LAGOS CITY POLYTECHNIC

LECTURE NOTE
COURSE TITLE: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION ENGRN. I

COURSE CODE: EEE 325, FOR: HND 1 (EE & CE)

LECTURER/INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. A. OJO-WILLIAMS,

CONTENTS

Chapter One:

 SIGNALS & THEIR PROPERTIES

 CONTINUOS -TIME SIGNALS
 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 FOURIER SERIES
 NOISE & DISTORTION

Chapter Two:

 PRINCIPLES OF DIGITALMODULATION
o PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
o PULSE POSITION MODULATION
o PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
o PULSE CODE MODULATION
 SPECTRUM DIAGRAMS
 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES &
APPLICATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
DIGITAL MODULATION

Chapter Three:
 PRINCIPLE OF AM & FM
 DEMODULATION
 SQUARE LAW DETECTOR
 COHERENT DETECTION PRINCIPLES
 FM DETECTOR

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

 CHAPTER 1

SIGNALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

A signal in communication system, signal processing and electrical engineering is a function that
conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon. Signal contains
information if it tells us something we did not already know.

A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values; at any
given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.

A digital signal is a signal that is constructed from a discrete set of waveforms of a physical
quantity so as to represent a sequence of discrete values. It is one in which a change in voltage,
and the time at which it occurs, are of very much more importance than the precise size of the
change or the exact shape of the waveform.

A logic signal is a signal with only two possible values. Digital signals are present in all digital
electronics, notably computing equipment and data transmission

Figure 1.1 showing waveforms of analog and digital signals

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Figure 1.2: Showing analog and digital signals variations

Figure 1.3: Logic signal showing different levels

Logic Signal: 1 = Low level, 2= High level, 3= Rising edge, 4= Falling edge,

Rising Edge = Transition from a low voltage to a high voltage

Falling Edge = Transition from a high voltage to a low voltage

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Figure 1.4: Digital representation of signal

The primary characteristics of the signals in telecommunication systems is random in nature

(i,e. a signal that contains information varies in an unpredictable or random manner). These
random signals are :

Discrete signals (having fixed number of possible values), and

Continuous signals that have any value between given limits.

The signal waveforms are functions of time and the variation of signal amplitude with time is
known as the “time domain representation” of the signal.

Alternatively, if a signal is decomposed into a sum of sinusoidal components, the amplitude

and phase of these components can be expressed as a function of frequency leading to the

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“frequency domain representation of the signal”. The relationship between frequency domain
and time domain is an extremely important one and is specified by “Fourier Theorem”.

The response of a linear system to a signal can be determine in the time domain by using the
principle of convolution and in the frequency domain by applying the principle of
superposition to the responses produced by the individual sinusoidal components.

Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is now an essential tool in computer aided analysis of
modern telecommunication system.

Fourier Theorem: states that any single-valued periodic function which has a repetition interval
T, can be represented by an infinite series of sine and cosine terms which are harmonics of

PROPERTIES OF FOURIER SERIES

1. Linearity property
2. Time shifting property
3. Time scaling property
4. Time differential property
5. Time integration property
6. Convolution property
7. Modulation or multiplication
8. Conjugation or conjugate symmetry property
9. Parseval’s relation property

Problems involving various forms of oscillations are common in fields of modern technology
and Fourier series enable us to represent a periodic function as an infinite trigonometrical series
in sine and cosine terms.

One important advantage of a Fourier series is that it can represent a function containing
discontinuities, whereas Maclaurin and Taylor‟s series require the function to be continuous
throughout.

A received digital signal may be impaired by noise and distortions without necessarily affecting
the digits.

Distortion is the limiting factor in the amplification of large signals while Noise is the limiting
factor in the amplification of small signals.

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Distortion is a change of the original signal, whereas Noise is an external random signal added
to the original signal. Noise has a more stochastic nature compared to distortion. To remove the
effects of noise is harder than removing the effects of distortion.

In communication and electronics, distortion means the alteration of the waveform of

information, being signal such as an audio signal representing sound or a video signal
representing images. Distortion is usually unwanted and so engineers strive to eliminate or
minimize it.

Noise is an unwanted disturbance in an electrical signal. Noise generated by electronic devices

varies greatly as it is produced by several different effects. In communication system, a noise is
an error or undesired random disturbance of a useful information signal.

Digital signal processing (DSP) refers to the computation of mathematically intensive algorithms
applied to data signals, such as audio signal manipulation, video compression, data
coding/decoding and digital communications. A digital signal processor, also informally called a
DSP chip, is a special type of microprocessor used for DSP applications. A DSP chip
provides rapid instruction sequences, such as shift-and-add and multiply-and-add (sometimes
called multiply-and-accumulate or MAC), which are commonly used in signal processing
algorithms. Digital filtering and frequency analysis with the Fourier transform requires many
numbers to be multiplied and added together, so a DSP chip provides specific internal hardware
and associated instructions to make these operations rapid and easier to code in software.

Signal Classifications Summary

They can be continuous time or discrete time, analog or digital, periodic or aperiodic, finite or
infinite, and deterministic or random. We can also divide them based on their causality and
symmetry properties.

Types of Signals

• Continuous Time Signal: If the independent variable (t) is continuous, then the corresponding
signal is continuous time signal.

• Discrete Time Signal: If the independent variable (t) takes on only discrete values, for
example t = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...

Periodic Signal: If the transformed signal is same as x(t+nT), then the signal is periodic. where
T is fundamental period (the smallest period) of signal x(t) In discrete-time, the periodic signal
is; • Orthogonal Signal Each component signal has no relationship with others. Orthogonal signal
is denoted as φ(t).

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• Even and Odd Signal: One of characteristics of signal is symmetry that may be useful for
signal analysis. Even signals are symmetric around vertical axis, and Odd signals are symmetric
about origin.

Even Signal: A signal is referred to as an even if it is identical to its time-reversed counterparts;

x(t) = x(-t). Odd Signal: A signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t).

An odd signal must be 0 at t=0, in other words, odd signal passes the origin.

Odd Signal: A signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t). An odd signal must be 0 at t=0, in other words, odd
signal passes the origin.

Characteristics Of Signal
A signal is defined by its characteristics. It shows the nature of the signal. These characteristics
are given below:

Amplitude
Amplitude is the strength or height of the signal waveform. Visually, it is the height of the
waveform from its centerline or x-axis. The y-axis of a signal’s waveform shows the amplitude
of a signal. The amplitude of a signal varies with time.
For example, the amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum height of the waveform on Y-axis.

The signal’s strength is usually measured in decibels db.

Frequency
Frequency is the rate of repetitions of a signal’s waveform in a second.

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Periodic signals repeat its cycle after some time. The number of cycles in a second is known
as Frequency. The unit of Frequency is hertz (Hz) and one hertz is equal to one cycle per
second. It is measured along the x-axis of the waveform.
For example, a sine wave of 5 hertz will complete its 5 cycles in a one second.

Time Period

The time period of a signal is the time in which it completes its one full cycle. The unit of the
time period is Second. The time period is denoted by „T‟ and it is the inverse of frequency. I.e.
T=1/F
For example, a sine wave of time period 10 sec will complete its one full cycle in 10 seconds.

Phase
The phase of a sinusoidal signal is the shift or offset in its origin or starting point. The phase
shift can be lagging or leading. Usually, the original sinusoidal signals have 0° degree phase
and start at 0 amplitude but an offset in phase will shift its starting amplitude to other than 0.
An example of 45° phase shift is given below. The signal remains the same but its origin is
shifted to 45°.

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The phase shift can be from 0° to 360° in degrees or 0 to 2π in radians. 360° degree or 2π
radians is one complete period.
Related Post: What is GSM and How does it Work?
Signal Size
The size of a signal is a number that shows the strength or largeness of that signal. As we know,
a signal’s amplitude varies with respect to time. Because of this variation, we cannot say that its
amplitude can be its size. To measure the signal size, we have to take into account the area
covered by the amplitude of the signal within the time duration.

Signal Energy
The energy of the signal is the area of the signal under its curve. But the signal can be in both
positive and negative region. Due to which, it will cancel each other’s effect resulting in a
smaller signal. To eradicate this problem, we take the square of the signal‟s amplitude which is
always positive.

For a signal g(t), the area under the g2(t) is known as the Energy of the signal.

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Unit Of Energy Of Signal
This energy is not taken as in its conventional sense, but it shows the signal size. Therefore, its
unit is not joule. The unit of energy depends on the signal. If it is a voltage signal then its unit
will be volts2/second.
Limitation
The energy of a signal can be measured only if the signal is finite. The infinite signal will
have infinite energy, which is absurd. A finite signal‟s amplitude goes to 0 as the time (t)
approaches to infinity (∞).
So it is necessary that the signal is a finite signal if you want to measure its energy.

Signal Power
If the signal is an infinite signal i.e. its amplitude does not go to 0 as time t approaches to ∞, we
cannot measure its energy. In such a case, we take the time average (Time period) of the energy
of the signal as the power of the signal.

Unit Of Power
Similar to Energy of the signal, this power is also not taken in the conventional sense. It will
also depend on the signal to be measured. If the signal is a voltage signal, then the power will
be in volts2.
Limitation
Just like the energy of the signal, the measurement of the power of a signal also has some
limitation that the signal must be of a periodic nature. An infinite and non-periodic signal
neither have energy nor power.

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Classification Of Signals
Signals are classified into different categories based on their characteristics. Some of these
categories are given below.
Analog Vs. Digital Signal
The signal can be classified into analog or digital category base on their amplitude. This
classification is based on only vertical-axis (amplitude) of the signal. And it does not have any
relation with horizontal-axis (time axis).

The amplitude of an analog signal can have any value (including fractions) at any point in time.
That means analog signal have infinite values.

However, the digital signal‟s amplitude can only have finite and discrete values.
The special case of Digital signal having two discrete values is known as Binary signal.
However, the number of values for amplitude in a digital signal is not limited to only two.

Analog signal is converted into Digital signal using A to D converter (ADC).

Continuous-Time And Discrete-Time Signal

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This classification is based on the horizontal axis (time axis) of the signal.
Continuous and discrete time signals should not be confused with analog and digital signal
respectively.
A continuous time signal is a signal whose value (amplitude) exists for every fraction of time t.

A discrete time signal exists only for a discrete value of time t.

Remember, there is no limitation on the amplitude of the signal. That is why it should not be
confused with the analog or digital signal.
Energy Vs. Power Signal
A signal is Energy signal if its amplitude goes to 0 as time approaches ∞. Energy signals have
finite energy.
Similarly, a signal with finite power is known as Power signal. A power signal is a periodic
signal i.e. it has a time period.

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An Energy signal has finite Energy but zero power. And a Power signal has finite
Power but infinite Energy. So a signal can be either energy signal or power signal but
it cannot be both.
An infinite signal that has no periodic nature is neither Energy nor Power signal.

Periodic Vs. Aperiodic Signal

A periodic signal is a signal which keeps repeating its pattern after a minimum fixed time.
That time is known as Time period „T‟ of that signal. The periodic signal does not change if it is
time-shifted by any multiple of the Time period “T”.
The mathematical expression for periodic signal g(t) is:

T0 is the Time period of signal g(t).

The periodic signal starts from t=-∞ and continues to t=+∞. A signal which starts at t=0 will not
be the same signal if it is time-shifted by +T because it did not exist for negative t.

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The aperiodic or non-periodic signal is a signal which does not repeat itself after a specific
time. These signals have no repetitions of any pattern.

Deterministic And Random Signal

A signal which can be represented in mathematical or graphical form is called deterministic
signal. Deterministic signals have specified amplitude, frequency etc. They are easy to process
as they are defined over a long period of time and we can Evaluate its outcome if they are
applied to a specific system based on its expression.
The random or non-deterministic signal is a signal which can only be represented
in probabilistic expression rather than its full mathematical expression. Every signal that has
some kind of uncertainty is a random signal. Noise signal is the best example of the random
signal.
Generally, every message signal is a random signal because we are uncertain of the information
to be conveyed to the other side.

Operation Of Signal
Some basic operation of signals are given below

Time Shifting
Time-shifting means movement of the signal across the time axis (horizontal axis). A time
shift in a signal does not change the signal itself but only shifts the origin of the signal from its
original point along time-axis.

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Basically, addition in time is time shifting. To time-shift a signal g(t), t should be replaced
with (t-T), where T is the seconds of time-shift. Therefore, g(t-T) is the time-shifted signal
by T seconds.
Time shift can be right-shift (delay) or left-shift (advance).
If the time-shift T is positive than the signal will shift to the right (delay). For example, the
signal g(t-4) is the shifted version of g(t) with 4 seconds delay.

If the time-shift T is negative than the signal will shift to the left (advance). The signal g(t+4) is
the shifted version of g(t) with 4 seconds to the left.
Time Scaling
Time scaling of a signal means to compress or expand the signal. It is achieved
by multiplying the time variable of the signal by a factor. The signal expands or compresses
depending on the factor.
Suppose a signal g(t) than its scaled version is g(at).
If the factor a>1 then the signal will compress. And the operation is called signal compression.
Compressing a signal will make the signal fast as it becomes smaller and its time duration
become less.

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If a<1 then the signal will expand. And the operation is called signal dilation.
After scaling, the origin of the signal remains unchanged. Expanding the signal will make the
signal slow as it becomes wider and covers more time duration.

Time Inversion
In time inversion, the signal is flipped about the y-axis (vertical axis). The resultant signal is
the mirror image of the original signal.

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Time inversion is a special case of time-scaling in which the factor a=-1. Therefore to invert
a signal, we replace it’s (t) with (-t).
Mathematically, the time-invert of signal g(t) is g(-t).

ASSIGNMENT 1

1. Define digital signal and state three advantages of digital signal over analog
signal
2. How important is Fourier series in the fields of modern technology
3. State any three properties of Fourier series with explanation
4. With the aids of diagrams differentiate between discrete and continuous signals

QUIZ 1

1. Differentiate between Noise and Distortion

2. State and explain any three characteristics of a signal
3. Explain time domain and frequency domain

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 CHAPTER 2
DIGITAL MODULATION
Digital modulation is the process of encoding a digital information signal into the amplitude, phase, or
frequency of the transmitted signal. The encoding process affects the bandwidth of the transmitted signal
and its robustness to channel impairments.

In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more

properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that
typically contains information to be transmitted.

Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker system
availability with great quality communication. Hence, digital modulation techniques have a
greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger amounts of data than analog modulation
techniques.
To create a digital signal, an analog signal must be modulated with a control signal to produce
it. In digital radio, schemes, one or more carrier waves are amplitude, or frequency or phase
modulated with a signal to produce a digital signal suitable for transmission.
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream. Digital
modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding
demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion
Most radio systems in the 20th century used FM or AM to make the carrier carry the radio
broadcast.
The aim of analog modulation is to transform an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for
example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog band-channel at a different frequency, for
example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass
channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits
the frequency range to 300-3400Hz) or over a limited radio frequency band. Analog and digital
modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing (FDM), where several lowpass
information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium using
separate passband channels (several different carrier frequencies).
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding is to transfer
digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non filtered copper-wire such as a serial
bus or a wired local area network.
Need for Modulation

Sometimes, beginners question the necessity of modulation i.e. using a carrier wave to carry the
low-frequency signal from one place to another. Why not transmit the signals directly and save
lot of botheration? Unfortunately, there are three main hurdles in the process of such direct
transmission of audio-frequency signals:

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1. They have relatively short range,
2. If everybody started transmitting these low-frequency signals directly, mutual interference will
render all of them ineffective
3. Size of antennas required for their efficient radiation would be large i.e. about 75 km
For efficient radiation of a signal, the minimum length of an antenna is one quarter wavelength
(λ/4). The antenna length L is connected with the frequency of the signal wave by the relation
L = 75 × 106/f metres. For transmitting an audio signal of f = 1000 Hz, L = 75 × 106/103 = 75,000
m = 75 km ! In view of this immense size of antenna length, it is impractical to radiate audio-
frequency signals directly into space.

Hence, the solution lies in modulation which enables a low-frequency signal to travel very large
distances through space with the help of a high-frequency carrier wave. These carrier waves need
reasonably-sized antennas and produce no interference with other transmitters operating in the
same area.

Modulation is needed:
 For ease of radiation
 To reduce noise and interference
 To overcome equipment limitations

BENEFITS OF MODULATION

1. It helps to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range

2. It allows use of smaller antenna
3. It increases the range of communication
4. It improves quality of reception
5. It avoids mixing of signals
6. Multiplexing is possible

APPLICATIONS OF MODULATION

1. For broadcasting (radio and television), AM, FM, PM etc

2. GSM (global system for mobile communication)
3. Radar ( Radio Detection and Ranging)
4. WiFi
5. Conversion of analog signal to digital signal

There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their combinations, depending
upon the need. Of them all, we will discuss the prominent ones.

ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero
level or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.

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FSK – Frequency Shift Keying
The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data
applied.

PSK – Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two
types, namely Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSKBPSK and Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying QPSKQPSK, according to the number of phase shifts. The other one is Differential
Phase Shift Keying DPSKDPSK which changes the phase according to the previous value.

M-ary Encoding
M-ary Encoding techniques are the methods where more than two bits are made to transmit
simultaneously on a single signal. This helps in the reduction of bandwidth.
The types of M-ary techniques are −

 M-ary ASK
 M-ary FSK
 M-ary PSK

TYPES OF DIGITAL MODULATION

(1) Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital
signal so that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication
network. PCM is in binary form, so there will be only two possible states high and low (0 and 1).

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In this modulation technique, the amplitude of an analogue signal is converted to binary value
represented as series of pulses.

Area of application of PCM

 Air- traffic control system

 Used in space communication
 Used in telephony
 Used in satellite transmission system
 For compressing data in compact disc
 For signal conversion
 Audio signals

(2) Pulse-position modulation (PPM) is a form of signal modulation in which M message bits
are encoded by transmitting a single pulse in one of possible required time shifts. In this
modulation, the amplitude and the width of the pulses are kept constant but the position of each
pulse is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the sampled value of the modulating signal.
In other words, the position of the pulses is changed with respect to the position of the reference
pulses.

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.Advantages of PPM

 Noise interference is less and minimum due to constant amplitude

 It is easy to separate out signal from noise signal
 It has highest power efficiency among all the rest
 It requires less power compare to PCM due to short duration pulses

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Disadvantages of PPM

 This method is the highest in complexity to implement

 It requires very large bandwidth compare to PAM

Applications of PPM

 Used for radio frequency communication

 For remote control in aircraft, cars, boat and other vehicles
 Responsible for conveying a transmitter’ control to a receiver

(3) Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message
information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse
modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to
the sample value of the message signal.

In this technique, the signal is sampled at regular intervals and each sample is made proportional
to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling.

 it is the most efficient in terms of power and bandwidth utilization

 it is the simplest form of modulation
 it is analog-to-digital conversion method where the message information is encoded in
the amplitude of the series of signal pulses

Area of Applications of PAM

 used for Ethernet communication

 used in many micro-controllers for generating control signal used in photo biology
 used for coherent detection
 used in electronic driver for LED lighting
 for digital television
 radio frequency communication
 contactless smart card, HF RFID tags etc

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(4) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a fancy term for describing a type of digital signal.

it is a method for generating analog signal using a digital source. It is used for encoding the
amplitude of a signal right into a pulse width or duration of another signal usually a carrier signal
for transmission. In this technique, the width of the signal is varied in accordance with the pulse
train.

Pulse width modulation is used in a variety of applications including sophisticated control

circuitry. A common way we use them here at SparkFun is to control dimming of RGB LEDs or
to control the direction of a servo.

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Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP
Area of Applications of PWM

 measurement and control

 speed control (in DC motor)
 heating elements
 controlling the direction of servo motors
 controlling the dimming of RGB LEDs

ASSIGNMENT 2

1. Explain three industrial areas where and how digital modulation is utilized
2. In a broadcasting studio, a 1000 kHz carrier is modulated by an audio signal
of frequency range, 100-5000 Hz. Find
(i) width or frequency range of sidebands
(ii) maximum andminimum frequencies of USB
(iii) maximum and minimum frequencies of LSB and
(iv) width of the channel.
3. A carrier wave of 600watts is subjected to 100% amplitude modulation.
Determine :
a. Power in sideband (ii) power of modulated wave

QUIZ 2

1. Explain any two types of digital modulation, state their advantages,

applications and sketch their diagrams
2. A transmitter radiates 9kw without modulation and 10.125kw after
modulation. Determine the depth of modulation.
3. State three reasons why modulation is necesary

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 CHAPTER 3

PRINCIPLES OF AM & FM DEMODULATION

AM DEMODULATION
Demodulation is a key process in the reception of any amplitude modulated signals whether used
for broadcast or two way radio communication systems.

Demodulation is the process by which the original information bearing signal, i.e. the modulation
is extracted from the incoming overall received signal.

The process of demodulation for signals using amplitude modulation can be achieved in a
number of different techniques, each of which has its own advantage.

The demodulator is the circuit, or for a software defined radio, the software that is used to
recover the information content from the overall incoming modulated signal.

AM demodulators are found in many items of radio equipment: broadcast receivers, professional
radio communication equipment, walkie talkies - AM is still used for air-band radio
communications.

Detection or demodulation

The terms detection and demodulation are often used when referring to the overall demodulation
process. Essentially the terms describe the same process, and the same circuits.

As the name indicates the demodulation process is the opposite of modulation, where a signal
such as an audio signal is applied to a carrier.

In the demodulation process the audio or other signal carried by amplitude variations on the
carrier is extracted from the overall signal to appear at the output.

As the most common use for amplitude modulation is for audio applications, the most common
output is the audio. This may be broadcast entertainment for broadcast reception, and for two
way radio communications, it is often used for land communications for aeronautical associated
applications - often within walkie talkies.

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Terms like diode detector, synchronous detector and product detector are widely used. But the
term demodulation tends to be used more widely when referring to the process of extracting the
modulation from the signal.

The term detection is the older term dating back to the early days of radio. The term
demodulation is probably more accurate in that it refers to the process of demodulation, i.e.
extracting the modulation from the signal.

AM demodulation techniques

There are a number of techniques that can be used to demodulate AM signals. Different types are
used in different applications to suit their performance and cost.

Diode rectifier envelope detector: This form of detector is the simplest form, only requiring a
single diode and a couple of other low cost components. The performance is adequate for low
cost AM broadcast radios, but it does not meet the standards of other forms of demodulation.

AM diode detection process

In rectifying the RF signal, the AM diode detector provides an output equivalent to the envelope
of one half of the signal, i.e. it is an envelope detector.

In view of the operation of the diode detector, it may sometimes be referred to as an envelope
detector.

Advantages and disadvantages of a diode envelope detector

The AM diode envelope detector has been successfully used for many years.

Envelope detector advantages:

 Low cost: The diode detector only requires the use of a few low cost components. This made
it ideal for use in transistor (and valve / vacuum tube ) radios using discrete components.
 Simplicity: Using very few components, the Diode AM detector was easy to implement. It
was reliable and did not require any setup.

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

Envelope detector disadvantages:
 Distortion: As the diode detector is non-linear it introduces distortion onto the detected
audio signal.
 Selective fading: One of the issues often experienced on the short and medium wavebands
where the AM transmissions are located is that of selective fading. The diode envelope
detector is not able to combat the effects of this in the way that some other detectors are able,
and as a result, distortion occurs when selective fading occurs.
 Sensitivity: The diode detector is not as sensitive as some other types. If silicon diodes are
used, these have a turn on voltage of around 0.6 volts as a result, germanium or Schottky
diodes are used which have a lower turn on voltage of around 0.2 to 0.3 volts. Even with the
use of the Schottky diode, the diode envelope detector still suffers from a poor level of
sensitivity
The AM diode envelope detector has been available for many years. It has been widely used.
Although amplitude modulation is used less these days, and other forms of AM detector can be
easily incorporated into integrated circuits, the simple diode detector still has some advantages

 Product detector: It is possible to demodulate amplitude modulated signals with a receiver

that incorporates a product detector of mixer and a local beat frequency oscillator or carrier
injection oscillator. In its basic form, the local oscillator is not synchronized to the incoming
signal carrier.

Normally a product detector is used for the reception of single sideband - a derivative of AM.
To demodulate SSB, a circuit known as a product detector is used. Single sideband is a form
of amplitude modulation where the carrier and one sideband is removed leaving only one
sideband.

To reconstitute the signal, an oscillator known as a beat frequency oscillator or carrier

insertion oscillator is used to replace the carrier of the AM that has been removed and the
combination is mixed in a mixer - this produces the product of the two signals, which results
in the original modulating signal being produced.

The circuit can also be used for listening to Morse code signals. Here is is used to produce a
beat between the intermittent carrier so that the Morse code can be heard.

For demodulating AM, the receiver is tuned so that there is a zero beat between the carrier of
the AM and beat frequency oscillator. The demodulated audio then appears at the output of
the product detector. For this system to operate correctly, the receiver must maintain its
frequency such that the BFO frequency is exactly the same as that of the incoming carrier
otherwise an annoying beat note will be continually heard.
 Synchronous detection: The synchronous detector or demodulator is effectively a
development of the product detector circuit and it therefore provides the optimum
performance for the demodulation of AM signals. It uses many more components than a
simple diode detector, but in view of the uptake of integrated circuit technology, it is very
easy to incorporate this form of demodulator into many radio receivers for almost zero
incremental cost.

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

 The synchronous AM demodulator uses a mixer or product detector with a local oscillator
signal. The local oscillator signal is synchronised to the incoming signal carrier so that it
produces no beat note with the incoming carrier. The sidebands of the AM signal are then
demodulated to provide the required audio signal.

In view of its much superior performance and the ease of incorporating it into ICs, this form
of demodulator is used in many AM broadcast receivers as well as professional AM based
radio communications equipment and walkie talkies, etc.

These three forms of circuit are the most commonly used methods and circuits for demodulating
amplitude modulated, AM signals.

AM demodulators are used within any piece of radio equipment that is used for AM broadcast
reception or radio communications systems that use amplitude modulation. Although amplitude
modulation is not as widely used as it was many years ago, it is still used for broadcasting on the
Long, Medium and Short Wave bands.

Possibly its greatest use for professional radio communications is for aeronautical radio
communications. Here it is widely used for ground communications and walkie talkies are
widely used. Each of these different forms of radio communication will require for there to be an
AM demodulator.

Diode Detector: AM Diode Envelope Demodulator

The diode detector is the simplest form of detector or demodulator used for AM demodulation –
it detects the AM signal envelope.

The diode detector is the simplest and most basic form of amplitude modulation, AM signal
detector and it detects the envelope of the AM signal.

The AM diode detector can be built from just a diode and a few other components and as a result
it is a very low cost circuit block within an overall receiver. In the early days of radio, these
signal detectors were made using discrete components, but modern radios will use integrated
circuits with inbuilt detectors.

As a result of its cost and convenience, the AM diode envelope detector has been widely used for
many years in transistor portable radios.

Although its simplicity has been the main reason for its widespread use, its performance is not as
good as other types of AM detector / demodulator, particularly with respect to the distortion
levels.

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

Not only is the basic AM diode signal detector used for AM envelope detection, but is also
widely used n RF circuits in general for signal level detection.

AM diode detector basics

The AM diode detector is an envelope detector – it provides an output of the envelope of the
signal. As such the diode detector or demodulator is able to provide an output proportional to the
amplitude of the envelope of the amplitude modulated signal.

As the name implies, the main component within the AM diode detector is a semiconductor
diode, although in the days of valve / tube technology, diodes using this form of technology were
also used.

The signal diode detector consists of two main elements to the circuit:

 Diode / rectifier: The diode in the detector serves to that enhances one half of the received
signal over the other. In many instances Schottky diodes are used for this form of detector,
because signal levels may be low, and Schottky diodes have a much lower turn on voltage
(typically around 0.2 V) than standard silicon diodes (typically around 0.7 or 0.7 V).
 Low pass filter: The low pass filter is required to remove the high frequency elements that
remain within the signal after detection / demodulation. The filter usually consists of a very
simple RC network but in some cases It can be provided simply by relying on the limited
frequency response of the circuitry following the rectifier. As the capacitor in the circuit
stores the voltage, the output voltage reflects the peak of the waveform. Sometimes these
circuits are used as peak detectors.

When selecting the value of the capacitor used int he circuit, it should be large enough to hold
the peak of the RF waveform, but not so large that it attenuates any modulation on the signal,
i.e. it should act as a filter for the RF carrier and not the audio modulation.

SQUARE LAW DETECTOR

In electronic signal processing, a square law detector is a device that produces an output
proportional to the square of some input. For example, in demodulating radio signals, a
semiconductor diode can be used as a square law detector, providing an output current
proportional to the square of the amplitude of the input voltage over some range of input
amplitudes.A square law detector provides an output directly proportional to the power of the
input electrical signal.

Detector will receive RF at input and will produce a DC voltage proportional to the magnitude of
the RF input

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

Coherent detection inside data centers
Coherent detection can not only achieve higher sensitivity than direct detection but can
significantly increase the spectral efficiency (encoding more bits on each symbol) as well
because it uses phase, amplitude, and polarization of an optical carrier to carry information.
Although coherent detection has enjoyed great success in optical transport networks, today

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP

virtually all the optical interconnects inside data centers use intensity modulation and direct
detection (IM-DD) techniques because of the cost, power consumption, and footprint.

Compared with direct detection, coherent detection offers many advantages: (1) better
sensitivity, which can be used to reduce the laser power requirement, to trade for a higher level
modulation format to reduce the bandwidth requirement of component, or a high-power margin
for a longer link; (2) more tolerance toward optical impairments such as chromatic dispersion.
For an IM-DD transceiver beyond 100-Gbaud, chromatic dispersion can induce serious
impairment for a couple of kilometer link; (3) higher spectral efficiency, which may become an
issue in the future. With continuing CMOS technology improvements, there is a potential for
coherent detection technology to be used for intra-data center interconnects.

Digital Communication I (EEE325) For HND 1 By Engr. A. Ojo-Williams LCP