BLOCK RRS-209

Respiratory - Renal System

Lecture 2
Respiratory System

Ass. Prof. Dr. Safaa Said

Department of Histology &Cell
Biology
Assuit University
 Learning objectives

Know the different classifications of ▪ Correlate functions of the

After this lecture, students should be
the respiratory tract: - Conducting conducting & respiratory portions
able to:
and respiratory portions. with histological structure.

▪ Compare between the histological

structure of the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli and discriminate
▪ Discriminate the type of the lining the type of their lining epithelium.
epithelium of the respiratory system
▪ Describe the histological structure of
Clara (club) cell and identify its
function
 •The trachea ends by dividing into
right and left main (primary)
bronchi that enter each lung at
the hilum which demarcates
extrapulmonary and
Bronchial intrapulmonary bronchi.
tree • Inside the lungs, bronchi divide
into lobar (secondary) bronchi
each of which supplies a
pulmonary lobe (the right lung
possesses three lobes & the left
lung possesses two lobes)
Bronchial tree
 • The lobar bronchi continue to divide
forming segmental (tertiary) bronchi
that form bronchioles which each
supply a single lobule.
Bronchial • Each bronchiole divides into 5–7
terminal bronchioles which then
tree form 2–5 respiratory bronchioles.
• Distally, respiratory bronchioles
form 2–11 alveolar ducts, from which
most alveoli lead via alveolar sacs.
•In the primary bronchi (extrapulmonary
bronchi) most cartilage rings completely
encircle the lumen, but as the bronchial
diameter decreases (intrapulmonary
bronchi), cartilage rings are gradually
replaced with smaller isolated plates of
hyaline cartilage. Cartilage maintains airway
patency.
•Bronchioles do not have cartilage or glands.
Clinical corelation
Smooth muscle bands
become more prominent
around the bronchiolar
airways

Bronchial asthma
(bronchospasm) is a condition
characterized by sudden
constrictions of the smooth
muscle in bronchioles.
Respiratory System
 Extra-pulmonary bronchus Intra-pulmonary Bronchus
1. Lumen Wide Narrow
2. Mucosal folds Present only posteriorly Mucosa is highly folded
3. Epithelium Pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated with Pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated with
more goblet cells few goblet cells

4. Cartilage C-shaped hyaline cartilages Irregular plates of hyaline cartilages.

[Link] elastic lamina Present in the mucosa, and separate the Absent
mucosa from submucosa.

6. Submucosa Present Absent

7. Mixed glands Present in submucosa Present between the cartilage plates

8. Lymphatic nodules Absent Present

in adventitia
 BRONCHIOLES
• Definition: Are muco-muscular non-cartilagenous tubal branches
(diameter less than l mm) of the bronchial tree, arises by branching of
the sub-segmental bronchi.
▪ They branched into three suborders: primary bronchiole (bronchiole I),
secondary bronchiole (bronchiole II), and tertiary (terminal, or
bronchiole III) bronchiole. Only one terminal bronchiole is enter each
lung lobule at its apex.
▪ The lining epithelium of larger bronchioles is ciliated simple columnar
with occasional Clara cells.
▪ In secondary bronchioles up to the smallest branches of bronchioles
(terminal bronchioles), the lining epithelium changes to ciliated simple
cubical cells with Clara cells.
• The respiratory epithelium changes from
pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells (in
the bronchi) to ciliated simple columnar with
occasional goblet cells (in large bronchioles) to ciliated
simple cuboidal as bronchioles become progressively
smaller.
• Clara cells lack cilia, are located in the terminal
bronchioles. Microscopically, Clara cells can be
identified by secretory granules in the apical
cytoplasm.
• Clara cells secrete protein to protect the airway lining
from damage, degrade toxins and act as bronchiolar
stem cells for the airway epithelial layer
 •The bifurcation of the terminal
bronchioles give rise to the
respiratory bronchioles.
• The respiratory bronchioles
characterized by the presence of
sporadic alveoli.
Respiratory • The respiratory bronchiolar
bronchioles epithelium resembles that of the
terminal bronchioles (simple
cuboidal ciliated epithelium with
Clara cells).
 Intra-pulmonary bronchus Bronchiole

1. Epithelium Pseudo-stratified Low columnar or cubical

columnar ciliated
ciliated with goblet cells No goblet cells
No Clara cells Clara cells present
(surfactant)
2. Muscular layer Present Well developed
3. Cartilaginous Present Absent
plates
4. Bronchial glands Present (between Absent
plates)
 Clara Cells:
• These are secretory tall columnar cells with dome-shaped
microvillus luminal surface that may project above the ciliated
cells.
• With E.M: They have a small central nucleus and the cytoplasm
contains apical secretory granules, well developed SER, well
developed Golgi complex, mitochondria, RER and lipid droplets.
•Function:
•It secretes a fluid layer of protein nature that is continuous with
the surfactant of alveoli. It provides a non sticky surface of the
small bronchioles.
It secrete surfactant which reduces surface tension and prevent
collapse of the bronchioles.
•. Progenitor cell.
 Alveolar ducts and sacs
• The respiratory bronchioles terminate in alveolar ducts whereas alveoli
become more numerous and closer together..
• Alveolar ducts
• Are long tortuous thin walled tubules which have no wall for its own
(because the wall is fenestrated by the opening of alveoli and alveolar
sacs).
• Structure:
• They are similar to the respiratory bronchioles, but has no wall (thin ,
more interrupted).
• - It lined by single layer of cubical and squamous cells.
• - There is a collection of smooth muscle fibers and elastic fibers around
the openings (atria) of the alveolar sacs and alveoli.
• The alveolar duct ends in a pouch of clusters of alveoli called “alveolar sac”.
• -
 Alveolar sacs (saccules)

They are out-pocketing leading to the alveoli,

which is formed of group of alveoli that open
into a common central space like the rooms
which open into a hole.
 Alveoli
• Are air sacs that form the major compartment specialized for gas
exchange. There are approximately 300 million alveoli in the two
lungs.
• • Adjacent alveoli are separated by a thin “interalveolar septum”
consisting of connective tissue matrix notably elastic and reticular
fibers, and dense network of pulmonary capillaries. Macrophages
can also be found within the septum.
• ☻Elastic fibers in the interalveolar septum enables alveoli to
expand with inspiration and contract passively with expiration. –
What is the relevance of this fact to emphysema?
• ☻Emphysema is a condition characterized by decreased elasticity
of lung tissue and therefore do not recoil so strongly.
 3- A Alveolilve oli
• They are lined by alveolar epithelium and separated from
one another by interalveolar septum.
• The interalvolar septum is traversed by small opening called
alveolar pores (Pores of Kohn )in the septum connect the
adjacent alveolar spaces.
• Function of alveolar pores: is to allow the passage of air
between alveoli thus help to equalize pressure and to permit
collateral respiration in case of obstruction of a small
bronchus.
• Structure of interalveolar septum:
• It is a C.T. containing elastic and reticular fibers,
macrophages and capillaries.
 alveolar epithelium (pneumocytes)
• Lining of the alveoli (Alveolar Epithelium):
• They are lined by 2 types of cells:
[Link] I (squamous or small alveolar) cells: These are flattened cells that
make up 97% of the alveolar surface.
• The cell organelles are grouped around the nucleus.
▪ Has dark rounded nucleus (protruded into lumen).
▪ Has few RER, and abundant pinocytotic vesicles (play role in removal of
particulate matter in the alveolar cells and turnover of surfactant).
▪ The organelles and the nuclei are clustered together and the cytoplasm apart from
the nucleus forming thin sheet (to reduce the thickening of the blood- air barrier).
• The cytoplasm contains pinocytotic vesicles.
• All type I epithelial cells have occluding junctions.
• Function:1- provide minimum thickness for diffusion of gases.
2-Share in the formation of blood – air barrier.
 Type II (Great or large alveolar) cells:

• They make 3 % of the alveolar surface.

• These cells are large, round or cuboidal.
• The cytoplasm characteristically contains lamellar bodies. They are the
precursor of surfactant which is released by exocytosis and spreads as a thin film
coating the walls of the alveoli.
• Their cytoplasm is rich with RER, ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
lamellar bodies, and multi-vesicular bodies
• The cytoplasm also contains pinocytotic vesicles and other ordinary cell
organelles, but lack SER.
• Function: 1-They secrete pulmonary surfactant which lines alveoli, reducing surface
tension, maintaining their stability and minimizing work required to inflate the lungs.
Surfactant is stored in the whorled cytoplasmic lamellar bodies of type II alveolar
cells.
2-Type II cells are also a stem cell population and can divide and differentiate into type
I cells if the alveolar epithelium is damaged
 Respiratory distress syndrome:
• At birth, the infant's lungs expand
upon the first intake of breath, and the
presence of pulmonary surfactant permits
the alveoli to remain patent.
• Immature infants who have not as yet
Clinical produced surfactant suffer from respiratory
Correlations: distress syndrome. The newborn are
treated with a combination of synthetic
surfactant and glucocorticoid therapy
which stimulates type II pneumocyts to
produce surfactant.
 Alveolar Capillaries:
• They are very thin and lined with continuous endothelium.
They share in the formation of blood air barrier which is
formed of the following structures:
- A layer of surfactant.
- Alveolar squamous epithelium (type I).
- Common basal lamina of alveolar squamous epithelium and
alveolar capillary endothelium.
- Capillary endothelium.
• Function of blood air barrier:
• It prevents leakage of tissue fluid into alveolar air space.
 Alveolar macrophage
• 1–Dust cells (with dust particles)
• 2– Heart failure cells (with hemosiderin)
• Origin: Monocytes that migrates to the lung interstitial tissue.
• Function: Phagocytosis.
• It has two types:
• 1- Dust cells: Are lung macrophages, that migrate to the alveolar lumen to
phagocytose dust particles.
• 2- Heart failure cells: Are lung macrophages, that migrate to the alveolar
lumen and phagocytose extravasated blood in cases of congestive heart
failure. It may be coughed out with sputum or swallowed, or may pass
through lymph vessels to lymph nodes in the hilum of the lung.
 Alveolar macrophages

• Alveolar macrophages move on the surfactant

layer to phagocytose microorganisms and
particles and secrete cytokines. These cells also
assist in surfactant turnover.
• Alveolar macrophages engulf debris (hence the
name “dust cells”) and phagocytize RBCs that leak
into alveoli in case of congestive heart failure
(hence the name “heart failure cells”)
 • PLEURA
• It is a thin layer of C.T.,
covered by a layer of simple
squamous epithelium ( .
•The lungs are surrounded
by a mesothelium .
•The visceral pleura adheres
to the lungs.
•The parietal pleura lines the
thoracic cavity.
 Lung lobule:

▪ Lung acinus:
▪ Itis a conical mass of
lung that has an apex It the lung
directed towards tissue that is
hilum of lung and wide supplied by
base directed one terminal
outwards. It contains a bronchiole.
single pre-terminal There are 3-5
bronchiole that enters acini in each
the apex. lung lobule.
 • Pyramidal-shaped structures with apex directed
toward the pulmonary hilum.
• - Each lobule is supplied by one pre-terminal
bronchiole, that enter at the apex and then become
branched into 3-5 terminal ones that each gives rise
to 5-7 respiratory bronchioles. Each respiratory
bronchiole give rise to 2-7 alveolar ducts.
Lung • Structure of lung lobule: The lobules contains
lobules: the following structures:
1- All of the respiratory structure that arise from
the per-terminal bronchiole.
2- Associated structures (blood and lymph vessels,
and nerves).
3- Intralobular framework of elastic and reticular
fibers.
 ■ Broncho-pulmonary
Structural units of the ■ Pulmonary lobes: Each lobe is segments (pulmonary
lung supplied by one secondary bronchus. They
segments): Each
subdivided divided by connective tissue
partitions into bronchopulmonary segments. segment is supplied by
one tertiary bronchus.

■ Pulmonary lobules: Each lobule is ■ Pulmonary acinus units: Each

supplied by one pre-terminal acinus is supplied by one terminal
bronchioles. bronchiole.

■ Respiratory units: Each ■ Ductal (alveolar units): Each

unit is supplied by one unit is supplied by one alveolar
respiratory bronchiole.
duct.
REFERENCES: JUNQUEIRA’S BASIC ELSEVIER’S INTEGRATED
HISTOLOGY (TEXT AND ATLAS) HISTOLOGY (2007) 1ST EDITION.
(2018) 15 TH EDITION.