2

FUEL AIR CYCLES & ACTUAL AIR CYCLES

Course Contents

2.1 Fuel-Air cycle

2.2 Variable specific heat
2.3 Change of internal energy and
enthalpy during a process
with variable specific heats
2.4 Isentropic expansion with
variable specific heats
2.5 Effect of variable specific
heats on air standard
efficiency of Otto and Diesel
cycle
2.6 Dissociation
2.7 Effect of operating variables
2.8 Comparison of air standard
and actual cycle
2.9 Deviation of actual cycle from
fuel air cycle
2.10 Valve and Port timing diagram
2.1 Fuel-Air cycle
2.1.1 Introduction
− The air cycle approximation of air standard theory has highly simplified assumptions.
The air standard theory gives an estimate of engine performance which is much
greater than the actual performance. For example the actual indicated thermal
efficiency of a petrol engine of, say compression ratio 7:1, is of the order of 30%
whereas the air standard efficiency is of the order of 54%.
− This large divergence is partly due to non-instantaneous burning and valve operation,
incomplete combustion, etc. But the main reason of divergence is the
oversimplification in using the values of the properties of the working fluid for cycle
analysis.
− In the air cycle analysis it was assumed that the working fluid is nothing but air and
this air was a perfect gas and had constant specific heats.
− In actual engine the working fluid is not air but a mixture of air, fuel and residual gases.
Furthermore, the specific heats of the working fluid are not constant but increase as
temperature rises, and finally, the products of combustion are subjected to
dissociation at high temperature.
2.1.2 Factors considered for Fuel-Air cycle calculations
The following factors are taken into consideration while making fuel-air cycle
calculations:
− The actual composition of the cylinder gases: The cylinder gases con-tains fuel, air,
water vapour and residual gas. The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation of the
engine which changes the relative amounts of CO2, water vapour, etc.
− The variation in the specific heat with temperature: Specific heats increase with
temperature except for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of γ also changes
with temperature.
− The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at
high temperatures (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence of CO, H2, H and O2
at equilibrium conditions.
− The variation in the number of molecules: The number of molecules present after
combustion depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after
the combustion.
2.1.3 Assumptions made for Fuel-Air cycle analysis
− There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
− Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.
− There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process,
i.e. they are adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.
− In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored inside
the cylinder.
− With particular reference to constant- volume fuel-air cycle, it is also assumed that
 − The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air, and
− The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre (at constant
volume).
2.1.4 Importance of Fuel-Air cycle
− The air-standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of only compression ratio on
engine efficiency whereas the fuel-air cycle analysis gives the effect of variation of
fuel-air ratio, inlet pressure and temperature on the engine performance. It will be
noticed that compression ratio and fuel-air ratio are very important parameters of the
engine while inlet conditions are not so important.
− The actual efficiency of a good engine is about 85 per cent of the estimated fuel-air
cycle efficiency. A good estimate of the power to be expected from the actual engine
can be made from fuel-air cycle analysis. Also, peak pressures and exhaust
temperatures which affect the engine structure and design can be estimated
reasonably close to an actual engine. Thus the effect of many variables on the
performance of an engine can be understood better by fuel-air cycle analysis.

2.2 Variable Specific Heats

− All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat with
temperature. The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
However, over the temperature range generally encountered for gases in heat engines
(300 K to 2000 K) the specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be
approximately expressed in the form
C p  a1  K1T
(2.1)
Cv  b1  K1T
where a1,b1 and K1 are constants. Now,
R  C p  Cv  a1  b1 (2.2)
where R is the characteristic gas constant.
− Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in
the form
C p  a1  K1T  K 2T 2 (2.3)
Cv  b1  K1T  K 2T 2 (2.4)
− In above equations if the term T2 is neglected it becomes same as Eqn.2.1. Many
expressions are available even upto sixth order of T (i.e. T6) for the calculation of Cp
and Cv.
− The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is
raised, larger fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion of the atoms
within the molecules. Since temperature is the result of motion of the molecules, as a
whole, the energy which goes into moving the atoms does not contribute to
proportional temperature rise. Hence, more heat is required to raise the temperature
 of unit mass through one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific
heat. The values for Cp and Cv for air are usually taken as
Cp =1.005 kJ/kg K , Cv =0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
Cp =1.345 kJ/kg K , Cv =1.057 kJ/kg K at 2000 K
− Since the difference between Cp and Cv is constant, the value of γ decreases with
increase in temperature. Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken into account
during the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower
than if constant values of specific heat are used. This point is illustrated in Fig.2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Loss of power due to variation of specific heat

− With variable specific heats, the temperature at the end of compression will be 2',
instead of 2. The magnitude of drop in temperature is proportional to the drop in the
value of ratio of specific heats. For the process 1—>2, with constant specific heats
 1
v 
T2  T1  1  (2.5)
 v2 
with variable specific heats,
k 1
v 
T2'  T1  1  (2.6)
 v2' 
Cp
where k  . Note that v2’ = v2 and v1/v2 = v1/v2’ = r.
Cv
− For given values of T1, p1 and r, the magnitude of T2 depends on k. Constant volume
combustion, from point 2 ' will give a temperature T3’ instead of T3. This is due to the
fact that the rise in the value of Cv because of variable specific heat, which reduces the
temperature as already explained.
− The process, 2'-3' is heat addition with the variation in specific heat. From 3', if
expansion takes place at constant specific heats, this would result in the process 3'-4"
 whereas actual expansion due to variable specific heat will result in 3'-4' and 4' is
higher than 4". The magnitude in the difference between 4' and 4 " is proportional to
the reduction in the value of γ.
− Consider the process 3'-4"
k 1
v 
T4"  T3'  3  (2.7)
 v4 
For the process 3’-4’
 1
v 
T4'  T3'  3  (2.8)
v
 4
− Reduction in the value of k due to variable specific heat results in increase of
temperature from T4” to T4’.
2.3 Change of Internal energy and enthalpy during a process with
variable specific heats
2.3.1 Change of Internal energy
− The small change in internal energy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in
temperature (dT) is given by:
du  Cv dT
T2
 u2  u1   Cv dT
T1
T2
  (b  KT ) dT
T1
T2
 T2  K
 bT  K   b T2  T1   T22  T12 
 2 T 2
1

 T  T  
 T2  T1  b  K 2 1 
 2 
T1  T2
 T2  T1  b  KTm  where, Tm 
2
Cvm  b  KTm ( Cvm mean specific heat at constant volume)
 u2  u1  Cvm T2  T1  (2.9)
2.3.2 Change of Enthalpy
− The small change in enthalpy of a unit mass of a gas for small change in temperature
(dT) is given by:
dh  C p dT
 T2
 h2  h1   C p dT
T1
T2
  (a  KT ) dT
T1
T2
 T2  K
  aT  K   a T2  T1   T22  T12 
 2 T 2
1

 T  T  
 T2  T1   a  K 2 1 
 2 
T1  T2
 T2  T1  a  KTm  where, Tm 
2
C pm  a  KTm ( C pm mean specific heat at constant pressure)
 h2  h1  C pm T2  T1  (2.10)

2.4 Isentropic expansion with variable specific heats

− Consider one kg of air, the heat transfer to a system using first law can be written as
dQ  du  dW
dQ  Cv dT  pdv
− For isentropic process, dQ  0
 Cv dT  pdv  0
dT p
 Cv
 dv  0
T T
dT dv
 Cv R 0  pv  RT 
T v
− Putting the values of R and Cv in the above equation, we get
dT dv
  b  KT   a  b  0
T v
− Integrating both sides we get
dT dv
   b  KT     a  b   constant
T v
dT dv
 b  K  dT   a  b    constant
T v
 b log e T  KT  (a  b) log e v  constant
 log e T b  log e e KT  log e v ( a b )  constant
 T beKT v( ab)  constant
K a
T ( 1)
 Te b v b
 constant (2.11)
T Kb T ba
 e v  constant (2.12)
v
T p p
pv  RT   
v R a b
 − Inserting the value of above equation in eq. 2.13.
p Kb T ba
 e v  constant
a b
a KT
 pv b e b
 constant (2.13)

2.5 Effect of variable specific heats on air standard efficiency of Otto

and diesel cycle
2.5.1 Otto cycle
− The air standard efficiency of Otto cycle is given by
1
  1   1
r
Now, C p  Cv  R
Cp R
 1 
Cv Cv
R  Cp 
  1     (2.14)
Cv  Cv 

R
1 
  1 R
 1 r Cv

Cv
r
R
 1    r 

Cv

− Taking log on both sides, we have

R
 log e 1      log e  r 
Cv
− Differentiating the above equation, we have
1 d  1 
   R log e r   2 
1   dCv  Cv 
d R dC
    log e r  v
1  Cv Cv
d 1  dCv
      1  log e r  (2.15)
  Cv
− Negative sign indicates the decrease in efficiency with increase in Cv.
− The Eq. 2.15 gives the percentage variation in air standard efficiency of Otto cycle on
account of percentage variation in Cv.
2.5.2 Diesel Cycle
− The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is given by
 1    1 
  1  1  
 r       1 
1    1 
1     1  
 r       1 
− Taking log on both sides, we get
 log 1     log     1  log  r   log   log    1
 1

 log 1     log     1    1 log r  log   log    1

− Differentiating the above equation with respect to γ
1 d 1 1
       log e   log e r 
1  d   1 

d    log e  1 
  1    log e r   
d    1 
d
− Multiplying the above equation by

d  1      log e  1 
  log
 e r      d (2.16)
      
 1 
R
− Eq. 2.14 is   1  , differentiating this equation with respect to Cv
Cv
d R R dCv
  2  d   
dCv Cv Cv Cv
dCv
d       1  (2.17)
Cv
− Inserting the value of Eq. 2.17 into Eq. 2.16, we get
d 1     log e  1  dCv
      1 log e r    (2.18)
     1   Cv

2.6 Dissociation
− Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion products
at high temperature.
− Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to combustion. During
dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion the heat is liberated.
− In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 occurs, whereas there is a very
little dissociation of H2O.
− The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 °C and the
reaction equation can be written as
2CO2  Heat 2CO  O2
− Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 °C and written
as
2H2O  Heat 2H 2  O2
− The presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of CO2; this is
noticeable in a rich fuel mixture, which, by producing more CO, suppresses
dissociation of CO2.
− On the other hand, there is no dissociation in burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture.
This is mainly due to the fact that temperature produced is too low for this
phenomenon to occur.
− Hence, the maximum extent of dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically
correct fuel-air mixture when the temperatures are expected to be high but decreases
with the leaner and richer mixtures.
− In case of internal combustion engines heat transfer to the cooling medium causes a
reduction in the maximum temperature and pressure. As the temperature falls during
the expansion stroke the separated constituents recombine; the heat absorbed during
dissociation is thus again released, but it is too late in the stroke to recover entirely
the lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases.

Fig. 2.2 Effect of dissociation on temperature

− Figure 2.2 shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the
exhaust gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio. With no
dissociation maximum temperature is attained at chemically correct air-fuel ratio.
− With dissociation maximum temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich.
Dissociation reduces the maximum temperature by about 300 °C even at the
chemically correct air-fuel ratio. In the Fig. 2.2, lean mixtures and rich mixtures are
marked clearly.
2. Fuel Air Cycles and Actual Cycles Internal Combustion Engine (2161902)

Fig. 2.3 Effect of dissociation on power

− The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig.2.3 for a typical four-stroke
spark-ignition engine operating at constant speed. If there is no dissociation the brake
power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric.
− The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to
dissociation. When the mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the air-fuel
ratio decreases i.e., as the mixture becomes rich the maximum temperature raises and
dissociation commences.
− The maximum dissociation occurs at
chemically correct mixture strength.
As the mixture becomes richer,
dissociation effect tends to decline
due to incomplete combus-tion.
− Dissociation effects are not so
pronounced in a Cl engine as in an SI
engine. This is mainly due to
(i) the presence of a heterogeneous
mixture and
(ii) excess air to ensure complete
combustion.
Both these factors tend to reduce the Fig. 2.4 Effect of dissosiation shown on a p-V
diagram
peak gas temperature attained in the Cl
engine.
− Figure 2.4 shows the effect of dissociation on p-V diagram of Otto cycle. Because of
lower maximum temperature due to dissociation the maximum pressure is also
reduced and the state after combustion will be represented by 3' instead of 3. If there
was no reassociation due to fall of temperature during expansion the expansion
 process would be represented by 3'-4" but due to reassociation the expansion follows
the path 3'-4'.
− By comparing with the ideal expansion 3-4, it is observed that the effect of dissociation
is to lower the temperature and consequently the pressure at the beginning of the
expansion stroke. This causes a loss of power and also efficiency. Though during
recombining the heat is given back it is too late to contribute a convincing positive
increase in the output of the engine.

2.7 Effect of operating variables

The effect of common engine operating variables on the pressure and temperature
within the engine cylinder is better understood by fuel-air cycle analysis. The details
are discussed in this section:
2.7.1 Compression Ratio
− The fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with the compression ratio in the same manner
as the air-standard cycle efficiency, principally for the same reason (more scope of
expansion work. This is shown in fig 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Effect of compression ratio and mixture strength on efficiency

− The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to the equivalence ratio for
various compression ratios is given in fig 2.6. The equivalence ratio,  , is defined as
ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to chemically correct fuel-air ratio on mass basis.
 Fig. 2.6 Effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for various compression ratios
− The maximum pressure and temperature increase with compression ratio since the
temperature, T2, and pressure, p2, at the end of compression are higher. However, it
can be noted from the experimental results that the ratio of fuel-air cycle efficiency to
air-standard efficiency is independent of the compression ratio for given equivalence
ratio for the constant volume fuel-air cycle.
2.7.2 Fuel Air ratio
a) Efficiency
− As the mixture is made lean (less
fuel) the temperature rise due to
combustion will be lowered as a
result of reduced energy input per
unit mass of mixture. This will result
in lower specific heat.
− Further, it will lower the losses due
to dissociation and variation in
specific heat. The efficiency is
therefore, higher and, in fact,
approaches the air-cycle efficiency
as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as Fig. 2.7 Effect of mixture strength on thermal
efficiency
shown in Fig. 2.7.
b) Maximum Power
− Fig. 2.8 gives the cycle power as affected by fuel-air ratio. By air-standard theory
maximum power is at chemically correct mixture, but by fuel-air theory maximum
 power is when the mixture is about 10% rich. As the mixture becomes richer the
efficiency falls rapidly.

Fig. 2.8 Effect of fuel-air ratio on power

− This is because in addition to higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses,
there is insufficient air which will result in formation of CO and H2 in combustibles,
which represents a direct wastage of fuel.
c) Maximum temperature
− At a given compression ratio the
temperature after combustion
reaches a maximum when the
mixture is slightly rich, i.e., around
6 % or so (F/A = 0.072 or A/F = 14:1)
as shown in Fig. 2.9.
− At chemically correct ratio there is
still some oxygen present at the point
3 because of chemical equilibrium
effects a rich mixture will cause more
fuel to combine with oxygen at that
point thereby raising the
temperature T3. However, at richer
mixtures increased formation of CO
counters this effect.
d) Maximum Pressure
− The pressure of a gas in a given space
Fig. 2.9 Effect of equivalence ratio on T3 and P3
depends upon its temperature and
the number of molecules The curve of p3, therefore follows T3, but because of the
increasing number of molecules p3 does not start to decrease until the mixture is
somewhat richer than that for maximum T3 (at F/A = 0.083 or A/F = 12:1), i.e. about
20 per cent rich (Fig.2.9).
e) Exhaust Temperature
− The exhaust gas temperature, T4 is
maximum at the chemically correct
mixture as shown in Fig. 2.10. At
this point there is reassociation as
the temperature decrease so heat
will be released these heat cannot
be used in engine cylinder so the
exhaust gases carry these heat with
them and it result in higher exhaust
temperature.
− At lean mixtures, because of less
fuel, T3 is less and hence T4 is less.
At rich mixtures less sensible
energy is developed and hence T4 is
less. That is, T4 varies with fuel-air
ratio in the same manner as T3
Fig. 2.10 Effect of fuel-air ratio on the exhaust gas
except that maximum T4 is at the temperature
chemically correct fuel-air ratio in
place of slightly rich fuel-air ratio (6 %) as in case of T3.
− However, the behaviour of T4 with compression ratio is different from that of T3 as
shown in Fig. 2.10 Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature, T4 is lower at high
compression ratios, because the increased expansion causes the gas to do more work
on the piston leaving less heat to be rejected at the end of the stroke. The same effect
is present in the case of air-cycle analysis also.

2.8 Comparison of air standard and actual cycles

The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in
many respects. These differences are mainly due to:
− The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid
fuel in air combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
− The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
− The variation of specific heats with temperature.
− The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge
because of the residual gases.
− The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
− The heat transfer to and from the working medium
− The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expan-sion stroke due
to early opening of the exhaust valve.
− Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
 Most of the factors listed above tend to decrease the thermal efficiency and power
output of the actual engines. On the other hand, the analysis of the cycles while taking
these factors into account clearly indicates that the estimated thermal efficiencies are
not very different from those of the actual cycles.

2.9 Deviation of Actual cycle from Fuel-Air cycle

− Major deviation from of actual cycle from the Fuel air cycle is due to
− Variation in Specific heats
− Dissociation
− Progressive combustion
− Incomplete combustion of fuel
− Time loss factor
− Heat loss factor
− Exhaust blowdown factor
2.9.1 Time losses
Time losses may be burning time loss and spark timings loss.
a) Burning time loss
− In theoretical cycle, the burning is assumed to be instantaneous but actually burning
takes some time. The time required depends upon F:A ratio, fuel chemical structure
and its ignition temperature. This also depends upon the flame velocity and the
distance from the ignition point to the opposite side of combustion chamber.
− During combustion, there is always increase in volume. The time internal between the
spark and complete burning of the charge is approximately 40° crank rotation.

Fig. 2.11 Effect of time losses on p-V diagram

 − The effect of time required for combustion; the maximum pressure is not produced
when volume is minimum (vc) as expected. It is produced some time after TDC.
Therefore, the pressure rises from b to c as shown in Fig. 2.11.
− The point 3 represents the maximum pressure if the combustion should have taken
place instantly. The difference in area of actual cycle and fuel-air cycle shows the loss
of power as shown in Fig. 2.11. This loss of work is called burning time loss. This time
loss is defined as the loss of power due to time required for mixing the fuel with air
and for complete combustion.
b) Spark Timing Loss
− A definite time is required to start the burning of fuel after generating the spark in the
cylinder. The effect of this, the maximum pressure is not reached at TDC and it reaches
late during the expansion stroke. The time at which the burning starts is varied by
varying the angle of advance (spark advance).
− If the spark is given at T.D.C., the maximum pressure is low due to expansion
of gases.
− If the spark is advanced by 40° to start combustion at T.D.C., the combustion
takes place at T.D.C. But the heat loss and the exhaust loss may be higher and
again work obtained is not optimum.
− In the above two cases, the work area is less, and, therefore, power developed per
cycle and efficiency are lower.

Fig. 2.12 Effects of angle of advance a on p - v diagram

− Thus for getting maximum work output, a moderate spark advance of 15° to 25° is the
best.
c) Incomplete Combustion Loss
− The time loss always includes a loss due to incomplete combustion. It is impossible
obtain perfect homogeneous air-fuel mixture. Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas is
present in the cylinder before ignition takes place. Under these circumstances it is
possible to have excess oxygen in one part of the cylinder and excess fuel in another
part of it. Therefore, some fuel does not burn or burns partially. Both CO and O2 will
appear in the exhaust.
 − It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate fuel wastage
while a rich mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen. Slightly leaner mixture will
give maximum efficiency but too lean a mixture will burn slowly, increasing the losses
or will not burn at all causing total waste. In the rich mixture some of the fuel will not
get oxygen and will be completely wasted. Also, the flame speed in the rich mixture is
low, thereby increasing the time losses and lowering the efficiency.
2.9.2 Direct heat loss
− During the combustion process and expansion process, the gases inside the engine
cylinder are at a considerably higher temperature, so the heat is lost to the jacket
cooling water or air. Some heat is lost to the lubricating oil where splash lubrication
system is used for lubricating cylinder and piston.
− The loss of heat which takes place during combustion has the maximum effect, while
that lost before the end of the expansion stroke has little effect, since it can do very
small amount of useful work.
− During combustion and expansion, about 15% of the total heat is lost. Out of this,
however, much is lost too late in the cycle to have done any useful work.
− In case all heat loss is recovered, about 20 percent of it may appear as useful work.
2.9.3 Exhaust blowdown loss
− At the end of exhaust stroke, the
cylinder pressure is about 7 bar. If
the exhaust valve is opened at
B.D.C., the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure
costing part of the exhaust stroke.
When the exhaust valve is opened
too early entire part of the
expansion stroke is lost.
− Thus, best compromise is that
exhaust valve be opened 40° to 70°
before B.D.C., thereby, reducing the
cylinder pressure to halfway to Fig. 2.13 Effect of blow down
atmosphere before the start of the
exhaust stroke.
2.9.4 Pumping losses
− In case of ideal cycles the suction and
exhaust processes were assumed to be
at atmospheric pressure. However some
pressure differential is required to carry
out the suction and exhaust processes
between the fluid pressure and cylinder
pressures.
− During suction the cylinder pressure is
lower them the fluid pressure in order to
induct the fluid into the cylinder and the Fig. 2.14 Pumping Loss
exhaust gases are expelled at a pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure.
− Therefore some work is done on the gases during suction and exhaust stroke. This
work is called pumping work as shown in Fig. 2.14 by shaded area.
2.9.5 Rubbing Friction Losses
− The rubbing friction losses are caused due to
− Friction between piston and cylinder walls
− Friction in various bearings
− Friction in auxiliary equipment such as pumps and fans.
− The piston friction increases rapidly with engine speed and to small extent by
in-creases in m.e.p.
− The bearing and auxiliary friction also increase with engine speed.
− The engine efficiency is maximum at full load and reduces with the decrease in load.
It is due to the fact that direct heat loss, pumping loss and rubbing friction loss increase
at lower loads.

2.10 Valve and port timing diagrams

− The valve timing diagram shows the position of the crank when the various operations
i.e., suction, compression, expansion exhaust begin and end.
− The valve timing is the regulation of the positions in the cycle at which the valves are
set to at open and close
− The poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and closed by cam
mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up
and valve slowly lifted, at first, if noise and wear is to be avoided. For the same reasons
the valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it will bounce on its seat. (Also, the cam
contours should be so designed as to produce gradual and smooth changes in
directional acceleration).
− Thus, the valve opening and closing periods are spread over a considerable number of
crankshaft degrees. As a result, the opening of the valve must commence ahead of the
time at which it is fully opened (i.e. before dead centres). The same reasoning applies
for the closing time and the valves must close after the dead centres.
2.10.1 Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Petrol engine
− The actual valve timings used for low speed and high speed engines are shown in Fig.
2.15 (a) and (b).
a) Inlet valve
− The inlet valve opening occurs a few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at TDC
during the exhaust stroke. This is necessary to insure that the valve will be fully open
and fresh charge starts to flow into the cylinder as soon as the piston starts to move
down.
− If the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less charge than
its capacity and the pressure of the charge at the end of suction stroke will be below
atmosphere. To avoid this, the inlet valve is kept open for 40°-50° rotation of the crank
after the suction stroke for high speed engine and 20° to 25° for low speed engine.
− The kinetic energy of the charge produces a ram effect which packs more charge into
the cylinder during this additional valve opening. Therefore, the inlet valve closing is
delayed.
− Higher the speed of the engine, the inlet valve closing is delayed longer to take an
advantage of ram effect.

Fig. 2.15 Valve timing diagram for low and high speed 4-stroke SI engine
b) Exhaust valve
− The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (say about 25° before BDC in low speed
engines and 55° before BDC in high speed engines).
 − If the exhaust valve did not start to open until BDC, the pressures in the cylinder would
be considerably above atmospheric pressure during the first portion of the exhaust
stroke, increasing the work required to expel the exhaust gases. But opening the
exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near the end of the power stroke and thus
causes some loss of useful work on this stroke.
− However, the overall effect of opening the valve prior to the time the piston reaches
BDC results in overall gain in output.
− The closing time of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency. By closing the
exhaust valve a few degrees after TDC (about 15° in case of low speed engines and 20°
in case of high speed engines) the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to scavenge the
cylinder by carrying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume. This
results in increased volumetric efficiency.
c) Ignition
− Theoretically it is assumed that spark is given at the TDC and fuel burns
instantaneously. However, there is always a time lag between the spark and ignition
of the charge. The ignition starts some time after giving the spark, therefore it is
necessary to produce the spark before piston reaches the TDC to obtain proper
combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is
known as "Ignition Advance" or "Angle of Advance".
d) Valve Overlap
− From the valve timing diagram it is obvious that there will a period when both the
intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time. This is called valve overlap (say
about 15° in low speed engine and 30° in high speed engines). This overlap should not
be excessive otherwise it will allow the burned gases to be sucked into the intake
manifold, or the fresh charge to escape through the exhaust valve.
2.10.2 Valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel engine
− The actual valve timing diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel cycle engine is shown in fig. 2.16.
The various strokes are modified for similar reasons as explained in case of petrol
engine.
Fuel Injection Timing
− The opening of fuel valve is necessary for better evaporation and mixing of the fuel.
As there is always lag between ignition and supply of fuel, it is always necessary to
supply the fuel little earlier.
− In case of diesel engine, the overlapping provided is sufficiently large compared with
the petrol engine. More overlapping is not advisable in petrol engine because the
mixture of air and petrol may pass out with the exhaust gases and it is highly
uneconomical. This danger does not arise in case of diesel engine because only air is
taken during the suction stroke.
 1 – TDC
2 – BDC
3 – Inlet Valve Opens
4 – Inlet Valve Closes
5 – Fuel Valve Opens
6 – Fuel Valve Closes
7 – Exhaust Valve Opens
8 – Exhaust Valve Closes

2.16 Valve Timing Diagram of 4-Stroke Diesel Cycle Engine

− The valve timing of diesel engine have to be adjusted depending upon the speed of
the engine. The typical valve timings are as follows:
− IV opens at 250 before TDC
− IV closes at 300 after BDC
− Fuel injection starts at 50 before TDC
− Fuel injection closes at 250 after TDC
− EV opens at 450 before BDC
− EV closes at 150 after TDC
2.10.3 Port Timing Diagram of 2-stroke engine
− The port timing diagram for actual working of the two-stroke petrol and diesel engine
is shown in Fig. 2.17. The port timing diagram is self-explanatory.

(a) Petrol Engine (b) Diesel Engine

Fig. 2.17 Port Timing Diagram for 2-stroke Engine
 Tutorial Questions
1 Give classification of IC Engines.
2 Distinguish between SI engines and CI engines?

3 Sketch and explain the valve timing diagram of a four stroke Otto cycle?

In what respect two stroke engines differs from 4-stroke engine Discuss?
4
5 Explain fuel injection system of an SI engine?

What are the different lubrication systems available for IC engines?

6

Discuss the importance of cooling system for an IC engines. Describe different

7 cooling systems?

8 List out the properties of fuel for (i) SI engine (ii) CI engine.
9 Explain lubrication system for IC engines?

10 Explain cooling system for IC engines?

Assignment Questions
1 what is scavenging ? explain with sketches?

2 List the factors causes detonation and explain in detail?

3 Explain Magneto ignition system with a neat diagram?

4 Explain coil ignition system with a neat diagram?

What is Octane number? What is the role of Octane number in the performance of
5 engine? For higher performance of engine which rated fuels are to be selected?