standby mode, such that if one processor fails the other can immediately
pick up the computing tasks without any failure in plant operations.

Program and Data memory

The program and data needed for execution are stored in RAM or EPROM sub modules.
These sub modules are plugged into the processors. Additional RAM memory modules can
also be connected.

Input / Output Modules

There are two main types of inputs: data inputs from devices and machines, and data inputs
that are human-facilitated. The input data from sensors and machines are sent to the
PLC. Inputs can include on/off states for things like mechanical switches, buttons, and
encoders. High/low states for things like temperatures, pressure sensors, and liquid-level
detectors, or opened/closed states for things like pumps and values. Human-facilitated inputs
include button pushes, switches, and sensors from devices like keyboards, touch screens,
remotes, or card readers.
Outputs are the physical actions or visual results that are based on PLC logic in response to
those inputs. Physical outputs include starting motors, turning on a light, draining a valve,
turning the heat up or a pump off. Visual outputs are sent to devices like printers, projectors,
GPSs, or monitors.
Input and output modules are connected to the PLC bus to exchange data with the processor
unit. These can be broadly categorized as follows:
Digital Input Modules: The digital inputs modules convert the external binary signals from
the process to the internal digital signal level of programmable controllers.
Digital Output Modules: The digital output modules convert the internal digital signal levels
of the programmable controllers into the binary signal levels required externally by the
process.
Analog Input Modules: The analog input modules convert the analog signals from the
process into digital values which are then processed by the programmable controller.
Analog Output Modules: The analog output modules convert digital values from the
programmable controller into the analog signals required by the process.
Special Purpose Modules: These may include special units for
 High speed counting
 High accuracy positioning
 On-line self-optimizing control
 Multi axis synchronization, interpolation
These modules contain additional processors, and are used to relieve the main CPU from the
high computational loads involved in the corresponding tasks.
Programming Devices
External programming units can be used to download programs into the program memory of
the CPU. The external field programmers provide several software features that facilitate
program entry in graphical form. The programmers also provide comprehensive aids for
debugging and execution monitoring support logic and sequence control systems. Printer can
be connected to the programmers for the purpose of documenting the program. In some cases,
special programming packages that run on Personal Computers, can also be used as
programming units.

There are two ways of entering the program:

A. Direct program entry to the program memory (RAM) plugged into the central controller.
For this purpose, the programmer is connected to the processor or to the programmer
interface modules.

B. Programming the EPROM sub modules in the programmer without connecting it to the PC
(off-line). The memory sub modules are then plugged into the central controller.

Other units such as Power Supply Units (mainly 24 V DC), Bus Units etc. can also be
connected to the PLC system.

PLCs operate in cycles. First, the PLC detects the state of all input devices that are connected
to it. The PLC applies the user-created logic, and then executes it based on the input
states. The PLC then outputs commands to any output device connected to the PLC either
turning them on or off. The PLC resumes the cycle each time the process is completed.
Need of programmable logic controller (PLC) in automation:
1. PLCs are similar to industrial computers. PLCs can work as standalone units that can
continuously monitor and automate a process. PLCs can be networked; such a network can
control an entire production line. PLCs can be adapted to monitor and control many sensors
and actuators; they process electrical signals and use them to carry out preprogrammed
commands for almost any application. PLCs are used in industrial automation to increase
reliability, system stability and performance, minimizing the need for human operators and
the chances of human error.

2. PLC is used in the fully automated industries or plants or process, the actual processes
handled and controlled by the controllers which are nothing but the programming logic
controllers that means PLC plays a very important role in automation section.

2. PLCs constantly monitor the state of the systems through input devices and generate the
control actions according to the logic given in the user program.

3. It is a heart of control systems, PLC monitors the state of the system through field input
devices, feedback signals and based on the feedback signal PLC determine the type of action
to be carried out at field output devices.

4. PLC provides easy and economic solution for many automation tasks like
 Operates control and monitoring
 Co-ordination and communication
 PID computing and control
 Logic / sequence control

Industrial Automation
Industrial Automation is a process of operating machines and other industrial equipment with
the help of digital logical programming and reducing human intervention in decision making
and manual command process with the help of mechanized equipment. The automation
process typically uses devices such as PLCs, PCs, PACs, etc. and various types of industrial
communication technologies.
Some of the examples of automated industrial processes are:
 Packaging and material handling
 Quality control and inspection
 Metal fabrication; machining, welding, cutting, cladding etc.
 Food and beverage processing
 Planning and decision making
Industrial Automation Advantages
 Reduction in production time – having a machine that is automated definitely speeds
up the production time since no thinking is needed by the machine; there is better
repeatability, and less human error.
 Increase in accuracy and repeatability – when an automated machine is programmed
to perform a task over and over again, the accuracy and repeatability compared to an
employee is far greater.
 Less human error – no one is perfect, and we are all prone to making mistakes. Which
is why a machine that performs repeated tasks is less likely to make mistakes than an
employee?
 Less employee costs – by adding automated machines to an operation, means less
employees are needed to get the job done. It also indicates less safety issues, which
leads to financial savings. With having less employees, there are numerous costs that
are diminished or reduced such as payroll, benefits, sick days, etcetera.
 Increased safety – having automated machines means having fewer employees who
perform tasks that can be dangerous and prone to injury, which can make the work
environment safer.
 Higher volume production – investing in automated equipment creates a valuable
resource for large production volumes, which in turn, will increase profitability.