1.1.

pictures of internal structures, such as when

ANATOMY determining if a bone is broken or a ligament
is torn.
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that
investigates the structure of the body.
“dissect”, “Cut apart”, “separate” the body
parts subject for study
Examines the relationship between the
structure and functions

2 BASIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

ANATOMY
SYSTEMATIC ANATOMY 1.2
PHYSIOLOGY
It is the study of the body systems,
such as cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, Physiology is the scientific discipline that
muscular, etc. deals with the processes or functions of living
things. It is important in physiology to
REGIONAL ANATOMY recognize structures as dynamic rather than
It is the study of the organization of fixed and unchanging.
the body by areas.
THE MAJOR GOALS FOR STUDYING
2 GENERAL WAYS TO EXAMINE THE PHYSIOLOGY
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF A LIVING 1. To understand and predict the body’s
PERSON responses to stimuli.
SURFACE ANATOMY Ex. Fight or Flight
It is the study of external features. It is 2. To understand how the body
based on the outside part or the physical. maintains internal conditions.
Ex.
Homeostasis and Hypothalamus (the one
who regulates the body temperature)
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMICAL ANATOMY
It involves the use of x-rays,
ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), and other technologies to create
SYSTEMIC AND CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY - Basic structural and functional units of
organisms.
- Organisms is impossible to reproduce
without the cell.

Examples:
Apoptosis – normal cell death
Cancer – it is the result of the absence of
1.3. Apoptosis in our body that can cause
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL swelling in our body.
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY Natural rebirthing of cells – Our brain has
approx. 50 mil cells a day and it automatically
6 STRUCTURAL LEVELS
replaces the dead cells.
1. CHEMICAL
TISSUE LEVEL
2. CELL
3. TISSUE A tissue is a group of similar cells and
4. ORGAN the materials surrounding them.
5. ORGAN SYSTEM
6. ORGANISM
CHEMICAL LEVEL
- Atoms combine to form Molecules
- Important in determining functions

ORGAN LEVEL
CELL LEVEL
 An organ is composed of two or more If one system will fail the other will be
tissue types that together perform one or expected to slowly fail also or worse it will be
more common functions. death.
Example: Heart, Stomach, Liver and Urinary ORGNISM LEVEL
bladder.
An organism is any living thing
considered as a whole, whether composed of
one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of
cells, such as humans. It is a group of organ
systems that are mutually dependent on
each other.

ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL

An organ system is a group of organs
classified as a unit because of a common
function or set of functions. The organs are
working in coordination with each other.
1.4.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Example:
6 ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Urinary System – consists of kidneys, uterus,
urinary bladder, and urethra. It filters blood 1. ORGANIZATION
and fluids in the body.
It refers to the specific relationship of the
Excretory System – It also filters blood and many individual parts of an organism, from
fluids. The filtered blood is an unoxygenated cell organelles to organs, interacting and
blood. working together.
Disruption of this organized state can result
in loss of function and death.
All organs are similar important as one
another but it is mostly important to protect
the brain.

2. METABOLISM
It is the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction.
If photosynthesis is for the plants,
Metabolism is for the human.
 3. RESPONSIVENESS 1.5.
It is the ability of an organism to sense HOMEOSTASIS
changes in the environment and make
Homeo – “the same”
adjustments that help maintain its life.
Stasis – “to stop”
Two types of responses:
It is the existence and maintenance of
1. Physical response – Ex. when it gets cold, a relatively constant environment within the
we will have the urge to look for a jacket or body despite fluctuations in either the external
anything that can give us heat. environment or the internal environment.
Maintains a constant environment within the
2. Internal response – Ex. Hypothalamus will body.
release a signal for the rise and low of the
temperature. If the environment is hot out HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS
body will sweat, and if our environment is
cold our body will shiver. It is mostly governed by the nervous
system or the endocrine system. It is like
4. GROWTH sweating or shivering, normally maintain
body temperature near an average normal
It refers to an increase in size of all or
value, or set point.
part of the organism. It can result from an
increase cell number, cell size, or the amount It is also responsible on releasing
of substance surrounding cells. chemicals that helps maintain homeostasis in
the body.
Example:
2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
For women, their growth will stop at the age
of 18. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
For men, their growth will stop at the age of - Maintains homeostasis
21. - Reverse a change
5. DEVELOPMENT - Restore abnormal values to normal
- Does not prevent variation but instead
It includes the changes an organism maintains variation
undergoes through time. The greatest - Means “to decrease”
developmental changes occur before birth,
Negative Feedback is when any
but many changes continue after birth, and
deviation from the set point is made smaller
some continue throughout life.
or resisted. It is putting back the high
Development usually involves growth, temperature to the normal temperature of our
but also involves differentiation. body.
Differentiation is change in cell structure and
Body Temperature:
function from generalized to specialized. It
also involves maturity and decision making. 37°C – Normal
37.5°C – Sinat
6. REPRODUCTION
38°C and above – Hyperthermia
It is the formation of new cells or new
organisms. Without reproduction of cells,
growth and tissue repair are impossible.
Without reproduction of the organism, the
3 Components of Negative Feedback:
species becomes extinct.
1. Receptor – monitors the value of a
variable, such as body temperature, by
detecting stimuli.
2. Control Center – such as part of the brain
(Hypothalamus), determines the set point for
the variable and receives input from the
receptor about the variable.
3. Effector – such as sweat glands, can
change the value of the variable when The near end of pregnancy, the uterus is
directed by the control center. Sweat can stretched by the baby’s size. This stretching,
decrease the rise of the temperature. especially around the opening of the uterus,
stimulates contractions of the uterine
muscles. The uterine contractions push the
baby against the opening of the uterus,
stretching it further.
The brain will release oxytocin when the
mother is giving birth. Oxytocin is an enzyme
which helps with the contraction when giving
birth.
Peristalsis / Peristaltic Movement is a
contraction for bowels. It is a process of the
body specifically for small intestine for our
bowel movement.

1.5.1
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
- Occurs when the initial stimulus further
stimulates the response
- Means “to increase”
- Strengthens a change
- Makes abnormal values more
abnormal
It increases the abnormal value of the
part in a positive note.
Example:
Perfect example is Pregnant women.
 1.6.
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY
PLANES
When you begin to study anatomy and
physiology, the number of new words may
seem overwhelming. Learning is easier and
more interesting if you pay attention to the
origin, or etymology of new words. Most of
the terms are derived from Latin or Greek.
For example, anterior in Latin means “to go
before.” Therefore, the anterior surface of the
body is the one that “goes before” when we
are walking.
Words are often modified by adding a
prefix or suffix. For example, the suffix -itis
means an inflammation, so appendicitis is an
inflammation of the appendix.

BODY POSITIONS
ANATOMICAL POSITION
The anatomical position refers to a
person standing upright with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides,
and the palms of the hands facing forward.

Anterior – in front
Posterior – in the back
Superior – Up & Above
Inferior – Low & Below
Medial – going at the center
Lateral – going away to the center
Superficial – from the surface of the body
Deep – toward the interior of the body
Proximal – the nearest

DIRECTIONAL TERMS Dixtal – the farthest or the distant

CORONAL PLANE

TRANSVERSE PLANE
SAGITTAL PLANE OBLIQUE

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

 1.6.1. − Can magnify up to 250,000x

THE MICROSCOPE

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
− 1st type of microscope, most widely SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
used − Can magnify up to 100,000x
− light passes through 2 lenses
− Can magnify up to 2000x

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
− Used to observe VERY small objects:
viruses, DNA, parts of cells
− Uses beams of electrons rather than
light
− Much more powerful
HOW A MICROSCOPE WORKS

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

(TEM) EYEPIECE/ OCULAR LENS
− Magnifies the specimen image
− It is where you look through to view the
object places on the stage
 − These 2 clips hold the slide/specimen
in place on the STAGE.

BODY TUBE
− It supports the eyepieces and lenses
− It also maintains the proper distance
between the eyepiece and objective
lenses.
DIAPHRAGM
− It controls the amount of light on the
slide/specimen.

NOISE PIECE
It holds the objective lenses and can be turned
to increase the magnification.

MIRROR
OBJECTIVE LENSES
− It reflects light to the lens of microscope
− It is used to magnify the images of the
specimen to form enlarged image.

ARM
STAGE CLIPS
− It is the frame to which the base, body,
and stage are attached.

BASE
− Supports the microscope and is also
used for carrying the microscope

STAGE
− Supports the slide/specimen

THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

GUIDELINES FOR USE:
− Always carry with 2 hands
− Only use lens paper for cleaning
− Do not force knobs
− Always store covered

MICROSCOPE VOCABULARY
• Magnification: increase of an object’s
COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB apparent size
− Moves the stage up and down • Resolution: power to show details
− LARGER focusing of the image clearly
• Both are needed to see a clear image

Your microscope has 3 magnifications:

Scanning, Low and High. Each objective will
have written the magnification. In addition to

FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB

− This knob moves the stage slightly to
sharpen the image for PRECISION
focusing. this, the ocular lens (eyepiece) has a
magnification. The total magnification is the
ocular x objective.

GENERAL PROCEDURES
 1. Make sure all backpacks and
materials are out of the aisles and off
the tops of desks.
2. Plug your microscope in to the outlet.
3. Store with cord wrapped around
microscope and the scanning
objective clicked into place.
4. Carry by the base and arm with both
hands
FOCUSING SPECIMENS

1. Always start with the scanning

objective.
Use the Coarse Knob to focus and then the
fine adjustment knob until clear, image may
be small at this magnification.

2. Once you've focused on Scanning,

switch to Low Power.
Use the Coarse Knob to refocus, then fine
adjustment until clear.

3. Now switch to High Power. At this

point, ONLY use the Fine Adjustment
Knob to focus specimens.

USING HIGH POWER

− Your slide MUST be focused on low

power before attempting this step
− Click the nosepiece to the longest
objective
− Do NOT use the Coarse Focusing
Knob, this could crack the slide or the
lens
− Use the Fine Focus Knob to bring the
slide
 1.7.1.
THE CELL
WHAT IS CELL?
Cell is the basic Structural and
functional unit of living organisms.
In other words, cells make up living things
and carry out activities that keep a living
thing alive.

CELL THEORY
Cell theory is a collection of ideas and
conclusions from many different scientists
over time that describes cells and how cells
operate.
1. All known living things are made up of
one or more cells.
2. All living cells arise from pre-existing
cells by division.
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure
and function in all living organisms.
 CELL THEORY TIMELINE MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS UNDER
MICROSCOPE

UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
An organism that made up of only one
cell is called as unicellular organisms.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use
2. Synthesis of Molecules
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS 3. Communication
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
An organism that is made up of more
than one cell is called multicellular organism. SIZE OF CELL
− Cells vary in size.
− Most cells are very small (microscopic),
some may be very large (macroscopic).
− The unit used to measure size of a cell
is micrometer.
− 1 µm = 1 / 1000 millimeter − Variation depends mainly upon the
function of cells.
− Some cells like Euglena and Amoeba
can change their shape, but most cells
have a fixed shape.

STRUCTURE OF CELL
− The detailed structure of a cell has
been studied under compound
microscope and electron microscope.
− Certain structures can be seen only
under an electron microscope.
− The structure of a cell as seen under an
electron microscope is called ultra-
structure.

SIZE OF CELLS IN HUMAN

SHAPE OF CELL
− Cells vary in shape
 ANIMAL CELL b) Golgi Body
c) Lysosomes
PLANT CELL d) Vacuoles
e) Mitochondria
f) Plastids
BACTERIAL CELL g) Centrosome
h) Cytoskeleton

PLASMA MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE OF CELL
If we study a cell under a microscope,
we would come across three
Food Granule /
features in almost every cell: plasma
membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
All activities inside the cell and interactions of
the cell with its environment are possible due
to these features.
1) Plasma Membrane
2) Nucleus
3) Cytoplasm
A. Cytosol
B. Cell Organelles
a) Endoplasmic Reticulum
 − A little nut or a stone of a fruit
− Dense spherical body located near the
center of the cell
− Diameter varies from 10-25 µm
− Present in all the cells except red blood
cells
− Well developed in plant and animal cells
− Undeveloped in bacteria and blue-green
algae (cyanobacteria)
− Most of the cells are unnucleated (having
only one nucleus)

− Nucleus has a double layered covering

called nuclear membrane
− Nuclear membrane has pores of
diameter about 80-100 nm
− Colorless dense sap present inside the
nucleus known as nucleoplasm
− Nucleoplasm contains round shaped
nucleolus and network of chromatin
fibres
− Fibres are composed of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein
histone
− These fibres condense to form
− Outermost component of a cell chromosomes during cell division
− Encloses the cytoplasm
− Extremely delicate, thin, elastic, living and
semi-permeable membrane
− Made up of two layers of lipid molecules
in which protein molecules are floating
− Thickness varies from 5-10nm
− Can be observed under an electron
microscope only

FUNCTIONS
− Maintains shape & size of the cell
− Protects internal contents of the cell
− Regulates entry and exit of substances in
and out of the cell
− Maintains homeostasis

NUCLEUS
 − Jelly-like material formed by 80 % of
water
− Present between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus
− Contains a clear liquid portion called
cytosol and various particles
− Particles are proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, lipids and inorganic ions
− Also contains many organelles with
distinct structure and function
− Some of these organelles are visible
only under an electron microscope
− Granular and dense in animal cells and
− Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA thin in plant cells
called genes
− Genes transfer the hereditary
information from one generation to the
next ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

FUNCTIONS
− Control all the cell activities like
metabolism, protein synthesis, growth
and cell division
− Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid
(RNA) to constitute ribosomes
− Store hereditary information in genes

CYTOPLASM

− Network of tubular and vesicular

structures which are interconnected with
one another
− Some parts are connected to the nuclear
membrane, while others are connected
to the cell membrane
− Two types: smooth (lacks ribosomes)
and rough (studded with ribosomes)
FUNCTIONS
− Gives internal support to the cytoplasm
− RER synthesize secretory proteins and
membrane proteins
− SER synthesize lipids for cell membrane
− In liver cells SER detoxify drugs &
poisons
− In muscle cells SER store calcium ions
GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS
− Discovered by Camillo Golgi
− Formed by stacks of 5-8 membranous
sacs LYSOSOMES
− Sacs are usually flattened and are called
the cisternae
− Has two ends: cis face situated near the
endoplasmic reticulum and trans face
situated near the cell membrane

FUNCTIONS
− Modifies, sorts and packs materials
synthesized in the cell
− Delivers synthesized materials to various
targets inside the cell and outside the cell
− Produces vacuoles and secretory
vesicles − Small, spherical, single membrane sac
− Forms plasma membrane and − Formed from the Golgi apparatus
lysosomes − Found throughout the cytoplasm
− Filled with hydrolytic enzymes
− Occur in most animal cells and in few
types of plant cells

FUNCTIONS
− Help in digesting of large molecules
− Protect cell by destroying foreign
invaders like bacteria and viruses
− Degradation of worn-out organelles
− In dead cells perform autolysis

GOLGI BODY AT WORK

VACOULES
 − Small, rod shaped organelles bounded
by two membranes - inner and outer
− Outer membrane is smooth and
encloses the contents of mitochondria
− Inner membrane is folded in the form of
shelf like inward projections called
cristae
− Inner cavity is filled with matrix which
contains many enzymes
− Contain their own DNA which are
responsible for many enzymatic actions

FUNCTIONS
− Single membrane sac filled with liquid or
− Synthesize energy rich compound ATP
sap (water, sugar and ions)
− ATP molecules provide energy for the
− In animal cells, vacuoles are temporary, vital activities of living cells
small in size and few in number
− In plant cells, vacuoles are large and
more in number CILIA
− May be contractile or non-contractile

FUNCTIONS
− Store various substances including
waste products
− Maintain osmotic pressure of the cell
− Provide turgidity and rigidity to plant cells

MITOCHONDRIA
− Project from the surface of the cells
− Cylindrical structures that extend from
the cell
− Used for movement

FLAGELLA

− Much longer than cilia

− Only one per cell
− Used for movement
 MICROVILLI CHROMOPLASTS
− Chromoplasts are plastids that produce
and store pigments
− They are responsible for different colors
found in leaves, fruits, flowers and
vegetables.

− Much longer than cilia

− Only one per cell
− Used for movement

PLASTIDS

LEUCOPLASTS
− Leucoplasts are colorless plastids that
store foods.
− They are found in storage organs such
as fruits, tubers and seeds.

− Plastids are double membrane-bound

organelles found inside plants and some
algae.
− They are responsible for activities related
to making and storing food.
− They often contain different types of
pigments that can change the color of the
cell.
 CHLOROPLASTS − Centrosome is the membrane bound
organelle present near the nucleus
− Consists of two structures called
centrioles
− Centrioles are hollow, cylindrical
structures made of microtubules
− Centrioles are arranged at right angles to
each other

FUNCTIONS
− Form spindle fibres which help in the
movement of chromosomes during cell
division
− Help in the formation of cilia and flagella
− Double membrane-bound organelles
found mainly in plant cells CYTOSKELETON
− Usually spherical or discoidal in shape
− Shows two distinct regions-grana and
stroma
− Grana are stacks of thylakoids
(membrane-bound, flattened discs)
− Thylakoids contain chlorophyll
molecules which are responsible for
photosynthesis
− Stroma is a colorless dense fluid

FUNCTIONS
− Convert light energy into chemical
energy in the form of food
− Provide green color to leaves, stems and − Formed by microtubules and
vegetables microfilaments
− Microtubules are hollow tubules made up
of protein called tubulin
CENTROSOME
− Microfilaments are rod shaped thin
filaments
− made up of protein called actin
FUNCTIONS
− Determine the shape of the cell
− Give structural strength to the cell
− Responsible for cellular movements
 PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELL DIFFUSION
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC - is when a substance (Solute and Solvent)
CELL CELL moves from an area of high
Nucleus is Nucleus is well concentration to low concentration
undeveloped developed area
Only one More than one
chromosome is chromosomes are
present present
Membrane bound Membrane bound
organelles are organelles are
absent present
Size ranges from Size ranges from
0.5 – 5 µm 5 – 100 µm
Examples: Examples:
Bacteria and Blue All other organisms
Green Algae

OSMOSIS
ANIMAL & PLANT CELL
- Water moves from an area of high
ANIMAL PLANT concentration (lots of water) to low
CELL CELL concentration (little water
Generally small in Generally large in
size size - Water can move into or out of the cell,
Cell wall is absent Cell wall is present depending on the environment (solution)
that the cell is in
Plastids are absent Plastids are present
Vacuoles are Vacuoles are larger
similar in size and in size and more in
less in number number
Centrioles are Centrioles are
present absent

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL

HOW OSMOSIS WORKS

 OSMOSIS V.S. DIFFUSION WHOLE - CELL ACTIVITY

GENE EXPRESSION
− It is the process by which a gene's DNA
SOLUTIONS sequence is converted into the structures
and functions of a cell.
Water can move into or out of the cell,
depending on the environment (solution) that − Non-protein coding genes are not
the cell is in. translated into protein.

Solvent + Solute = Solution − Genetic information, chemically

determined by DNA structure is transferred
PARTS OF A SOLUTION to daughter cells by DNA replication and
expressed by Transcription followed by
Solvent – does the dissolving (Ex. Water) Translation.
Solute – substance dissolved (Ex. Salt)
− This series of events is called “Central
Dogma” is found in all cells and proceeds
in similar ways except in retroviruses
DESCRIBING SOLUTIONS which possess an enzyme reverse
transcriptase which converts RNA into
complementary DNA.
− Biological information flows from DNA to
RNA, and from there to proteins.
 TRANSCRIPTION THE CELL CYLE:
− Transcription is the process through
MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
which a DNA sequence is enzymatically THE CELL CYCLE
copied by an RNA polymerase to produce
a complementary RNA or in other words, − The sequence of growth and division of
the transfer of genetic information from a cell.
DNA into RNA.

TRANSLATION INTERPHASE = G1, S, G2

− It is a process by which proteins are − Interphase is when the cell grows, and the
synthesized. Translation is a complex organelles double prior to the actual
cellular process where mRNA molecules, splitting of the nucleus.
ribosomes, tRNA molecules, amino acids, − 93% of a cell’s life is spent in interphase.
aminoacyl synthetases, energy sources − Interphase has three parts
ATP and GTP and a number of factors act ► Growth 1 (G1)
► Synthesis (S)
together in a highly coordinated way.
► Growth 2 (G2)
− The mRNA carries genetic information
encoded as a ribonucleotide sequence G1 − is when organelles double.
from the chromosomes to the ribosome. − Remember each new cell needs a
complete set of organelles.
S − when DNA is replicated.
− Each cell needs a complete and
identical set of DNA

G2 Proteins needed for Mitosis are

produced.

MITOSIS
− The process by which the cell nucleus
divides into two identical cell nuclei.
− In some Human cells interphases lasts
15.3 hours, while mitosis lasts only .7
hours.
 − Occurs in a series of steps
► Prophase
► Metaphase ANAPHASE
► Anaphase − The spindle fibers pull the chromatids
► Telophase apart.
→ Cytokinesis − This separates each one from its
duplicate. These move to opposite sides
of the cell.
PROPHASE − Now there are two identical sets of
− Chromosomes now called chromatids chromosomes.
because they doubled to form short thick
rods which pair up and line up in the
center of the nucleus.
− A centromere connects the two halves of
the doubled chromatids.
− Spindle fibers begin to form.
► Spindle fiber – a fibrous structure
from the cytoplasm which forms to
the centriole.
− Centrioles move to opposite sides of the TELOPHASE
cell.
− When the chromosomes reach opposite
− The nuclear membrane breaks down.
sides of the cell the spindle fibers break
up.
− The nuclear membrane begins to reform.
− A furrow begins to develop between the
two sets of chromosomes.

METAPHASE
− Centromeres of the chromatid pairs line CYTOKINESIS
up in the middle of the cell. − The two identical cells completely divide
− Metaphase plate- location where the and the cell membrane is completely
centromeres line up in the center of the formed.
cell.
− By the end of metaphase each chromatid
has attached to spindle fibers.
 MEIOSIS
− Diploid (2n) - A cell with two of each kind
of chromosome.
► One chromosome from each
parent.
− If two body cells were to combine nuclei,
the number of chromosomes would
double.
− In order for sexual reproduction to occur,
each cell involved must reduce its
chromosome number by half.
− Haploid (n)- A cell with one of each kind
of chromosome.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
− Meiosis is the process of cell division in
which gametes are formed and the − Are paired chromosomes with genes for the
number of chromosomes is halved. So same trait arranged in the same order.
that sexual reproduction and zygote ► Ex. Eye color, hair color, height, one
formation can occur. may code for blue, blonde, tall, its
− Zygote - Fertilized egg which has a diploid homolog may code for brown,
number of chromosomes. blonde, short
− Homologous chromosomes may have
different alleles on them
− Allele- gene form for each variation of a trait
HAPLOID CELLS of an organism.
− Haploid cells are called gametes
− Gametes are either sperm or eggs
− Organism
GAMETE DIPLOID STAGES OF MEIOSIS
HUMAN 23 46
PEA 7 14 − Interphase
FRUIT FLY 4 8 ► Chromosomes replicate
DOG 39 78 ► Each chromosome consists of 2
identical sister chromatids
− Prophase I
CHROMOSOMES ► Each Pair of homologous
chromosomes come together to
► Must duplicate and separate during form a tetrad.
Mitosis ► Tetrad- 2 homologous
chromosomes come together and
► Structures of the tightly packaged DNA the 4 chromatids overlap.
► DNA is tangled up into a substance of
chromatin CROSSING OVER
Tetrads are so tight that non-sister
► The chromatin is packaged on the chromatids
chromosome from the homologous pair actually
exchange genetic material.
► Crossing over- the exchange of
CHROMOSOMAL STRUCTURE genetic material by non-sister
chromatids during late prophase I of
meiosis.
► Results in a new combination of
alleles

METHAPHASE I
− Homologous chromosomes line up
together in pairs.
► In mitosis homologous
chromosomes line up in the
middle independently of each
other.

ANAPHASE I
− Spindle fibers attach to the
centromeres of each pair.
− Homologous chromosomes separate
and move to opposite ends of the cell.
− Centromeres DO NOT split like they do
in mitosis
− Now each cell will get one chromosome
from each homologous pair.

TELOPHASE I
− Spindle fibers break down
− Chromosomes uncoil
MEIOSIS II
− Cytoplasm divides
− Is basically just like mitosis, but
− Another cell division is needed
remember the chromosomes did not
because the number of chromosomes
duplicate in interphase II.
has not been reduced
− Prophase II
− After telophase I there maybe a short
interphase, but not always. It is − Chromosomes begin to line up in the
important to note that if a cell does middle of the cell.
have a second interphase, there is No − Spindle fibers begin to form
replication of chromosomes. − Metaphase II
− Chromosomes line up on the
metaphase plate
− Anaphase II
− Centromeres split
− Sister chromatids separate and move
to opposite sides of the cell
− Telophase II
MEIOSIS I − Nuclei reform
− Spindle fibers disappear
− Cytoplasm divides into two.
− The number of chromosomes in each
daughter cell has now been reduced by
half.

APOPTOSIS
− Programmed cell death
− Eliminates excess cells to maintain a
constant number of cells within the
tissue

DIFFERENTIATION
− The process by which cells develop
with specialized structures and
functions
− During this process portions of DNA is
active while some are inactive
− This is a result from selective activation
and inactivation of DNA
 - group of cells with similar structure and
function plus extracellular substance (matrix)
Histology: study of tissues

TYPES OF TISSUES
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscular
4. Nervous

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Location:
- cover body (internal and external)
- Ex. Skin, kidney, trachea, glands, etc.

Characteristics:
- cells close together (very little
extracellular matrix)
- form most glands
- have free surface
- Basal surface:
- attaches epithelial cells to underlying
tissues

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

PRE-FINALS 1. Protect:
TISSUES Ex. Skin
2. Act as a barrier:
 Ex. Skin keeps bacteria out Structure: 1 layer of flat, tile-like cells
Function: diffusion and filtration
3. Diffusion and Filtration: Location: blood vessels, lungs, heart,
Ex. Lungs and kidneys kidneys

4. Secretion:
Ex. Sweat glands
5. Absorption:
Ex. Small intestine

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

▪ Classified according to number of cell
layers and cell shape
− Simple and stratified = number of
cell layers
− Squamous, cuboidal, columnar,
transitional= cell shape SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
Structure: 1 layer of square-shaped cells
Function: secretion
Location: glands, ovaries, kidneys

SIMPLE COLUMNAR
Structure: 1 layer of tall, narrow cells
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES Function: secrete mucus and absorption
Location: stomach, intestines, resp. tract
► Simple Epithelium
Structure: 1 layer of cells
► Stratified Epithelium
Structure: many layers of cells

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
 PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
Structure: 1 layer of tall, narrow appears TRANSITIONAL
stratified but isn’t Structure: special type of stratified epi.
Function: secrete mucus and propel debris Change’s shape (stretched squamous, not
out of resp. tract (cilia) stretched cuboidal)
Location: nasal cavity and trachea Function: hold fluids
Location: urinary bladder

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
Structure: many layers of flat, tile-like cells
Function: protect and acts as a barrier
Location: skin, mouth, throat, esophagus
 CELL CONNECTIONS
► Tight junctions:
- bind adjacent cells together
- Ex. Intestines
► Desmosomes:
mechanical links that bind cells
► Hemidesmosomes:
- bind cells to basement membrane
► Gap junctions:
- small channels that allow molecules
to pass between cells
- allow cells to communicate
- most common

FREE CELL SURFACES

► Surface not in contact with other cells
► Smooth to reduce friction, Ex. Blood
vessels
► Microvilli:
- increase cell’s surface area GLANDS
- Ex. Small intestine structures that secrete substances onto a
surface, into a cavity, or into blood
► Cilia:
► Exocrine glands:
- move materials across cell’s surface
- glands with ducts
- Ex. Trachea
- Ex. Sweat or oil glands
► Goblet cells:
► Endocrine glands:
- produce mucus
► no ducts (directly into bloodstream)
- Ex. Stomach
► Ex. Thyroid, thymus, pituitary
glands, etc.
 TYPES OF EXOCRINE GLANDS ► Extracellular matrix contains 3
components (in varying amounts): protein
→ Simple: fibers, ground substance, fluid
no branches ► Ground substance: proteins and sugars
→ Compound: TYPES OF PROTEIN FIBERS
many branches ► Collagen fibers:
→ Tubular: look like ropes and are flexible but
end of duct resist stretching

→ Alveolus: ► Reticular fibers:

sac-like structure supporting network that fills spaces

between organs and tissues
► Elastic fibers:
recoil after being stretched

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

1. Enclose and separate:
Ex. around organs and muscles
2. Connect tissues:
Ex. Tendons: connect bone to muscle
Ex. Ligaments: connect bone to bone
3. Support and Movement:
Ex. bones
4. Storage:
Ex. bones store calcium and adipose
tissue stores fat
5. Cushion and insulate:
Ex. adipose tissue protects organs and
helps conserve heat
CONNECTIVE TISSUES CHARACTERISTICS
6. Transport:
► Cells far apart
Ex. Blood
► Contain large amounts of extracellular
matrix 7. Protect:

► Classified based on type of Ex. Immune cells

extracellular matrix and function
► Ex. Blast cells build, clast cells carve
 TYPES OF ORDINARY CONNECTIVE
TISSUE ADIPOSE
Location: under skin and around organs
LOOSE Structure: collagen and elastic fibers, cells
Location: between organs, muscles, filled with lipids
glands, skin Function: storage, insulate, cushion
Structure: collagen fibers far apart
Function: support and protect

DENSE
Location: tendons, ligaments, skin
Structure: collagen fibers packed close
together
Function: connect and can withstand pulling
CARTLIAGE
forces
► Type of connective tissue
► Composed of chondrocytes
► Contains collagen
► Withstands compressions
► Provides support, flexibility, strength
 TYPES OF CARTILAGE Location: ear and tip of nose
Structure: elastic fibers
HYALINE CARTILAGE
Function: can recoil
Location: covers ends of bones
Structure: some collagen fibers
Function: reduces friction (cushion)

FIBRO CARTILAGE
Location: between vertebra
Structure: lots of collagen fibers
Function: can withstand compression

BONE
► Hard connective tissue
► 2 types: compact and spongy
► Composed of osteocytes

ELASTIC CARTILAGE
 MUSCLE TISSUE

BLOOD
► Liquid connective tissue
► Erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
► Transport food, oxygen, waste,
hormones
 INFLAMMATION
► Occurs when tissues are damaged
► Signals the body’s defenses (white blood
cells) to destroy foreign materials and
damaged cells so repair can occur.
► Chemical mediators:
- released after injury
- cause dilation of blood vessels

SYMPTOMS OF INFLAMMATION
NERVOUS TISSUE
3. Redness: blood vessels dilate
► Consist of neurons or nerve cells 4. Heat: due to increased blood flow
► Found in brain, spinal cord, and 5. Swelling: from water and proteins
peripheral nerves 6. Pain: nerve endings are stimulated by
7. damage and swelling
► Controls and coordinates body
movements
► Includes axons, dendrites, cell bodies

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

TISSUE REPAIR
FUNCTIONS
What is it?
⮚ Protection – chemical, physical, and
substitution of dead cells for viable cells
mechanical barrier
Regeneration:
⮚ Body temperature
cells of same type develop (no scar)
⮚ Regulated by dilation (cooling) and
Replacement: constriction (warming) of dermal
cells of a different type develop (scar) vessels

⮚ Sweat glands increase secretions to

cool the body
 ⮚ Cutaneous sensation – exoreceptors CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS
sense touch and pain
⮚ Keratinocytes – produce the fibrous
⮚ Metabolic functions – synthesis of protein keratin
vitamin D in dermal blood vessels
⮚ Melanocytes – produce the brown pigment
⮚ Blood reservoir – skin blood vessels melanin
store up to 5% of the body’s blood
volume ⮚ Langerhans’ cells – epidermal
macrophages that help activate the
⮚ Excretion – limited amounts of immune system
nitrogenous wastes are eliminated
from the body in sweat ⮚ Merkel cells – function as touch receptors
in association with sensory nerve endings

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

SKIN (INTEGUMENT)
STRATUM BASAL (BASAL LAYER)
Consists of three major regions
• Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached
⮚ Epidermis – outermost superficial to the dermis
region • Consists of a single row of the youngest
keratinocytes
⮚ Dermis – middle region • Cells undergo rapid division, hence its
alternate name, stratum germinativum
⮚ Hypodermis – deepest region
STRATUM SPINOSUM (PRICKLY LAYER)
• Cells contain a web like system of
intermediate filaments attached to
desmosomes
• Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells
are abundant in this layer

STRATUM GRANULOSUM
(GRANULAR LAYER)
• Thin; three to five cell layers in which
drastic changes in keratinocyte
appearance occurs
• Keratohyaline and lamellated granules
accumulate in the cells of this layer
EPIDERMIS
STRATUM LUCIDIUM (CLEAR LAYER)
⮚ Composed of keratinized stratified
• Thin, transparent band superficial to the
squamous epithelium, consisting of four stratum granulosum
distinct cell types and four or five layers • Consists of a few rows of flat, dead
keratinocytes
⮚ Cell types include keratinocytes,
• Present only in thick skin
melanocytes, Merkel cells, and
Langerhans’ cells
STRATUM CORNEUM (HORNY LAYER)
⮚ Outer portion of the skin is exposed to the • Outermost layer of keratinized cells
external environment and functions in • Accounts for three quarters of the
protection epidermal thickness
• Functions
 • Waterproofing • Areolar connective tissue with collagen
• Protection from abrasion and and elastic fibers
penetration • Its superior surface contains peg like
• Renders the body relatively projections called dermal papillae
insensitive to biological, chemical, • Dermal papillae contain capillary loops,
and physical assaults Meissner’s corpuscles, and free nerve
endings

RETICULAR LAYER
• Accounts for approximately 80% of the
thickness of the skin
• Collagen fibers in this layer add strength
and resiliency to the skin
• Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil
properties

DERMIS
HYPODERMIS
• Second major skin region containing
• Subcutaneous layer deep to the skin
strong, flexible connective tissue
• Composed of adipose and areolar
• Cell types include fibroblasts,
connective tissue
macrophages, and occasionally mast
cells and white blood cells
• Composed of two layers – papillary and SKIN COLOR
reticular
Three pigments contribute to skin color
LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
• Melanin – yellow to reddish-brown to
PAPILLARY LAYER black pigment, responsible for dark skin
colors
 • Freckles and pigmented • Contains hard keratin, which is tougher
moles – result from local and more durable than the soft keratin
accumulations of melanin of the skin
• Carotene – yellow to orange pigment, • Made up of the shaft projecting from
most obvious in the palms and soles of the skin and the root embedded in the
the feet skin
• Hemoglobin – reddish pigment • Consists of a core called the medulla, a
responsible for the pinkish hue of the cortex, and an outermost cuticle
skin
• Pigmented by melanocytes at the base
of the hair

SWEAT GLANDS
Different types prevent overheating of the
body; secret cerumen and milk
• Eccrine sweat glands – found in
palms, soles of the feet, and forehead
• Apocrine sweat glands – found in
axillary and anogenital areas
• Ceruminous glands – modified
apocrine glands in external ear canal
and secrete cerumen
• Mammary glands – specialized sweat
glands that secret milk

SEBACEOUS GLANDS
HAIR FOLLICLE
• Soften skin when stimulated by
hormones • Root sheath extending from the
epidermal surface into the dermis
• Simple alveolar glands found all over
the body • Deep end is expanded forming a hair
bulb
• Secrete an oily secretion called sebum
• A knot of sensory nerve endings (a root
hair plexus) wraps around each hair
bulb
HAIR
• Bending a hair stimulates these
• Helps maintain warmth, alerts the body
endings, hence our hairs act as
to presence of insects on the skin, and
sensitive touch receptors
guards the scalp against physical
trauma, heat loss, and sunlight
• Filamentous strands of dead
keratinized cells produced by hair
follicles
 • This occurs in women too. Men tend to
move toward “horseshoe” pattern while
women usually more uniform thinning
on the top of the head

NAILS
► Plates of tightly pack, hard, keratinized
epidermal cells.
► Form a clear and solid covering over
dorsal surfaces of distal portions of
digits
► Nails consist of:
Nail body: portion of nail that is visible
TYPES OF HAIR Free edge: portion that may extend
past distal end
• Vellus – pale, fine body hair found in
children and the adult female Nail Root: portion buried in a fold of
skin
• Terminal – coarse, long hair of
eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic ► Most of nail body appears pink due to
regions underlying capillaries

HAIR GROWTH ► Free edge is white because of absence

of underlying capillaries
► Hair grows at different rates on different
individuals. ► Lunula: crescent shaped white portion
at proximal end of nail
► Hair spends 2 to 6 years in the growth
phase where keratinized cells
accumulate from the hair follicle. After
this they spend several months in the
resting phase.
► Following the resting phase, the hair
will fall out and be replaced by another
hair.
► Some people are better able to grow
long hair than others based on this
phenomenon.

HAIR THINNING AND BALDNESS

• Alopecia – hair thinning in both sexes
• True, or frank, baldness – genetically STRUCTURE OF THE NAIL
determined and sex influenced
condition (i.e., male pattern baldness) Scale like modification of the epidermic
on the distal, dorsal surface of fingers and
• Androgens seem to play a key role in
toes.
male patterned baldness.
 • A: Asymmetry; the two sides of
the pigmented area do not
match
• B: Border is irregular and
exhibits indentations
• C: Color (pigmented area) is
black, brown, tan, and
sometimes red or blue
• D: Diameter is larger than 6 mm
(size of a pencil eraser)
SKIN CANCER • Treated by wide surgical excision
• Basal cell carcinoma accompanied by immunotherapy

• Squamous cell carcinoma • Chance of survival is poor if the lesion

is over 4 mm thick
• Melanoma

BASAL CELL CARCINOMA

• Least malignant and most common
skin cancer
• Stratum basale cells proliferate and
invade the dermis and hypodermis
• Slow growing and do not often
metastasize
• Can be cured by surgical excision in
99% of the cases

SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

• Arises from keratinocytes of stratum
spinosum
• Arise most often on scalp, ears, and
lower lip
BURNS
• Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not
removed • First-degree – only the epidermis is
damaged
• Prognosis is good if treated by radiation
therapy or removed surgically • Symptoms include localized
redness, swelling, and pain
MELANOMA
• Second-degree – the epidermis and
• Cancer of melanocytes is the most upper regions of dermis damaged
dangerous type of skin cancer
• Symptom’s mimic first degree
• Melanomas have the following burns, but blisters also appear
characteristics (ABCD rule):
• Third-degree – involve entire thickness FETAL
of the skin • Epidermis develops from ectoderm
• Dermis and hypodermis develop from
• Burned area appears gray-
mesoderm
white, cherry red, or black, and
• Lanugo – downy coat of delicate hairs
there is no initial edema nor pain covering the fetus
(since nerve endings are • Vernix caseosa – substance produced
destroyed) by sebaceous glands that protects
fetus’s skin in the amnion
RULE OF NINES
• Estimates the severity of burns ADOLESCENT TO ADULT
• Skin and hair become oilier and acne
• Burns considered critical if: may appear
• Over 25% of the body has • After one reaches the 20s and 30s,
skin shows the effects of cumulative
second-degree burns
environmental assaults
• Over 10% of the body has third- • Scaling and dermatitis become more
degree burns common
OLD AGE
• There are third-degree burns on
• Epidermal replacement of cells slows
face, hands, or feet and skin becomes thinner
• Skin becomes dry and itchy
• Subcutaneous fat layer diminishes,
leading to intolerance of cold
• Decreased elasticity and loss of
subcutaneous tissue leads to wrinkles
• Decreased numbers of melanocytes
and Langerhans’ cells increase the
risk of skin cancer

SKELETAL SYSTEM
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Bones, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments are connective tissues.

PROTEOGLYCANS:
- large polysaccharides attached to
proteins
- part of ground substance
- store water
► Bone’s extracellular matrix is
collagen and minerals (flexible and
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE able to bear weight)
INTEGUMENT
 ► Cartilage’s extracellular matrix is ► Ex. Vertebrae and facial
collagen and proteoglycans (good
shock absorber)
► Tendons and ligaments’
extracellular matrix is collagen (very
tough)

COMPONENTS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

► Bone
► Cartilage:
reduce friction and model for bone
formation
► Tendons:
attach bone to muscle
► Ligaments:
attach bone to bone LONG BONE STRUCTURES
FUNCTIONS DIAPHYSIS ► shaft
► compact bone tissue
1. SUPPORT (on outside)
2. PROTECT
3. MOVEMENT EPIPHYSIS ► ends
4. STORAGE ► spongy bone tissue
5. BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
BASED ON SHAPE: ARTICULAR ► covers epiphyses
CARTILAGE ► reduces friction
LONG, SHORT, FLAT, IRREGULAR
EPIPHYSEAL ► site of growth
TYPE OF BONE TISSUE: ► between diaphysis and
PLATE
epiphysis
COMPACT AND SPONGY
(CANCELLOUS)
MEDULLARY ► center of diaphysis
CAVITY ► red or yellow marrow

BONE SHAPES PERIOSTEUM membrane around bone’s

outer surface
► Long:
- Ex. Femur, tibia, fibula ENDOSTEUM membrane that lines
medullary cavity
► Short:
► Ex. Carpals, tarsals, phlanges
► Flat:
► Ex. Ribs, sternum, skull
► Irregular:
 - contains blood vessels

COMPACT BONE TISSUE

► LOCATION:
outer part of diaphysis (long bones)
and thinner surfaces of other bones
► OSTEON:
- structural unit of compact bone
- includes lamella, lacunae,
canaliculus, central canal, osteocytes
► LAMELLA: SPONGY BONE TISSUE
rings of bone matrix • Cancellous bone
► LACUNAE: • Location: epiphyses of long bones
spaces between lamella and center of other bones

► CANALICULUS: • Trabeculae: interconnecting rods,

spaces contain marrow
- tiny canals
• No osteons
- transport nutrients and remove waste
► CENTRAL CANAL:
- center of osteon
 BONE CELLS
► Osteocytes: OSSIFICATION CENTER
maintain bone matrix where bone formation begins

► Osteoblasts: ► Primary ossification center:

build bone - where bone 1st begins to appear

► Osteoclasts: - forms diaphyses

carve bone ► Secondary ossification center:

BONE FORMATION forms epiphyses

► Ossification: INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION

process of bone formation (occurs in ► Bone formation within connective
utero) tissue membranes

► Osteoblast’s role: ► Osteoblasts build bone

- build bone ► Ex. Skull bones

- after an osteoblast becomes

surrounded by bone matrix it becomes an
osteocyte
 ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
► Bone formation inside cartilage
► Cartilage models are replaced by bone
► Ex. All bones (except skull)

STEPS IN ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model,
the chrondroblasts become
chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage
and a primary ossification center forms
diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form
epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost
completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage.

BONE GROWTH
► Infancy and youth:
 - long bones lengthen at epiphyseal - occurs in all bones
plate
- responsible for changes in bone
- long bones widen by adding more shape, bone
lamella
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
► End of bone growth (in length):
calcium ion regulation
epiphyseal plate is replaced by an
epiphyseal line BONE REPAIR
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a
blood clot forms.
2. Callus forms which are a fibrous
network between 2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then,
osteoblasts enter the callus and form
cancellous bone this continues for 4-6
weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled
to form compact and cancellous bone.

BONE REMODELLING
► What is it?
- removal of existing bone by
osteoclasts and BONE & CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
► Bone is a major storage site for calcium ► Location of hematopoietic tissue in
newborns:
► Movement of calcium in and out of
bone helps determine blood levels of most bones (red marrow)
calcium
► Location of hematopoietic tissue in
► Calcium moves into bone as adults:
osteoblasts build new bone
- red is replaced with yellow marrow
► Calcium moves out of bone as
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of
osteoclasts break down bone
femur
► Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
and humerus
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and
calcitonin BONE ANATOMY
► Foramen:
- hole
- Ex. Foramen magnum
► Fossa:
- depression
- Ex. Glenoid fossa
► Process:
- projection
- Ex. Mastoid process
► Condyle:
- smooth, rounded end
- Ex. Occipital condyle
► Meatus:
- canal-like passageway
- Ex. External auditory meatus

HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUE ► Tubercle:

► What is it? - lump of bone

tissue that makes blood cells - Ex. Greater tubercle

► Red marrow: AXIAL SKELETON

location of blood forming cells ► Mastoid process:
► Yellow marrow: attached to neck muscles
mostly fat ► External auditory meatus:
ear canal
 ► Nasolacrimal canal:
- canal between nasal cavity and eye
- conducts tears
► Styloid process:
attachment site for tongue
► Mandibular fossa:
depression where lower jaw and skull
meet
► Glenoid fossa:
where humerus meets scapula
► Hard palate:
roof of mouth
► Foramen magnum:
hole where the spinal cord joins
brainstem
► Zygomatic:
cheek bone
► Mandible:
lower jaw
► Maxilla:
upper jaw
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
► 7 cervical vertebra
► 12 thoracic vertebra
► 5 lumbar vertebra
► 1 sacrum
► 1 coccyx
► Atlas:
- 1st vertebra
- holds head
► Axis:
- 2nd vertebra
- rotates head
FUNCTIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN
► Support
► Protect spinal cord
► Movement

THORACIC CAGE
► Protects vital organs
► 12 pair of ribs
► Sternum:
breastbone
► True ribs:
attach directly to sternum by cartilage
► False ribs:
attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
► Floating ribs:
not attached to sternum

PECTORAL GIRDLE
► Scapula:
shoulder blade
► Clavicle:
collar bone

UPPER LIMB BONES

► Humerus:
upper limb
► Ulna:
forearm
► Radius:
forearm
► Carpals:
wrist
► Metacarpals:
hand
 hip socket (joint)

PELVIC GIRDLE
► Where lower limbs attach to body
► Pelvis:
includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
► Ischium:
inferior and posterior region
► Ilium:
most superior region
► Acetabulum:
 LOWER LIMB BONES
► Femur:
thigh
► Patella:
knee cap
► Tibia:
large lower leg
► Fibula:
small lower leg
► Tarsals:
ankle
► Metatarsals:
foot
► Phalanges:
toes and fingers
 ► Adduction: movement toward the
midline
► Pronation: rotation of the forearm with
palms down
► Supination: rotation of the forearm
with palms up
► Rotation: movement of a structure
about the long axis

ARTICULATIONS
► What are they?
where 2 bones come together (joint)
► Synarthrosis:
- nonmovable joint
- Ex. skull
► Amphiarthrosis:
- slightly movable joint
- Ex. Between vertebrae
► Diarthrosis:
- freely movable joint
- Ex. knee, elbow, wrist

TYPES OF MOVEMENT
► Flexion: bending
► Extension: straightening
► Abduction: movement away from
midline
 FINALS

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 FUNCTIONS
1. Sensory input:
sensory receptors respond to stimuli
2. Integration:
brain and spinal cord process stimuli
3. Control of muscles and glands
4. Mental activity: brain MYELIN SHEATH
5. Homeostasis • What is it?
➢ fatty, protective wrapping around
MAIN DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM axons
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): ➢ excellent insulator
➢ brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): • Nodes of Ranvier:
➢ all neurons outside CNS ➢ gaps in myelin sheath where action
potentials develop
NEURON CHARACTERISTICS
• Saltatory conduction:
• Nerve cells
➢ jumping of action potentials
• Require oxygen and glucose
• Receive input, process input, produce a
• Myelinated axons conduct action
Response
potentials more quickly (3-15 meters/sec)
than unmyelinated due to Nodes of
NEURON STRUCTURES Ranvier.
• Dendrite:
➢ receives stimulus from other neurons • Multiple sclerosis:
or ➢ disease of myelin sheath that causes
sensory receptors loss of muscle function
• Cell body:
➢ processes stimulus
➢ contains a nucleus
• Axon:
➢ transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle,
organ, or other neuron
 • Pseudo-unipolar:
➢ one axon and no dendrites
➢ Ex. Sensory neurons

NEUROGLIA CHARACTERISTICS
• Supporting cells for neurons
• More numerous than neurons
• Can divide to produce more cells
• 5 types

TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
• Astrocytes:
➢ star-shaped
➢ most abundant
➢ form blood-brain
barrier

• Ependymal Cells:
➢ produce and
circulate
cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)

• Microglia:
➢ help remove
bacteria and cell
TYPES OF NEURONS debris from CNS
• Multipolar:
➢ many dendrites and a single axon
➢ Ex. CNS and most motor neurons

• Bipolar:
➢ one dendrite and one axon
➢ Ex. Eye and nasal cavity
• Oligodendrocytes:
➢ produce
myelin sheath
in CNS

• Schwann cells:
➢ produce
myelin
sheath in
PNS

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

• Gray matter:
➢ collection of dendrites and cell bodies
• White matter:
➢ collection of axons and their myelin
sheath
CNS PNS
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells
Produce myelin sheath
Nerve tracts Nerves
Collection of axons
Nuclei Ganglion
Collection of cell bodies

ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL

PATHWAYS
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• Outside of cell is more + (Na+)
• Inside of cell is more – (K+)
• Leak ion channels: ACTION POTENTIALS
➢ always open • “Electricity” that cause depolarization and
➢ K+ channels repolarization
• Gated ion channels: • Change resting membrane potential by
➢ closed until opened by specific signal activating gated ion channels
➢ Na+ channels • Local Current:
➢ movement of Na+ which causes inside
of cell to be more positive (depolarize)
• If enough Na+ enters then threshold is
reached and more Na+ channels open
• Once threshold is reached all or none law
applies
• Action potentials continue until Na+
channels close, K+ channels open, and
repolarization occurs
• Sodium/potassium pump restores

REFLEXES
• What are they?
➢ involuntary response to a stimulus
SYNAPSE • Reflex arc:
What is it? ➢ path reflex travels
➢ where an axon attaches to a muscle,
gland, organ, or other neuron COMPONENTS OF REFLEX ARC
➢ involved with release of 1. Sensory receptors:
neurotransmitters ➢ pick up stimulus
➢ Ex. Neuromuscular junction
 ➢ in skin
2. Sensory (afferent) neurons:
➢ send stimulus to interneurons in spinal
cord
3. Interneurons (Association) neuron:
➢ located in CNS and connect to motor
neurons
➢ process stimulus
4. Efferent (motor) neurons:
➢ send response to effector
5. Effector:
➢ muscle, gland, or organ

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of brain and spinal cord
Brain in brain case:

NEURONAL PATHWAYS
• Converging:
➢ two or more neurons synapse same
neuron
➢ allows info. to be transmitted in more Spinal cord in
than one neuronal pathway to vertebral column:
converge into a single pathway
• Diverging:
➢ axon from one neuron divides and
synapses with more than one neuron
➢ allows info. to be transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to diverge into 2 or
more pathways

SPINAL CORD
• Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd
lumbar vertebra
• Protected by vertebral column
• Spinal nerves allow movement
• If damaged paralysis can occur

GRAY AND WHITE MATTER IN SPINAL

CORD
• Gray Matter:
➢ center of spinal cord
➢ looks like letter H or a butterfly
• White Matter:
➢ outside of spinal cord
➢ contains myelinated fibers

WHITE MATTER IN SPINAL CORD

• Contains 3 columns dorsal, ventral, lateral
columns ATDA
• Ascending tracts:
➢ axons that conduct action potentials
toward brain
• Descending tracts:
➢ axons that conduct action potentials
away from brain SPINAL NERVES
• Arise along spinal cord from union of
GRAY MATTER IN SPINAL CORD dorsal roots and ventral roots
PI AS LA • Contain axons sensory and somatic
• Posterior horns: neurons
➢ contain axons which synapse with • Located between vertebra
interneurons • Categorized by region of vertebral column
• Anterior horns: from which it emerges (C for cervical)
➢ contain somatic neurons • 31 pairs
• Lateral horns: • Organized in 3 plexuses
➢ contain autonomic neurons
• Central canal: Cervical Plexus
➢ fluid filled space in center of cord • Spinal nerves C1-4
• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid
bone and neck
• Contains phrenic nerve which innervates
diaphragm

Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
• Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder,
hand

Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
• Supply nerves lower limbs
 o continuous with spinal cord
➢ Function:
o regulates heart rate, blood vessel
diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,
sneezing, balance
➢ Other:
o pyramids: involved in conscious
control of skeletal muscle
• Pons
➢ Location:
o above medulla, bridge between
cerebrum and cerebellum
➢ Function:
o breathing, chewing, salivation,
swallowing
• Midbrain
➢ Location:
o above pons
➢ Function:
o coordinated eye movement, pupil
diameter, turning head toward
noise
• Reticular Formation
Cerebrospinal Fluid ➢ Location:
• Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord o scattered throughout brainstem
• Provides a protective cushion around the
CNS
• Produced in choroid plexus of brain ➢ Function:
o regulates cyclical motor function,
respiration, consciousness,
BRAINSTEM regulates sleep-wake cycle

Components:
• Medulla oblongata Diencephalon
• Pons
• Midbrain

Brainstem Components
• Medulla oblongata
➢ Location:
• Located between the brainstem and
cerebrum
• Components:
➢ Thalamus
➢ Hypothalamus

Diencephalon Components Cerebrum Characteristics

• Thalamus • Largest portion of brain
➢ Characteristics:
• Divisions:
o largest portion of diencephalon
➢ Right Hemisphere
➢ Function:
➢ Left Hemisphere separated by
o influences moods and detects pain longitudinal fissure
• Epithalamus: • Lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital,
➢ Location:
temporal
o above thalamus
➢ Function:
o emotional and visceral response to
odors
• Hypothalamus
➢ Location:
o below thalamus
➢ Characteristics:
o controls pituitary gland and is
connected to it by infundibulum
➢ Function:
o controls homeostasis, body temp,
thirst, hunger, fear, rage, sexual
emotions

Cerebrum Components
• Cerebral Cortex
➢ Location:
o surface of cerebrum, composed of
gray matter
➢ Function:
o controls thinking, communicating,
remembering, understanding, and
initiates involuntary movements
• Gyri:
➢ folds on cerebral cortex that increase
surface area
• Sulci:
➢ shallow indentations

• Fissure:
➢ deep indentations
• Left hemisphere:
➢ controls right side of body
➢ responsible for math, analytic, and
speech
• Right hemisphere:
➢ controls left side of body
➢ responsible for music, art, abstract
Cerebellum
ideas
• Location:
• Corpus callosum:
➢ below cerebrum
➢ connection between 2 hemispheres
• Characteristics:
➢ means little brain
➢ cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray
matter
• Functions:
➢ Controls balance, muscle tone,
coordination of fine motor movement

Lobes of Brain
• Frontal lobe
➢ Location: front
➢ Function: controls voluntary motor
functions, aggression, moods, smell
• Parietal lobe
➢ Location: top
➢ Function: evaluates sensory input
Sensory Functions
such as touch, pain, pressure, temp.,
taste • CNS constantly receives sensory input
• Occipital lobe • We are unaware of most sensory input
➢ Location: back • Sensory input is vital of our survival and
➢ Function: vision normal functions
• Temporal lobe
➢ Location: sides Ascending Tracts
➢ Function: hearing, smell, memory • What are they?
 ➢ pathways in brain and spinal cord ➢ sensory input such as pain, pressure,
➢ transmit info. via action potentials from temp.
periphery to brain
➢ each tract has limited type of sensory Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
input (temp, touch, pain, etc.) • Primary motor cortex:
➢ tracts are named that indicated origin ➢ frontal lobe
and termination ➢ control voluntary motor movement
➢ made of 2-3 neurons in sequence • Premotor area:
➢ frontal lobe
➢ where motor functions are organized
before initiation
• Prefrontal area:
➢ motivation and foresight to plan and
initiate movement

Descending Tracts
• Project from upper motor neurons in
cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in
spinal cord and brainstem
• Control different types of movements

Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex

• Primary sensory areas:
➢ where ascending tracts project
➢ where sensations are perceived
• Primary somatic sensory cortex:
➢ general sensory area
➢ in parietal lobe
 Speech
• Mainly in left hemisphere
• Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
➢ parietal lobe
➢ where words are heard and
comprehended
• Motor speech (Bronca’s area):
➢ frontal lobe
➢ where words are formulated

Brain Waves and Consciousness

• Used to diagnose and determine
treatment for brain disorders
• Electroencephalogram (EEG):
➢ electrodes plated on scalp to record
brain’s electrical activity
• Alpha waves:
➢ person is awake in quiet state
• Beta waves:
➢ intense mental activity
• Delta waves:
➢ deep sleep
• Theta waves:
➢ in children

Basal Nuclei
• Group of functionally related nuclei
• Plan, organize, coordinate motor
movements and posture

• Corpus striatum:
➢ deep in cerebrum

• Substantia nigra:
➢ in midbrain

Memory
• Encoding: ➢ surface of brain
➢ brief retention of sensory input • Subarachnoid space:
received by brain while something is ➢ where cerebrospinal fluid sits
scanned, evaluated, and acted up • Epidural space:
➢ also called sensory memory ➢ in vertebral column between dura and
➢ in temporal lobe vertebra
➢ lasts less than a second ➢ injection site for epidural anesthesia
• Consolidated: • Spinal block and spinal tap:
➢ data that has been encoded ➢ in subarachnoid space where
➢ temporal lobe cerebrospinal fluid can be removed or
➢ short term memory anesthetic inject
➢ numbs spinal nerves
• Storage:
➢ long term memory
➢ few minutes or permanently (depends
on retrieval)
• Retrieval:
➢ how often info. is used

Types of Memory
• Short-term memory:
➢ info. is retained for a few seconds or
min.
➢ bits of info. (Usually 7)
• Long-term memory:
➢ can last for a few minutes or
permanently
• Episodic memory:
➢ places or events Ventricles
• Learning: • What are they?
➢ utilizing past memories ➢ cavities in CNS that contain fluid
• Fourth ventricle:
Meninges ➢ base of cerebellum
• What are they? ➢ continuous with central canal of spinal
➢ protective wrapping around brain and cord
spinal cord
• Meningitis:
➢ infection of meninges (bacterial or
viral)

Types of Meninges
• Dura Mater:
➢ superficial
➢ thickest layer
• Arachnoid mater:
➢ 2nd layer
• Pia mater:
➢ 3rd layer
 Cranial Nerves
• 12 pair of cranial nerves Peripheral Nervous System
• Named by roman numerals • Consists of all neurons outside brain and
• 2 categories of functions: sensory and spinal cord
motor • Collects input from different sources,
relays input to CNS, and performs action

Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System

1. Afferent (Sensory):
➢ collects input from periphery and
sends it to CNS
2. Efferent (Motor):
➢ carries processed input from CNS to
effector

Divisions of Efferent (Motor)

1. Autonomic:
➢ response is automatic (involuntary)
➢ controls smooth and cardiac muscles
and glands
2. Somatic:
➢ response is voluntary
➢ controls skeletal muscles
 Divisions of Autonomic
1. Sympathetic:
➢ activated during times of stress
➢ part of fight or flight response
➢ prepares you for physical activity by:
o ↑ HR
o ↑ BP
o ↑ BR
o sending more blood to skeletal
muscles
o inhibiting digestive tract
2. Parasympathetic:
➢ “housekeeper”
➢ activated under normal conditions
➢ involved in digestion, urine production,
and dilation/constriction of pupils, etc.