CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION

If we have the will, the environmental challenge can be met

- Gaylord Nelson

The environment has been facing serious threats from every

comer of the world. Hence, the gravity of environmental crisis today
has drawn the attention of the entire world community.
Environmental problems are huge, multifaceted and global in nature.
They are not confined to national boundaries. These environmental
problems, including climate change, depletion of the ozone layer,
biodiversity loss, and over fishing of the high seas, are global in the
sense that they affect everyone and can only be effectively managed on
the basis of co-operation between most, if not all countries in the
world.1 Therefore, protection of environment is the challenge and
responsibility of every nation.

Most of our environmental difficulties originate from man’s

ecological misbehaviour.2 It seems, man’s developmental activities
have generally resulted in severe environmental degradation. Today
man has exploited the nature in the name of development. Therefore
environmental problems are the side effects of development. The need
of the hour is to change our development policy.

The threats to ecology and environment are manifold. The

earth’s physical and biological systems are witnessing great strain.
The United Nations estimates that one-third of the world population
1 Pamela S. Chasek, "Introduction; The Global Environment at the Dawn of a New Millennium” in Pamela S.
Chasek (ed). “The Global Environment in the Twenty-first Century Prospects for International Cooperation”.
Manas Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p.2.
2 R.B. Jain and Kanchan Sharma, “Implementation Machinery for Environmental Protection in India”
The Indian Journal ofPublic Administration Vol. 35 (3), July- September 1989. p.405.

1
live in countries with moderate to high shortages of fresh water and
that this percentage could double by 2025.3 Many cities in the world
are increasingly affected by pollution due to carbon dioxide. The
surface temperature of earth is increasing at an alarming rate. The
biological diversity of the planet earth is also under heavy stress.
Scientists believe that a mass extinction of plants and animals is
underway and predict that as many as twenty percent of all species
could disappear within thirty years.4 These alarming signs are just the
tip of the iceberg. Mankind is exceeding the carrying capacity of the
earth due to growing human population. Most of the environmental
ills that we are facing today are from over-population. Therefore, the
human impact on biosphere will be one of the most critical issues of
the 21st century.

Environmental problems are posing constant threat to humanity.

Certain environmental problems, like Ozone Depletion or Global
Wanning cannot be solved at the national level alone. Therefore,
national governments, leaders, politicians and people in general started
looking up at organisations like UN for environmental issues. Over the
last quarter of a centuiy, the United Nations has held various
international conferences to address these most critical problems of
our time. In the year 1972, UN sponsored Stockholm Conference on
the Human Environment held at Sweden, attended by 113 states. This
is the first organised international effort to safeguard environment.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established
for monitoring global environmental issues. The conference also has
3 Norman J. Vig, “Introduction: Governing the International Environment" in Norman J. Vig and Regina S.
Axelrod, (eds.) "The Global Environment Institutions, Law and Policy" Earthscan Publications, London,
1999, p.l.
4 Ibid. p.l.

2
been called the ‘Magna Carta’ on environment. In the year 1992, UN
convened a United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. This conference is
popularly known as Earth Summit. Delegations from 175 countries
participated and more than 1100 NGOs attended and nearly 200 of
them were influenced by the documents. Thei Rio Declaration contains
27 principles, which are not legally binding but carry a strong moral
force to ensure their adoption. The recent World Summit on
Sustainable development was held in Johannesburg, South Africa,
from August 26 to September 4, 2002. The important out-comes of
this summit are:

1) It reaffirmed sustainable development as a central element of

international agenda.

2) The key role of civil society and NGOs was identified in

promoting partnership among governments and society.

These are the landmark conferences organised by the UN in order

to create environmental awareness amongst the people as well as
national governments. It has been realized by UN conferences that
problems arising out of environmental degradation cannot be solved by
the governments alone. Hence co-operation between Nation States and
NGOs is needed for combating environmental problems.

NGOs are the life and blood of democracy. Their activities cover a
wide range of functions embracing human welfare. NGOs are serving
as an important watchdog of democracy. They provide platform for
citizen’s action and are also one of the cardinal instruments of civil
society. In the last three decades the world has experienced a marked
increase on the activities of environmental non-governmental

3
 organisations (ENGOs) at the local, national, regional and global level.5
In India also numerous NGOs are working on various aspects of
environmental protection. Thus environmental NGOs are seen as the
‘miracle weapon and ray of hope’ in the battle against environmental
degradation in many parts of the world.

People are part of the environment, when they are deprived of the
use of their natural resources, in reaction there have been various
kinds of protest movements by the people. The people who get hurt
most by environmental neglect are the poorest people in our societies.6
Pollution is an attack on the poor. This is always true in every
environmental controversy. The people who shoulder the heaviest
burden of environmental injury are always the poorest people in our
society.7 Therefore, it is the marginalised people who are the focus of
the environmental movement, because, they are very much part of the
environment and depend on it for their basic needs.

' Statement of the Problem:

The problems of environment have come to the fore only during

the recent years. They seem to have gripped the imagination and
thinking of enlightened people, organised groups and governments in
most of the developed and developing countries.8 With the growing
magnitude of human activities, environmental degradation, which was
once largely localised within the borders of states, has increasingly
5 Volker Rittberger ,“NGOs and Global Environmental Governance: Introduction“ in Pamela S. Chasek (ed)
“The Global Environment in the Twenty-first Century Prospects for International Cooperation" , Manas
Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p.83.
6 Gaylord Nelson with Susan Campbell and Paul Wozniak, "Beyond Earth Day Fulfilling the Promise" The
University of Wisconsin Press Madison, Wisconsin United States of America, 2002, p.6.
7 Ibid. p.6.
8 T.N. Chaturvsdi, “Editorial' The Indianjournal of Public Administration Vol. 35 (3), July-September 1989,
[Link].

4
taken on transnational, regional and even global proportions.
Scientists warn that human beings have become the agents of
fundamental alterations of the Earth System.9 The grimness of the
situation demands government’s immediate intervention to solve the
problem. Though environment affects the livelihood of millions of
people from all over the world, yet only lip service has given to this
most crucial issue.

Protection of environment is a major problem and dire necessity.

Infact, governments have the primary responsibility to preserve and
protect the environment. In almost every area of environmental
protection - forests, land, air, water and biodiversity - the
Government’s efforts have rarely been a success. Legal and
bureaucratic solutions are sought for human problems. Even where
effective laws exist, they are implemented half-heartedly. As a result,
there are many words but little action.10 Therefore, it seems
governments have not taken any interest at all. Environment is a hotly
debated subject in the media; there are shocking reports of how the
country’s environment is going from bad to worse with every passing
day because of the neglect and lack of clear vision and activism by
governments in power over the years.*11 The government, which owns,
controls and develops India’s forests, dams, power stations, roads,
mines and a large part of its industry, is not just the protector but also

9 Quoted in Marvin S. Soroos, Global Institutions and the Environment: An Evolutionary Perspective in
Norman [Link]. Regina S. Axelord (eds) The Global Environment Institutions, Law and Policy, Earth Scan
Publications, London, 1999, p.27.
10 Rumki Basu, NGOs and Environmental Protection in India in Nooijahan Bava (ed) Non-Governmental
Organisations in Development: Theory and Practice, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1997, p.179.
11 Utpal Borpujari & Kalyan Ray, Deccan Herald, April 25, 2004.

5
the most feared destroyer of the country’s environment.12 In this way,
the government’s track record in protecting environment is pathetic.
Earth Summit held at Rio in 1992 was the first global initiative to
deliberate on various issues on environment and an agenda to
formulate policies and programmes at the governmental level. There
was a shared view that the problems arising out of environmental
degradation cannot be solved by the governments alone but a
constructive partnership between the government and NGOs is
needed.13

In this study, an attempt has been made to analyse the role of

NGOs in protecting and preserving the environment in India in general
and Karnataka in particular. One of the heartening features of the
contemporary Indian political scene is the emergence of a large number
of NGOs.14 They emerged as the limitations and inadequacies of the
governmental efforts, both at the political and economic levels in
providing basic services and facilities to all sections of the society. It
was found that the highly bureaucratic government machinery was not
effective and rapid enough to reach the poorest and those living in the
remotest parts of the country. The NGOs took up the task where the
government had left.15 India is a big country, where government’s
efforts alone may not be able to meet the social needs of its large

12 State ofIndia's Environment, The Second Citizens Report, 1984-85, Published by Anil Agarwal / Sunita
Narain, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, p.325.
13 N. Mukundan. Environment, People’s Participation and Sustainable Rural Development, An Overview.
Kurukshetra, Vol. 52 (8), June 2004, p.9.
14 Y.K. Sinha. New Quest, Jan-Feb 1999, p.389.
15 Edwin Masihi, Voluntary Organisations and Social Change: A Note in S.N. Pawar, J.B. Ambekar, D.
Shrikant (eds) NGOs and Development the Inchan Scenario, Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi, 2004,
p.68.

6
population, and hence involvement of voluntaiy organisations is not
only welcome but essential and desirable.16 Today, no field of global
activity is free from the influence of NGOs. They are involved in all
areas, e.g., rural development, health, education, agriculture, poverty
alleviation programmes, women empowerment, family planning etc.
This study deals with NGOs’ involvement in environmental related
issues. Emergence of environmental NGOs in the worldwide context is
the best hope in solving environmental problems. NGOs operate where
government is overburdened and ineffective. In India a large number
of environmental NGOs are working on various aspects of
environmental protection. Environmental NGOs/Voluntary agencies
are doing for the people what the government cannot do for them;
telling them how the environment is being destroyed, who is destroying
it, and what can be done about it.17 In this context, the study
evaluates NGOs’ yeoman service in safeguarding country’s
environment.

The present study also analyses NGOs’ role in organising people’s

movements. Many times Karnataka government^ developmental
polices have led to severe environmental degradation. Mining by
Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited (KIOCL) in the Kudremukh
region of Karnataka, Appiko movement in the Western Ghats of
Karnataka, and the construction of Nuclear Power Plant at Kaiga, are
some of the examples in this regard. In Karnataka, environmental
NGOs are playing a significant role in protecting the environment.

16 S.L. Goel and R. Kumar "Administration and Management of NGOs Text And Case Studies", Deep & Deep
Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p.271.
17 Supra no. 12, p.341.

7
They are putting pressure on government by various means to stop
further degradation. Thus, NGOs have been generally regarded as the
‘Magic Bullet’ in solving environmental problems. In this study, an
attempt has been made to present specific ways of how people -
especially the marginalised people have been involved actively in
people’s movements and how environmental NGOs have been
associated in these movements. Therefore, it is very pertinent to
understand NGOs’ role in environmental movement in Karnataka.

In this study, Samaja Parivarthana Samudaya (SPS), an

environmental NGO, has been selected for an in-depth analysis. SPS is
working mainly in Karnataka, a southern state in India. The NGO
selected for analysis, has been fighting for the cause of the
environment for so many years. The study also examines local elites’
perceptions with regard to environmental related activities of SPS.
Grassroot level elites do not have formal policy making powers but they
do attempt to influence the policy makers through mobilisation of
public opinion.18 In view of this, it is appropriate to understand local
elites’ perceptions in solving local environmental problems.

Review of Literature:

Scientific research is not a lonely activity, which ignores other

findings. Rather, it is a collective effort of many researchers who share
their results with one another and who pursue knowledge as a
community. “Today’s studies build on those of yesterday”19 In the light

18 S.S. Patagundi, India's Foreign Policy: An Elitist Perception, Uppal Publishing Hoase, New Delhi, 1995,
p.24.
19 W. Lawrence Neuman, "Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches ", Thiid Edition,
Allyan and Bacon USA, 1997, p. 88.

S
of this statement we can review some of the important studies carried
out on the subject.

Prof. S. Bhatt, in his book on “Environment Protection and

Sustainable Development” analyzes the problems of sustainable
development and environment protection in the light of Rio UN
conference of 1992 and UN World Summit for Sustainable
Development 2002. Rapid development is a must and at the same time
sustainable development is also a must. This is the major focus of his
study. He illustrates the Global Environment Movement, Indian
reflections on the global environment movement and the present state
of environment in India. The book is of much interest to scholars
involved in sustainable development and environment protection.

Ramachandra Guha and Juan Martinez-Alier “Varieties Of

Environmentalism: Essays North and South” provides a very
analytical, accurate and thorough documentation of the history of
environmental movements in the world. Environmentalism of the North
and environmentalism of the South are termed here as full stomach
environmentalism and empty stomach environmentalism respectively.
Both varieties of environmentalism oppose wholesale industrialisation
and economic growth. Though, the earth is one, it is interesting that
the authors see in it a North-South divide. These viewpoints need not
be seen here as geographical area.

Varieties of environmentalism provide the basis for distinction

between varieties of environmental movements. The study begins with
a case study of environmental movement in the Indian state of
Karnataka. The authors reaffirm that poverty is a prime cause of

9
environmental degradation. In this way, the study is a pioneering
effort in exploring the environmental crisis.

Ramachandra Guha - “Environmentalism A Global History”-

This is another addition by the scholar in the field of environmental
studies. Here the author presents a very academic, original and
complete understanding of environmentalism as a movement. The
study covers historical and comparative analysis of the environmental
movement, profiles of environmental thinkers and many environmental
movements across the globe. The last chapter of the book entitled
“One World or Two” conveys the ecological conflict between the south
and the north as reflected in the world conferences. Thus, the book is
of much interest and gives great satisfaction.

S.N. Patil / R.B. Patil / S.A. Salunkhe (eds.) - “Environmental

Movements in India strategies and Practices”. In this study, the
authors have analysed the various issues of environmental crisis. Due
to population explosion and rapid industrialization, the world is facing
tremendous constraints on its natural resources. The main thrust of
the book is to find out ways and means to preserve and protect the
environment at various levels. Throughout the world environmental
movements are spreading their wings and rewriting the social and
economic history. In India also people are organising themselves to
pressurize their demands for sustainable development. The present
volume throws light on all these critical issues of environmental
movements.

Arne Kalland and Gerard Persoon (ed.) - “Environmental

Movements in Asia” analyses environmental movements from an

10
anthropological perspective. The contributors of this volume examine
different facets of environmental movements. The study is
multidisciplinary, and covers environmental problems, movements and
campaigns. The book will be of much academic interest to
anthropologists, geographers, historians, political scientists and
sociologists as well as policy makers.

Christopher Rootes (ed.) - “Environmental Movements:

Local, National and Global”. Contributors of this volume present
critical analysis of environmental movements from local level to global
level. The study has covered important issues of environmental
movements such as NGOs and Global Environmental Movement.

Janardan Singh - “Environmental Movement Organization -

Role as Pressure Groups in Indian Politics”. In this work, the author
explains the rise of new social movements, their role and influence of
movements on political system. The study highlights rise and growth
of environmentalism and functioning of environmental movement
organisations with special reference to Kalpvriksh, Delhi Forum, and
Sambhave for an in-depth analysis.

Anuradha Sen - “Environmental Movements In India : A

Sociological Analysis”. In this study Anuradha Sen discusses how
the western model of development leads to environmental degradation.
Here, the author has selected three famous environmental movements
for an in-depth sociological analysis. These include the Chipko
movement in the Garhwal Himalayas, the movement against building
dams on the Narmada and the movement against commercial fishing

11
by the traditional fisher folk in Kerala. Regionally these movements
cover the length and breadth of the country.

Thomas Weber - “Hugging the Trees: The story of the Chipko

Movement”. This study is based on the real story, and it covers the
different facets of the “Save Himalaya Movement” which has become a
source of inspiration all over the world, as far as protection of
environment is concerned. Every mother protects her dear child with
great care, love and affection. In the same way, the hill people of the
Mandal Village in Chamoli district of Uttara Pradesh came forward
collectively to save the trees of their forest. In this way, the Chipko
Andolan came into existence. The movement is based on Gandhian
Philosophy.

S.K. Agarwal and P.S. Dubey’s Work on “Environmental

Controversies” begins with the discussion on development and
degradation. This study covers wide ranging environmental
controversies such as river water disputes, high dam controversies,
Bhopal tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster. In the concluding chapter,
the authors analyse the most important issues of democracy and
environment and environmental problems of both developed and
developing countries.

Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha - “Ecology and

Equity, The Use and Abuse of Nature in Contemporary India”, is a
joint work by two learned scholars, who have analysed the
environmental conflicts and the complexities of Indian Society from an
ecological point of view. The study categorizes all of India’s huge
population into three classes. They are omnivores, eco-system people

12
and ecological refugees. This classification can be made on the basis of
their respective resource catchments. The authors stress a new
environment friendly agenda for development in the interest of a vast
majority of the Indian people. In this way, the present study examined
the Indian environmental movement in the light of historical and
present day situation.

David Potter (ed.) - “NGOs and Environmental Policies Asia and

Africa”. The contributors of this volume have examined the influence
of NGOs in altering the environmental policies. The study covers wide
ranging issues, like NGOs’ influence in the political contexts,
transnational NGO networks, differences between Northern and
Southern NGOs and NGOs role in international agreements concerned
with environmental issues. Thus, the volume provides readable and
serious coverage of environmental NGOs.

Julie Fisher - “Non Governments NGOs and the Political

Development of the Third World”. The work deals with the rise of
indigenous NGOs over the last three decades in the third world and
their relationships with governments for environmentally sustainable
development. The author analyses how the interrelated problems such
as poverty - environmental degradation - population growth leads to
global catastrophe. The study concludes with policy recommendations
for overcoming these problems. Based on this framework, it is a
significant contribution to the study of NGOs.

Vijaylakshmi Bajpai’s unpublished [Link]. Dissertation

entitled “NGOs Role in Global Environmental Diplomacy: A Case
Study of Green Peace and French Nuclear Testing in South

13
Pacific”. The study begins with the discussion on NGOs’ role in Global
Environmental Politics. The objective of this research work is to focus
on the emerging influence of NGOs in the global environmental issues.
In this study, the researcher has undertaken the detailed analysis of
the activities of ‘Green Peace’ in protecting environment at the
international level.

Meena S. Panicker’s unpublished [Link]. Dissertation

entitled ‘Role of NGOs in the Development of International
Environmental Law’. The present study attempts to examine the
diverse activities performed by the NGOs at the Global level. The study
also covers evolution of environmental NGOs over the years and their
influence and role in the UN System, International Conferences and
International Environmental Treaties.

Norman J. Vig and Regina Axelrod (ed.) - “The Global

Environment Institutions, Law and Policy”. This volume is a
collection of new articles by eminent American and European scholars
drawn from various fields of study. This work begins with the
discussion on ‘human impact on the biosphere’, which will be one of
the most critical issues of the twenty first century. The book highlights
the most pertinent issues of international environmental policies and
implementation. These include 1972 Stockholm Conference, 1992
Earth Summit, and the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ which
has become the prominent ideology for global environmental polices in
the 1990s. The volume also examines the emergence of international
environmental institutions, law and ultimately concludes that co­
operation among nation states is necessary for solving transnational

14
environmental problems. In this way, this book is a significant
contribution to the state of the global environment.

D.G. Victor, K. Raustiala and Skolnikoff (eds.) - “The

Implementation and Effectiveness of International Environmental
Commitments, Theory and Practice”. The contributors of this
volume attempt to analyse many environmental problems that cross
national boundaries. International co-operation is necessary to solve
these problems. The authors’ approach to deal with these issues has
been through international agreements. The success and failure of any
agreements depends on how it is formulated and what it contains, and
the most difficult part is its implementation. The implementation of
international environmental agreements differs from one country to
another country. Here there a are number of actors involved. They are
the government agencies, the industry, non-governmental
organisations, the people - all these play a major role. The book is of
much academic interest and a thorough analysis of international
environmental agreements.

[Link] and Dhireudra K. Vajpey’s (eds.) - “Environmental

Policies in the Third World a Comparative Analysis”. This book
which consists of nine scholarly articles aims to provide Third World
Nations efforts to fight the environmental problems. There is a serious
difference between developing (south) and developed (North) nations
with regard to global environmental issues. Therefore, international
co-operation to resolve global environmental problems has become a
central issue. The authors analyse the role of international aid
agencies such as World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the

15
United Nations efforts in shaping and influencing environmental policy
formulation in the third world. This study also highlights the
emergence of environmental policy since 1972, the effectiveness of
various environmental laws passed by the Indian Parliament, the
ecological situation in the developing countries and their policies and
programmes in meeting the challenge of ecological crisis.

Pamela S. Chasek fed.) - “The Global Environment in the Twenty-

first century, Prospects for International Cooperation”.
Contributors in this volume examine the role of different actors such
as the role of nation states, civil society, international organisations,
regional arrangements and multinational corporations in framing
United Nations’ environmental policies. It starts with the hypothesis
that cooperation among nation states is necessary to solve many global
environmental problems. With this in mind, the authors examine the
roles of state and non-state actors in protecting the environment and
promoting sustainable development into the twenty first century.

Timothy Doyle and Doug Me Eachern’s Work on “Environment and

Politics' is a brief introduction to the study of environmental policies
and explains important notions such as contradictions, political
systems and the practices of policy making. This volume analyses
various environmental problems and the role of institutions, like
parliaments, administrative and electoral systems, the influence of
non-governmental organisations and social movements in solving
environmental problems at the global level. In this way, the present
study provides a better understanding of international, national and
local environmental policies.

16
Neil Carter’s “The Politics of the Environment Ideas, Activism,
Policy” gives scholarly and informative introduction to the study of
environmental politics. The author skilfully and extensively outlines
the origins and dynamics of environmental politics. The study is wide-
ranging and covers three core components:

1) The study of political theories and ideas relating to the

environment;

2) The examination of political parties and the evolution of the

environmental movements;

3) The analysis of Public Policy - Making and environmental issues

at the global, national and local levels.

The author concludes by analysing issues such as the state of

environmental politics, the significance of environment, estimates
growth towards sustainable development and predicts the future path
of environmental politics.

Sumi Krishna’s “Environmental Politics People’s lives and

Development Choices”. The present study provides thoughtful
analysis of the emergence of environmentalism as an organised
movement in contemporary India. The study covers the effectiveness of
environmentalism in dealing with complex problems. The term
‘development’ has many different connotations and the author uses it
in a broad sense. The author tries to touch upon the vast field of
environment-development dichotomy. The relationship between these
areas is the main crux of the environmental debate in India. This

17
book, in fact, is a guiding spirit to the researchers, since it contains a
different perspective to the debate on environment in India.

[Link]’s unpublished Ph.D. thesis entitled "Environmental

Politics: A Study of the Kaiga Project” analyses various dimensions of
environment in general and problems associated with Kaiga Nuclear
Plant in particular. The author tries to explain how the project like
Kaiga leads to acute environmental degradation. The study also covers
elites’ perception of ‘Kaiga project’, and voluntary organisations, like
CANE and Parisara Samrakshna Samiti, have vehemently opposed the
construction of Nuclear Power plant at Kaiga. Environmentalists have
adopted Gandhian technique in anti-Kaiga agitation.

S.G. Kaddi’s unpublished [Link] Dissertation entitled "Water

Pollution in Karnataka: A Case Study of Tungabhadra River”
examines how rivers in Karnataka are polluted primarily by the
effluents of various industries located on their banks, especially
Tungabhadra river. This study analyses the hazardous impact of
Tungabhadra river pollution on agriculture, fishery and the plight of
villagers residing on the bank of the river who suffered by drinking the
polluted water. The study also indicates how the people and
environmental groups reacted against the water pollution caused by
the Harihar Polyfibres factory and Gwalior Rayon and Silk
Manufacturing Company (GRASIM).

Pravin Sheth’s book "Environmentalism Politics, Ecology and

Development” is a significant book which studies politics of
environment in India with systems approach. In this study, the author
discusses serious issues of environmentalism. Environmentalism is

18
studied here as rooted in its ecological tradition. In addition to
Environmental Problems of India, government policies, governance,
judicial interference and environmental movements are also covered in
this study. Based on this plan, the study brings out very important
issues and is a valuable input to the ongoing global debate.

The brief review of literature, which has been made above, is

based on the consultation of various libraries of New Delhi and other
libraries. They are as follows:

1) ICSSR - NASSDOC Ferozeshah Road, New Delhi.

2) Indian Council of World Affairs Library Sapru House, New Delhi.

3) Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.

4) Nehru Memorial Libraiy Teen Murti House, New Delhi.

5) Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, JNU Old Campus,

New Delhi.

6) Kamatak University Library, Dharwad.

7) CMDR Library, Dharwad.

After making a brief survey of the existing literature, it appears

that though a few studies on NGOs and Environmental movements in
India have been made, but no work focuses on *NGOs and
Environmental movement in Karnataka. The problems of the
environment differ from one region to another region. Therefore, it is
pertinent to understand the role of NGOs in protecting environment in
Karnataka. The works that are examined are confined to the issues
such as International Environmental Agreements, Environmental

19
Politics, Environmental Problems, Sustainable Development,
Environmental Laws, etc. Therefore, it indicates that there is a
research lacuna in regard to ‘NGOs’ role of Environmental Movement in
Karnataka’. Despite specific genuflection to environmental problems
and struggles in India which are well studied by scholars and given
competent media coverage, we do not have, as yet, a full-scale work on
environment done in macro level framework in Political Science
perspective.20 In this context, an attempt has been made here to study
NGOs and environmental movements in Karnataka.

Conceptual Framework:

An examination of the definition of various key concepts is

necessary to understand the use of the term in any context and their
relevance to the present study.

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO): According to the

Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Non Governmental Organization
as commonly understood, a not for profit organization that is
institutionally separate from the state.21

Colin Ball and Leith Dunn defines NGOs in the broader and
narrow contexts.

The broad definition holds that every organization in society

which is not part of government and which operates in civil society is a
non-governmental organisation.

20 Pravin Sheth, "Environmentalism Politics, Ecology & Development" Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New
Delhi, 1997, p.5.
21 Craog Calhoun, (ed.) Dictionary of the Social Sciences, Oxford University Press, 2002, p.338.

20
 The narrow definition derived from recent usage refers to a
specific type of organisation working in the field of development - one
which works with people to help them improve their social and
economic situation and prospects.22 According to Julie Fisher, in the
Third World, the term NGO generally refers to organizations involved in
development. Broadly defined, Hospitals, charitable organizations and
universities are usually called voluntary or non-profit organisations
rather than NGOs.23

Gale Environmental Encyclopaedia defines Non-governmental

organization (NGO) as any group outside of government whose purpose
is the protection of the environment.24

Thus, environmental NGOs are a subset of general NGOs and as

an organisation that is non-governmental and non-profit making and
committed to protect the environment all over the world.

Environment: According to the Gale Environmental

Encyclopaedia, the word environment is derived from the French
environ, which means to “encircle” or “surround”. Thus our
environment can be defined as the physical, chemical, and biological
world that envelops us, as well as the complex of social and cultural
conditions affecting an individual or community. This broad definition
includes both the natural world and the “built” or technological
environment, as well as the cultural and social contexts that shape
human lives.25

22 Colin Ball and Leith Dunn, Non-Governmental Organisations: Guidelinesfor Good Policy and Practice,
The Commonwealth Foundation London, June 1995, p.I8.
23 Julie Fisher, Non Governments NGOs and the Political Development of the Third World. Rawat Publications,
Jaipur and New Delhi, 2003, p.5.
24 Marci Bortman and others, (eds.) Environmental Encyclopaedia Third Edition, Vol. 2, Thomson / Gale
2003, pp. 980-81.
25 Ibid. p. XXIV.

21
 In the Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable
Development, it is a concept, which includes all aspects of the
surroundings of humanity, affecting individuals and social groupings.26

The Dictionary of English Language defines Environment as

the aggregate of all the external conditions and influences affecting the
life and development of an organism.27

According to Webster’s New International Dictionary,

Environment is the aggregate of social and cultural conditions that
influence the life of an individual or community.28

In this context, environment may be defined in simple words; The

environment comprises lithosphere, (Land) hydrosphere, (water) and
atmosphere (air) in which all living organisms massively depend on it
for the veiy survival. The environment not only consists of natural and
man-made things but also the aggregate of social and cultural
conditions which affects an individual or community. In other words,
everything that surrounds us constitutes environment.

Movement: According to Webster’s New 20th Century

Dictionary, it is a series of organised activities by people working
conceitedly toward some goal; often called the movement by those
involved in it.29

According to the Dictionary of English Language: A movement

is a connected and long continued series of acts and events tending

26 Alan Gilpin, “Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable Development" John Wiley & Sons, Chichester —
New York, 1996, p.74.
27 Marriam and Webster, Dictionary of English Language, London, Bell, 1900, p. 856.
28 Merriam and Webster’s New International Dictionary, Springfield (Mass), 1954, p. 760.
29 Webster’s 20th Century Dictionary, Collins World, Havana, 1977, p.l 177.

22
toward some or less definite end; an agitation in favour of some
principle, policy etc.30

As Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha define

“Environmental movement is an organised social activity consciously
directed towards sustainable use of natural resources.31

In the present context we conceptualise environmental movement

as a part of social movement and as primarily concerned with
protection of nature.

Elites:

In the words of Harold D. Lasswell, “the elites are the

influential”.32

Dwaine Marvick states that in the newer approach, “elites are

routinely understood to be incumbents : those who are collectively the
influential figures in the governance of any sector of society, any
institutional structure, any geographic locality or translocal
community”33

Taking into consideration these definitions, we shall

conceptualise elites as representing the best part of a group of people
from various fields of the society, who have far reaching influence on
the society.

30 Marriam and Webster, Dictionary ofEnglish Language p. 1604.

31 Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, "Ecology and Equity, The Use and Abuse of Nature in
Contemporary India", Penguin Books India, New Delhi, 1995, p.98.
32 Harold Lasswell, “Introduction: The Study of Political Elites”, In Harold D. Laswdl and Daniel Learner
(eds.), World Evolutionary Elites, Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1965, p.4.
33 The Social Science Encyclopaedia, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985, p. 243.

23
 Inter-relationship between Concepts, NGOs, Environment,
Movement and Local elites. The deterioration of environment is a
global phenomena appearing in the form of vanishing resources like
loss of species, climate change, desertification, deforestation,
hazardous and solid wastes and depleted fisheries which have led to
virtual ecological disaster. Therefore, it seems, problems of
environment are very serious and need to be addressed immediately.
However, the failure of the nation-state system since World War II in
addressing environmental issues effectively has led to the rapid rise of
local, national and international non-governmental organisations to fill
the vacuum. The evidence of environmental deterioration was all
around us, and everyone noticed except the political establishment.
The environment issue simply was not being found on the nation’s
political agenda. The people were concerned, but the politicians were
not.34

Against this background, Environmental NGOs and Movements

to protect the environment emerged in the 1970s. Since then, non­
governmental organisations are playing a significant role in protecting
the environment. Creating awareness is an essential pre-requisite for
the success of any movement. NGOs are not the ornamental
showpieces; they have the greater responsibility in promoting
awareness about environmental issues. If environmental movement
has to be a truly people’s movement, NGOs are the vehicle of
environmental movement. D’monte also points out: “The non
governmental organisations give the environmental movement its

34 Gaylord Nelson in Supra no. 6, p.5.

24
dynamism and vigour”35 Thus, NGOs have a crucial role to play in
facilitating people’s movement.

NGOs serve as voices and agents of civil society. They are the
guardians of people’s interests. If government does not give adequate
attention to people’s problems, there is a need to organise people for
promoting awareness among them. In this way, NGOs are rendering
seminal services by educating common people about the complicated
issues of environment and development. A1 over the world today, the
non-governmental organisations are spearheading the environmental
movements and have become powerful enough to influence the
decision - making process.36 Environmental NGOs influence state
action primarily by pressurising government officials to support
environmental protection efforts.37 NGOs, like Green Peace, Friends of
the Earth, The World Wide Fund for Nature, Sierra Club, International
Union for Conservation of Nature have launched International
campaigns against the degradation of environment caused by
practices, like whale hunting, nuclear testing, and ocean dumping of
waste. In this way, the participation of NGOs in environmental
related activities strengthens people’s awareness. With increased
environmental awareness, environmental movement is gaining
strength day by day all over the world.38

35 Supra no. 12, p.329.

36 M.C. Dash and P.C. Mishra, "Environment, Law and Society" Man and Environment, Macmillan India,
2001, p. 252.
37 Paul Wapner, The Transnational Politics ofEnvironmental NGOs: Governmental, Economic, and Social
Activism, in Pamela S. Chasek (ed) “The Global Environment in the Twenty-first Century Prospectsfor
International Cooperation" Manas Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p. 94.
38 M.C. Dash and P.C. Mishra in Supra No. 36, p.251.

25
 Since independence, India has been witnessing grave ecological
crisis. It seems, the government is not sensitive to the impact of
environmental degradation on the lives of people, specifically
marginalised ones who depend on the environment for their very
survival. To overcome this ecological menace, environmental NGOs
have been playing a major role in generating awareness among masses.
The number of voluntary groups in India actively interested or involved
in environmental issues today is larger than in any other Third World
Country and probably matches the numbers found in western
countries.39 As a result, the last three decades have seen the
emergence of various movements to save natural resources. Thus, the
growth of NGO-led environmental movements in India has been a
marked feature of the vigilant civil society. For example, NGOs like
Dasholi Gram Swarjya Mandal (DGSM) in Gopeshwar has successfully
led the Chipko movement, and has been powerful enough to influence
subsequent movements.

Karnataka state is known for its rich ecological heritage and has
enjoyed the image of a very peaceful land. Unfortunately, the peaceful
Karnataka has been disturbed due to rampant ecological destruction.
It was learnt that environmental problems first hit the poorest people
in the society, since they are heavily dependent on environment for
their livelihood. However, it seems, Karnataka government is
ineffective in dealing with this growing ecological crisis and protecting
the interests of the people. This has resulted in the rise of
environmental NGOs to fill the gap. These NGOs have been involved
actively in people’s movement and have translated people’s awareness
39 Supra No. 12, p. 338.

26
about environmental issues. Spandana Samaja Seva Samudaya near
Sirsi in Uttar Kannada district may be cited as an example. Spandana
aimed at sustainable agricultural development in a small area. In
1994, its 60 members were engaged in activities to promote
environmental awareness, use of alternative sources of energy, and so
on.40 The construction of Nuclear Power Plant at Kaiga also received
popular reaction. NGOs, like Citizens Against Nuclear Energy (CANE),
Mannu Rakshana Koota, Snehakunja and Uttara Kannada Parisara
Samrakshana Samiti have led this movement. For the last several
years Samaja Parivarthana Samudaya (SPS) has been actively
associated in people’s movements, SPS took a leading role in
organising Kusnur and Kumarapattanam group of villages to protest
against government action that threatened the environment and their
quality of life. In addition, the SPS was instrumental in organising
“Save the Western Ghats” movement. Thus, environmental NGOs are
making pioneering efforts in organising people’s movements and have
been considered as instruments of environmental protection.

The ultimate aim of the every movement is to influence the policy

making process. Environmental movement is also not an exception.
For those who are involved in the movement, they must have the
knowledge of public affairs. Elites are the influential group of the
society who have perception of environmental policy issues. In this
respect, the local elites’ information and suggestions serve as an input
to policy makers in making effective environmental policy.

40 David Potter, Democratisation and the Environment: NGOs and Deforestation Policies in India (Karnataka)
and Indonesia (North Sumatra) in David Potter (ed.) NGOs and Environmental Policies Asia and Africa,
Frank Cass London, 1996, p. 12.

27
Objectives:

The following are the objectives of the present study:

1) To understand the environmental movement in India, with special

reference to Karnataka.

2) To analyse the role of NGOs in the environmental movement in

Karnataka.

3) To examine the local elites' perception of the role of NGOs in dealing

with the problems of environment.

Hypotheses:

The hypotheses of this work are as follows:

1) NGOs approach to the environmental movement politics is

positive.

2) Local elites’ perception of the role of NGOs and Environmental

Movement is determined by their socio-economic status (SES).

Research Methodology:

The methodology adopted in this study is at once descriptive,

analytical and empirical. Both primary and secondary data have been
used in the present study. Empirical data have been collected by
applying various research techniques such as participant observation,
survey, sampling, questionnaire and interview schedule. Besides, this
study is based on secondary sources of data such as books, journals
and newspaper clippings available from the leading libraries in India.

28
 The sampling method used for selection of respondents involves
two stages. In the first stage villages were selected and in second stage
respondents were selected. For selection of villages and respondents
purposive sampling method has been used.

Limitations of the study:

In Karnataka, there are sizable numbers of NGOs involved in

environmental movement. Hence it is not possible here to make an in-
depth study of each and every environmental NGO. Besides, getting
the information relating to NGO is also very difficult because some of
the NGOs are reluctant to give information. Therefore, in this study
Samaja Parivarthana Samudaya (SPS) an environmental NGO actively
associated in people’s movement is selected as a sampling NGO. SPS
has a great concern for the protection and preservation of environment.
Since its inception, SPS has been involved in the fight against
Tungabhadra river pollution. The movement to protect common land
issue has been started at Kusnur cluster of villages, which is popularly
known as ‘Kusnur Agitation’ (Horata). Therefore, in this study eight
villages have been selected and presented how SPS played a major role
in organising villagers to protest against government environmental
policies that threaten their environment.

Outline of the Study:

In the first chapter the statement of the problem, review of

existing literature, conceptual framework, objectives of the study,
hypotheses, methodology and limitations of the study have been
explained.

29
 The second chapter traces the origin and growth of NGOs,
focuses on environmental NGOs.

The third chapter deals with environmental movements in India.

*

The fourth chapter analyses NGOs’ role in environmental

movement in Karnataka.

The fifth chapter deals with local elites’ perception of the role of
NGOs in the environmental movement with reference to Tungabhadra
water pollution .

The sixth chapter explains the local elites’ perception of the role
of NGOs in the environmental movement with reference to Kusnur
struggle.

The seventh chapter contains a summaiy of the entire study

along with findings. Also some suggestions for further research are
briefly indicated.

30