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FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS-II
UNIT 5
Limit and Continuity 5
UNIT 6
Differentiation 29
UNIT 7
Indefinite Integration 59
UNIT 8
Definite Integration 81
Curriculum and Course Design Committee
Prof. K.R. Srivathsan Prof. Rahul Roy
Pro-Vice Chancellor Maths and Stat. Unit
IGNOU, New Delhi Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi
Prof. Parvin Sinclair Dr. Diwakar Shukla
Pro-Vice Chancellor Department of Mathematics and Statistics
IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Hari Singh Gaur University, Sagar(MP)
Prof. Geeta Kaicker Prof. G.N. Singh
Director, School of Sciences Department of Applied Mathematics
IGNOU, New Delhi I.S.M. Dhanbad
Prof. R.M. Pandey Prof. Rakesh Srivastava
Department of Bio-Statistics Department of Statistics
All India Institute of Medical Sciences M.S. University
New Delhi Vadodara (Gujarat)
Prof. Jagdish Prasad Dr. Gulshan Lal Taneja
Department of Statistics Department of Mathematics
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur M.D. University, Rohtak
Faculty Members, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Statistics Mathematics
Dr. Neha Garg Dr. Deepika
Dr. Nitin Gupta Prof. Poornima Mital
Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman Prof. Sujatha Varma
Dr. Manish Trivedi Dr. S. Venkataraman
Block Preparation Team
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Reader in Statistics Assistant Professor
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Dr. Gulshan Lal Taneja School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Associate Professor
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suggestions to improve the Course.
March, 2012
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2012
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BLOCK 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATHEMATICS-II
This is the second block of the course MST-001. The aim of this block is to
provide sufficient material which will be needed in order to study course MST-
003 and some sections of other courses of the programme.
Using the knowledge provided by the previous block of this course. The follow
of the block is maintained by the following four units.
Unit 5: Limit and Continuity
In this unit concept of limit, evaluation of certain limits using factorisation,
L.C.M., rationalisation and some standard rules have been discussed. Concept
of left hand, right hand limits and infinite limit have been also introduced. The
unit ends with the brief introduction of continuity.
Unit 6: Differentiation
This unit discusses a very important branch of calculus known as
differentiation. In this unit, you will learn how differentiations of some
commonly used functions are evaluated. Differentiations of functions using
product rule, quotient rule and chain rule have been also discussed in this unit.
Differentiation of parametric and implicit functions also takes place in the unit.
Unit ends by giving a brief induction of higher order derivatives and maxima
and minimum of functions.
Unit 7: Indefinite Integration
Another important branch of calculus known as integration is discussed in this
unit. It discusses indefinite integral of some commonly used functions. It also
discusses how we can evaluate an integral by using substitution method, partial
fractions and integration by parts.
Unit 8: Definite Integration
This unit starts with the geometrical interpretation of the definite integral.
Definite integral of some commonly used functions and properties of definite
integral also have been discussed. Some examples based on first kind of
improper integral also have been evaluated.
Notations and Symbols
xa : x approaches to a
L. H.S. : left hand limit
R.H.S. : right hand limit
: infinity
x : modules of x or absolute value of x
+ ve : positive
– ve : negative
: sign of integration
: definite integral within limits a to b
a
UNIT 5 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY Limit and Continuity
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Concept of Limit
5.3 Direct Substitution Method
5.4 Failure of Direct Substitution Method
5.5 Concept of Infinite Limit
5.6 Concept of Left Hand and Right Hand Limits
5.7 Continuity of a Function at a Point
5.8 Continuous Function
5.9 Summary
5.10 Solutions/Answers
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 of this course, i.e. MST-001 we have discussed, in detail, the concept
of functions and various types of functions. In that unit we have also obtained
the value of the function at certain points. That is, the value of a function f(x)
has been obtained at certain value of x in its domain.
Here, in this unit, we are going to introduce the concept of limit as well as
continuity. That is, we are going to find the limiting value of the function f(x)
when x approaches to certain value. That is, we are interested in finding that
value to which f(x) approaches to as x approaches to the certain value. Also,
this limiting value and the value of the function at certain value of x are
compared to define continuity.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
get an idea of limit;
evaluate the limits of different functions;
evaluate the infinite limit of some functions;
check the continuity of a function at a point; and
check the continuity of a function at a general point.
5.2 CONCEPT OF LIMIT
In Unit 2 of this course, we have discussed concept of function, consider a
function
y = f(x) = 3x + 2
The following table shows the values of y for different values of x which are
very close to 2.
x 1.9 1.98 1.998 1.9998 … 1.99999998 …
y = f(x) 7.7 7.94 7.994 7.9994 … 7.99999994 …
5
Fundamentals of x 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 … 2.00000001 …
Mathematics-II y = f(x) 8.3 8.03 8.003 8.0003 … 8.00000003 …
We note that as x approaches to 2 either from left (means x comes nearer and
nearer to 2 but remains < 2) or from right (means x comes nearer and nearer to
2 but remains > 2), then y = f(x) approaches to 8 in the same manner.
i.e. as x 2 then f ( x ) 8 and we write it as lim f (x ) 8 .
x2
In general if f ( x) l as x a then we write it as lim f ( x) l.
x a
In this unit, we discuss how to evaluate lim f (x ) in different situations. In this
x a
unit we shall also discuss the concept of infinite limit, some standard limits, left
hand limit (L.H.L.) and right hand limit (R.H.L.). Finally we shall conclude the
unit after introducing the concept of continuity.
5.3 DIRECT SUBSTITUTION METHOD
Suppose we want to evaluate lim f (x ) . This method is applied when limiting
xa
value of f(x) remains same irrespective of this fact whether x approaches to a
from left hand side (L.H.S.) or right hand side (R.H.S.). As the name of this
method itself suggests, in this method we directly substitute a in place of x.
Before we take some examples based on the direct substitution method we list
some results (algebra of limits) without proof.
If f and g are real valued functions (real valued function means range of the
function is subset of R, set of real numbers) defined on the domain D such that
lim f (x ), lim g (x ) both exist, then the following results hold good.
xa x a
1. lim (f ( x ) g (x )) lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x a x a xa
2. lim f ( x ) g (x ) lim f ( x ) lim g (x )
x a xa x a
3. lim f ( x )g (x ) lim f (x ) lim g ( x )
x a x a xa
f ( x ) xlim f (x)
4. lim a , provided lim g( x ) 0
xa g ( x ) lim g ( x ) x a
x a
5. lim n f (x) n lim f (x)
x a x a
1 1
6. lim
x a g(x) lim g( x)
x a
7. lim log f ( x ) log lim f ( x )
x a xa
lim f ( x )
8. lim e f ( x ) e x a
xa
lim g ( x )
9. lim f ( x ) g( x ) lim f ( x ) x a
x a x a
10. lim kf ( x ) k lim f (x ), where k is a constant
x a x a
11. lim k k , where k is a constant
x a
6
Remark 1: Limit and Continuity
(i) These results are used so frequently; that we have no need to mention these
results each time.
(ii) Hereafter, we will use D.S.M. for Direct Substitution Method.
Now we are in position to discuss some examples based on (D.S.M.).
Example 1: Evaluate the following limits:
(i) lim (x 2 2 x 4) (ii) lim x (x 2 4) (iii) lim (1 x x 2 x 3 ... x 100 )
x 3 x2 x 1
x2 3
(iv) lim (v) lim 25 x 2
x 2 3 x4 x 3
2 x 2 , x 0
(vi) lim f (x ) , where f(x) =
x 0
2, x0
Solution:
(i) lim (x 2 2 x 4) = (3) 2 2 3 4 [By D. S. M.]
x 3
=9–6+4=7
(ii) lim x ( x 2 4) 2[( 2) 2 4 ] 2( 4 4) 0
x2
(iii) lim (1 x x 2 x 3 ... x 100 ) = 1 (1)1 (1) 2 (1) 3 ... (1)100
x 1
= 1 (1) (1) (1) (1) ... (1) (1)
= 1 + (50 terms each containing 1)
+ (50 terms each containing (–1))
= 1 + 50 + (– 50) = 1
lim ( x 3 3)
x 3 3 x 2 ( 2)3 3 2 2 3
(iv) lim = ( 2 2 3)
x 2 3 x 4 lim (3 x 4 ) 3 2 4
x 2
34
(v) lim 25 x 2 lim (25 x 2 ) 25 (3) 2 25 9 16 4
x 3 x 3
2 x 2 , x 0
(vi) f (x ) =
2 , x0
lim f ( x ) lim (2 x 2 ) [ x 0 x 0, so f(x) 2 x 2 ]
x 0 x 0
= 2 – ( 0) 2 = 2 – 0 = 2
Remark 2: Limit of polynomial functions is always evaluated by D.S.M.
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 1) Evaluate the following limits:
2
1
(i) lim (x 2 2 x 3) x (ii) lim log (x 4 x 2 1) (iii) lim 3
x 2 x 1 x5
(iv) lim 4f (x ), where f(x) (x 5) 2
x 3
D.S.M. discussed above does not always work, in some situations it may fail. In
next section we shall see when it fails and what are the alternate methods in
such situations?
7
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-II
5.4 FAILURE OF DIRECT SUBSTITUATION
METHOD
In mathematics following seven forms are known as indeterminate form, i.e. as
such these forms are not defined.
0
(i) (ii) (iii) 0 (iv) (v) 0 0 (vi) 1 (vii) 0
0
So, if by direct substitution any of the above mentioned forms take place then
D.S.M. fails and we need some alternate methods. Some of them are listed
below:
I Factorisation Method
II Least Common Multiplier Method
III Rationalisation Method
IV Use of some Standard Results
Let us discuss these methods one by one:
5.4.1 Factorisation Method
0
This method is useful, when we get form by direct substitution in the given
0
f (x)
expression of the type lim . This will happen if f(x) and g(x) both becomes
g( x )
xa
zero on direct substitution.
both have at least one common factor (x – a).
In this case express f(x) = (x – a) (some factor) and g(x) = (x – a) (some factor)
either by long division method or by any other method known to you. Then
cancel out the common factor and again try D.S.M. If D.S.M. works, we get the
required limit.
If D.S.M. fails again, repeat the same procedure. Ultimately, after a finite
number of steps, you will get the result as the numerator and dominator both
are of finite degrees.
Let us explain the method with the help of the following example.
Example 2: Evaluate the following limits:
x2 4 x3 1
(i) lim (ii) lim
x2 x 2 x 1 x 1
x2 x 2 x 3 3x 2 x
(iii) lim (iv) lim
x 1 x 2 5 x 4 x 3 x 3 10 x 2 27 x 18
Remember, we
cannot cancel 0 by 0. Solution:
But here
x – 2 is not equal to
x2 4 0
(i) lim form , so D.S.M. fails
zero because x is x 2 x 2 0
approaching to 2 and Using factorisation method, we have
not equal to 2 and
hence x – 2 is x2 4 (x 2)(x 2)
lim lim [ a 2 b 2 (a b )(a b) ]
approaching to zero x2 x 2 x 2 x2
and not equal to zero.
x 2 x 2 0, so dividing
lim ( x 2) numerator and denominator by x 2.
x 2
=2+2=4 [By D.S.M.]
8
x3 1 0 Limit and Continuity
(ii) lim 0 form , so D.S.M. fails
x 1 x 1
Using factorisation method, we have
x3 1 x 3 13
lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
(x 1)( x 2 x 1)
lim [ a 3 b 3 (a b)(a 2 ab b 2 ) ]
x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1 0,
2
lim ( x x 1)
x 1 so dividing numerator and
denominator by x 1.
( 1) 2 ( 1) 1 1 1 1 3
x2 x 2 0
(iii) lim 0 form , so D.S.M. fails
x 1 x 2 5x 4
Using factorisation method, we have
x2 x 2 x 2 2x x 2
lim 2 lim 2
x 1 x 5x 4 x 1 x 4x x 4
x (x 2) 1( x 2) ( x 2)( x 1)
lim lim
x 1 x ( x 4) 1( x 4) x 1 ( x 4)( x 1)
x 1 x 1 0,
x2
lim so dividing numerator and
x 1 x 4
denometor by x 1.
1 2 3
1 [By D.S.M.]
1 4 3
x 3 3x 2 x 0
(iv) Let I = lim 3 2 form , so D.S.M. fails
x 3 x 10 x 27 x 18 0
As on putting x = 3, the numerator and as well denominator both becomes
zero, therefore x – 3 is a factor of x 3 3x 2 x as well as of
x 3 10x 2 27 x 18 . Dividing x 3 3x 2 x by x – 3, we get x 2 1 as
the quotient and 0 as the remainder and on dividing x 3 10x 2 27 x 18 ,
we get x 2 7 x 6 as the quotient and 0 as the remainder.
( x 2 1)( x 3) x2 1 Cancelling out the
I lim 2 lim 2 factor x 3
x 3 ( x 7 x 6)( x 3) x 3 x 7 x 6
(3) 2 1
[By D.S.M.]
(3) 2 7 3 6
9 1 10 5
=
9 21 6 6 3
Here is an exercise for you.
E 2) Evaluate the following limits:
x 3 7 x 2 16x 12 x 3 4 x 2 5x 2
(i) lim 4 (ii) lim
x 2 x 6 x 3 3x 2 52x 60 x 2 x 3 2x 4
9
Fundamentals of 5.4.2 Least Common Multiplier Method
Mathematics-II
This method is useful in form.
Procedure: Take L.C.M. of the given expression and simplify it. Most of the
0
times after simplification it reduces to form then solve it as explained in
0
factorisation method.
Let us take an example based on this method.
1 3
Example 3: Evaluate lim 2
x 3 x 3 x 3x
1 3
Solution: lim 2 [ form, so D.S.M. fails]
x 3 x 3 x 3x
Using LCM method, we have
1 3 1 3 x 3 1 1
lim 2 lim lim lim
x 3 x 3 x 3x x 3 x 3 x (x 3) x 3 x ( x 3) x3 x 3
Here is an exercise for you.
1 6
E 3) Evaluate lim 3 2
x 2 x 2 x x 2x
5.4.3 Rationalisation Method
This method is explained in the following example.
Example 4: Evaluate the following limits:
4x 2 5x 6 x 6
(i) lim (ii) lim
x 0 x x 3 x2 9
Solution:
4 x 2 0
(i) lim 0 form , so D.S.M. fails
x 0 x
Rationalising the numerator, we have
4 x 2 4 x 2 4x 2
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 x 4x 2
lim
4x
2
( 2) 2
[ a 2 b 2 (a b )(a b) ]
x 0 x 4 x 2
4 x4 x
= lim lim
x 0 x( 4 x 2) x 0 x 4 x 2
1 1 1 1
= lim
x0 4 x 2 40 2 22 4
5x 6 x 6 0
(ii) lim 2 form , so D.S.M. fails
x 3 x 9 0
Rationalising the numerator, we have
10
5x 6 x 6 5x 6 x 6 5x 6 x 6 Limit and Continuity
lim 2
= lim 2
x 3 x 9 x 3 x 9 5x 6 x 6
2
= lim
( 5x 6) 2 x6
x 3 (x 2 9)( 5x 6 x 6)
5x 6 (x 6)
lim 2
x 3
(x 9)( 5x 6 x 6)
4x 12
lim 2 2
x 3
(x 3 )( 5x 6 x 6)
4(x 3)
lim
x 3
(x 3)(x 3)( 5x 6 x 6)
4
lim
x 3 ( x 3)( 5x 6 x 6 )
4
(3 3)( 15 6 3 6 )
4 4 4 1
6( 9 9 ) 6(3 3) 36 9
Here is an exercise for you.
3 x 5
E 4) Evaluate lim .
x 2 x2
5.4.4 Use of some Standard Results
Here, we list without proof some very useful standard results which hold in
limits.
xn an
1. lim na n 1 [a and n are any real numbers, provided a n , a n 1 exist]
x a x a
sin
2. lim lim 1
0 0 sin
3. lim cos 1
0
tan
4. lim lim 1
0 0 tan
a x 1 ex 1
5. lim log e a , in particular, lim log e e 1
x 0 x x 0 x
log(1 x )
6. lim 1
x0 x
7. lim (1 x )1/ x e
x0
x
1
8. lim 1 e
x x
11
Fundamentals of Let us consider an example based on these standard results.
Mathematics-II
Example 5: Evaluate the following limits:
x 5 243 x 10 / 3 210 / 3 sin 4 x
(i) lim 4
(ii) lim 4 / 3 4 / 3
(iii) lim (iv) lim cos 5x
x 3 x 81 x2 x 2 x0 3x x0
tan 3x 2 5x 1 e ax 1 log(1 5 x )
(v) lim (vi) lim (vii) lim (viii) lim
x0 sin 2 x x0 x x0 x x 0 x
log(1 3x )
(ix) lim 2 x
(x) lim (1 8x )1 / x
x 0 e 1 x0
Solution:
x 5 243 x 5 35
(i) Let I = lim = lim
x 3 x 4 81 x 3 x 4 3 4
Dividing numerator and denominator by x – 3, we get
x 5 35 x 5 35
lim
I = lim x4 34
x 3 x 3
x 3 x 3 x 4 34
lim
x 3 x3 x 3
51 4
5(3) 5 3 5 15 xn an
= 4 1
3
3 Using lim na n 1
4(3) 4 3 4 4 x a x a
x 10 / 3 210 / 3
(ii) lim
x2 x 4 / 3 2 4 / 3
Dividing numerator and denominator by x – 2, we get
x 10 / 3 210 / 3 x 10 / 3 210 / 3
10 / 3 10 / 3 lim
x 2
lim 4 /x3 2 4 / 3 x2
x 2
lim 4 / 3 4/3 4/3
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 24/3
lim
x2 x 2 x2
10
10 1 7
( 2) 3 3 7 1
3 10 3 2 5 5
4
1 2 3 3 .2 2 10
4 1 3 4 2 2
(2) 3 23
3
sin 4 x sin 4 x 4 x Dividing and multipling
(iii) lim = lim by 4x
x0 3x x 0 4 x 3x
sin 4x 4 4 sin 4 x
= lim lim
x 0 4 x 3 3 x 0 4x
4 sin 4 x
= lim As x 0 4x 0
3 4 x0 4 x
4 4 sin
= 1 = lim 1
3 3 0
As x 0 5x 0 and
(iv) lim cos 5x = lim cos 5x 1 lim cos 1
x0 5x 0
0
tan 3x tan 3x 2x 3
(v) lim = lim
x0 sin 2 x x 0 3x sin 2 x 2
12
3 tan 3x 2x 3 3 Limit and Continuity
lim lim (1)(1)
2 3x0 3x 2 x0 sin 2x 2 2
tan
lim 1 and lim 1
0 x 0 sin
2 5x 1 2 5x 1 2 5x 1
(vi) lim = lim 5 5 lim x 0 5x 0
x0 x x 0 5x 5 x 0 5x
a x 1
= 5 log e 2
x 0 x log e a
lim
e ax 1 e ax 1 e ax 1
(vii) lim = lim a a lim x 0 ax 0
x0 x x 0 ax ax 0 ax
ex 1
= a(1) lim
x 0 1
x
=a
log(1 5x ) log(1 5 x )
(viii) lim = lim 5
x 0 x x0 5x
log(1 5x)
5lim x 0 5x 0
5x 0 5x
log(1 x )
5(1) xlim x
1
0
=5
log(1 3x ) log(1 3x ) 2x 3
(ix) lim 2x
= lim 2x
x 0 e 1 x 0 3x e 1 2
3 log(1 3x ) 2x
lim lim 2 x
2 3 x 0 3x 2x 0 e 1
3 3 log(1 x) x
(1)(1) as lim 1 and lim x 1
2 2 x 0 x x 0 e 1
8
1
1 8
1/ x 8 x 8x
(x) lim (1 8x ) = lim (1 8x ) lim (1 8x) as x 0 8x 0
x 0 x 0
8x 0
1
x
8
( e) e 8
lim 1 x e
x 0
Here, is an exercise for you.
E 5) Evaluate the following limits:
x 10 32 (ab) 3x 1 e sin x 1
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x 2 x 2 x0 x x 0 tan x
log(1 8x 2 ) a x ex e x (1 2 x )
(iv) lim (v) lim (vi) lim
x 0 2
ex 1 x0 x x0 2x 1
x(1 2x )1 / x (e 2 x 1)
(vii) lim
x 0 x
13
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-II
5.5 CONCEPT OF INFINTE LIMIT
Consider the following cases
1
0.1
10
1
0.01
100
1
0.001
1000
1
0.0001
10000
…
…
…
1
0.000 ...1
10 n
n times
1
We see that as x (denominator) becomes larger and larger than becomes
x
smaller and smaller and approaches to zero.
1
we write lim 0
x x
1
Or lim n 0, where n 0
x x
Remark 3: x means that whatever large real number K (say) we take
then x > K, i.e. no real number can be greater than x.
Let us consider an example, which involve infinite limit.
Example 6: Evaluate the following limits:
3x 2 5x 1 5x 5 x 1 x5 1
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x 4 x 2 3 x 9 x x3 5 x 4 x 7 3x 2 7
Solution:
3x 2 5x 1
(i) lim
x 4 x 2 3x 9
Here degree of numerator = Degree of denominator = 2
dividing numerator and denominator by x 2 , we get
5 1
3 2 1
3x 2 5x 1 x x 3 0 0 3 lim n 0
lim = lim x x
x 4 x 2 3 x 9 x 3 9 400 4
4 2 for n 0
x x
5x 5 x 1
(ii) lim
x x3 5
Here degree of numerator > degree of denominator.
dividing numerator and denominator by x 3 [Least of degrees], we get
14
1 1
5x 2 3 Limit and Continuity
5x 5 x 1 x 2
x 00
lim = lim
x x3 5 x
1 3
5 1 0
x
x5 1
(iii) lim
x 4 x 7 3x 2 7
Here degree of numerator < degree of denominator.
dividing numerator and denominator by x 5 [Least of degrees], we get
1
1 5
x5 1 x 1 0 1
lim 7 2
= lim = 0
x 4 x 3x 7 x 3 7 00
4x 2 3 5
x x
In general, without calculating actual limit we can know the answer in
advance of rational functions, in the cases when as x see the
following result without proof.
a0
b , if m n
0
a 0 x m a1x m 1 a 2 x m 2 ... a m 1x a m
lim 0, if m n
x b x n b x n 1 b x n 2 ... b
0 1 2 n 1 x b n , if m n
Now, you can try the following exercise.
x2 3 4 x4 2
E 6) Evaluate lim .
x 7
x7 x2 3 x2 5
5.6 CONCEPT OF LEFT HAND AND RIGHT HAND
LIMITS
We note that on the real line, we can approach any real number 2(say) either
from left or from right. Consider the example y f (x ) 3x 2 . We see that as x
takes the values 1.9, 1.98, 1.998, 1.9998, ... then corresponding values taken by
y are 7.7, 7.94, 7.994, 7.9994, … respectively as shown below.
x 1.9 1.98 1.998 1.9998 … 1.99999998 …
y = f(x) 7.7 7.94 7.994 7.9994 … 7.99999994 …
x 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 … 2.0000001 …
y = f(x) 8.3 8.03 8.003 8.0003 … 8.0000003 …
i.e. as x is coming nearer and nearer to 2 from left then y is also coming nearer
and nearer to 8 from left. If x approaches like this from left (see Fig. 5.1), then
we say that x is approaching form left to 2 and is denoted by putting a –ve sign
as a right superscript of 2 i.e. 2
i.e. we write the limit of the function as
lim f ( x ) … (1)
x2
15
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-II
Fig. 5.1
If limit (1) exists, then we call it left hand limit (L.H.L.) of the function f(x) as
x tends to 2.
Similarly we see that as x takes the values 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, … then
corresponding values taken by y are 8.3, 8.03, 8.003, 8.0003, … respectively.
i.e. as x is coming nearer and nearer to 2 from right then y is also coming
nearer and nearer to 8 from right. If x approaches like this from right (see Fig.
5.2) then we say that x is approaching from right to 2 and is denoted by putting
+ve sign as a superscript of 2 i.e. 2 and the limit of the function as
lim f ( x ) … (2)
x2
Fig. 5.2
If limit (2) exists, then we call it right hand limit (R.H.L.) of the function f(x)
as x tends to 2.
Remark 4:
(i) L.H. and R.H. limits are used when functions have different values for
x 2 and x 2 .
For example, in case of
(a) modules functions,
(b) functions having different values just below or above the value to
which x is tending, i.e. there is break in function.
(ii) Limit exists if L.H.L. and R.H.L. both exist and are equal.
Following example illustrates the idea of L.H.L. and R.H.L.
Example 7: Evaluate the following limits:
x 2 1, x 1
(i) lim x (ii) lim x 3 (iii) lim f ( x ), where f(x)
x0 x 3 x 1 1 x 2 , x 1
x4
, x4
(iv) lim f(x), where f(x) x 4
x4
0, x4
Solution:
(i) lim x
x0
Here we have to use the concept of L.H.L. and R.H.L., because of the
presence of the modulus function.
L.H.L. = lim x
x 0
Here, as x is approaching to zero from its left and hence x is having
little bit lesser value than 0.
Let us put x = 0 – h, where h is + ve real and is very small.
As x 0 h 0
16
L.H.L. lim 0 h lim h lim 1 h = lim h as 1 ( 1) 1 Limit and Continuity
h 0 h 0 h 0 h 0
lim h [ h 0 h 0 h h ]
h0
0 … (1)
R.H.L. = lim x
x0
Here, as x is approaching to zero from its right and hence x is having
slightly greater value than 0.
Let us put x = 0 + h, where h is +ve real and is very small.
As x 0 h 0
R.H.L. = lim 0 h lim h lim h 0 … (2)
h 0 h 0 h 0
From (1) and (2)
L.H.L. = R.H.L.
lim x exists and equal to 0.
x0
(ii) lim x 3
x 3
L.H.L. = lim x 3
x 3
Putting x = 3 – h, where h is +ve real and very small.
As x 3 h 0
L.H.L. lim 3 h 3 lim h lim h lim h 0 … (1)
h 0 h0 h 0 x 0
R.H.L.= lim x 3
x 3
Putting x = 3 + h as x 3 h 0
R.H.L. lim 3 h 3 lim h lim h 0 … (2)
h0 h0 h 0
From (1) and (2)
L.H.L. = R.H.L.
lim x 3 exists and equal to 0.
x 3
x 2 1, x 1
(iii) lim f(x), where f(x) 2
x 1
1 x , x 1
x 1 means x is slightly less than
L.H.L. lim f ( x ) lim x 2 1 2
x 1 x 1
1 and hence in this case f (x ) x 1
(1) 2 1 1 1 2 … (1)
2
x 1 means x is slightly greater than
R.H.L. lim f (x) lim(1 x )
x 1 x 1 2
1 and hence in this case f ( x ) 1 x
1 (1) 2 1 1 0 … (2)
From (1) and (2)
LH.L. R.H.L.
lim f (x ) does not exist.
x1
x4
, x4
(iv) lim f(x), where f(x) x 4
x4
0, x4
17
Fundamentals of x 4 x is slightly less than 4
Mathematics-II x4
L.H.L. lim f ( x ) lim
x 4 x 4 x 4 i.e x 4, so in this case f(x) x 4
x 4
Putting x = 4 – h, where h is +ve real and very small.
As x 4 h 0
4h4 h 1 h
L.H.L. lim lim lim
h0 4 h 4 h 0 h h0 h
(1)(h )
lim lim (1) 1 … (1)
h 0 h h 0
x4
R.H.L. lim f ( x ) lim
x 4 x 4 x 4
Putting x = 4 + h as x 4 h 0
4h 4 h h
R.H.L. lim lim lim lim 1 1 … (2)
h 0 4 h 4 h 0 h h 0 h h 0
From (1) and (2)
L.H.L. R.H.L.
lim f (x ) does not exist.
x4
Example 8: If lim f (x ) exists, then find the value of k for
x 0
x x , x0
f(x) =
k , x0
x x , x 0
Solution: f(x) =
k, x0
L.H. L. lim f (x) lim x x
x0 x 0
Putting x = 0 – h as x 0 h 0
L.H.L. lim (0 h 0 h ) lim ( h h )
h0 h 0
lim (h 1 h ) lim (h h ) lim ( h h )
h0 h0 h 0
lim (2h ) 2(0) 0 … (1)
x 0
R.H.L. = lim f ( x ) lim k k … (2)
x0 x 0
Since, it is given that lim f (x ) exists.
x 0
we must have
L.H.L. = R.H.L. 0 k or k = 0
Here are some exercises for you.
E 7) Evaluate the following limits:
5x x x
(i) lim (ii) lim (3 x ) (iii) lim
x 0 3 x 7 x x 5 x0 x
ax 3, x 3
E 8) If lim f ( x ) exists then find a, for f (x)
x3
2(x 1), x 3
18
5.7 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT Limit and Continuity
In Sec. 5.6, we have discussed the concept of L.H.L. and R.H.L. Adding one
more-step, we can define continuity at a point.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if
lim f (x) lim f (x) f (a), i.e. for continuity at a point x = a, we must have
x a x a
i.e. L.H.L.at x a R.H.L.at x a value of the function at x = a
Diagrammatically, continuity at x = a means graph of the function f(x) from a
value slightly less than ‘a’ to a value slightly greater than ‘a’ has no gap, i.e. if
we draw the graph with pencil then we don’t have to pick up the pencil as we
cross the point where x = a. Look at the Fig. 5.3 to 5.5.
In Fig. 5.3 f(x) is not continuous at x = a.
In Fig. 5.4 f(x) is not continuous at x = a.
In Fig. 5.5 f(x) is continuous at x = a.
Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6
Functions whose graphs are given in Fig. 5.6 and Fig. 5.7 are discussed below.
(i) Consider the function f: R R defined by
f(x) = 2x + 3
x 0 1 2
y 3 5 7
19
Fundamentals of See the graph of this function in Fig. 5.6. We note that this function is
Mathematics-II continuous at all points of its domain as there is no gap at any point in its
graph.
(ii) Consider the function f: R R defined by
1, x 1
f ( x)
2, x 1
See the graph of this function in Fig. 5.7.
Fig .5.7
We note that, if we draw the graph of this function with pencil, then we will
have to pick up the pencil as we cross the point where x = 1. Therefore this
function is not continuous at x = 1. Also this function is continuous at all points
of its domain except at x = 1.
Now, let us consider some examples on continuity at a point.
Example 9: Discuss the continuity of the following functions at given point:
(i) f ( x ) x at x = 0
(ii) f ( x ) x 3 at x = 3
x 2 1, x 1
(iii) f ( x ) at x = 1
1 x 2 , x 1
x4
,x 4
(iv) f ( x ) x 4 at x = 4
0 ,x 4
x
(v) f ( x ) at x = 0
x
Solution:
(i) f ( x ) x at x 0
Already calculated in
L.H.L. 0, R .H.L. 0 Example 7 of this unit
Also, at x = 0, f(x) = 0 0
L.H.L at x 0 R.H.L at x 0 f(0)
f ( x ) is continuous at x = 0
20
(ii) f ( x ) x 3 , at x 3 Limit and Continuity
Already calculated in
L.H.L. 0, R.H.L. 0 Example 7 of this unit
Also, f (3) 3 3 0 0
L.H.L at x 3 R.H.L at x 3 f (0)
f ( x ) is continuous at x = 3
x 2 1, x 1
(iii) f (x) 2
at x = 1
1 x , x 1
Already calculated in
L.H.L 2, but R.H.L. 0 Example 7 of this unit
As L.H.L.at x 1 R.H.Lat x 1
f is not continuous at x = 1
x4
, x4
(iv) f (x) x 4 at x = 4
0, x4
Already calculated in
L.H.L.at x 4 1, but R.H.L.at x 4 1
Example 7 of this unit
As L.H.L at x 4 R .H.L at x 4
f(x) is not continuous at x = 4.
x
(v) f ( x ) , at x 0
x
x
L.H.L. lim
x 0 x
Putting x = 0 – h as x 0 h 0
0h h h
L.H.L. lim lim lim
h 0 0 h h 0 h h 0 1 h
h
lim lim ( 1) 1 … (1)
h h 0
h 0
x x
R.H.L. lim lim lim 1 1 … (2)
x 0 x x0 x x 0
From (1) and (2)
L.H.L. R.H.L .
x
lim does not exist.
x0 x
Hence f is not continuous at x = 0.
Example 10: Find the values of a and b, if the function f given below is
continuous at x = 2
7, x2
f (x) ax b, x 2
a 5, x 2
21
Fundamentals of Solution: L.H.L. lim f (x) lim 7 7
Mathematics-II x 2 x 2
R.H.L. lim f (x ) lim (ax b ) 2a b
x 2 x2
Also f(2) = a + 5
Since, f is given to be continuous at x = 2, therefore we must have
L.H.L.at x 2 R.H.L.at x 2 = f (2)
7 2a b a 5
I II III
I & III 7 a 5 a 2
I & II 7 2a b b 7 4 3
a 2, b 3
Here is an exercise for you.
E 9) Find the relation between a and b if the function f is given to be
continuous at x = 0, where
2x a, x0
f (x)
ax b 3, x 0
5.8 CONTINUOUS FUNCTION
In section 5.7, we have discussed the continuity of a function at a point. In this
section, we define what we mean by continuous function.
Continuous Function: A function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous
at each point of its domain.
For example, function y =f(x) = 2x + 3 whose graph is given in Fig. 5.6 is a
continuous function as we have already discussed that it is continuous at all
points of its domain.
Algebra of continuous functions:
If f and g are two continuous functions on a common domain then
(1) f + g is continuous
(2) f – g is continuous
(3) fg is continuous
(4) f/g is continuous, provided g(x) 0 points x of its domain.
5.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have:
1) Given the concept of limit.
2) Discussed direct substitution method of evaluation of limit.
3) Explained factorisation, L.C.M. rationalisation, and some standard
methods to evaluate a given limit.
4) Given the concept of infinite limit.
5) Given the concept of L.H.L. and R.H.L.
6) Discussed the continuity of a function at a point.
7) Discussed what we mean by continuous function.
22
5.10 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS Limit and Continuity
2 2 1
E 1) (i) lim (x 2 2 x 3) x
x 2
2
1
22 2 2 3 35 243
(ii) lim log (x 4 x 2 1) = log lim ( x 4 x 2 1)
x 1 x 1
log(14 12 1) log 3
(iii) lim 3 3 as f(x) = 3 is a constant function
x 5
(iv) lim 4f (x ) 4 lim f ( x ) 4 lim ( x 5) 2
x 3 x 3 x 3
4(3 5) 4( 2) 2 4 4 16
2
x 3 7 x 2 16 x 12 0
E 2) (i) Let I = lim form, so D.S.M. fails
x 2 x 4 6 x 3 3x 2 52x 60
0
Using factorisation method, we have
(x 2)( x 2 5x 6)
I = lim
x 2 ( x 2)( x 3 4 x 2 11x 30)
Cancelling the common factor x – 2 0, we get
x 2 5x 6 0
I lim Again 0 form
x 2 x 3 4 x 2 11x 30
Again using factorisation method, we have
( x 2)( x 3) x 3
I = lim 2
lim 2
x 2 (x 2)( x 2 x 15) x 2 x 2 x 15
23
By D.S.M.
4 4 15
1 1
15 15
x 3 4 x 2 5x 2 0
(ii) lim 3 form, so D.S.M. fails
x2 x 2x 4 0
Using factorisation method, we have
x 3 4 x 2 5x 2 ( x 2)( x 2 2 x 1)
lim lim
x2 x 3 2x 4 x 2 ( x 2)( x 2 2 x 2)
x 2 2x 1 4 4 1 1
lim
x 2 x 2 2 x 2 4 4 2 10
1 6
E 3) lim 3 2
[ form, so D.S.M. fails]
x 2 x 2 x x 2x
Using LCM method, we have
1 6 1 6
lim 3 lim
x 2 x 2 x x 2 x x 2 x 2 x ( x x 2)
2 2
1 6
lim
x 2 x 2
x (x 2)(x 1)
23
Fundamentals of x ( x 1) 6 x2 x 6
Mathematics-II lim lim
x 2 x ( x 2)( x 1)
x 2 x ( x 2)( x 1)
(x 3)(x 2)
lim
x 2 x( x 2)(x 1)
x 2 x 2
x3 x 2 0 so, cancelling
lim
x 2 x ( x 1)
out x 2
23 5 5
2( 2 1) 6 6
3 x 5
E 4) lim
x 2 x2
Rationalising the numerator, we have
3 x 5 3 x 5 3 x 5
lim = lim
x 2 x2 x 2 x2 3 x 5
= lim
3 x 5
2 2
[ (a b )(a b) a 2 b 2 ]
x2 x 2 3 x 5
3 x 5 x2
= lim = lim
x2
( x 2) 3 x 5 x2
( x 2) 3 x 5
1 Canceling out the common
= lim factor x 2 0
x 2 3 x 5
1 1 1
= =
3 2 5 5 5 2 5
1 5 5 Rationalising the
= = denominator
2 5 5 10
E 5) (i) lim
x 10 32
lim
x10 2 10
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
xn an
10 2 10 1
xlim
a x a
na n 1
9 8
10( 2 ) 10( 2 ) ( 2 ) 10 16 2 160 2
(ab) 3x 1 (ab) 3x 1
(ii) lim lim 3
x 0 x x0 3x
3 lim
ab 3x 1 as x 0 3x 0
3 x 0 3x
a x 1
3log ab
x 0 x log a
lim
24
e sin x 1 e sin x 1 sin x x Limit and Continuity
(iii) lim lim
x 0 tan x x 0 sin x x tan x
sin x
e 1 sin x x
lim lim
lim
sin x 0 sin x x 0 x x 0 tan x
as x 0 sin x 0
ex 1 sin
lim
x 0 1, lim 1
= (1) (1) (1) 1 x 0
and lim 1
0 tan
log(1 8x 2 ) log(1 8x 2 ) x2
(iv) lim 2
lim 8
x0
ex 1 x 0 8x 2 x2
e 1
log(1 8x 2 ) x2
8 lim lim
x2 0 x 2
2
8x 0 8x 2 e 1
as x 0 8x 2 0 and x 2 0
log(1 x)
limx 0 x
1 and
8(1)(1) 8
lim x 1
x 0 e x 1
a x ex a x 1 (e x 1) a x 1 ex 1
(v) lim lim lim
x0 x x0 x x 0
x x
a x 1 ex 1
lim lim
x 0 x
x 0 x
a x 1
x 0 x log a and
lim
log a log e
ex 1
lim log e
x 0 1
a m
log as log log m log n
e n
a x ex
or lim log a 1 as log e 1
x 0 x
e x (1 2 x ) (e x 1) 2 x
(vi) Let I = lim lim
x0 2x 1 x 0 2x 1
Dividing numerator and denominator by x, we get
ex 1 ex 1
2 lim 2
1 2 1
I = lim xx x
x 0
x
x 0 2 1 2 1 log 2 log 2
lim
x x 0 x
x(1 2x)1 / x (e 2 x 1) e 2x 1
(vii) lim lim (1 2 x )1 / x
x 0 x x 0
x
25
Fundamentals of e 2x 1
Mathematics-II lim (1 2x)1 / x lim
x 0 x 0 x
2
1
e 2x 1
lim (1 2 x ) x lim
2 2
x 0
x 0 2x
1 2
e2x 1
lim (1 2x) 2x 2 lim
2x 0 2x 0 2x
as x 0 2x 0
lim(1 x)1/ x e
2 x 0
e 2 log e ex 1
and lim log e
x 0 x
2
= e 2 as log e 1
3 2
Rule to be 4
x 1 2 x 4 1 4
2 4
x 3 x 2 x x
Remembered: E 6) lim lim
n f (x ) f (x )1/ n x 7
x 7 x 2 3 x 2 5 x 7 1 1 5
x 1 5 x 3 3
x x x
3 2
1 2 4 1 4
lim x x
x
7 1
1 3 1 5
x5 x x3
1 0 4 1 0 11 2
7 3
2
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
5x x
E 7) (i) lim
x 0 3 x 7x
Putting x = 0 – h as x 0 h 0
5x x 5( 0 h ) 0 h 5h h
lim lim lim
x 0 3 x 7x h0 3 0 h 7( 0 h ) h 0 3 h 7h
5h 1 h 5h h 4h
= lim lim lim
h 0 3 1 h 7h h 0 3h 7 h h 0 10h
2 2
lim
h 0 5 5
(ii) lim (3 x )
x 5
Putting x 5 h as x 5 h 0
lim (3 x ) lim (3 5 h
x5 h0
as h 0 5 h 5 0
lim (3 (5 h ))
h 0
5 h 5 h
lim (2 h ) 2 0 2
h0
26
x Limit and Continuity
(iii) lim
x0 x
x
L.H.L. lim
x 0 x
Putting x = 0 – h as x 0 h 0
0h h h
L.H.L. lim lim lim
h 0 0 h h 0 h h 0 1 h
h
= lim lim ( 1) 1 … (1)
h 0 h h 0
x x
R .H.L. lim lim lim 1 1 … (2)
x0 x x 0 x x0
x 0 x is sligtly greater
than 0, so x x
From (1) and (2)
L.H.L. R.H.L.
x
lim does not exist.
x0 x
ax 3, x 3
E 8) f (x)
2(x 1), x 3
L.H.L. lim f ( x ) lim (ax 3) 3a 3 … (1)
x 3 x 3
R.H.L. lim f ( x ) lim 2( x 1) 2(3 1) 8 … (2)
x 3 x 3
Since, it is given that lim f(x) exists.
x 3
we must have
L.H.L. = R.H.L.
3a 3 8 3a 5 a 5 / 3
2x a, x0
E 9) f (x) at x = 0
ax b 3, x0
L.H.L. lim f (x) lim (ax b 3)
x 0 x 0
Putting x = 0 – h as x 0 h 0
L.H.L. lim (a (0 h ) b 3) lim (ah b 3) = b + 3
h 0 h0
R.H.L. lim f (x ) lim (2 x a ) 2(0) a a
x 0 x0
Also f(0) = 2(0) – a = 0 – a = – a
Since f is given to be continuous at x = 0, so we must have
27
Fundamentals of L.H.L. R.H.L. f (0)
Mathematics-II
b 3 a a b 3 0
Which is the required relation between a and b.
28
UNIT 6 DIFFERENTIATION Diffrenciation
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Definition of Derivative, its Meaning and Geometrical Interpretation
6.3 Derivative at a Point
6.4 Derivative by First Principle
6.5 Chain Rule
6.6 Derivatives of Exponential, Logarithmic, Parametric and Implicit
Functions
6.7 Derivatives of Higher Orders
6.8 Concept of Maxima and Minima
6.9 Summary
6.10 Solutions/Answers
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit, we have discussed concept of limit and continuity. In
fact, the definition of derivative involves these concepts. So, learner must go
through the previous unit before starting this unit. Derivatives have large
number of applications in the fields of mathematics, statistics, economics,
insurance, industrial, health sector, etc.
In this unit, we will present this concept from a very simple and elementary
point of view, keeping in mind that learner knows nothing about derivatives.
In this unit, we have discussed some examples basically based on the
formulae for derivatives of a constant, polynomial, exponential, logarithmic,
parametric and implicit functions. Product rule, quotient rule, chain rule have
also been discussed. Finally, we close this unit by giving a touch to higher
order derivatives and maxima and minima of functions.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
find derivative of a function at a particular point and at a general point;
find derivative by first principle;
find derivative of some commonly used functions;
apply the chain rule;
find derivative of exponential, logarithmic, parametric and implicit
functions;
find higher order derivatives; and
find maxima and minima of a function.
29
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-II
6.2 DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE, ITS
MEANING AND GEOMETRICAL
INTERPRETATION
Definition
Let f : D R be a function, where D R,
i.e. f is a real valued function defined on D.
Let a D then derivative of f at x = a is denoted by f ' ( a ) and is defined as
f (a h ) f (a )
f ' (a ) lim , provided limit exists … (1)
h 0 h
From definition (1), we see that f ' (a ) measures the rate at which the function
f(x) changes at x = a. This is clear from the figure 6.1 given below.
Geometrical Interpretation
Fig. 6.1
Let PT be the tangent at point P of the curve of the function y = f(x).
Draw PL OX, QM OX, PR QM
Let OL = a, OM = a + h
PR LM OM OL a h a h
and RQ MQ MR MQ LP f (a h ) f ( a )
(1)
f (a h ) f (a ) RQ
f ' ( a ) lim lim
h0 h h 0 PR
perpendicu lar RQ
lim tan
h0 in PQR , tan Base
PR
Now as h 0, chord PQ tends to coincide with the tangent at point P,
i.e. as h 0
f ' (a ) lim tan tan
h 0
i.e. f ' ( a ) tan
i.e. (derivative at point x = a) = (tangent of the angle which the tangent line
at x = a makes with +ve direction of x-axis)
In fact, if a line makes an angle with position direction of x-axis, then value Diffrenciation
of tan is known as slope of the line.
Thus in mathematical language we can say
( Derivative at a po int) x a is the slope of the tan gent at that po int . … (2)
i.e. we can say that derivative measures the rate at which the tangent to the
curve at point x = a is changing
Meaning
Rewriting (1)
f ( a h ) f (a )
f ' (a ) lim … (3)
h 0 h
From the knowledge of previous unit, we know that limit in R.H.S. of (1) or
(3) exists if
f (a h ) f ( a ) f (a h ) f ( a )
lim and lim both exist and are equal.
h 0 h h0 h
In view of (2), we have, limit in (1) exists if
Slope of the tan gent to the left Slope of the tan gent to the right
of the po int x a of the po int x a
i.e. limit in (1) exists if x = a is not a corner point.
i.e. f ' (a ) does not exists at corner points. … (4)
For example, consider the function
f ( x) x
See the graph of this function in Fig. 6.2 .We observe that x = 0 is a corner
point in its graph.
Fig . 6.2
So f ( x ) x is not differentiable at x = 0. but there is no other corner point in
its graph, so it is differentiable at all points of the domain except x = 0.
Remark1:
(i) The last paragraph is very useful to understand the concept of derivative
for those learners, who do not have mathematical background.
(ii) However, the units have been written keeping in mind that the learner
has no mathematical background after 10th standard.
(iii) In the definition of derivative of a function at a point given by (1), we
see that in order to find the derivative at the said point, we have to
evaluate the limit in R.H.S. But sometimes functions may have different
values for h 0 and h 0 . In such cases like modulus function or
where there is break for function in order to evaluate the limit we have to
Fundamentals of find out the L.H.L. and R.H.L. as we have done in the previous unit. But
Mathematics-II in the definition of derivative these L.H.L. and R.H.L. are known as left
hand derivative (L.H.D.) and right hand derivative (R.H.D.) respectively.
A function is said to have derivative at a point if L.H.D. and R.H.D. both exist
and are equal at that point, i.e. L.H.D. = R.H.D.
We denote L.H.D. of the function f ( x ) at x a by L (f ' (a )) and R.H.D. of the
function f (x) at x a by R(f '(a)). See Example 2 of this unit for more clarity.
6.3 DERIVATIVE AT A POINT
Here, we give some examples which will illustrate the idea as to how we
calculate derivative of a function at a point.
Example 1: Find the derivative of the following functions at the indicated
points:
(i) f (x) a, at x 5, where a is a real constant
(ii) f (x) ax b, at x 2 , a 0
(iii) f ( x ) ax 2 bx c, at x 3, a 0
1
(iv) f ( x ) , at x 1
x
Solution:
(i) f ( x) a, where a is real constant
By definition
f (5 h ) f (5) aa 0
f ' (5) lim lim lim lim 0 0
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h h0
(ii) f ( x ) ax b, a0
By definition
f (2 h ) f ( 2)
f ' ( 2) lim
h 0 h
a ( 2 h ) b ( 2a b ) ah
lim lim lim a a
h 0 h h0 h h 0
(iii) f ( x ) ax 2 bx c, a 0
By definition
f (3 h ) f (3) a (3 h ) 2 b (3 h ) c (9a 3b c)
f ' (3) lim lim
h 0 h h0 h
2
ah 6ah bh
lim lim (ah 6a b) 6a b
h 0 h h 0
1
(iv) f ( x )
x
By definition
1 1
f (1 h ) f (1)
f ' (1) lim lim 1 h 1
h 0 h h 0 h
1 (1 h ) h 1 1
lim lim lim 1
h 0 h (1 h ) h 0 h (1 h ) h0 1 h 1 0
Here are some exercises for you. Diffrenciation
E 1) Find the derivative of the following functions at the indicated points
(i) f ( x ) x 3 x 1, at x 1
(ii) f (x) 2 3x 2 , at x 1/ 2
E 2) Find the value of a, if f ' ( 2) 3, where f ( x ) 2 x 2 3ax 5
Example 2: Find the derivative (if exists) of the following functions at the
indicated points.
(i) f (x ) x at x 0
5 2 x , x 1
(ii) f ( x ) at x = 1
9 2 x , x 1
Solution:
(i) By definition
f (0 h ) f ( 0) 0h 0 h 0 h
f ' (0) lim lim lim lim
h0 h h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
We note that to deal with h we must know the sign of h in advance. So
We must have to calculate L.H.D. and R.H.D. separately.
h
L.H.D. lim
h0 h
Putting h = 0 – k as h 0 k 0
0k k 1 k k
L.H.D. lim lim lim lim
k 0 0 k k 0 k k 0 k k 0 k
lim (1) 1 … (1)
k 0
h h
R.H.D. = lim lim
lim (1) 1 … (2)
h 0 h h 0 h h0
From (1) and (2), we have
L.H.D. R.H.D.
f ' (0) does not exists.
(ii) By definition
f (1 h ) f (1) f (1 h ) (5 2 1) f (1 h ) 7
f ' (1) lim lim lim
h0 h h 0 h h 0 h
We note that function have different values for x<1 and x >1, so we must
have to calculate L.H.D. and R.H.D. separately.
f (1 h ) f (1) 9 2(1 h ) 7
L (f ' (1)) L.H.D. lim lim
h0 h h 0 h
2h
lim lim (2) 2 … (1)
h 0 h h0
f (1 h ) f (1) 5 2(1 h ) 7
R (f ' (1)) R.H.D. lim lim
h0 h h 0 h
2h
lim lim ( 2) 2 … (2)
h 0 h h 0
From (1) and (2)
L(f ' (1)) R (f ' (1))
f ' (1) does not exists.
Fundamentals of Remark 2: In part (i) x =0 is a corner point (see Fig. 6.2) that is why its
Mathematics-II derivative did not exist at this point, which was indicated in equation (4) in Sec.
6.2. Same is the case in part (ii).
6.4 DERIVATIVE BY FIRST PRINCIPLE
In section 6.3 of this unit, we have discussed as to how we calculate the
derivative of a function at a given point x = a (say). Suppose we want to
calculate the derivative at 10 points, then using the definition 10 times is a
very time consuming and lengthy procedure. To get rid of this difficulty, we
will introduce a procedure in this section which will provide us the derivative
of the function at a general point. After calculating the derivative at the
general point we can replace this point by any number of points very quickly
(provided derivative at the required point exists). Let us first describe the
procedure as to how we calculate the derivative at a general point. After this
we shall give some results to get a good understanding of the procedure. This
process of finding derivative is known as derivative by first principle or by
definition or by delta method or ab-intio.
Let us explain the procedure of first principle for the function
y = f(x) … (1)
in the following steps.
Step I Let x be the small increment (+ve or –ve) in the value of x and
y be the corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
y y f ( x x ) … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y f ( x x ) f ( x ) … (3)
Step III First we simplify the expression in the R.H.S. of (3). After
simplifying the expression, we divide both sides by x and get
y f ( x x ) f ( x )
x x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0 on both sides
y f ( x x ) f ( x )
lim lim … (4)
x 0 x x 0 x
dy
Step V The term in L.H.S. of (4) is denoted by and limit in R.H.S. of (4)
dx
is evaluated using suitable formula discussed in the previous unit
dy f ( x x ) f ( x )
i.e. lim … (5)
dx x 0 x
The expression obtained after simplification of the R.H.S. of (5), is derivative
of y w.r.t. x at a general point x.
If we want the derivative of the function y = f(x) at a particular point x = a
(say), then replace x by a in the result.
Some Results
Result 1: Find the derivative of the constant function given by
f (x) = k, where k is a real constant
by using first principle.
Solution: Let y = f(x) = k … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the Diffrenciation
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
y + y = k … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y y y k k
Or y 0 … (3)
Step III Dividing on both sides of (3) by x
y 0 y
0 0
x x x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y
lim lim 0
x 0 x x 0
dy
Step V 0
dx
d
i.e. (k ) 0 .
dx
So, derivative of a constant function is zero.
Result 2: Find the derivatives of the functions given by
(i) f ( x ) x 2 (ii) f ( x ) x 3
by using first principle.
Solution: (i) Let y f ( x ) x 2 … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
2
y y ( x x ) 2 = x 2 x 2x x … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
2 2
y x 2 x 2 x x x 2 = x 2 x x
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get
2
y x 2 x x
x 2 x
x x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y
lim lim x 2x
x 0 x x 0
dy
Step V lim x + lim 2x = 0 + 2x = 2x
dx x 0 x 0
d 2
i.e. ( x ) 2 x 2 x 21
dx
Second Method
Let y f ( x ) x 2 … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
35
Fundamentals of (1) becomes
Mathematics-II
y y ( x x ) 2 … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y ( x x ) 2 x 2
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get
y ( x x ) 2 x 2 ( x x ) 2 x 2
x x (x x ) x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y ( x x ) 2 x 2
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 ( x x ) x
dy (x x ) 2 x 2
Step V lim as x 0 x x x
dx x x x ( x x ) x
d 2 xn an
i.e.
x 2 x 21 = 2x xlim na n 1
dx a x a
(ii) Let y f ( x ) x 3 … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
2 3
y y ( x x ) 3 = x 3 3x 2 x 3x x x … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
2 3
y = x 3 3x 2 x 3x x x x 3
= 3x 2 x 3x x 2 x 3
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get
2 3
y 3x 2 x 3x x x
= 3x 2 3x x x 2
x x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y
lim
x 0 x
lim 3x 2 3x x x
x 0
2
dy 2
Step V lim 3x 2 + lim 3x x lim x = 3x 2 0 0 = 3x 2
dx x 0 x 0 x 0
d 3
i.e. ( x ) 3x 2 3x 31
dx
Second Method
Let y f ( x ) x 3 … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
y y ( x x ) 3 … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y ( x x ) 3 x 3
36
Step III Dividing on both sides by x, we get Diffrenciation
3 3 3 3
y ( x x ) x (x x ) x
x x ( x x ) x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y ( x x ) 3 x 3
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 ( x x ) x
dy (x x ) 3 x 3
Step V lim as x 0 x x x
dx x x x ( x x ) x
d 3 xn an
i.e. ( x ) 3x 31 xlim na n 1
dx a x a
d
Similarly, ( x n ) nx n 1
dx
Result 3: Find the derivative of the function given by
f ( x) ax b 2 , where a, b are real constants and a 0
by using first principle.
Solution: Let us use second method here.
Let y f ( x ) (ax b) 2 … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
y y [a ( x x ) b] 2 (ax ax b) 2 … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y (ax ax b ) 2 (ax b) 2
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get
y (ax ax b) 2 ( ax b) 2 (ax ax b) 2 (ax b) 2
a
x x ax
2 2
(ax ax b) (ax b)
a
(ax ax b) (ax b)
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y (ax ax b) 2 (ax b) 2
lim a lim
x 0 x x 0
(ax ax b) (ax b)
(ax ax b) 2 ( ax b) 2
a lim as x 0 ax 0
ax 0
( ax ax b) ( ax b)
dy (ax ax b) 2 (ax b ) 2
Step V a lim
dx ax ax b ax b
(ax ax b ) (ax b )
xn an
a 2(ax b) 2 1 lim
x a na n 1
xa
37
Fundamentals of d
Mathematics-II i.e. ax b 2 2a (ax b) 21
dx
Similarly, we can easily obtain
d
(ax b) n na(ax b) n 1
dx
Result 4: Find the derivative of the exponential function f ( x ) e ax
by using first principle.
Solution: Let y f ( x ) e ax … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the value of x and y be the
corresponding increment in the value of y.
(1) becomes
y y e a ( x x ) e ax ax … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
y eax ax eax e ax e ax e ax [ a m n a m a n ]
= e ax e ax 1
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get
y ( e ax 1) e ax 1
e ax ae ax
x x ax
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
y e ax 1
lim lim ae ax
x 0 x x 0
ax
dy e ax 1
Step V ae ax lim as x 0 ax 0
dx ax 0 ax
ex 1
ae ax (1) lim 1
x 0 x
d ax
i.e. (e ) ae ax
dx
Result 5: Find the derivative of the logarithm function f ( x ) log a x
by using first principle.
Solution: Let y f ( x ) log a x … (1)
Step I Let x be the small increment in the values of x
and y be the corresponding increment in the value of y
(1) becomes
y y log a ( x x ) … (2)
Step II (2) – (1) gives
x x m
y log a ( x x ) log a x log a log m log n log n
x
x
log a 1
x
38
Step III Dividing on both sides by x , we get Diffrenciation
x
log a 1
y x 1 x x
log a 1
x x x x x)
x
1 x x
log a 1 [ n log m log m n ]
x x
Step IV Proceeding limit as x 0, we get
x
y 1 x x
lim lim log a 1
x 0 x x 0 x x
x
dy 1 x x x If a function is continuous
Step V lim log a 1 as x 0 0 then it respects limit i.e. if a
dx x x 0 x x function f is continuous and a
x
x
is point of its domain, then
1 x x log arithm is a continuous lim f (x) f (lim x) f (a)
log a lim 1 function on its domain
x a x a
x x 0 x i.e. limit can be taken inside
x the function.
1 i.e. Role of limit and function
log a e lim 1 x 1 / x e can be interchanged.
x x 0
d 1
i.e. (log a x ) log a e
dx x
In particular, if base of the logarithmic is e in place of a, then
d
log e x 1 log e e 1 as log e e 1
dx x x
Remark 3: Keep all these formulae put in the rectangular boxes always in mind,
as we will use these formulae later on as standard results.
Some more Formulae of Finding Derivatives:
If u and v are functions of x, then
d
(i) cu c du , where c is a real constant
dx dx
d
(ii) u v du dv
dx dx dx
d
(iii) u.v u dv v du (Known as Product Rule)
dx dx dx
du dv
v u
d u dx dx
(iv) (Known as Quotient Rule)
dx v v2
Remark 4: Aim of this unit from learners point of view is not to focus on the
derivations of the formulae. But main aim of this unit is able to make the
learners user friendly as to how these results can be used whenever we
encounter a situation where derivative is involved. That is why we will not
provide the derivations of more formulae.
39
Fundamentals of Various formulae which are used in many practical situations are listed
Mathematics-II below:
S. Function Derivative of the function
No
1 k (constant) d
(k ) 0
dx
2 xn d
( x n ) nx n 1
dx
3 ( ax b ) n d
( ax b) n na (ax b) n 1
dx
4 Exponential function d bx
(i) (a ) ba bx log a
(i) a bx dx
(ii) e bx d bx
(ii) (e ) be bx
dx
5 Logarithmic function d 1
(i) (log a x ) log a e
(i) log a x dx x
(ii) log e x d 1
(ii) (log e x )
dx x
6 cu, where d d
c is constant and ( cu ) c u
dx dx
u is a function of x
7 (i) u v d du dv
(i) ( u v)
(ii) uv dx dx dx
u d dv du
(iii) (ii) (uv) u v (Pr oduct Rule)
v dx dx dx
where, u, v are functions du dv
of x. v u
d u dx dx (Quotient Rule)
(iii)
dx v v2
8 d
f ( x)n , n is +ve or –ve f ( x)n nf (x )n 1 d (f ( x))
real number dx dx
9 1 d 1 d
f (x)
f ( x )1 1 2 d (f (x ))
dx f ( x ) dx f (x ) dx
10 y = f(u) dy dy du dw
(Chain Rule)
u = g(w) dx du dw dx
w = h(x)
11 Parametric functions dy dy dx
x = f(t)
dx dt dt
y = g(t)
12 Polynomial function d
( f ( x )) na 0 x n 1 ( n 1)a 1 x n 2 ... a n 1
f ( x ) a 0 x n a 1x n 1 ... dx
a n 1 x a n
Now we take some examples. We will write “Diff. w.r.t x” in place of
“differentiating with respect to x”.
40
Example 3: Find derivative of the following functions: Diffrenciation
1
(i) 5 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) x 11
11 17
1 1 1
(vi) x 5/ 2 (vii) 3
(viii) 7
(ix) (x) x
x x x
4/9
3
(xi) ( 2 x 5) 3 (xii) ( 4 3x ) 8 (xiii) 5 x (xiv) 2 3x
2
2 100
5 2 x3 x 2 1 1 1
(xv) x x 1 (xvi) (xvii) x 2 2 (xviii) x
x x x
(xix) ( x 2 1)( x 1) (xx) x 3 (1 x 2 x 5 x 8 )
(xxi) ( x 2 1)( x 3 x 2 1) (xxii) ( 4 x 1) 3 (7 x 1) 4
(xxiii) ( x 2) 2 ( x 3) 4 ( x 1) 5
Solution:
(i) Let y = 5
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 5 is a constant and derivative
0 of a constant function is zero.
dx
(ii) Let y =
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy and both are constants is constant
0 and derivative of a constant function is zero.
dx
1
(iii) Let y =
11
Diff. w.r.t. x
1
dy
0 is a cons tan t and derivative
dx
of a constant function is zero.
(iv) Let y =
17
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy
0 17 is a cons tan t and derivative
dx
of a constant function is zero.
(v) Let y = x 11
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n n 1
11 x 111 11x 10 dx ( x ) nx
dx
(vi) Let y = x 5 / 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
5 3
dy 5 2 1 5 2 d n n 1
x
dx 2
x
2 dx ( x ) nx
41
Fundamentals of 1 1
Mathematics-II (vii) Let y 3
1/ 3
x 1/ 3
x x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d n n 1
x 4 / 3 dx (x ) nx
dx 3
1
(viii) Let y = 7
x 7
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 7 d n n 1
7 x 8 = 8 dx (x ) nx
dx x
1
(ix ) Let y x 1
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d n n 1
1x 2 2 dx ( x ) nx
dx x
(x) Let y x x 1 / 2
Diff. w.r.t.x
dy 1 1 / 2 1 d n n 1
x
dx 2
2 x dx (x ) nx
(xi) Let y ( 2 x 5) 3
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n 1
dx
3( 2 x 5) 2 ( 2) = 6( 2 x 5) 2 n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
(xii) Let y ( 4 3x ) 8
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n 1
dx
8( 4 3x ) 7 ( 3) 24( 4 3x ) 7 n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
4/9
3
(xiii) Let y = 5 x
2
Diff. w.r.t. x
5 / 9
dy 4 3 3 d n 1
5 x
dx 9 2
n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
2
5 / 9
2 3
= 5 x
3 2
(xiv) Let y 2 3x ( 2 3x )1 / 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d n 1
( 2 3x ) 1 / 2 (3)
dx 2
n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
3
2 2 3x
(xv) Let y x 5 x 2 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
42
dy Using formula written at serial Diffrenciation
5 x 4 2 x 0 5x 4 2 x
dx number12of the table of formulae
x3 x2 1 x3 x2 1 1
(xvi) Let y x2 x
x x x x x
1
y x2 x
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d 2 d d 1 1 d n n 1
dx dx
(x )
dx
(x) 2x 1 2
dx x x dx ( x ) nx
2
1
(xvii) Let y x 2 2
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d 1 d d
dx
2 x 2 2 x 2 2
dx dx
( f ( x )) n n ( f ( x )) n 1
dx
(f ( x ))
x x
1 2 1 1 1 1
2 x 2 2 2 x 3 4 x 3 5 4 x 3 5
x x x x x x
100
1
(xviii) Let y x
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
99
dy 1 d 1
100 x x [Same reason as given in (xvii)]
dx x dx x
99
1 1
100 x 1 2
x x
(xix) Let y ( x 2 1)( x 1) x 3 x 2 x 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy Using formula written at serial
3x 2 2 x 1 0 number12 of the table of formulae.
dx
3x 2 2x 1
Alternatively: Using Product Rule
dy d d
( x 2 1) ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 2 1)
dx dx dx
2
( x 1)(1 0) ( x 1)( 2 x 0)
x 2 1 2 x 2 2 x 3x 2 2x 1
(xx) Let y x 3 (1 x 2 x 5 x 8 )
y x 3 x 1 x 2 x 5
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n n 1
3x 4 1x 2 2 x 5 x 4 dx ( x ) nx
dx
3x 4 x 2 2x 5x 4
(xxi) Let y ( x 2 1)( x 3 x 2 1)
Diff. w.r.t. x [Using Product Rule]
43
Fundamentals of dy d d
Mathematics-II ( x 2 1) ( x 3 x 2 1) ( x 3 x 2 1) ( x 2 1)
dx dx dx
2 2 3 2
( x 1)(3x 2 x ) ( x x 1)( 2 x )
3x 4 2x 3 3x 2 2x 2x 4 2x 3 2x
5x 4 4 x 3 3x 2 4 x
(xxii) Let y ( 4 x 1) 3 (7 x 1) 4
Diff. w.r.t. x [Using Product rule]
dy d d
( 4x 1) 3 (7 x 1) 4 (7 x 1) 4 ( 4 x 1) 3
dx dx dx
(4 x 1) 3 4(7 x 1) 3 7 (7 x 1) 4 3( 4 x 1) 2 4
4( 4x 1) 2 )(7 x 1) 3 7( 4 x 1) 3( 7 x 1)
4( 4 x 1) 2 (7 x 1) 3 ( 49 x 10)
(xxiii) Let y ( x 2) 2 ( x 3) 4 ( x 1) 5
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d d
( x 2) 2 ( x 3) 4 ( x 1) 5 ( x 2) 2 ( x 1) 5 ( x 3) 4
dx dx dx
d
( x 3) 4 ( x 1) 5 ( x 2) 2
dx
if u, v, w, are functions of x, then
d
(uvw) uv d (w) uw d (v) vw d (u)
dx dx dx dx
2 4 4 2 5 3
( x 2) ( x 3) 5( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 1) 4( x 3)
( x 3) 4 ( x 1) 5 2( x 2)
( x 2)( x 3) 3 ( x 1) 4 5( x 2)( x 3) 4( x 2)( x 1) 2( x 3)( x 1)
( x 2)( x 3) 3 ( x 1) 4 [5( x 2 5 x 6) 4( x 2 3x 2) 2( x 2 4 x 3)]
( x 2)( x 3) 2 ( x 1) 4 (11x 2 45x 44)
Example 4: Find the derivative of the following functions:
x 1 8x 3 a2 x2 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 2 (iv)
x 1 6 5x x a2 x 1
Solution:
x 1
(i) Let y =
x 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
d d
( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)
dy dx dx
[Using Quotient Rule]
dx ( x 1) 2
( x 1).1 ( x 1).1 x 1 x 1 2
2
2
( x 1) (x 1) (x 1) 2
8x 3
(ii) Let y =
6 5x
Diff. w.r.t. x
44
d d Diffrenciation
(6 5 x ) (8x 3) (8 x 3) (6 5 x )
dy dx dx
2
[Using Quotient Rule]
dx (6 5 x )
(6 5x ).8 (8x 3)(5) 63
2
(6 5 x ) (6 5x) 2
a2
(iii) Let y = a 2 ( x 2 a 2 ) 1
x2 a2
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d
a 2 ( 1)( x 2 a 2 ) 2 (x 2 a 2 )
dx dx
Don ' t use quoient rule here because
there is no function of x in numerator.
a2 2a 2 x
.2 x
(x 2 a 2 ) 2 (x 2 a 2 ) 2
x2 1
(iv) Let y =
x 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d x 2 1 d n 1 d
dx
2 dx
x 1
n
dx ( f ( x )) n ( f ( x )) dx (f ( x ))
x 1
2
x 1
d d
( x 1) ( x 2 1) ( x 2 1) ( x 1)
1 x 1 dx dx
= 2 [Using Quotient Rule]
2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
( x 1)(2 x 1) ( x 2 1)(1) 2x 2 2x x 2 1
2 x 2 1( x 1) 3 / 2 2 x 2 1 ( x 1) 3 / 2
x 2 2x 1 ( x 1) 2
2( x 1) 3 / 2 x 2 1 2( x 1) 3 / 2 x 2 1
Here, are some exercises for you.
E 3) Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x
2
1 1
(i) e (ii) 7 (iii) x (iv) ( 4 3x ) (v) x 3 3 8
x x
E 4) Find the derivative of the following functions:
1 1 3 1 1 x2 x2 x
(i) x x (ii) x x (iii) (iv)
x x x3 x x3 1 a
6.5 CHAIN RULE
Sometimes variables y and x are connected by the relations of the form
y = f(u) , u = g(w), w = h(x)
and we want to differentiate y w.r.t. x. then chain rule is used, which gives
45
Fundamentals of dy dy du dw
Mathematics-II
dx du dw dx
Following example will illustrate the rule more clearly.
dy
Example 5: Find in the following cases.
dx
(i) y 3u, u v 2 , v 4x 2 5
x
(ii) y u 2 , u 3v, v
x 1
Solution:
(i) y 3u , u v2 , v 4x 2 5
Diff. w.r.t. u Diff. w.r.t. v Diff. w.r.t. x
dy du dv
3 2v 8x
du dv dx
by chain rule
dy dy du dv
3( 2 v)(8x )
dx du dv dx
48 xv 48 x ( 4 x 2 5) [Replacing the value of v in terms of x]
x
(ii) y u 2 , u 3v, v
x 1
Diff. w.r.t. u Diff. w.r.t. v Diff. w.r.t. x
dy du dv x 1.1 x.(1) 1
2u 3 2
=
du dv dx ( x 1) ( x 1) 2
by chain rule
dy dy du dv 1
2u (3) 2
dx du dv dx (1 x )
6u 6(3v) 18v 18x
2
2
(1 x ) (1 x ) (1 x ) 2 (1 x ) 3
6.6 DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL,
LOGRITHMIC, PARAMETRIC AND
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
Let us first take up some examples on derivatives of exponential and logarithmic
functions as given in example 12.
Example 6: Find the derivative of the following functions:
2
(i) 2 x (ii) 5ax (iii) e 3x (iv) e 9 x (v) log(1 x 2 )
1
(vi) log x x 2 (vii) log 2 x (viii) log x 2 (ix)
log(1 x )
Solution:
(i) Let y 2 x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d x x
2 x log 2 dx (a ) a log a
dx
(ii) Let y 5 ax
Diff. w.r.t. x
46
dy d d bx bx Diffrenciation
5 ax log 5 (ax ) dx (a ) ba log a
dx dx
5 ax a log 5
(iii) Let y e 3x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d ax ax
e 3 x (3) 3e 3x dx (e ) ae
dx
2
(iv) Let y e 9 x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 2 d 2 d f ( x) d
e9x (9 x 2 ) e 9 x (18x ) Using (e ) ef (x ) (f (x))
dx dx dx dx
2
18x e 9 x
(v) Let y log(1 x 2 )
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d 2x d 1 d
2
(1 x 2 ) 2
(log f (x )) (f ( x ))
dx 1 x dx 1 x dx f (x ) dx
log x 2
(vi) Let y log x x 2 [Using base change formula]
log x
2 log x
2 log m n n log m
log x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy
0
dx
(vii) Let y = log 2 x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d 1
log 2 e
dx x dx log a x x log a e
log 2
(viii) Let y log x 2 [Using base change formula]
log x
y (log 2)(log x ) 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d (log 2) 1 log 2
(log 2)(log x ) 2 (log x ) 2
dx dx (log x ) x x (log x ) 2
1
(ix) Let y y log(1 x )1
log(1 x )
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 2 d
1log(1 x ) (log(1 x ))
dx dx
1 1 1
log(1 x) 1 x (1 x)log(1 x)2
2
47
Fundamentals of Here is an exercise for you.
Mathematics-II
E 5) Find the derivative of the following functions:
x 2
(i) a log a 2 (ii) 3log 3 x
Following is an example on derivatives of parametric functions.
dy
Example 7: Find for the following parametric functions:
dx
1 3t 2 1 t2
(i) x 1 t , y 2 t 2 (ii) x , y
1 t 1 t
Solution:
(i) x 1 t , y 2 t2
Diff. w.r.t. t Diff. w.r.t. t
dx dy
1 , 2t
dy dt
dy dy dx 2 t
2t
dx dt dt 1
1 3t 2
(ii) x
1 t
Diff. w.r.t. t
d d
(1 t ) (1 3t 2 ) (1 3t 2 ) (1 t )
dx dt dt
2
dt (1 t )
(1 t )(6t ) (1 3t 2 )( 1) 6t 6 t 2 1 3t 2 1 6 t 3t 2
(1 6 2 (1 t ) 2 (1 t ) 2
1 t2
Now, y
1 t
Diff. w.r.t. t
d d
(1 t ) (1 t 2 ) (1 t 2 ) (1 t )
dy dt dt (1 t )(2 t ) (1 t 2 )(1)
dt (1 t ) 2 (1 t ) 2
2t 2t 2 1 t 2 1 2t t 2
(1 t ) 2 (1 t ) 2
dy dy dx 1 2t t 2
dx dt dt 1 6t 3t 2
Now, you can try the following the exercise.
dy
E 6) Find if x 2 4 t 2 , y 9 t 2 3t 1 .
dx
Implicit Function
A function defined by y = f(x) is known as explicit function. But sometimes y
cannot be easily expressed in terms of x. A function of the form
f ( x , y) c, where c is a constant
is known as implicit function.
48
Procedure Diffrenciation
In case of implicit function, differentiate the given relation w.r.t. x and collect
dy
all the terms of to the left hand side and finally dividing both sides by a
dx
dy dy
term attached with , we get the value of .
dx dx
Following example will explain the procedure more clearly:
dy
Example 8: Find in the following cases:
dx
(i) x 2 y 2 c 2 (ii) ( x a ) 2 ( y b ) 2 r 2 (iii) x 3 y 3 xy 5
Solution:
(i) x 2 y 2 c 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy dy x
2x 2y 0
dx dx y
(ii) ( x a ) 2 ( y b ) 2 r 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy dy x a
2( x a ) 2( y b) 0
dx dx yb
(iii) x 3 y 3 xy 5
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy dy
3x 2 3y 2 x y.1 0 [Using Product Rule in the term xy]
dx dx
dy
(3y 2 x) (y 3x 2 )
dx
dy 3x 2 y
dx x 3y 2
Now, you can try the following exercise.
dy
E 7) Find , if xy 3 xe x xe y 3
dx
6.7 DERIVATIVE OF HIGHER ORDERS
Sometimes we are to differentiate the function more than once.
d2 y
Derivative of y w.r.t x twice is denoted by ,
dx 2
d3 y
Derivative of y w.r.t x thrice is denoted by 3 ,
dx
…
…
…
dn y
n times differentiation of y w.r.t x is denoted by .
dx n
49
Fundamentals of Following example illustrate the idea of higher order derivatives.
Mathematics-II
Example 9: Find the indicated derivatives for the following functions:
d4 y 1 d3y
(i) 4
for y (ii) 3
for y e ax
dx x dx
d3y d 2 y d3y d 4 y
(iii) 3
for y (ax b) 7 (iv) 2
, 3 , 4 for y x 2 x 1
dx dx dx dx
Solution:
1
(i) y
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1
dx x 2
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d 2 y (1)(2) 2
2
3
3
dx x x
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d 3 y 2(3) 6
3
4
4
dx x x
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d 4 y 6(4) 24
5
dx 4 x5 x
(ii) y e ax
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d d f (x) f (x) d
e ax (ax ) dx (e ) e (f ( x ))
dx dx dx
= e ax (a ) ae ax
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d2y
2
a 2 e ax
dx
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d3y
3
a 3 e ax
dx
(iii) y (ax b) 7
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n 1
dx
7(ax b) 6 a n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
Again diff. w.r.t .x
d2y
2
42(ax b) 5 a 2
dx
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d3y
3
210(ax b) 4 a 3
dx
(iv) y x 2 x 1
50
Diff. w.r.t. x Diffrenciation
dy Using formula written at serial
2x 1 number12 of the table of formulae
dx
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d2y
2
dx 2
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d3y
0
dx 3
Again diff. w.r.t. x
d4y
0
dx 4
6.8 CONCEPT OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
Differentiation has a large number of applications in different fields such as
mathematics, statistics, economics, actuarial science, etc. Concept of
differentiation is also useful to obtain maxima or minima point(s) and their
corresponding value(s) of a given function. Actually sometimes we are
interested only to find maximum or minimum value(s) of a function. The aim
of this section is to meet this interest. Without going into theoretical details, let
us discuss the concept geometrically.
Fig. 6.3
In equation (2) of Sec. 6.2 of this unit we have seen that
Fundamentals of (Derivative at a po int) x a is the slope of the tangent at that po int . … (1)
Mathematics-II
In Fig 6.3 a we see that x 1 is a point where the function y = f(x) takes
maximum value (local) compare to all points which are very close to x1
i.e. f (x1 ) f (x) … (2)
for all points x which are very close to x1
The point x1 is known as local maxima point of the function y = f(x) (local
maxima means that it satisfy the equation (2) as given above, i.e. there may be
points in the domain of the function where value of the function f is greater
than f ( x 1 ))
Similarly, points x 3 and x 5 in the same figure are points of maxima (local). On
the other hand in the same figure x 2 is a point where the function y = f(x)
takes minimum value (local) compare to all points which are very close to x 2
i.e. f (x 2 ) f (x)
for all points x which are very close to x 2
The point x 2 is known as local minima point of the function y = f(x).
Similarly x 4 and x 6 are points of local minima.
But one interesting point to be noted here is that tangent lines at all the points
whether it is point of maxima or minima is parallel to x-axis.
i.e. slope of the tangent at point of maxima or minima = tan0 = 0 … (3)
if a line makes an angle with ve direction of
x axis then slope of the line is defined as tan , in
this case 0 as tangent line is parallel to x axis.
In view of equation (1) and (3), we have
Derivative of the function at a point of maxima or minima = 0 … (4)
, provided that derivative at that point exists
Also note that converse of (4) does not hold.
For example, take graph of the function y f (x) x 3 shown in Fig. 6.3 c.
we see that
dy dy
f ' 0 3(0)2 0 f '(x) 3x 2
dx x 0 dx
But x = 0 is neither point of maxima nor minima.
Now consider the function y f (x ) x , whose graph is shown in Fig. 6.3 b.
We see that x = 0 is a point of minima, in fact absolute minima or global
minima (absolute minima or global minima means that function assumes
smallest value at x = 0 in whole domain of the function not only at those
points which are very close to x = 0)
But we have seen in part (i) of Example 2 of this unit that derivative of the
function y f (x ) x does not exists at x = 0.
52
Equation (4) implies points obtained by putting first derivative equal to zero Diffrenciation
may be points of maxima or minima. Second derivative test differentiate
between points of maxima and minima which is stated below:
Second Derivative Test: It states that if the function f is twice differentiable
at a point ‘c’, where c is point of the domain of the function f, then
(i) c is point of local minima if f ' c 0 and f '' c 0.
(ii) c is point of local maxima if f ' c 0 and f '' c 0.
(iii) test fails if f '' c 0. In this case we use first order derivative test, which
can be concluded as:
if f ' c changes its sign from positive to negative as we cross the point
x = c, then x = c is point of maxima (see Fig. 6.3 a at point x 3 )
if f ' c changes its sign from negative to positive as we cross the point
x = c, then x = c is point of minima. This can be noted at points
x 2 , x 4 , x 6 ) in Fig. 6.3 a.
if f ' c does not change its sign as we cross the point x = c, then x = c
is neither point of minima nor maxima. See Fig. 6.3 c in which x = 0 is
such a point. Point of this nature is called point of inflection. Normal
curve has two such points at x and x . You can observe
it by differentiating normal density twice and putting double derivative
equal to zero. Normal distribution is discussed in Unit 13 and Unit 14
of MST-003.
With the following two examples followed by an exercise, let us close this
Sec.
Example 10: Find local maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x) 2x 3 15x 2 36x 9.
Solution: Given function is
f ( x ) 2 x 3 15x 2 36x 9
Dif. w.r.t.x
f ' ( x ) 6 x 2 30 x 36 … (1)
For maxima or minima
f ' ( x) 0
6x 2 30x 36 0
x 2 5x 6 0
( x 2)( x 3) 0
x 2, 3
Diff. (1) w.r.t. x
f ' ' ( x ) 12 x 30
At x = 2, f ' ' ( 2) 24 30 6 0
by second order derivative test, x = 2 is point of maxima and maximum
value is given by
f ( 2) 2( 2) 3 15(2) 2 36( 2) 9 16 60 72 9 27
At x = 3, f ' ' (3) 36 30 6 0
53
Fundamentals of by second order derivative test, x = 3 is point of minima and minimum
Mathematics-II value of the function is given by
f (3) 2(3) 3 15(3) 2 36(3) 9 54 135 108 9 36
Example 11: Find local maximum and minimum values of the function
x 4 x3
f (x) 2x 2 4x 5.
4 3
Solution: Given function is
x 4 x3
f ( x) 2x 2 4x 5
4 3
Diff. w.r.t. x
4x 3 3x 2
f 'x 4x 4 x 3 x 2 4x 4 … (1)
4 3
For maxima or minima
f ' x 0
x 3 x 2 4x 4 0 … (2)
By inspection x = –1 is a root of equation (2)
( x 1) is a factor of x 3 x 2 4 x 4
(2) can be written as
( x 1)( x 2 4) 0
x 1( x 2)(x 2) 0
x = –1, 2, –2
Diff. (1) w.r.t. x
f ' ' x 3x 2 2 x 4
At x = –1, f ' ' ( 1) 3( 1) 2 2( 1) 4 3 2 4 3 0
At x = 2, f ''(2) 3(2) 2 2(2) 4 12 0 and
At x = –2, f ' ' 2 3( 2) 2 2( 2) 4 4 0
by second order derivative test x = 2, –2 are points of minima and x = –1 is
point of maxima.
(2) 4 (2)3 13
Local minimum value at x = 2 is f(2) = 2(2)2 4(2) 5 and
4 3 3
Local minimum value at x = –2 is given by
(2)4 (2)3 19
f(–2) = 2(2)2 4(2) 5
4 3 3
Local maximum value at x = – 1 is given by
( 1) 4 (1)3 83
f ( 1) 2(1)2 4(1) 5
4 3 12
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 8) Find local maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x) 4x 3 21x 2 18x 9.
54
6.9 SUMMARY Diffrenciation
Let us summarise the topics that we have covered in this unit:
1) Derivative at a point.
2) Derivatives of constant, polynomials and some others commonly used
functions such as x n , (ax b ) n , etc. Product Rule and Quotient Rule.
3) Chain rule.
4) Derivatives of exponential, logarithmic, parametric and implicit functions.
5) Derivatives of higher orders.
6) Concept of maxima and minima.
6.10 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E 1) (i) f ( x ) x 3 x 1, at x 1
By definition
f ( 1 h ) f ( 1)
f ' ( 1) lim
h 0 h
(1 h ) 3 (1 h ) 1 [(1) 3 (1) 1]
lim
h 0 h
3 2
1 h 3h 3h 1 h 1 ( 1 1 1)
lim
h 0 h
3 2
h 3h 4h
lim lim (h 2 3h 4) 0 0 4 4
h 0 h h 0
(ii) By definition
1 1
f h f
1 2 2
f ' lim
2 h 0 h
2 2
1 1
2 3 h 2 3
2 2
lim
h0 h
1 3
2 3 h h 2 2
lim 4 4
h 0 h
2
3h 3h
lim lim (3 3h ) 3 0 3
h0 h h 0
E 2) f ( x ) 2 x 2 3ax 5
By definition
f ( 2 h ) f ( 2)
f ' ( 2) lim
h 0 h
2(2 h ) 2 3a (2 h ) 5 [2(2) 2 3a (2) 5]
lim
h 0 h
2
2( 4 h 4h ) 6a 3ah 5 (8 6a 5)
lim
h0 h
55
Fundamentals of 2h 2 8h 3ah
Mathematics-II lim lim (2h 8 3a ) 8 3a
h 0 h h
But according to problem
11
f ' ( 2) 3 8 3a 3 3a 11 a
3
E 3) (i) Let y = e
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy and e both are constant eis a constant
0 and derivative of a constant function is zero.
dx
1
(ii) Let y = 7
x 7
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 7 d n n 1
7 x 8 = 8 dx ( x ) nx
dx x
(iii) Let y x x 1 / 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 1/ 2 1 d n n 1
x
dx 2
2 x dx ( x ) nx
(iv) Let y ( 4 3x ) 8
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n 1
dx
8( 4 3x ) 7 ( 3) n
dx (ax b) n (ax b ) a
24( 4 3x ) 7
2
1
(v) Let y x 3 3
x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 1 d 1
2 x 3 3 x 3 3
dx dx
x x
d n 1 d
n
dx (f (x )) n (f ( x )) dx (f ( x ))
1 3
2 x 3 3 3x 2 4
x x
1 1 1 1
6 x 5 7 4 x 5 7
x x x x
1 1 1 1
E 4) (i) y x x x 3 / 2 x1 / 2 1/ 2 3 / 2
x x x x
y x 3 / 2 x 1 / 2 x 1 / 2 x 3 / 2
Diff. w.r.t. x
56
dy 3 1 / 2 1 1 / 2 1 3 / 2 3 5 / 2 Diffrenciation
x x x x
dx 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 3
x 3/ 2 5 / 2
2 2 x 2x 2x
1 1 1 1
(ii) Let y x 3 3 x x 4 x 2 2 4
x x x x
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy 2 4
4x 3 2x 3 5
dx x x
x2
(iii) Let y
x3 1
Diff. w.r.t. x
d 2 d 3
( x 3 1) (x ) x 2 ( x 1)
dy dx dx
[Using Quotient Rule]
dx ( x 3 1) 2
( x 3 1)( 2 x ) x 2 (3x 2 )
( x 3 1) 2
2 x 4 2 x 3x 4 2x x 4 x(2 x 3 )
( x 3 1) 2 ( x 3 1) 2 ( x 3 1) 2
x2 x 1 2
(iv) Let y (x x)
a a
Diff. w.r.t. x
Do not use quoient rule
dy 1 d 1
( x x ) ( 2 x 1) because in the denominator
2
dx a dx a
there is no function of x.
x
E5) (i) Let y = a log a 2 y 2 x [ a log a f ( x ) f ( x ) ]
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d x
dx
2 x log 2
x
dx a a log a
2
(ii) Let y 3log3 x x 2 [ a log a f ( x ) f ( x ) ]
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy d n n 1
dx
2x
dx x nx
E 6) x 2 4t 2 , y 9 t 2 3t 1
Diff. w.r.t. t Diff. w.r.t. t
dx dy
8t 18t 3
dt dt
dy dy dx 18 t 3
dx dt dt 8t
57
Fundamentals of E 7) xy 3 xe x xe y 3
Mathematics-II
Diff. w.r.t. x
dy y dy y
x 3y 2 3 x x
(1) y xe (1)e xe (1)e 0
dx dx
dy
3xy 2 xe y dx y 3
xe x e x e y
dy y 3 xe x e x e y y 3 xe x e x e y
dx 3xy 2 xe y xe y 3xy 2
E 8) Given function is
f ( x ) 4 x 3 21x 2 18 x 9
Diff. w.r.t. x
f ' ( x ) 12 x 2 42 x 18 … (1)
For maxima or manima
f’(x) = 0
12x 2 42x 18 0
2x 2 7 x 3 0
2x 2 6x x 3 0
2 x ( x 3) 1( x 3) 0
( x 3)(2 x 1) 0
x 3, 1 / 2
Diff. (1) w.r.t. x
f ' ' ( x ) 24x 42
At x = 3, f ' ' 3 24 3 42 72 42 30 0
1
At x 1 / 2, f ' ' (1 / 2) 24 42 12 42 30 0
2
by second order derivative test x = 3 is point of minima and x = 1/2is
point of maxima.
Local minimum value at x = 3 is given by
f (3) 433 21(3) 2 18(3) 9 108 189 54 9 18
Local maximum value at x 1 / 2 is given by
3 2
1 1 1 1
f 4 21 18 9
2 2 2 2
1 21 21 21 72 53
99
2 4 4 4
58
UNIT 7 INDEFINITE INTEGRATION Indefinite Integration
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Meaning and Terminology used.
7.3 Integration of some Particular Functions
7.4 Integration by Substitution
7.5 Integration using Partial Fractions
7.6 Integration by Parts
7.7 Summary
7.8 Solutions/Answers
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we have studied the differentiation of some functions.
Here, in this unit we are going to discuss the reverse process of differentiation
known as integration.
In this unit, we will study the integration of some commonly used functions in
section 7.3, integration by substitutions in section 7.4, integration by using
partial fractions in section 7.5 and integration by parts in section 7.6.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
evaluate the integration of some commonly used functions;
evaluate the integration by substitution method;
evaluate the integration using partial fractions; and
evaluate the integration by parts.
7.2 MEANING AND TERMINOLOGY USED
Notations
You have become familiar with the concept of summation discussed in Unit 3
of this course, i.e. MST-001. In fact, summation is convenient way to represent
the sum of discrete values only. If the variable is continuous, then the
summation cannot be used in the way it is used for discrete values. Summation
is obtained by the process of integration in case of continuous variable.
Origin of integration lies in the process of summation. In mathematics, the
words “Summation” and “Integration” are used for the words “to unite”.
In previous unit we have studied differentiation. The integration is just the
reverse process of differentiation. Actually, it is an antiderivative of a function.
That is, if f ' ( x ) is derivative of f(x) and hence f ' ( x ) is derivative of f(x) + c
( derivative of constant is zero). And therefore, f(x) + c is the integration of
f ' (x) .
59
Fundamentals of Integral of a function f(x) w.r.t. x is denoted by f ( x )dx
Mathematics-II
,where f(x) is known as integrand, dx reflects the message that integrand is to
be integrated w.r.t. to the variable x and the entire process of finding the
integral of integrand is known as integration. The symbol has its origin
from the letter S, which was used for summation.
Let us consider a simple example first and then give a list of the formulae.
x2
We know that the function x is the differentiation of c w.r.t. x.
2
x2
c is integration of x.
2
x2
i.e. x dx c , where c is known as constant of integration.
2
Similarly, integration of other functions can be obtained. Integrations of some
commonly used functions are listed in the following table.
.
List of Formulae of Integration
S. Function f(x)
No.
f ( x ) dx
1 k (constant function) kx + c, where c is
constant of integration
2 xn x n 1
c, n 1
n 1
3 1 log x c
x
4 ( ax b) n (ax b) n 1
c, n 1
a (n 1)
5 1 1
log ax b c
ax b a
6 Exponential functions a mx
(i) a mx (i) c
m log e a
(ii) a mx n a mx n
(ii) c
m log a
(iii) e ax e ax
(iii) c
a
(iv) e ax b e ax b
(iv) c
a
Remark 1:
If f, g are integral functions such that f + g, f – g, are defined and a, b are real
constants, then
(i) a(f ( x )dx a f ( x)dx
(ii) af (x) bg(x) dx a f (x) dx b g(x)dx
60
7.3 INTEGRATION OF SOME PARTICULAR Indefinite Integration
FUNCTIONS
In this section, we learn how the formulae mentioned in the table on previous
page are used.
Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals:
3
(i) 5dx (ii) 0dx (iii) dx (iv) x dx
7/2 1 1 1
(v) x dx (vi) x 5 dx (vii) x 7 / 2 dx (viii) 3 dx
x
3 2 x6 x4 1
(ix) (x x 5)dx (x) ( x 1)( x 1)dx (xi) x 2 dx
2
x 4 x3 3 1 1
(xii) dx (xiii) x dx (xiv) x dx
x x x
1 2
(xv) 8 x 3 2 x 3 2 3 dx
x x
Solution:
5 is a constant and if k is
(i) 5dx = 5x c
constant then kdx kx c
where c is constant of integration.
Note: Constant of integration c is added everywhere, so in future we will not
write ‘where c is constant of integration’.
(ii) 0dx = 0x c c as 0 is constant
(iii) dx x c as is constant
3 x 31 x4 n x n 1
(iv) x dx c c
x dx c
3 1 4 n 1
7
1
x2 2 9 x n 1
(v) x 7 / 2 dx c x 2 c x n dx c
7 9 n 1
1
2
1 5 x 51 1
(vi) 5 dx = x dx c x 4 c
x 5 1 4
n x n 1
x dx c
n 1
1 x 5 / 2 2
(vii) x7/ 2 dx = x 7 / 2 dx c x 7 / 2 c
5/2 5
n x n 1
x dx c
n 1
1 1 x2/3 3
(viii) 3 x dx = x 1/ 3 dx x 1 / 3 dx c x2/3 c
2/3 2
61
Fundamentals of n x n 1
Mathematics-II x dx c
n 1
3 3 x4 x2
(ix) ( x x 5)dx x dx x dx 5 dx 4
2
5x c
2
(x) (x 1)( x 1)dx ( x 3 x 2 x 1)dx
n x n 1
x 4
x 3
x 2
x dx c
xc n 1
4 3 2 and kdx kx c
x6 x4 1 x6 x4 1
(xi) x 2 dx = x 2 x 2 x 2 dx ( x 4 x 2 x 2 )dx
x 5 x 3 x 1 x5 x3 1
c c
5 3 1 5 3 x
x4 x3 3 x4 x3 3
dx x x 3x dx
7/2 5/2 1/ 2
(xii) dx =
x x x x
x9/2 x7/2 x1/ 2 2 2
3 c x9/ 2 x7/2 6 x c
9/2 7/2 1/ 2 9 7
1 x 3 / 2 x1 / 2
(xiii) x
dx = x1 / 2 x 1/ 2 dx =
3/ 2 1/ 2
c
x
3
2 2
x 2 x c
=
3
2
1 1 1
(xiv) x dx = x 2 2 2.x. dx
x x x
x 3 x 1 x3 1
( x 2 x 2 2)dx 2x c 2x c
3 1 3 x
1 2
(xv) 8x 3 2x 3 2 3 dx (8x 3 2 x 3 x 2 2 x 3 )dx
x x
8x 4 2 x 2 x 1 2 x 2
3x c
4 2 1 2
1 1
2 x 4 x 2 3x 2 c
x x
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 1) Evaluate the following integrals:
2 3
2 1 1
(i) x x 2 dx (ii) x
dx
x
(iii) ( 3)dx
1 a b xm
(iv) x x x dx (v) ( x 1)(x 1)dx (vi) xn dx
1 1
(vii) x x 3 3 dx
x x
62
Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals: Indefinite Integration
5 6 3/2
(i) (2x 3) dx (ii) (5 9x ) dx (iii) (9 x 5) dx
5 (3 2 x ) 7 / 2 1
(iv) 8 3x dx (v) dx (vi) (7 x 2) 3 dx
3 2x
1 3 x 5 log a 4 x 5
(vii) dx (viii) e 5 log dx (ix) a dx
3x 5
3x 3x 5x 7
(x) a dx (xi) e dx (xii) e dx
3 2 x 7x 2 x x a a e
(xiii) a dx (xiv) (5e x )dx (xv) (a e a e a )dx
2x (a x b x ) 2
(xvi) 5 x 2 x dx (xvii) dx (xviii) dx
3x a xbx
(xix) (e a log x a x loga a a m loga a )dx
x 3 1
(xx) 3 (5x 3) x x a a dx
5 2x
Solution:
n (ax b) n 1
(2 x 3) 51
5 (ax b) dx c
(i) (2 x 3) dx = c a (n 1)
2(5 1)
Here a 2, n 5
(2 x 3) 6
c
12
n (ax b) n 1
(5 9 x ) 7 (ax b) dx c
(ii) (5 9x ) 6 dx c a (n 1)
7(9)
Here a 9, n 6
1
(5 9 x ) 7 c
63
5/2
n (ax b) n 1
3/ 2 (9 x 5) ( ax b ) dx c
(iii) (9 x 5) dx c a (n 1)
5
9 Here a 9, n 3 / 2
2
2
(9 x 5) 5 / 2 c
45
6
1 6
5 (8 3x ) 5 5
(iv) 8 3x dx (8 3x ) 5 dx c (8 3x ) 5 c
6 18
(3)
5
n (ax b) n 1
( ax b ) dx c
a (n 1)
Here a 3, n 1 / 5
7
7 1
(3 2 x ) 2 am
(v) dx (3 2 x ) 2 2 dx n a m n
3 2x a
(3 2 x ) 3 dx
63
Fundamentals of
4
n (ax b) n 1
Mathematics-II (3 2 x )
( ax b ) dx c
c a (n 1)
4 2
Here a 2, n 3
1
= (3 2x ) 4 c
8
1 3
(vi) (7 x 2) 3 dx (7 x 2) dx
n (ax b) n 1
(7 x 2) 2 ( ax b ) dx c
c a (n 1)
2 7
Here a 7, n 3
1
(7 x 2 ) 2 c
14
1 1 / 2
(vii) dx (3x 5) dx
3x 5
n (ax b) n 1
(3x 5)1 / 2
( ax b ) dx c
c a (n 1)
1
3 Here a 3, n 1 / 2
2
2
3x 5 c
3
5 5
3 x 5 2
(viii) e 5 log dx e log( 3x 5) dx (3x 5) 2 dx a log a f ( x) f (x)
(3x 5)7 / 2 2
c (3x 5)7 / 2 c
7 / 2 (3) 21
log a 4 x 5
(ix) a dx 4 x 5dx a loga f ( x) f (x)
(4x 5)3/ 2 1
c (4x 5) 3/ 2 c
3 / 2 4 6
mx a mx
a dx m log a c
3x
3x a
(x) a dx c
3 log a
Here a a, m 3
e ax
e 3x
3x
e ax
dx c
(xi) e dx c a
3
Here a 3
e ax b
5 x 7 e 5x 7 e
ax b
dx c
(xii) e dx c a
5
Here a 5, b 7
mx n
mx n a
a 3 2 x a dx c
(xiii) a 3 2 x dx c m log a
2 log a
Here m 2, n 3
7x 2 5 7x x 3
(xiv) (5e x )dx 7
e
3
c
64
x x a a e ax Indefinite Integration
(xv) (a e a e a )dx = e x a a x ea x a e x c
log a
Here a a , ea , a e all are constants
and if k is constant then k dx kx c
x ax
x x x x 10 x
a dx c
(xvi) 5 2 dx (5.2) dx 10 dx c log a
log 10
Here a 10
x ax
2x 2 / 3 c x
a dx c
(xvii) x dx 2 / 3x dx log a
3 log 2 / 3
Here a 2 / 3
2 / 3x c
log 2 log 3
(a x b x ) 2 a 2 x b 2 x 2a x b x
(xviii) x x
dx x x
dx [ (a b) 2 a 2 b 2 2ab]
a b a b
a 2x b 2x 2a x b x a x bx
x x x x x x dx x x 2 dx
a b a b a b b a
x
a / b b / a 2 dx
x
a / b x
b / a x
2 x c m x dx
mx
c
log a / b log b / a log m
a x m
(xix) (e
a log x
a x log a a a m loga a )dx e log x a log a a a log a a )dx
( x a a x a m )dx [ a log a f ( x ) f ( x )]
x a 1 ax
= a mx c
a 1 log a
a m is a constant quantity
x 3 1
(xx) 3 (5x 3) x x a a dx
5 2x
x
(5 x 3) 3 x 3 / 2 (5 2x ) 1 / 2 a a dx
3
x2 (5 x 3) 4 x 5 / 2 (5 2 x )1 / 2
aax c
3 2 4 5 5/ 2 2 1 / 2
x 2 (5x 3) 4 2 5 / 2
x (5 2 x )1 / 2 a a x c
6 20 5
65
Fundamentals of Now, you can try the following exercise.
Mathematics-II
E 2) Evaluate the following integral:
x
(i) a x e x a x dx (ii) (3 2 log3 x 3x log3 a a a loga x a a loga a )dx
a
Example 3: Evaluate the following integrals:
1 3 5 7 3
(i) x dx (ii) x dx (iii) dx (iv) dx (v) 9 2x dx
x 1 5x 2
Solution:
1
(i) x dx = log x c [Using formula 3 of the table]
3 1
(ii) x dx 3 x dx 3 log x c [Using formula 3 of the table]
5
(iii) x 1 dx = 5 log x 1 c [Using formula 5 of the table]
7 7 log 5x 2
(iv) 5x 2 dx = c [Using formula 5 of the table]
5
7
= log 5x 2 c
5
3 3 log 9 2 x
(v) 9 2x dx = c [Using formula 5 of the table]
(2)
3
log 9 2 x c
2
Remark 2: In solving these examples you have noted that integration is in fact
anti derivative of a function.
For example, consider (ix) part of Example 1
x4 x2
Let f(x) = x 3 x 5 then f (x )dx 5x c (already calculated)
4 2
x4 x2
Now, let F(x ) 5x c
4 2
Diff. w.r.t.x
d 4x 3 2x
(F( x)) 5 0 x3 x 5
dx 4 2
d
Thus, we note that if f ( x )dx F(x ) then Fx f x
dx
i.e. integral F(x) of f(x) is indefinite because of the presence of arbitrary
constant c.
In the next unit you will meet definite integral, where c will be cancel out.
(Refer section 8.2 of Unit 8 of this course, i.e. MST-001).
7.4 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
In section 7.3, we have taken into consideration the integrations for which a
formula can directly be used. But sometimes integrand cannot be directly
66
integrated using standard formula. In order to convert it into a form for which Indefinite Integration
standard formula can be applied, we substitute some function in place of some
other function and this technique of obtaining the integration is known as
integration by substitution method.
Substitution Method
f ' ( x)
If integral is of the type (f (x )) n f ' (x ) dx or dx, then
(f (x )) n
Step I We substitute f(x) = t … (1)
Step IIDifferentiate on both sides of (1)
Step III
Change the given integral in terms of t
Step IVAfter simplification, if necessary, we get one of the standard forms
discussed in Sec. 7.3. Using appropriate formula we can obtain the
integral of given integrand in terms of t.
Step V Replace t in terms of x, we get the desired result after simplification, if
required.
Following example will explain the substitution method and the steps involved in it:
Example 4: Evaluate the following integrals:
x9 x n 1 ex
(i) x 10 1 dx (ii) xn a (iii) e x 5 dx
1 2ax b 8x 3 4 x
(iv) x log x dx (v) ax 2 bx c dx (vi) (x 4 x 2 1) 6 dx
e 2 x e 2 x 1
(vii) e 2 x e 2 x dx (viii) dx (ix) (2ax b) ax 2 bx c dx
x x
2x
(x) (1 x 2 ) log(1 x 2 ) dx
Solution:
x9
(i) Let I = x 10 1 dx … (1)
Putting x10 1 t
Differentiating
dt
10x 9 dx dt x 9 dx
10
(1) becomes
1 dt 1 dt 1 1
I= log t c dy log y c
t 10 10 t 10 y
1
log x 10 1 c [Replacing t in terms of x ]
10
1 x 10 1 cannot
log( x 10 1) c
10 be ve for real x
Alternatively: We can also put
x10 t
Differentiating
67
Fundamentals of dt
Mathematics-II 10x 9 dx dt x 9 dx
10
(1) becomes
1 dt 1 1
I= dt
t 1 10 10 t 1
1 1
log t 1 c
10 x a dx log x a c
1
log x 10 1 c [Replacing t in terms of x ]
10
1 x 10 1 is always ve
log( x 10 1) c
10 for real x
x n 1
(ii) Let I = x n a dx … (1)
Putting x n a t
Differentiating
dt
nx n 1dx dt x n 1dx
n
(1) becomes
1 dt 1 1
I = log t c dx log x c
n t n x
1
log x n a c [Replacing t in terms of x]
n
ex
(iii) Let I = x dx … (1)
e 5
Putting e x 5 t
Differentiating
e x dx dt
(1) becomes
dt 1
I = log t c log e x 5 c dx log x c
t x
1
(iv) Let I = x log x dx …(1)
Putting log x t
Differentiating
1
dx dt
x
(1) becomes
dt 1
I = log t c
t x dx log x c
log log x c [Replacing t in terms of x]
2ax b
(v) Let I = ax 2 bx c dx … (1)
Putting ax 2 bx c = t
Differentiating
68
(2ax b)dx dt Indefinite Integration
(1) becomes
dt
I log t k log ax 2 bx c k
t
where k is constant of integration
8x 3 4x 4x 3 2x
(vi) Let I = (x 4 x 2 1)6 dx 2 (x 4 x 2 1)6 dx … (1)
Putting x 4 x 2 1 t
Differentiating
(4x 3 2x )dx dt
(1) becomes
dt t 5
I = 2 2 t 6 dt 2 c
t6 5
2 4
= ( x x 2 1) 5 c [Replacing t in terms of x]
5
e 2 x e 2 x
(vii) Let I = e 2 x e 2 x dx … (1)
Putting e 2 x e 2 x t
Differentiating
dt
( 2e 2 x 2e 2 x )dx dt (e 2 x e 2 x )dx
2
(1) becomes
1 dt 1 1
I = log t c
2 t 2 x dx log x c
1
log e 2 x e 2 x c [Replacing t in terms of x]
2
1 1
(viii) Let I = x dx dx … (1)
x x ( x 1)
Putting x 1 t
Differentiating
1 dx
dx dt 2dt
2 x x
(1) becomes
dt
I = 2 2 log t c 2 log x 1 c
t
(ix) Let I = (2ax b ) ax 2 bx c dx … (1)
Putting ax 2 bx c t
Differentiating
(2ax b)dx dt
(1) becomes
t 3/ 2 2
I = t dt k (ax 2 bx c) 3 / 2 k ,
3/ 2 3
where k is constant of integration
69
Fundamentals of 2x
Mathematics-II
(x) Let I = (1 x 2 ) log(1 x 2 ) dx … (1)
Putting log (1 x 2 ) t
Differentiating
1
2 x dx dt
1 x2
(1) becomes
dt
I= = log t c log log(1 x 2 ) c [Replacing t in terms of x]
t
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 3) Evaluate the following integrals:
2x 1
(i) 2 dx (ii) x x a dx
( x x 7) 5
x 1
(iii) dx (iv) dx
xa (1 x ) log(1 x )
7.5 INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL
FRACTIONS
The integrand may be in the form that it can be integrated only after resolving
it into partial fractions. Here, in this section, we are going to deal with
integration of such functions:
First of all we discuss the process of resolving such functions into partial
fractions:
Important steps for resolving into partial fractions are:
1. Check degree of numerator, if it is less than that of denominator, go to
step 2 and if it is greater than or equal to that of denominator, then first
divide the numerator by the denominator and then go to step 2.
2. We may have one of the following main types of functions which we will
dealt as discussed below:
Type 1 Denominator involve all linear factors with exponent as unity.
x 5
e.g. .
( x 1)(x 2)(x 3)
x 5 A B C
Step I Let … (1)
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3
Step II Equate each of the factors of denominator to zero.
i.e. x – 1 = 0 x 1 , x 2 0 x 2, x 3 0 x 3
Step III Put x = 1, 2, 3 every where (in the given expression) but not in the
factor from which it has come out,
1 5 6
A 3, [By putting x = 1 in L.H.S. of (1)]
(1 2)(1 3) 2
25 7
Step IV B 7 , [By putting x = 2 in L.H.S. of (1)]
(2 1)(2 3) 1
70
35 8 Indefinite Integration
Step V and C 4 [By putting x = 3 in L.H.S. of (1)]
(3 1)(3 2) 2 1
x 5 3 7 4
Thus, we may write
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3
R.H.S. is nothing but the partial fractions of the given expression. Here we
note that integration of R.H.S. is directly available, as we will see in the
Example 5 of this unit.
Type 2 Denominator involves all linear factors but some have 2, 3, etc. as
exponents
x2 x 5
e.g.
( x 5)( x 2) 3
x2 x 5 A B C D
Step I Let 3
2
( x 5)( x 2) x 5 x 2 ( x 2) ( x 2) 3
Multiply on both sides by denominator of L.H.S. in this case
by ( x 5)( x 2) 3 , we get
x 2 x 5 A ( x 2) 3 B( x 5)( x 2) 2
C( x 5)( x 2) D( x 5) (1)
Step II Equate each of the factors to zero.
i.e. x + 5 = 0 x 5 , x + 2 = 0 x 2
Step III Put x 5 in (1) we get value of A, as given below
( 5) 2 ( 5) 5 A( 5 2) 3 B(0) C( 0) D( 0)
25
25 27 A A
27
Step IV Put x 2 in (1) we get value of D, as given below
( 2) 2 ( 2) 5 A (0) B(0) C(0) D( 2 5)
7
7 3D D
3
Step V In order to find the values of B, C we have to equate the coefficients
of different powers of x on both sides of (1).
In present case equating coefficients of x 3 and constant terms, we get
0AB … (2)
5 8A 20B 10C 5D … (3)
By putting value of A from Step III and value of D from step IV in
equations (2) and (3), we get.
25 25
0= + B = 0 B
27 27
25 7
5 8 20B 10C 5
27 3
200 25 35
10C 5 20 C 48
27 27 3
Thus, we may write
71
Fundamentals of x2 x 5 25 / 27 25 / 27 48 7/3
Mathematics-II 3
(x 5)(x 2) x 5 x 2 (x 2) (x 2)3
2
R.H.S. is nothing but the partial fractions of the given expression. Here we
note that integration of R.H.S. is directly available, as we will see in Example
5 of this unit.
Type 3 Denominator involves quadratic expressions. We will not discuss the
problems based on this type, because it will involve the integral
formulae which are beyond our contents.
Type 4 Denominator involves higher powers of quadratic expressions.
This type is also not discussed here because it will involve the integral
formulae which are beyond our contents.
Following example will illustrate how these types are used in evaluating
integrals.
Example 5: Evaluate the following integrals:
4x 1 3x 4 8x
(i) dx (ii) 2 dx (ii) dx
(x 1)(x 2) x x 12 (x 1)(x 3) 2
x2 x 2 x2 1
(iv) (x 2)(x 1) 3 dx (v) x 2 1 dx
Solution:
4x 1
(i) Let I = dx
(x 1)(x 2)
Using type 1 procedure as already
discussed.Put x 1every where
5 9 except in x 1 and x 2every
= dx
x 1 x 2
where except in x 2, we have
4.1 1 4.2 1
A 5, B 9
1 2 2 1
5 log x 1 9 log x 2 c
3x 4 3x 4
(ii) Let I = 2
x x 12
dx = (x 4)(x 3) dx
16 / 7 5 / 7 Using partial fractions
= dx as discussed in type 1
x 4 x 3
16 5
= log x 4 log x 3 c
7 7
8x
(iii) Let I = (x 1)(x 3) 2 dx … (1)
Let us first resolve into partial fractions
8x A B C
Let 2
( x 1)( x 3) x 1 x 3 ( x 3) 2
Multiplying on both sides by ( x 1)(x 3) 2 , we get
72
8x A( x 3) 2 B( x 1)( x 3) C( x 1) … (2) Indefinite Integration
Putting x 1 in (2), we get [ x 1 0 gives x 1]
1
8 A(1 3) 2 B(0) C(0) 8 16A A
2
Putting x 3 in (2) , we get [ x 3 0 gives x 3]
24 A(0) B(0) C(3 1) 24 4C C 6
Comparing coefficient of x 2 on both sides of (2), we get
1
0 A B B A B
2
1/ 2 1/ 2 6 1/ 2 1/ 2
I dx
6(x 3) 2 dx
2
x 1 x 3 ( x 3) x 1 x 3
1 1 (x 3) 1
log x 1 log x 3 6 c
2 2 1
1 1 6
log x 1 log x 3 c
2 2 x 3
x2 x 2
(iv) Let I = (x 2)(x 1) 3 dx
Let us first resolve into partial fractions
x2 x 2 A B C D
Let 3
2
( x 2)( x 1) x 2 x 1 ( x 1) ( x 1) 3
Multiplying on both sides by ( x 2)(x 1) 3 , we get
x 2 x 2 A( x 1) 3 B( x 2)( x 1) 2 C( x 2)( x 1) D( x 2)...(2)
Putting x 2 in ( 2) , we get x 2 0 gives x 2
(2) 2 (2) 2 A(2 1) 2 B(0) C(0) D(0)
4A A4
Putting x 1 in (2) , we get x 1 0 gives x 1
( 1) 2 ( 1) 2 A(0) B(0) C(0) D(1 2)
2D D2
Comparing coefficients of x 3 and constant terms on both sides of (2),
we get
0 A B B A B 4
2 A 2B 2C 2 D 2C 2 A 2B 2D
2C 2 4 8 4
2C 2
C 1
4 4 1 2
I 2
dx
x 2 x 1 (x 1) ( x 1) 3
(x 1) 1 2(x 1) 2
4 log x 2 4 log x 1 c
1 2
1 1
4 log x 2 4 log x 1 c
x 1 ( x 1) 2
73
Fundamentals of 1
Mathematics-II x2 1 2 2 2
(v) Let I = 2 dx 1 2 dx x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1
x 2 1
2
2
= 1 dx
( x 1)(x 1)
1 / 2 1 / 2 Using partial fractions
1 2 dx
x 1 x 1 as discussed in type 1
x log x 1 log x 1 c
x 1 m
x log c [ log m log n log ]
x 1 n
Now, you can try following exercise.
E 4) Evaluate the following integrals:
3x 2 x 3 5x 1
(i) dx (ii) x 2 4 dx
(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)
7.6 INTERGRATION BY PARTS
If u and v are any two functions of a single variable x such that first derivates
of u and v w.r.t. x exist, then by product rule, we have
d dv du
uv u v
dx dx dx
Integrating on both sides, we have
dv du
uv u dx v dx
dx dx
dv du
u dx uv v dx … (1)
dx dx
dv
Let u f ( x ) and g( x) … (2)
dx
du
f ' ( x ) and v g ( x )dx … (3)
dx
Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get
f (x) g(x)dx f (x) g(x)dx f '(x) g(x) dx dx
d
Or I II dx I II dx I II dx dx … (4)
dx
where I = first function = f(x)
II = second function = g(x)
R.H.S. of equation (4) is known as integration by parts of L.H.S. of equation
(4), where I, and II just indicate our choice between the product of two
functions taking as first and second functions.
74
Remark 3: Indefinite Integration
(i) In case of integration by parts, choice of first and second function is
important as explained in part (i) of Example 6 given below.
(ii) If in the product of two functions, one is polynomial function then we
take polynomial function as first function.
(iii) Integration by parts is one of the methods (techniques) of integration. It
does not mean that integration of product of any two functions exists.
Example 6: Evaluate the following integrals:
x 2 3x 3 x
(i) xe dx (ii) x e dx (iii) x a dx (iv) log x dx
Solution:
x
(i) Let I = xe dx
I II
Integrating by parts (taking x as first and e x as second function)
d
I x e x dx ( x ) e x dx dx c1
dx
where c1 is constant of integration
xe x (1)(e x )dx c1 xe x e x dx c1 xe x e x c 2 c1
where c 2 is constant of integration
x x
xe e c, where c c1 c2
Let us see what happens if we integrate by parts by taking x as second
and e x as first function:
d
dx
I e x x dx (ex )
x dx dx c1
x2 x2 x 2 ex 1 2 x
ex e x dx c1 x e dx c1
2 2 2 2
We see that integration becomes more complicated. So choice of first and
second function is important.
Note: In future we will add c as constant of integration only once.
2 3x
(ii) Let I = x e dx
I II
Integrating by parts (taking x 2 as first and e 3x as second function)
e3x e3x
I x2 (2x) dx c
3 3
where c is constant of integration
2 3x
xe 2
xe3x dx c
3 3
I II
75
Fundamentals of Again integrating by parts (taking x as first and e 3x as second function)
Mathematics-II
x 2e3x 2 e3x e3x
I x (1)
dx c
3 3 3 3
x 2e3x 2 xe3x 1 3x
e dx c
3 3 3 3
x 2 e3x 2 xe3x e3x 1 2 3x 2 3 x 2 3 x
c x e xe e c
3 3 3 9 3 9 27
3 x
(iii) Let I = x a dx
I II
Integrating by parts (taking x 3 as first and a x as second function)
ax 2 a
x
x 3a x 3
I x3
3x dx c x 2a x dx c
log a log a log a log a
Again integrating by parts (taking x 2 as first and a x as second function)
x 3a x 3 2 ax ax
I (x )
(2x) dx c
log a log a log a log a
x 3a x 3x 2 a x 6
xa x dx c
log a (log a) (log a) 2
2
I II
Again integrating by parts (taking x as first and a x as second function)
x 3a x 3x 2 a x 6 ax ax
(x)
(1)
dx c
log a (log a) 2 (log a)2 log a log a
x 3a x 3x 2 a x 6 xa x ax
c
log a (log a) 2 (log a) 2 log a (log a) 2
x 3a x 3x 2 a x 6 xa x 6a x
c
log a (log a ) 2 (log a ) 3 (log a ) 4
(iv) Let I = log x dx 1 log x dx
II I
Integrating by parts (taking log x as first and 1 as second function)
1
I log x ( x ) ( x )dx c x log x 1dx c x log x x c
x
Here, is an exercise for you.
E 5) Evaluate the following integrals:
2 x 3 x2
(i) x e dx (ii) x e dx
76
7.7 SUMMARY Indefinite Integration
Let us summarise the topics that we have covered in this unit.
1
1) Integral of some functions like constant, x n , n , polynomial,
x
n 1
( ax b) , , exponential whose integral are directly available.
ax b
2) Integration by method of substitution.
3) Integration by use of partial fractions.
4) Integration by parts.
7.8 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
2
2 1 4 1 2 1 4 1
E 1) (i) x x 2 dx = x x 4 2x . x 2 dx = x x 4 2 dx
( x 4 x 4 2)dx
n x n 1
x 5 x 3 x dx c
2x c n 1
5 3 and kdx kx c
x5 1
= 3 2x c
5 3x
3
1 1 1 1
(ii) x dx x 3 / 2 3 / 2 3. x . x dx
x x x x
x 3 / 2 x 3 / 2 3x 1/ 2 3x 1/ 2 dx
x 5 / 2 x 1 / 2 3x 3 / 2 3x 1 / 2
c
5 / 2 1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2
n x n 1
x dx c
n 1
2 2
x5/2 2x 3 / 2 6 x c
5 x
(iii) ( 3)dx ( 3) x c [ 3 is a constant]
1 x2
(iv) x x dx ( x 1)dx xc
x 2
(v) (x
a
1)( x b 1)dx ( x a b x a x b 1)dx c
x a b1 x a 1 x b 1
x c,
a b 1 a 1 b 1
n x n 1
x dx and kdx kx, where k is constant
n 1
where a 1, b 1, a b 1
77
Fundamentals of xm mn x m n 1 x n 1
Mathematics-II (vi) n dx x dx c, m n 1 x n dx
x m n 1 n 1
1 1 1 1
(vii) x x 3 3 dx x 4 2 x 2 4 dx
x x x x
( x x x x 4 ) dx
4 2 2
x 5 x 1 x 3 x 3 x n 1
c x n dx
5 1 3 3 n 1
x5 1 x3 1
c
5 x 3 3x 3
x x ax (ea ) x x 2
E 2) (i) a x e x a x dx a x (ea ) x dx c
a a log a log ea 2a
(ii) 3 2 log3 x 3 x log3 a a a loga x a a loga a dx
2 x a a
3 log3 x 3 log3 a a loga x a loga a dx
2 x
x a x a dx a a
[ a log a f ( x )
f (x ) ]
x3 ax x a 1
aax c
3 log a a 1
2x 1
E 3) (i) Let I = (x 2 x 7) 5 dx … (1)
Putting x 2 x 7 t
Differentiating
(2 x 1)dx dt
(1) becomes
dt 5 t 4 1 1
I=
t5 t dt c 4 c c
4 4t 4( x x 7) 4
2
(ii) Let I = x x a dx … (1)
Putting x a t x a t 2
Differentiating
dx 2 t dt
(1) becomes
t 5 at 3
I = ( t 2 a )t (2 t )dt 2 (t 4 at 2 )dt 2 c
5 3
(x a ) 5 / 2 a
2 (x a )3 / 2 c
5 3
x
(iii) Let I = dx … (1)
xa
Putting x a t x a t 2
Differentiating
dx 2 t dt
(1) becomes
78
(t 2 a ) 2
t3 Indefinite Integration
I= t 2 t dt 2 (t a) dt 2 at c
3
(x a ) 3 / 2
2 a x a c
3
1
(iv) Let I = (1 x) log(1 x ) dx … (1)
Putting log (1+x) = t
Differentiating
1
dx dt
1 x
(1) becomes
dt
I = log t c = log log(1 x ) + c
t
3x 2 5/2 8 11 / 2
E 4) (i) Let I = (x 1)(x 2)(x 3) dx x 1 x 2 x 3 dx
Using partial fractions as discussed in type1, we get
A 3.1 2 5 , B 3.2 2 8, C 3.3 2 11
(1 2)(1 3) 2 (2 1)(2 3) (3 1)(3 2) 2
5 11
log x 1 8 log x 2 log x 3 c
2 2
x 3 5x 1
(ii) Let I =
x 2 4 dx … (1)
Dividing numerator by denominator, we can write (1) as
x
9x 1 9x 1
I x 2 dx x dx x 2 4 x 3 5x 1
x 4
(x 2)(x 2)
x 3 4x
9x 1
19 / 4 17 / 4 Using partial fractions
I x dx as discussed in type 1
x 2 x 2
x 2 19 17 1
2
log x 2 log x 2 c
4 4 x a dx log x a
x2 1
(19 log x 2 17 log x 2 ) c
2 4
x2 1 19 17
(log x 2 log x 2 ) c [ n log m log m n ]
2 4
x2 1
log (x 2)19 ( x 2)17 c log m log n log mn
2 4
79
Fundamentals of E 5) (i) Let I = x 2 e x dx
Mathematics-II
I II
Integrating by parts (taking x 2 as first and e x as second function)
e x e x
I (x 2 ) (2x) dx c
1 1
where c is constant of integration
x 2 e x 2 xe x dx c
I II
Integrating by parts (taking x as first and e x as second function)
ex e x
I x 2 e x 2 (x) (1) dx c
1 1
x 2 e x 2[ xe x e x dx ] c
e x
x 2e x 2 xe x c
1
x 2 e x 2xe x 2e x c
2 x2
(ii) Let I = xx e dx … (1)
Putting x 2 t
Differentiating
dt
2 xdx dt xdx
2
(1) becomes
1
I = te t dt
2
I II
Integrating by parts (taking t as first and e t as second function)
I
1
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
( t )(e t ) (1)(e t )dt c ( te t e t ) c ( x 2 e x e x ) c
1 2
x 2 1 e x c
2
80
UNIT 8 DEFINITE INTEGRATION Definite Integral
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Meaning and Geometrical Interpretation
8.3 Definite Integral of some commonly used Functions
8.4 Elementary Properties of Definite Integral
8.5 Examples based on Properties of Definite Integral
8.6 Summary
8.7 Solutions/Answers
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units 6 and 7 we have discussed concept of differentiation and concept of
indefinite integral. But on many occasions, we are interested in finding out the
probability of a continuous random variable in certain limits, this job is done
by using the concept of definite integral.
This unit discusses about definite integral, evaluation of definite integral of some
commonly used functions with the help of large number of examples. Properties of
definite integral and how these are used have been also discussed in this unit with the
help of number of examples.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define definite integration and give its geometrical meaning;
evaluate the integration of some commonly used functions;
explain the properties of the definite integrations; and
evaluate the integrations using properties of definite integrations.
8.2 MEANING AND GEOMETRICAL
INTERPRETATION
Notation and Definition
You have already studied that if
d
(F( x )) f ( x ), then f ( x )dx F( x ) c
dx
where c is arbitrary constant and hence value of f ( x )dx is indefinite.
Here, we are going to discuss definite integrals.
Definite integral of a function f(x) within the limits
a < x < b or a x b or a x b or a x b … (1)
b
is denoted by f ( x )dx
a
and is defined as
81
Fundamentals of b
By fundamental theorem
f ( x )dx F(x )a F(b) F(a )
b
Mathematics-II … (2)
a of integral calculus
Fundamental theorem , where a is called lower limit, b is called upper limit and either of the
of Integral Calculus: intervals in (1) to be used is known as interval of integration.
If f is integrable on [a,b] 5
5
and F is such that x2 (5)2 22
d For example, (x 3)dx 3x c 3(5) c 3 2 c
F x f x , 2 2 2 2 2
dx
x [a, b]
25 / 2 15 2 6 39 / 2
b
then
b
The integral f ( x )dx being definite integral, so it will have a definite value,
a
f (x) dx F(b) F(a)
a but equation (2) suggests that value of L.H.S. of (2) depends on a, b and f(x).
Following diagram shows that definite integral have different names based on
the role of a, b and f(x).
Here we shall discuss proper integrals and only first kind of improper integrals
as these will applicable later on in the subsequent courses.
b
Note: The notation F(x) a means that function F(x) is to be evaluated at top
and bottom limits and then subtract. Some authors use American text book
b b
notation F(x) a instead of F(x)a . But here we will use square bracket
notation.
Geometrical Interpretation
b
The definite integral f ( x )dx represents the area bounded by the function
a
y = f(x), x-axis and between the lines x = a, x = b as shown by the shaded
region in the following Fig. 8.1
Fig. 8.1
82
Remark 1: In solving numerical problems, generally c is not used. Definite Integral
x3 x2
For example, if f ( x ) x 2 x 6 then f (x )dx 6 x c F(x )
3 2
We will not write it as
2 2
x3 x2
f ( x ) dx F ( x ) 2
1 6 x c
1 3 2 1
3 2 3
1 1 2
2 2
6 2 c 6 1 c
3 2 3 2
8 1 1 8 1 1
2 12 c 6 c 8
3 3 2 3 3 2
16 48 2 3 59
6 6
But thoughout the unit, we will write it as
2 2 2
2 x3 x2
f ( x ) dx ( x x 6) dx
3 2
6x
1
1 1
8 4 1 1 59
12 6
3 3 3 2 6
8.3 DEFINITE INTEGRAL OF SOME COMMONLY
USED FUNCTIONS
Let us here consider some examples of definite integrals based on the formulae
of indefinite integral already discussed in Unit 7 of this course.
Example 1: Evaluate the following integrals:
6 2 3
2
(i) 8dx (ii) ( x 1)dx (iii) (3x 4)dx
2 0 2
5 3 4
3 a
(iv) 4x dx (v) x dx (vi) 18x 24 dx
2 2 2
2 3 5
2 x3 5 1
(vii) ( x 1)(x 1)dx (viii) x 2 dx (ix) 2x 3 dx
1 2 2
3 4 2
4 x 3x
(x) x dx (xi) 2 dx (xii) e dx
2 1 0
2 3
(xiii) 3 4 x 1 dx (xiv) e 2 x 5 dx
0 1
Solution:
6
8dx = 8x 2 8 6 8 2 48 16 32
6
(i)
2
2 2
2 x3 8 14
(ii) ( x 1)dx = x 2 0 0
0 3 0 3 3
83
3 3
Fundamentals of 3x 2 27 27 23
Mathematics-II (iii) (3 x 4 ) dx = 2 4x 2 12 6 8 2 2 2
2 2
5 5
4x 4
(iv) 4 x dx =
3
x
4
5
2 625 16 609
2 4 2
3 3
x a 1 1
(v) x dx a
a 1
a 1
3a 1 2 a 1
2 2
4
4
(18x 24) 3 / 2 n ax b n 1
(vi) 18x 24 dx = ax b dx
3
a (n 1)
2 18
2 2
1 1
27
(72 24) 3 / 2 (36 24) 3 / 2
27
48 3 / 2 (12) 3 / 2
1 1
27
48 48 12 12
27
48 4 3 12 2 3
24 8 56 3
27
8 3 3 (7 3 )
9
9
2 2
2
(vii) ( x 1)(x 1)dx = ( x 3 x x 2 1)dx
1 1
2
x4 x2 x3
x
4 2 3 1
16 4 8 1 1 1
2 1
4 2 3 4 2 3
8 3 6 4 12
42 2
3 12
8 11 32 11 43
3 12 12 12
3 3 3 3
x3 5 x3 5 x 2 5x 1
(viii) dx = x 2 x 2 dx ( x 5 x 2 )dx
2 1 2
2 x 2 2 2
3
x2 5 9 5 4 5
2 x 2 2 3 2 2
27 10 4 5 17 1 17 3 20 10
6 2 6 2 6 6 3
5 5
1 1 1 1
(ix) dx = log 2 x 3 log 7 log 1 log 7 as log 1 0
2
2x 3 2 2 2 2
3 3
4 1 3
x dx = 4 x dx 4log x 2 4(log 3 log 2) 4 log 2
3
(x)
2 2
4 4
2x 1 14
(xi) 2 dx = x
2 4 21
1 log 2 1 log 2 log 2
84
2 2
e 3x
3x 1 6 0 e6 1 Definite Integral
(xii) e dx = ( e e )
0 3 0 3 3
2 2
3 4 x 1 1 1 19680
(xiii) 3 4 x 1
dx = 39 31
4 log 3
(19683 3)
4 log 3
0 4 log 3 0 4 log 3
3 3
2 x 5 e 2 x 5 1 11 7
(xiv) e dx = (e e )
1 2 1 2
Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals:
6 1
2x 3
(i) x x 3dx (ii) x 2 3x 5 dx
1 0
2 3
2x 7 x5
(iii) dx (iv) (x 1)(x 2) 2 dx
0
(x 3)(x 1)(x 4) 0
Solution:
6
(i) Let I = x x 3dx … (1)
1
Putting x 3 t x 3 t 2
Differentiating
dx = 2tdt
Also when x = 1, t = 2 and when x = 6, t = 3
(1) becomes
3 3 3
t5
I = (t 3)t (2 t )dt 2 ( t 3t )dt 2 t 3
2 4 2
2 2 5 2
243 32 243 32
2 27 8 2 19
5 5 5 5
243 32 95 116 232
2 2
5 5 5
1
2x 3
(ii) Let I = x 2 3x 5 dx … (1)
0
Putting x 2 3x 5 t
Differentiating
(2 x 3)dx dt
Also when x 0, t 5 and when x 1, t 9
(1) becomes
9
dt 9
log t 5 log 9 log 5 log
9
I=
5
t 5
2 2
2x 7 13 / 4 1 / 4 3
(iii) Let I = dx dx
0
(x 3)(x 1)(x 4) 0
x 3 x 1 x 4
Using partial fractions as discussed in type1, we get
A 2 3 7 13 , B 2( 1) 7 1
,C
2 4 7
3
(3 1)(3 4) 4 (1 3)(1 4) 4 (4 3)(4 1)
85
13
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-II I log x 3 02 1 log x 1 02 3log x 4 20
4 4
13
log 1 log 3 1 (log 3 log 1) 3(log 2 log 4)
4 4
13 1
(0 log 3) (log 3 0) 3(log 2 log 22 ) as log1 0
4 4
13 1
log 3 log 3 3(log 2 2 log 2) log m n n log m
4 4
1
(13 log 3 log 3) 3( log 2)
4
14 log 3 7
3 log 2 = log 3 3 log 2
4 2
3
x5
(iv) Let I = (x 1)(x 2) 2 dx … (1)
0
First we resolve into partial fractions
x 5 A B C
Let 2
( x 1)(x 2) x 1 x 2 ( x 2) 2
Multiply on both sides by ( x 1)( x 2) 2 , we get
x 5 A( x 2) 2 B( x 1)(x 2) C( x 1) … (2)
Putting x 1 in (2), we get x 1 0 gives x 1
6 A(1 2) 2 B(0) C(0) 6 A A 6
Putting x 2 in (2), we get x 2 0 gives x 2
7 A(0) B(0) C(2 1) 7 C C = 7
Comparing coefficient of x 2 on both sides of (2), we get
0 A B B A B = 6
3
6 6 7
I dx
0
x 1 x 2 (x 2) 2
3
x 2 1
6log x 1 0 6log x 2 0
3 3
7
1 0
1 1
6log 4 log 1 6(log 5 log 2) 7
5 2
2 5
6 log 2 2 6 log 5 6 log 2 7 as log1 = 0
10
21
12 log 2 6 log 5 6 log 2 [ log m n n log m ]
10
21
6 log 5 18 log 2
10
86
Now, you can try the following exercises. Definite Integral
E 1) Evaluate the following integrals:
4 2
2 5
(i) x dx (ii) x 2 dx
2 0
E 2) Evaluate the following integrals:
5 2 1
x ex 2x 2 1
(i) 2 dx (ii) 2x
dx (iii) (x 4)(x 2) 3 dx
2 x 3 0 3e 0
8.4 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE
INTEGRAL
Here, first we list some properties and then we will use these properties to
evaluate some integrals.
b b
P1 f (x )dx f (t )dt (Change of variable property)
a a
b a
P2 f (x )dx f (x )dx (Interchange of limits property)
a b
b c b
P3 f (x )dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx, acb
a a c
In general
We can introduce any number of points between a and b
b c1 c2 cn b
e.g. f (x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx ... f ( x )dx f ( x )dx
a a c1 c n 1 cn
where, a < c1 c 2 ... c n 1 c n b
a
a
2 f (x)dx, if f (x) is an even function
P 4 f (x)dx 0
a 0, if f (x) is an odd function
b b
P 5 f (x )dx f (a b x )dx
a a
a a
In particular, f (x )dx f (a x)dx
0 0
2a a a
P6 f (x )dx f (x )dx f (2a x )dx
0 0 0
2a
a
2 f (x)dx, if f (2a x) f (x)
P7 f (x)dx 0
0 0, if f (2a x) f (x)
87
Fundamentals of Proof:
Mathematics-II
P 1 Let f (x)dx F(x), so f (t)dt F(t)
Now, by fundamental theorem of integral calculus
b b
f ( x )dx F(x ) F(b ) F(a ) … (1)
a a
b b
and f ( t )dt F( t ) F(b) F(a ) … (2)
a a
From (1) and (2)
b b
f ( x)dx f ( t)dt
a a
P 2 Let f ( x )dx F(x )
by fundamental theorem of integral calculus
b
f (x )dx F( x)a
b
F( b) F(a ) … (1)
a
a
and f ( x )dx F(x )ab F(a ) F(b) F(b) F(a ) … (2)
b
From (1) and (2)
b a
f (x )dx f (x )dx
a b
P 3 Let f ( x)dx F(x )
by fundamental theorem of integral calculus
b
f ( x )dx F(x )a F(b) F(a )
b
… (1)
a
c b
and f (x )dx f (x )dx Fx ca Fx cb (F(c) F(a )) F(b) F(c)
a c
F(b ) F(a ) … (2)
From (1) and (2)
b c b
f (x )dx f (x )dx f ( x )dx
a a c
P 4 Using property 3, we have
a 0 a
f ( x) f (x )dx f ( x )dx … (1)
a a 0
0
Let I = f ( x )dx
a
Putting x = – t
Differentiating
dx dt
Also, when x a, t a and when x 0, t 0
88
0 a
Definite Integral
I f ( t )dt f ( x )dx … (2) [Using properties1 and 2]
a 0
Using (2) in (1) , we get
a a a
f ( x)dx f ( x )dx f ( x)dx … (3)
a 0 0
a a
f ( x )dx f ( x )dx, if f is even
0 0
a a
f ( x ) dx f ( x )dx, if f is odd
0 0
a
2 f ( x )dx , if f is even function
0
0 , if f is an odd function
b
P 5 Let I = f ( x )dx … (1)
a
R.H.S. suggests that we should put
x abt
Differentiating
dx dt
Also, when x = a t = b and when x = b t = a
(1) becomes
a a
I = f (a b t)( dt) f (a b t )dt
b b
b
f (a b t )dt [Using property 2]
a
b
(a b x )dx [Using property 1]
a
In particular
If we put a 0, b a in this result, then
a a
f (x )dx f (a x)dx
0 0
2a a 2a
P6 f (x )dx f (x )dx f (x )dx [Using property 3]
0 0 a
I1 I 2 … (1)
2a
I 2 f ( x )dx
a
Putting x = 2a – t
Differentiating
dx dt
Also, when x a, t a and when x 2a, t 0
89
Fundamentals of 0 a
Mathematics-II I 2 f (2a t )(dt ) f (2a t )dt [Using property 2]
a 0
a
(2a x )dx … (2) [Using property 1]
0
Using (2) in (1), we get
2a a a
f ( x) f ( x )dx f (2a x )dx
0 0 0
P7 From property 6
2a a a
f (x )dx f ( x)dx f (2a x )dx
0 0 0
a a
f ( x )dx f ( x )dx , if f (2a x ) f ( x)
0 0
a a
f ( x )dx f ( x )dx, if f (2a x ) f (x )
0 0
a
2 f (x )dx, if f (2a x ) f (x )
0
0, if f (2a x ) f ( x )
8.5 EXAMPLES BASED ON PROPERTIES OF
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
In this section, you will see how the properties of definite integral, discussed
in previous Sec. are used and save lot of calculation work.
Example 3: Evaluate the following integrals:
4 2 3
x 1, 0 x 1
(i) x 2 dx (ii) 2 x 3 dx (iii) 0 f (x)dx, where f (x) 2x 3,1 x 3
1 0
99 2 3
3 x x 5 x 2x
(iv) ( x x e e )dx (v) log 5 x dx (vi) 2 dx
99 2 3
b 3 5 7
f (x) x x 1
(vii) dx (viii) dx (ix) 5 5
dx
a
f ( x ) f (a b x) 2 x 5x 2 x 1 10 x
Solution:
4 2 4
(i) Let I = x 2 dx = x 2 dx x 2 dx [By P3]
1 1 2
for 1 x 2, x 2 0 so
x 2 x 2
2 4
I=
( x 2)dx ( x 2)dx and for 2 x 4, x 2 0 so
1 2
x 2 x 2
90
2 4
x2 x2 4 1 16 4 Definite Integral
2 x 2 x 4 2 8 4
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 5
2 4 2 8 8 2 4 2
2 2 2
2 3/2 2
(ii) 2x 3 dx = 2 x 3 dx 2x 3 dx [By P 3]
0 0 3/ 2
3/ 2 2
(2x 3)dx (2x 3)dx
0 3/ 2
for 0 x 3 / 2 2x 3 0 so 2x 3 (2x 3) and
for 3 / 2 x 2 2x 3 0so 2x 3 2x 3
x 2 3x 3/2
0
x 2 3x 3 / 2
2
9 9 9 9
0 0 4 6
4 2 4 2
9 9 9 9 9 8 9 10 5
2 2
4 4 4 4 4 4 2
3
x 1, 0 x 1
(iii) Let I = f (x )dx, where f ( x ) … (1)
0 2 x 3, 1 x 3
1 3
Now, I f ( x )dx f (x )dx [Using property 3]
0 1
1 3
( x 1)dx (2 x 3)dx [Using (1)]
0 1
2 1
x 3
x x 2 3x 1
2 0
1 3 31
1 0 0 (9 9 1 3) 14
2 2 2
99
(iv) Let I = (x
3
x e x e x )dx
99
Let f ( x) x 3 x e x e x
f ( x) (x ) 3 ( x) e x e ( x ) x 3 x e x e x
( x 3 x e x e x ) f ( x )
f ( x ) is an odd function
99
I (x
3
x e x e x )dx 0 [By property 4]
99
2
5x
(v) Let I = log 5 x dx
2
5x
Let f ( x) log
5 x
91
Fundamentals of 1
5 ( x ) 5x 5x
Mathematics-II f ( x ) log log log
5 ( x ) 5x 5x
5 x
log f ( x ) [ log m n n log m ]
5 x
f(x) is an odd function
2
5 x
I log 0 [By property 4]
2 5x
3 0 3
2x 2x 2x
(vi) 2 dx = e dx e dx
3 3 0
0 3 for 3 x 0, 2 x 0 so 2 x 2 x and
2x
e dx e 2 x dx
3 0 for 0 x 3, 2 x 0 so 2 x 2 x
0 3
e 2 x e 2x 1 6 1 6
(1 e ) (e 1)
2 3 2 0 2 2
1 2e 6 2
(1 e 6 e 6 1) e6 1
2 2
b
f (x)
(vii) Let I = f ( x ) f (a b x) dx … (1)
a
b
f (a b x )
dx [Using property 5]
a
f ( a b x ) f ( a b ( a b x ))
b
f (a b x )
I= f (a b x) f ( x) dx … (2)
a
(1) + (2) gives
b b
f ( x ) f (a b x )
dx 1dx x a b a
b
2I =
a
f ( x ) f (a b x ) a
ba
I
2
3
x
(viii) Let I = dx … (1)
2 x 5x
3
5x
dx [Using property 5]
2 5 x 5 (5 x )
3
5x
I= dx … (2)
2 5x x
(1) + (2) gives
3 3
x 5x
2I = dx 1dx x 32 3 2 1
2 x 5x 2
I 1/ 2
7 5
x 1
(ix) Let I = 5 x 1 5 10 x dx … (1)
2
92
7 5
9 x 1 Definite Integral
5 dx [Using property 5]
5
9 x 1 10 (9 x )
2
7 5
10 x
I5 dx … (2)
2 10 x 5 1 x
(1) + (2) gives
75 7
x 1 5 10 x
2I 5 dx 1dx x 72 7 2 5
10 x 5 x 1
2 2
I 5/ 2
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 3 Evaluate the following integrals:
5 5
(i) x 2 3x 2 dx (ii) x 1 x 2 x 3 dx
1
0
2
4 3x, 1 x 1
(iii) f (x)dx, where f (x)
1 2x 1, 1 x 2
77 1 2 3
5 2 2 x5 x7
(iv) x a x dx (v) 4
dx (vi) x ( 2 x )11 / 2 dx (vii) 4 x x dx
77 1 4 x 0 3
1, 1 x 2
2, 2x3
5
(viii) f (x)dx, where f (x) 3, 3x 4
1 4, 4x5
5, x5
8.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise the topics that we have covered in this unit:
1) Integration of some particular functions like
1 1
k , x n ( n 1), , ( ax b) n , polynomial and exponential functions.
x ax b
2) Definite integral by use of substitution and partial fraction.
3) Elementary properties of definite integral.
4) Examples based on elementary properties of the definite integral.
8.7 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
4 4
x3
2 1 56
E 1) (i) x dx ( 64 8)
2 3 2 3 3
2 2
5 x2 5 4 5
(ii) x dx x 2 0 0 2 5 3
0
2 2 2 0 2 2
93
Fundamentals of 5
x
Mathematics-II E 2) (i) Let I = x 2 3 dx … (1)
2
Putting x 2 t
Differentiating
2 xdx dt xdx dt / 2
Also, when x = 2, t = 4and when x 5, t 25
25
1 dt 1 1 1 28
log t 3 4 (log 28 log 7) log
25
I
2 4 t3 2 2 2 7
1 1 1
log 4 log 2 2 2 log 2 log 2
2 2 2
2
e 2x
(ii) Let I = 3 e 2 x dx …(1)
0
Putting e 2 x t
Differentiating
dt
2e 2 x dx dt e 2 x dx
2
Also, when x 0, t 1 and when x 2, t e 4
4
e
1 dt 1 1 1 3 e4
I
2 1 3 t 2
e4
2
log 3 t 1 log(3 e 4 ) log 4 log
2 4
1
2x 2 1
(iii) (x 4)(x 2) 3 dx
0
Let us first resolve into partial fractions
2x 2 1 A B C D
Let 3
2
( x 4)( x 2) x 4 x 2 ( x 2) ( x 2) 3
Multiplying on both sides by ( x 4)( x 2) 3 , we get
2 x 2 1 A( x 2) 3 B( x 4)( x 2) 2
C( x 4)( x 2) D( x 4) ... ( 2)
Putting 4 in (2) we get x 4 0 gives x 4
33
33 A(4 2) 2 B(0) C(0) D(0) 33 4A A
4
Putting x 2 in (2), we get x 2 0 gives x 2
9
9 A(0) B(0) C(0) D(2 4) 9 2 D D
2
3
Comparing coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides of
(2), we get
33
0 A B B A B
4
1 8A 16B 8C 4D … (3)
94
Putting values of A, B and D in (3), we get Definite Integral
33 33 9
1 8 16 8C 4
4 4 2
83
1 66 132 8C 18 8C 83 C
8
1
33 / 4 33 / 4 83 / 8 9/2
I 2
dx
0
x4 x 2 ( x 2) ( x 2) 3
1
33 1 33 1 83 (x 2) 1
log x 4 0 log x 2 0
4 4 8 1 0
1
9 ( x 2) 2
2 2 0
33
log 1 4 log 0 4 33 (log 1 2 log 0 2 )
4 4
83 1 1 9 1 1
2
8 1 2 0 2 4 (1 2) (0 2) 2
33 33 83 1 9 1
= (log 3 log 4) (log 1 log 2) 1 (1 )
4 4 8 2 4 4
33 33 83 27
(log 3 log 2 2 ) (0 log 2) as log1 = 0
4 4 16 16
33 33 33 56
= log 3 log 2 log 2 [ as log m n n log m ]
4 2 4 16
33 33 56
= log 3 log 2
4 4 16
5 5
E 3) (i) Let I = x 2 3x 2 dx ( x 2)(x 1) dx
0 0
1 2 5
= ( x 2)(x 1) dx ( x 2)(x 1) dx (x 2)(x 1) dx
0 1 2
1 2 5
( x 2)(x 1)dx ( x 2)(x 1)dx ( x 2)(x 1)dx
0 1 2
for 0 x 1, (x 2)(x 1) 0 so (x 2)(x 1) (x 2)(x 1)
for 1 x 2, (x 2)(x 1) 0 so (x 2)(x 1) (x 1)(x 2) and
for 2 x 5, (x 2)(x 1) 0 so (x 2)(x 1) (x 2)(x 1)
1 2 5
( x 2 3x 2)dx (x 2 3x 2)dx ( x 2 3x 2)dx
0 1 2
1 2 5
x 3 3x 2 x 3 3x 2 x 3 3x 2
2x 2x 2x
3 2 0 3 2 1 3 2 2
95
Fundamentals of 1 3 8 1 3
Mathematics-II 2 (0 0 0) 6 4 2
3 2 3 3 2
125 75 8
10 6 4
3 2 3
2 9 12 8 1 3 125 75 8
2 2 10 2
6 3 3 2 3 2 3
5 16 12 2 9 12 250 225 60 16 12
6 6 6
5 1 81 5 1 81 87 29
6 6 6 6 6 2
5
(ii) Let I = x 1 x 2 x 3 dx
1
5 5 5
x 1 dx x 2 dx x 3 dx
1 1 1
5 5 3 5
( x 1)dx (x 2)dx x 3 dx x 3 dx
1 1 1 3
for 1 x 5, x 1 0
so x 1 x 1
5 5
x2 x2 3 5
= x 2x (x 3)dx (x 3)dx
2 1 2 1 1 3
for1 x 3, x 3 0so x 3 x 3 and
for 3 x 5, x 3 0so x 3 x 3
2 3 5
25 1 25 1 x x2
5 1 10 2 3x 3x
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3
25 10 1 2 25 20 1 4 9 1 25 9
9 3 15 9
2 2 2 2 2 2
16 40 9 18 1 6 25 30 9 18
2 2 2 2
4 4
8 20 28 2 2 32
2 2
2
(iii) Let I = f (x)dx,
1
4 3x, 1 x 1
where f (x) … (1)
2x 1, 1 x 2
Now,
1 2
I f (x )dx f (x )dx [Using property (2)]
1 1
96
1 2
Definite Integral
(4 3x )dx (2 x 1)dx [Using (1)]
1 1
2 1
3x 3 3
4 x 2 2
x x 1 4 4 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 2
8 3 8 3 5 11 5 11 8 24
4 4 12
2 2 2 2 2 2
77
5
(iv) Let I = x a 2 x 2 dx
77
Let f ( x ) x 5 a 2 x 2
f ( x ) ( x ) 5 a 2 ( x ) 2 x 5 a 2 x 2 f ( x )
f ( x ) is an odd function.
77
5
I x a 2 x 2 dx 0 [By property 4]
77
1
x5 x7
(v) 4 x 4 dx
1
x5 x7
Let f ( x )
4 x4
( x) 5 (x ) 7 x 5 x 7 x5 x7
f ( x ) f ( x )
4 ( x ) 4 4 x4 4 x4
f(x) is an odd function.
1
x5 x7
4
dx 0 [By property 4]
1 4 x
2 2
11 / 2
x(2 x ) dx (2 x )2 (2 x ) dx [Using property 5]
11 / 2
(vi) Let I =
0 0
2 2
(2 x )(x )11/ 2 dx = (2 x 11/ 2 x 13 / 2 )dx
o 0
2
x 13 / 2 x 15 / 2 4 2
2 = 213 / 2 (2)15 / 2 0 0
13 / 2 15 / 2 0 13 15
4 2 1 1
26 2 2 7 2 28 2
13 15 13 15
15 13 28 2 512
28 2 2 2
13 15 195 195
97
Fundamentals of 3
Mathematics-II (vii) Let I = 4x x dx
3
Let f ( x ) 4 x x
f ( x ) 4( x ) x 4 x ( 1) x 4 x 1 x 4 x x f ( x )
f ( x ) is an odd function.
3
I 4 x x dx 0 [Using property 4]
3
5
(viii) f (x )dx,
1
1, 1 x 2
2, 2 x3
wheref (x ) 3, 3 x 4 … (1)
4, 4 x5
5, x 5
5 2 3 4 5
Now, f (x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx
1 1 2 3 4
[Using property 2]
2 3 4 5
= 1dx 2dx 3dx 4dx [Using (1)]
1 2 3 4
x 12 2x 32 3x 34 4x 54
(2 1) (6 4) (12 9) (20 16)
1 2 3 4 10
98
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