GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

DOORS
A door is a hinged or otherwise movable barrier that allows entry and exit into an
"enclosure”, it is essential, and primary purpose is to provide security by controlling
the portal (doorway). Conventionally, a panel fits into the portal of a building, room,
or vehicle. Doors are commonly made of a material suited to the task of which it is
to perform. Doors are commonly attached by hinges within the portal but can be
moved by other means such as slides or counterbalancing.
The door may be moved in various ways:
 at angles away from the portal/entrance,
 by sliding on a plane parallel to the frame,
 by folding in angles on a parallel plane,
 or by spinning along an axis at the center of the frame
Doors often incorporate locking mechanisms to ensure that only some people can
open them. Doors can have devices such as knockers or doorbells by which people
outside can announce their presence and summon someone to either open the door
for them or give permission to open and enter.
Functions of a door:
 providing access into and out of a space,
 privacy by preventing unwanted attention from outsiders,
 separating areas with different functions,
 allowing light to pass into and out of a space,
 controlling ventilation or air drafts so that interiors may be more
effectively heated or cooled,
 dampening noise,
 Blocking the spread of fire.
 Doors may have aesthetic, symbolic, ritualistic purposes
 Doors influence furniture arrangement, add decoration, emphasize the
overall design of building.

Location of a door

1. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum since larger number
of doors cause obstruction, and consume more area in circulation.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2. The location of a door should meet functional requirements of a room. It

should not be located in the center of the length of a wall.
3. A door should preferably be located near the corner of a room-nearly 20 cm
away from the corner.
4. If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in
opposite walls, facing each other, to provide good ventilation and free-air
circulation in the rooms.
5. A number of other factors that influence the location of doors are
circulation path, furniture arrangement, view and privacy and light, heat and
cold control.

Functional requirements:
 Strength and stability
 Privacy and security
 Safety
 Ventilation and light
 Climate control
 Fire resistance
 Sound regulation
 Thermal regulation
 Durability
 Aesthesticity
Doorway components
When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two
vertical jambs on either side, a lintel or head jamb at the top, and perhaps
a threshold at the bottom. When a door has more than one movable section, one of
the sections may be called a leaf. Lintel – A horizontal beam above a door that
supports the wall above it. (Also known as a header)

 Jambs or legs – The vertical posts that form the sides of a door frame, where
the hinges are
 Mounted, and with which the bolt interacts.
 Sill (for exterior doors) – A horizontal sill plate below the door that supports
the door frame. Similar to a Window Sill but for a door
 Threshold (for exterior doors) – A horizontal plate below the door that bridges
the crack between the interior floor and the sill.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Doorstop – a thin slat built inside the frame to prevent a door from swinging
through when closed, an act, which might break the hinges.
 Architrave – The decorative molding that outlines a doorframe. (Called
an Archivolt if the door is arched). Called door casing or brick mold in North
America.

Parts of a door – glossary of terms

 Top rail – The top rail is the horizontal piece that sits across the very top
of the door.
 Freeze rail - Similar to the top rail, except it sits horizontally across the
next divide down between the panels on the door. This is often at eye height
and not all doors have a cross rail. This is sometimes known as cross rail.
 Middle rail – Sits horizontally across the middle of the door. Not all doors
have a middle rail.
 Bottom rail – Sits horizontally across the very bottom of the door.
 Stiles – This is the collective name for the vertical components that sit on
the outside edge of a door.
 Lock stile – This is the vertical edge of the door which sits on the opposite
side of the door to the hinges, and contains the lock or latch.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Panel – The panels, which may be timber or glass, are what fill the frame
formed by the stiles and rails of a door.
 Top mullion - This is the vertical element of the door that forms a division
between different panels at the very top of a door. This is sometimes known
as first mullion.
 Mid mullion - This is the vertical element that forms a division between
panels in the area directly below the top mullion. This is sometimes known as
second mullion.
 Lower mullion - This is the vertical element that forms a division between
panels in the area directly below the mid mullion. This is sometimes known as
third mullion.
 Molding – This is decorative detailing that can be used around the edge of
the door stiles, rails and mullions. It may be simple or highly decorative, such
as crown molding.
 Frame or lining – The door frame (external) or lining (internal) is what the
door fits within and which covers the walls.

FRAMES AND LININGS:

FRAMES: these are the jambs and upper transverse member enclosing the sides
and top of a doorway and usually supports a door.

Parts of a door frame in detail

 Head – The head is the part of the door frame that sits horizontally to form
the top of the frame.
 Legs/Jambs – These are the terms commonly used to refer to the vertical
components that form the sides of the door frame.
 Stops – The stops are what the door rests against when closed, and are an
integral part of the frame. In the case of door linings these are thin strips
of wood that are mounted along the length of the jambs and head, to serve
the same purpose.
 Architrave - This refers to the decorative molding on the outer most edge
of the door frame or lining.
 Cill or threshold – This is the bottom portion of an exterior door frame, and
is used internally when transitioning from one floor covering to another.

Door linings:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

A door lining is a frame, usually made of wood that is used to prevent doors from
sticking and jamming, and also to conceal the brickwork or timber surrounding
the door itself. The lining makes the door look more appealing, makes it easier to
use, and protects the door from damage.

Generally door frames are used for external doors and door linings or casings
for internal doors.

TYPES OF DOORS:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Ledged and braced

 Framed, ledged and braced
 Paneled doors
 Flush doors
 Glazed doors
 Composite doors
 Special doors

Types of Doors based on Placing of Components

Based on the arrangement of door components, the doors are classified as
following,

1. Battened and Ledged Doors

o Battens are vertical bonds which are having grooves are attached together by
horizontal supports called ledges as shown in below figure.

o General Dimensions of batten are 100-150mm width and 20-30mm thick.

o General dimension of ledges are 100-200mm width and 25-30mm thick.

o This type of battened and ledged doors suitable for narrow openings.

2. Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors

o To make more rigid, braces are provided diagonally in additional to battens and
ledges as shown in figure.

o Braces are having 100-150mm width and 25-30mm thicknesses are preferable.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

o Braces should place upwards from handing side, then they acts as struts and take
compression.

o These types of doors can be used for wider openings.

3. Battened, Ledged and Framed Doors

o For the simple battened and ledged door, frame work is provided in the form of
two verticals, known as stiles.

o Stiles are generally 100mm wide and as far as thickness is concerned, the
thickness of stile should be equal to the combined thickness of ledge and batten.
Preferably 40 mm.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

4. Battened, Ledged, Braced and Framed Doors

o In this type, the door made up of battens, ledges, stiles and braces. So, it is more
rigid.

o The braces are connected diagonally between the ledges, at about 40mm from the
stiles.

Types of Doors based on Method of Construction:

Based on the method of construction, the doors are again classified into 5 types
and they are:

5. Framed and Paneled Doors

o These are very strong and will give good appearance when compared to battened
doors. These are the widely used doors in almost all types of buildings.

o Stiles, vertical members and rails, horizontal members are grooved along the inner
edges of frame to receive the panels.

o The panels are made up of timber or plywood or A.C. sheets or glass.

o These doors may be single leaf for narrow openings and double leaf for wider
openings.

o Minimum width of stile should be 100mm and minimum width of bottom and locked
rail should be 150mm.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

6. Glazed Doors
o Glazed doors are generally provided in interior wall openings or in hospitals,
colleges etc.

o The interior of room is visible through glazed doors and light also passes through
glazed portion of the door.

o These may be fully glazed or partly glazed and partly paneled. Glass panels are
provided for glazed doors.

7. Flush Doors
In flush doors, a solid or semi-solid or core portion is covered on both sides with
plywood or face veneer. Now a day these types of doors are widely used because of
good appearance, economic, ease of construction and greater durability.

There are two types of Flushed doors:

Solid Core or Laminated Core Flush Door
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

o The core part in solid core flush door consists of core strips of timber which are
glued under high pressure condition. Similarly in the laminated core, battens of
25mm width are glued under high pressure.

o These doors consist of wooden frame with stiles and rails for holding the core.

o Finally plywood sheets or face veneer and cross-bands are glued under pressure on
both sides of doors.

Hollow core and cellular core flush door

o In this case also stiles and rails are provided for frame. But, a minimum of two
intermediate rails should be provided.

o The inner space of door consists of equally space battens of width 25mm each.
Other space is called void space which does not exceed 40% of the area of door.

o Here also face veneer and cross-bands are glued under high pressure.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

8. Louvered Doors
o The louvers permit natural ventilation when the door is closed and also provide
privacy in the room.

o These are generally used for toilets of residential and public buildings.

o The door may be fully louvered are partly louvered.

o Louvers are made up of timber or glass or plywood and these may be either fixed
or movable.

9. Wire Gauged Doors

Wire gauged doors permits natural ventilation and restricts the entry of flies,
mosquitoes, insects etc... These doors are commonly used in hotels, restaurants and
for cup boards containing eatables.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Types of Doors based on Working Operations

The doors are classified on the basis of working operations as :

10. Revolving Doors

Revolving doors are only provided in public buildings like museums, banks, libraries
etc., because of constant visitors. It consists of mullion at its center to which four
radiating shutters are attached.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

11. Sliding Doors

In this type, with the help of runners and guide rails the door slides to the sides.
The door may have one or more sliding shutter depending up on the opening
available.

12. Swing Doors

In this case, the shutter is attached to frame by double action spring which helps
the shutter to move inwards as well as outwards.

13. Collapsible Steel Doors

Collapsible steel doors are generally used for workshops, sheds, warehouses etc...
It acts like a steel curtain which will open or closed by horizontal pull or push.
Vertical double channel units of (20x10x2 mm) are spaced at 100 to 120 mm thick
and are braced flat iron diagonals 10 to 20mm wide and 5mm thick.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

14. Rolling Steel Shutter Doors

Rolling steel shutter doors are commonly used for warehouses, garages, shops etc...
These are very strong and offer proper safety to the property. The door consists
frame, drum and a shutter of thin steel plate inter locked together. A horizontal
shaft is provided in the drum which helps to open or close the shutter.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Types of Doors based on Materials:

Doors are made up of wood, glass, metals. Wood doors are already discussed in
the 1t classification and glass doors are nothing but glazed doors . Types of Metals
doors are described below.

15. Mild Steel Sheet Doors

o The door frame is made up of angle or T-sections.

o Shutter is made up of frame of angle of iron, having 2 verticals at least 3

horizontal.

o Mild steel plates are welded to the shutter frame.

16. Corrugated Steel Sheet Doors

These are same as mild steel sheet doors, but in place of mild steel sheet
corrugated steel sheet is welded.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

17. Hollow Metal Doors

Hollow steel sections are used to make these doors. The rails and stiles etc. are
strengthened by welding small T or I sections inside.

18. Metal Covered Plywood Doors

o This type of door is a composite construction of hollow metal door and wood door.

o The door is encased in tight fitting sheet metal, having tightly folded joints to
exclude air so that the core of the door does not ignite. So, it acts as fire proof.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

COMPOSITE DOORS:

Composite doors are made up from a variety of materials, including PVC, wood;
insulating foam and GRP (glass reinforced plastic). The combination of materials
results in a door that is very strong and secure.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Special Doors
These are doors used to perform specific functions depending on the usage of the
enclosed space. E.g. Keeping sensitive information in and bothersome sound out, and
insulating hazardous substances. This can be of vital importance. For example, in
data centers that store digital government information. Or in the industry sector
where workers are exposed to harmful noise each day. Safety and health are
priorities, as is comfort of course. Indeed, anyone visiting a cinema would prefer
not to hear any noise from another hall!

DOOR FURNITURE/HARDWARE
Refers to any of the items that are attached to a door to enhance its
functionality or appearance.

HINGES:
A hinge is a mechanical bearing that connects two solid objects, typically allowing
only a limited angle of rotation between them. Two objects connected by an ideal
hinge rotate relative to each other about a fixed axis of rotation: all
other translations or rotations being prevented, and thus a hinge has one degree of
freedom. Hinges may be made of flexible material or of moving components.

There are many types of door hinges. The main types include:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Spring hinge
A spring-loaded hinge made to provide assistance in the closing or the opening of
the hinge leaves. A spring is a component of a hinge that applies force to secure a
hinge closed or keep a hinge opened.
Barrel hinge
A sectional barrel secured by a pivot. A barrel is a component of a hinge, which has
a hollow cylinder shaped section where the rotational bearing force is applied to
the pivot, and may also have a screw shaped section for fastening and/or driving
the pivot.
Pivot hinges
Which pivot in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame? Also referred
to as a double-acting floor hinge. This type is found in ancient dry stone buildings
and rarely in old wooden buildings. These are also called haar-hung doors. They are
a low cost alternative for use with light weight doors.
Butt / mortise hinges
Usually in threes or fours, which are inset (mortised) into the door and frame?
Mortise hinges for exterior doors are often made of brass or stainless steel to
prevent corrosion.
Case hinges
Case hinges are similar to a butt hinge however usually more of a decorative nature
most commonly used in suitcases, briefcases and the like.
Continuous hinges or piano hinges
This type of hinge is also known as a piano hinge. It runs the entire length of the
door, panel, or box. Continuous hinges are manufactured with or without holes.
These hinges also come in various thicknesses, pin diameters, and knuckle lengths.
Concealed hinges
Used for furniture doors (with or without self-closing feature, and with or without
damping systems). They are made of two parts: One part is the hinge cup and the
arm, the other part is the mounting plate. Also called "cup hinge", or "Euro hinge",
Butterfly hinges, or parliament (UK) hinges
The form of these hinges varied slightly between manufacturers, and their size
ranged from the very large for heavy doors to the tiniest decorative hinge for use
on jewellery boxes
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Flag hinges
A flag hinge can be taken apart with a fixed pin on one leaf. Flag hinges can also
swivel a full 360 degrees around the pin. Flag hinges are manufactured as a right
hand and a left hand configuration.
Strap hinges
An early hinge and used on many kinds of interior and exterior doors and cabinets.
H hinges
Shaped like an H and used on flush-mounted doors. Small H hinges (3–4 in or 76–
102 mm) tend to be used for cabinet’s hinges, while larger hinges (6–7 in or 150–
180 mm) are for passage doors or closet doors.
HL hinges
Large HL hinges were common for passage doors, room doors and closet doors in
the 17th, 18th and even 19th centuries. On taller doors H hinges were occasionally
used in the middle along with the HL hinges.
Self-closing hinge
A spring-loaded hinge with speed control function. The same as spring hinge
use spring to provide force to close the door and provide a mechanical or hydraulic
damper to control door close speed. That can prevent door slamming problem while
auto closes a door.

Other types include:

 Counter flap hinge

 Flush hinge
 Coach hinge
 Rising butt hinge
 Double action spring hinge
 Double action non-spring
 Tee hinge
 Friction hinge
 Security hinge
 Cranked hinge or stormproof hinge
 Lift-off hinge
 Pinge: A hinge with a quick release pin. These are found on stainless steel
electrical enclosures.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

LOCKS:
A lock is a device that prevents access by those without a key or combination,
generally by preventing one or more latches from being operated. Often
accompanied by an escutcheon. Some doors, particularly older ones, will have
a keyhole accompanying the lock.

Types of Locks

Although there are many types of locks, the four most common are padlocks,
deadbolts, knob locks, and levers.

Padlocks
Padlocks are the only type of lock that is typically not permanently attached to
anything else. Padlocks come in two main varieties:

Combination and keyed. Combination locks have one or more number dials that
open the lock when the correct combination is entered. They are often easy to
decode or shim open. Keyed padlocks have several options to consider. There are
rekey able and non-rekey able padlocks. If a padlock is non-rekey able, then you
cannot change the key that opens the lock (for example to make it use the same
key as your house). Padlocks can be key-retaining or non-key-retaining. A key-
retaining padlock does not allow the key to be removed while the padlock is open.
Finally, padlocks can have a shrouded shackle. This is an extension of the body
where the shoulders of the padlock raise up the sides of the shackle to make it far
harder for bolt cutters to cut the padlock.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Deadbolts
Deadbolts are generally installed on external doors and have a few more options to
consider than padlocks. Deadbolts come in three primary varieties: single, double,
and lockable thumb turn. Single cylinder deadbolts use a key cylinder on the
outside and a thumb turn on the inside to open or close the lock. These deadbolts
have one primary weakness. If access to the inside is possible (via a nearby window
or even through the peephole using simple tools), the door can be opened using the
thumb turn. A double cylinder deadbolt uses a key cylinder on the inside and the
outside of the door to solve this issue. These have the clear disadvantage of
always requiring a key to open the door from the inside if it is locked. This can
pose a significant problem in a fire or other emergency situation. If used in a
residential situation, it is strongly recommended that a key is left on the inside
when people are present to ensure a safe exit in an emergency. A lockable thumb
turns. It features a thumb turn on the inside that works like a normal single
cylinder deadbolt, except the thumb turn can be locked using a key so it cannot
lock or unlock the door. This means in a residential situation, the thumb turn can be
left in an unlocked position while people are inside the house, and it will operate
exactly like a standard single cylinder deadbolt. When everyone is leaving,
especially for extended periods of time, the thumb turn can be easily locked so
that even if someone has access to the door from the inside, the deadbolt cannot
be unlocked. This type of deadbolt provides maximum flexibility and security in
most situations

Knob Locks
Knob locks are frequently installed in residential situations on exterior doors in
addition to deadbolts, and are sometimes used as the primary source of security
for doors. First and foremost, it should be said that knob locks should virtually
never be used for security on external doors. The problem lies in the fact that the
lock cylinder is in the knob itself and not the door. In almost all setups, they can be
broken off the door with a hammer or bypassed using pliers or a wrench behind the
knob, completely bypassing the locking cylinder.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Lever Handle Locks

Lever handle locks are frequently used for inner doors in commercial settings.
They are easier to open than knob locks as they have a large push down style
handle rather than a knob that one must grasp and turn. Frequently when handicap
accessibility is important lever locks are used.

Rim/Mortise Locks
Rim cylinder and Mortise cylinder locks are frequently found on commercial doors,
entry glass doors, and some apartment doors. Rim cylinder locks are generally used
in rim latch locks which are mounted on the inside of the door. Rim cylinder locks
always have a long metal piece extending out the rear of the lock that runs through
the door into a locking mechanism on the opposite side of the door. Rim locks are
held in place by two screws from the inside that screws into the back of the rim
cylinder.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Euro Profile Cylinders

They come in several varieties: single cylinder (one sided), double cylinder (locking
cylinder on each side), and single cylinder with thumb turn (locking cylinder on one
side and thumb turn on the other). The euro profile cylinder is a fairly standard
form factor. The exterior (and optionally interior) lengths do vary, but the rest of
the dimensions are fairly standard. Euro profile cylinders are held in place by a
single screw that runs through the middle of the cylinder in most applications. Due
to this single small attach point the euro profile cylinder can be easily snapped off
the door if it is not of proper length or reinforced.

Wall Mounted Locks

Wall mounted locks are locks that are actually mounted in the wall. The most
common type of wall mounted lock would be the Knox-Box or fireman's box style
lock found in many larger businesses as an emergency access to the buildings keys.
Wall mounted locks can be used for more than just key storage. Some act as small
safes or item deposits. Installation is generally done at time of construction
although some wall mounted locks can be easily installed into existing buildings.
Most wall locks can be mounted in a variety of wall surfaces. Frequently wall locks
will be mounted with covers or alarm sensors to allow networking into the buildings
security system (to detect unauthorized access).

Interchangeable Core (IC) Cylinders

Interchangeable Core Cylinders are frequently used in larger institutions and
businesses and are known for their easy ability to re-key the lock by swapping out
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

the core without taking the lock apart. I/C Locks have two types of keys that work
in the lock, the standard operator key locks and unlock the lock like normal, while
the control key, when used, pull the entire core of the lock out without removing
any screws. This is very useful when upgrading locks since the door hardware can
be left alone. Just the lock cores are replaced with new ones allowing the door to
be upgraded in seconds

Furniture Locks
This category of locks actually covers a variety of locks including cabinet, desk,
and sliding door locks. There are two primary styles of furniture lock, bolt style
and push button style. Bolt style furniture locks have a piece of flat metal that
extends out the side of the lock to secure the device. Frequently, bolt style locks
are found on desks, cabinets, and drawers, although they are also used in a wide
variety of other devices. Push button style locks have a rod that comes out the
back of the lock that is used to secure things in place. When the lock is unlocked it
pops out retracting the rod into the lock body. The device is then re-locked by
pushing the lock back into its shell. A few of their common applications are filing
cabinets and sliding doors. Frequently, furniture locks can be installed onto
existing hardware that may not already have a lock installed.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Jimmy Proof Deadbolts

Jimmy proof deadbolts are a surface mount product frequently found on
apartments and double doors. They are sometimes preferred due to the minimal
door modifications required. They are also unique as the deadbolt interlocks with
the jamb bracket preventing it from being simply pulled apart or forced easily
from the outside. A surface mount lock means the lock screws into the inside of
the door rather than having a complex drill pattern like a standard deadbolt.
Jimmy proof deadbolts only require a hole drilled straight through the door for
the rim cylinder.

Rim Latch Locks

A rim latch lock has a standard or custom rim cylinder on one side and a surface
mount latch lock on the other. Rim latch locks can auto lock the door behind you
and are popular in some apartment complexes. Rim latch locks are generally not
meant to take a large amount of force but can be paired with other locks when
used on an external door.

Key in Knob (KIK) Cylinders

A Key in Knob cylinder is generally found at the heart of most knobs, levers, and
lower cost deadbolts. They are also popular in a variety of OEM applications and
even some sliding glass doors. A KIK cylinder is generally hidden inside of the lock
with only the circular face of the lock being visible. Frequently, when you take the
lock apart (knob/deadbolt/etc.), you will find a KIK cylinder held in place with a
screw. Unfortunately, while KIK cylinders all generally look similar, there are no
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

standard specifications to their design. This can make replacing one cylinder with
another of a different brand (or a high security model) challenging

HANDLES:

A door handle or door knob is a mechanism used to open or close a door

Types

 The Lever latch door handle on a back plate found in residential houses and
commercial and public buildings. Doors fitted with this handle have a latch that
keeps the door shut. The door handle has only a lever handle which operates
this latch. Pushing the handle down rotates the spindle, operating the tubular
latch mechanism inside the door, allowing it to be opened. This type of door
handle is used on interior doors that do not require to be locked. The lever
latch handle is easy to install and use, and is available in a variety of styles and

finishes.
 The Lever lock door handle on a back plate is another type of door handle
which operates similarly to the lever latch door handle. This type of handle on a
back plate consists of a lever with a keyhole cut just below it. This allows a key
to be inserted into the door to control a mortice sash lock. Just the like the
lever latch, the door can be opened and shut by pushing the handle, but it can
also be locked with a key. This locking mechanism is used on doors which can be
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

opened by turning the handle if not locked, but can also be locked, requiring a

key to open them.

 The Lever Bathroom is typically used on bathroom doors as they can be locked
and unlocked easily from the inside by turning the snib, but in an emergency can
be opened from the outside by fitting a coin or similar object into a slot and
rotating it. This lock is fitted with a mortice sash with the attached to a 5mm
spindle which passes through the door.

 The Lever Privacy is functionally similar to the Lever Bathroom in that it is

locked by turning a snib on the inside and can be unlocked from the outside in
emergencies. Unlike the Lever Bathroom, there is no mortice sash; locking is
achieved by jamming the lever in a closed position.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Pull door handles or simply Pull handles are U-shaped, and are used especially
in the kitchen but also for drawers. Usually made of stainless steel.

DOOR BOLTS: It is a metal bar that you can slide across in order to fasten
the door or window.

KICKER PLATES:
A protective plate (as of metal or plastic) applied to the bottom of a door to
prevent marring of the finish by shoe marks.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

WINDOW
A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof or vehicle that allows the passage of
light, sound, and sometimes air.
PARTS OF A WINDOW:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Windows are can include a number of different components:

 Light: The area between the outer parts of a window usually filled with
a glass pane.
 Frame: This holds the light in place and supports the window system.
 Lintel: A beam over the top of a window.
 Jamb: The vertical parts forming the sides of the frame.
 Sill (or cill): The bottom piece in a window frame, often projecting beyond the
line of the wall.
 Mullion: A vertical element between two window units or lights.
 Transom: A horizontal element between two window units or lights.
 Head: The uppermost member of the frame.
 Sash: The frame holding the glazing.
 Casement: A window (or sash) attached to its frame by one or more hinges.

TYPES OF WINDOWS

1. Fixed Windows
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Fixed windows are fixed to the wall without any closing or opening operation. In
general, they are provided to transmit the light into the room. Fully glazed
shutters are fixed to the window frame. The shutters provided are generally
weather proof.

2. Sliding Windows
Window shutters are movable in the frame. The movement may be horizontal or
vertical based on our requirement. The movement of shutters is done by the
provision of roller bearings.

3. Louvered Windows
Louvered windows are similar to louvered doors which are provided for the
ventilation without any outside vision. The louvers may be made of wood, glass or
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

metal. Louvers can also be folded by provision of cord over pulleys. We can maintain
the slope of louvers by tilting cord and lifting cord.

Recommended angle of inclination of louvers is about 45 o. The sloping of louvers is

downward to the outside to run-off the rain water. Generally, they are provided
for bathrooms, toilets and privacy places etc...

4. Casement Windows
Casement windows are the widely used and common windows nowadays. The
shutters are attached to frame and these can be opened and closed like door
shutters. Rebates are provided to the frame to receive the shutters. The panels of
shutters may be single or multiple. Sometimes wired mesh is provided to stop
entering of flies.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

5. Bay Windows
Bay windows are projected windows form wall which are provided to increase the
area of opening, which enables more ventilation and light form outside. The
projection of bay windows is of different shapes. It may be triangular or
rectangular or polygonal etc. They give beautiful appearance to the structure.

6. Sash Windows/Glazed windows

Sash window is type of casement window, but in this case panels are fully glazed. It
consists of top, bottom and intermediate rails. The space between the rails is
divided into small panels by mean of small timber members called sash bars or
glazing bars.

7. COMPOSITE WINDOWS:
Composite windows are made of several different materials that are combined
together. This gives composite windows the look and benefits of several types of
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

windows rolled into one. Composite windows are an excellent choice for homeowners
that would like to have the aesthetics wood windows offer with the low
maintenance offered by vinyl windows or fiberglass windows.
ADVANTAGES:
 Energy Efficiency – Composite windows offer exceptionally low air infiltration and
are generally manufactured to have an insulating core to decrease the transfer of
heat.
 Less Maintenance – Unlike traditional wood windows, composite windows can offer
the appearance of wood windows without the maintenance. Since the exterior
surface is not susceptible to rotting or chipping, there is no need to sand, scrape,
or paint composite windows.
 Durability – Composite windows offer superior durability to wood windows. They
are less susceptible to expansion, contraction, and warping, making them less likely
to develop air leakage.
 Aesthetics – Many color and styling options are available along with wood cladding,
giving home owners a wide variety of styles that are sure to match their home’s
décor.
 Environmentally Friendly Characteristics – In addition to providing homeowners
with lower energy costs, composite windows are often made with environmentally
friendly materials and recyclable frames.

7. Pivoted Windows
In this type of windows, pivots are provided to window frames. Pivot is a shaft
which helps to oscillate the shutter. No rebates are required for the frame. The
swinging may either horizontal or vertical based on the position of pivots.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

8. Double Hung Windows

Double hung windows consist of pair of shutters attached to one frame. The
shutters are arranged one above the other. These two shutters can slide vertically
with in the frame. So, we can open the windows on top or at bottom to our required
level.

To operate the double hung windows, a chain or cord consisting metal weights is
provided which is connected over pulleys. So, by pulling the weights of cord the
shutters can move vertically. Then we can fix the windows at our required position
of ventilation or light etc...

9. Metal Windows
Metal windows, generally mild steel are used for making metal windows. These are
very cheap and have more strength. So, nowadays these are widely using especially
for public buildings, private building etc.

Some other metals like aluminum, bronze, stainless steel etc. also used to make
windows. But they are costly compared to mild steel windows. For normal casement
windows also, metal shutters are provided to give strong support to the panels.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

10. Corner Windows

As in the name itself corner windows are provided at the corners of room. That
means corner windows have two faces in perpendicular directions. By providing this
type of windows, light or air can be entered into room in two different directions.

To provide this type of window special lintel is provided in the wall. Corner windows
will give aesthetic appearance to the building.

11. Dormer Windows

Dormer windows are provided for sloped roofs. These are projected from the
sloping surface as shown in below image. They provide ventilation as well as lighting
to the room. They also enhance aesthetic sense of room.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

12. Clerestory Windows

If the rooms in a building are of different ceiling heights, clerestory windows are
provided for the room which has greater ceiling height than the other rooms. The
shutters able to swing with the help of cord over pulleys. These also enhance the
beauty of building.

13. Lantern Windows

Lantern windows are provided for over the flat roofs. The main purpose of this
window is to provide the more light and air circulation to the interior rooms.
Generally, they are projected from the roof surface so, we can close the roof
surface when we required.

14. Gable Windows

 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Gable windows are provided for sloped roof buildings. These windows are provided
at the gable end of sloped roof so; they are called as gable windows. They also
improve the appearance of building.

15. Ventilators
Ventilators are provided for the purpose of ventilation in the room. They are
provided at greater height than windows nearer to roof level. It is in very small
size. Horizontally pivoted shutters are provided for ventilators. Sometimes
shutter is replaced by wired mesh, in this case sunshade is provided to prevent
against rain water.

16. Skylights
Skylights or generally provided on the top of sloped roofs. To admit light into the
rooms, sky lights are provided. It is provided parallel to the sloping surface. Sky
lights can be opened when we required. Lead gutters are arranged to frame to
make it as waterproof.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

WINDOW FURNITURE:
Devices, fittings, or mechanisms for opening, closing, supporting, holding open, or lo
cking the
sashes, including such items as catches, chains, cords, fasteners, hinges, lifts, lock
s, pivots, pulls, pulleys, sash balances, sash weights, and stays.

Hinge:
A movable joint used to attach, support, and turn a door about a pivot, consisting o
f two plates joined by a pin which supports the door and connects it to its frame, e
nabling it to swing open or closed.

Fastener:
A lock attached to the sashes of a double hung window that can fix both in the
shut position.

Stays:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

It’s a bar used to hold a casement window in a specific open or closed position. ...
The stay is a metal bar with holes that fit onto a peg, and allow the sash window to
be held open in various positions.

GLAZING:
The act of installing glass in windows, doors or fixed openings. To glaze a unit would
be the actual installation of a piece of glass within a frame or sash. The term is
also referred to as all the glass within a structure.

Common types of glazing that are used in architectural applications include clear
and tinted float glass, tempered glass, and laminated glass as well as a variety of
coated glasses, all of which can be glazed singly or as double, or even triple, glazing
units. Ordinary clear glass has a slight green tinge but special colorless glasses are
offered by several manufacturers.
Glazing can be mounted on the surface of a window sash or door stile, usually made
of wood, aluminum or PVC. The glass is fixed into a rabbet (rebate) in the frame in
a number of ways including triangular glazing points, putty, etc. Toughened and
laminated glass can be glazed by bolting panes directly to a metal framework by
bolts passing through drilled holes.
Glazing is commonly used in low temperature solar thermal collectors because it
helps retain the collected heat.
Glass is fixed using:
Putty: a material with high plasticity, similar in texture to clay or dough, typically
used in domestic construction and repair as a sealant or filler.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Use in construction

Putty has been used extensively in glazing for fixing and sealing panes of glass into
wooden frames (or sashes), although its use is decreasing with the prevalence
of PVC and metal window frames which use synthetic sealants such as silicone.
Glazing putty is traditionally made by mixing a base of whiting (finely
ground chalk) with linseed oil in various proportions. There are a number of
synthetic alternatives such as polybutene based putties, where the polybutene is a
low molecular weight oligomer replacing the linseed oil. Butyl rubber is also added
to the mixture to provide some strength and flexibility.
Painter's Putty is typically a linseed oil-based product used for filling holes, minor
cracks and defacements in wood only.
Putties can also be made intumescent, in which case they are used for fire
stopping as well as for padding of electrical outlet boxes in fire-resistance
rated drywall assemblies. In the latter case, hydrates in the putty produce
an endothermic reaction to mitigate heat transfer to the unexposed side.
In woodworking, water-based putties are more commonly used, as these emit very
little odour, are more easily cleaned up and are compatible with water-based and
latex sealers.
Plumber's putty is waterproof, used to make watertight seals in plumbing.
Pratley's Putty is an adhesive used primarily for steel bonding.

Beads:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

A glazing bead is a strip of trim (often vinyl or wood) that runs along the inside of
a window frame and secures the glass to the sash. It covers the gap between the
edge of the glass and the sash and improves the appearance of the window.
Trim pieces of wood, vinyl or aluminum that are installed around the perimeter of
the sash or frame, to secure the glass in the sash or frame. Glazing bead is
installed with small nails, staples, or specialty designed clips. The glazing bead is
designed to fit into the sash or frame and create an architecturally pleasing
appearance. In some cases, the glazing bead maybe embedded with a silicone caulk
or compound to ensure that the bead is fully and completely installed

Rubber: a highly elastic solid substance, light cream or dark amber in color,
polymerized by the drying and coagulation of the latex or milky juice of rubber
trees and plants.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

EXTERNAL WORKS
The term ‘external works’ describes any works carried out to the external
environment of a building project. These can be works to functional
or aesthetic features.

They are ‘All items outside the building footprint but inside the site boundary,
encompassing wastewater and surface
water drains, supply of utilities (e.g. gas, electricity and cabled services),
footpaths, and access for vehicles including car parks and hard standings to be
found in the vicinity of buildings.

There are various elements of external works which include:

a. site preparation works

Before construction works can begin, site clearance and

preparatory groundworks are generally necessary. This might include.

 Removal of any vegetation including roots.

 Levelling the site to a roughly even gradient, or modelling the site to create the
desired form.
 Setting out and trench lines.
 Establishing site offices, welfare facilities, storage, access routes, and so on.

b. Driveways (Roads, paths, pavings, and surfacings)

It is common for the external areas around buildings to require hard

standing areas and surfacing features for use by workers, pedestrians and
vehicles. These might include:

 Paving, kerbs, and edging.

 Asphalt or block surfacing to driveways, footpaths, car parks and roads.
 Timber decking, handrails and balustrades.
 Patios, platforms and so on.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

c. Beautification and Landscaping (Soft landscaping, planting and

irrigation systems)

Softscape or soft landscape includes all types of plant life, from flowers
and trees to shrubs and groundcover. It naturally changes and evolves over time,
driven by the climate, time of year and other conditions.
Careful consideration should be given to the amount of maintenance that
these elements will require to stay in good order.

Irrigation systems for gardens and external areas can be used to automate the
process of watering. The most common forms are:

 a drip irrigation systems that precisely releases water to the roots

of plants.

 a micro spray system that delivers a fine spray of water over a defined area.

The benefit of installing such systems is their efficiency, delivering a water-use

reduction of up to 90% compared to a traditional garden hose.

d. Gates and fences (railings and walls)

These can be used to:

 stop or cut down any unwanted pedestrian or vehicular access.

 to provide privacy.

 to give delineation between areas and so on.

They include:

 low level such as wooden palisade fencing.

 high level such as security fencing with concrete or metal posts and wire
mesh.

 Wrought iron fencing finished with spikes or pointed designs, and features
such as razor wire and anti-climb paints can be used to reduce scalability.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

There may be a requirement for retaining walls to prevent ground slippage or

heave.

e. External fixtures

These are fixtures that may be installed for functional or aesthetic purposes
outside the building. The most common examples include:

 Bollards: Used as an alternative to fencing to restrict vehicular access and as

segregation between pedestrians roads.

 Street furniture: This includes benches, bins, cycle stands, tree guards, lighting,
signage, and so on. (Within a town or city environment the layout
and manufacture of these features may be used to create a period theme; for
example, cast iron benches in a Victorian theme. Stainless steel or wood may be
used in more contemporary or natural designs.)
 Shelters: These may be required to provide protection from the elements.
Bespoke shelters are often supplied by manufacturers for a range of purposes,
from smoking shelters for office buildings, to cycle shelters, bus shelters,
sports shelters, and so on.

f. External drainage

This might include:

 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Foul drainage: Above-ground pipework is referred to as sanitary pipework,

whilst underground pipework is referred to as foul drainage and sewers. Both
carry used water from toilets, sinks, basins, baths, showers, bidets, dishwashers
and washing machines.
 Surface water drainage: This carries water from rain, condensation and melted
snow/ice from structures. The above-ground guttering and rainwater pipes are
referred to collectively as roof drainage. The underground pipework is referred
to as surface water drains and surface water sewers.
 Sustainable urban drainage systems: SUDS provide an alternative to, or
addition to, traditional drainage systems and may include; filter strips
and drains, swales, permeable surfaces, basins and
ponds, underground storage, wetlands, and so on.

g. External services

External services might include:

 Water mains supply.

 Electricity mains supply and distribution.
 External transformation devices (wind turbines, solar panels, satellite dishes).
 Gas mains supply.
 Telecommunications and other communication system connections.
 Fuel storage and piped distribution systems.
 External security systems.
 Site/street lighting systems.
 Irrigation systems.
 Local/district heating installations.

Ensuring that utilities are supplied to developments is vitally important, not just
for the completed development, but also for the construction process itself.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

h. Minor building works and ancillary buildings

There may be a requirement for buildings to serve the site during the course of
the construction works that are generally removed upon completion, such
as storage facilities, sanitary conveniences, washing facilities, changing rooms and
lockers, canteens, site offices, and so on.

Minor building works might also include works such

as underpinning existing buildings and boundaries, builders work in connection
with site services, and so on.

MATERIALS FOR EXTERNAL WORKS

1. Plants:
They include flowers, trees, shrubs and groundcover. It naturally changes
and evolves over time, driven by the climate, time of year and
other conditions.
2. Paving: a paving is a surface made up of flat stones laid in a pattern.

Paving can be either flexible or rigid. Rigid pavements tend to have

lower maintenance costs, a longer design life and higher flexural strength;
but flexible pavements tend to have lower construction costs and have a higher
ability to expand and contract with temperature and so do not need expansion
joints.

Flexible paving

Flexible paving consists of materials applied in layers directly over the subgrade to
which the traffic loads are distributed. To prevent permanent deformation, and
therefore an uneven running surface, the thicknesses of individual layers must be
capable of distributing such loads. The subgrade is compacted with the sub-base on
top of it. On top of this is laid the surfacing which is made up of the base layer and
the wearing course.

Rigid paving

Rigid paving consists of a reinforced or unreinforced insitu concrete slab laid over
a thin granular base course. The rigidity and strength of the pavement enables
the loads and stresses to be distributed over a wide area of the subgrade.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Longitudinal and transverse joints are required in rigid paving between the slabs,
limiting the stresses applied due to subgrade restraint (friction between
the pavement and subgrade), and providing room for expansion and contraction
movements.

Paving materials include asphalt, concrete, stones such

as flagstone, cobblestone, and setts, artificial stone, bricks, tiles, and
sometimes wood

3. Aggregates
These are construction materials that vary from coarse to medium grained
particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed
stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.

4. Drains: a channel or pipe carrying off surplus liquid, especially rainwater or

liquid waste. Sewer,channel,conduit, ditch, culvert, duct, pipe, tube, gutter,
groove, furrow, trough, trench e.t.c. a frame of metal bars set in a road over
the opening to a rainwater channel.a tube for drawing off accumulating fluid
from a body cavity or an abscess.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

They are channels or pipes carrying off surplus liquid, especially rainwater or
liquid waste. A drain is the primary vessel or conduit for unwanted water or
waste liquids to be flumed away, either to a more useful area, funnelled into
a receptacle, or run into sewers or stormwater mains as waste discharge to
be released or processed.

5. Walling units: these are construction materials used to come up with An

upright structure of masonry(made of bricks, stones or blocks), wood,
plaster/concrete, or other building material serving to enclose, divide, or
protect an area. It forms an inner partition or exterior siding of
a building/area.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Wood Fence

Masonry
fence

CONSTRUCTION OF EXTERNAL WORKS

1) Paving: A paver is (a paving stone, tile, brick or brick-like piece of concrete)
commonly used as exterior flooring. They are precast structure elements
which are applied by preparing a solid bearing ground or pouring a standard
concrete foundation, spreading sand on top, and then laying the pavers in the
desired pattern. No actual adhesive or retaining method is used other than
the weight of the paver itself except edging. Pavers can be used to make
roads, driveways, patios, walkways and other outdoor platforms.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2) Drains. These are pipes or fluid conduits interconnected to channel rain

water of effluent away from a construction site. There are many different
types of drains. The commonest ones are made of cast iron, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), pitch fibred, asbestos cement, stoneware concrete or clay.
In addition, waste water may also be discharged through lead, copper,
aluminum, wrought iron or steel pipes.

Proper jointing of pipes is essential for the system to run efficiently which
depends on pipe material and type of pipe, i.e., whether it is socket, plain-
ended or threaded. Other considerations are where the pipe is laid – on firm
ground, loose soil, above ground or through a marshy area- and whether the
pipe is old or new. The joint must be watertight to prevent both infiltration and
exhilaration of water.

Pipe joints can be metal or non-metal. Cast iron sockets are made of molten lead
and spun yarn.

 Cast iron flanged joints (also known as flexible joints) are also used.
Steel pipes are normally threaded where each pipe is fixed on to the
other.
 Except for PVC and pitch fibred pipes, all others use cement
mortar and tarred gasket(yarn) fixed between the socket and the
spigot.
 Pitch fibred pipes are either fixed on to each other or fixed together by
a pitch fibred together by a pitch fibred coupling. Where the pipe is to
be made connected to another pipe, a pitch fibred adaptor is used. PVC
pipes use solvent cement to fix the spigot(short cylindrical projection
on one component designed to fit into a hole on another, esp the
male part of a joint between two pipes.) into the socket. Where the
pipe is to be connected to another type of pipe, a valve socket is used.
 Lead pipes are soldered on to each other. Copper and lead require metal
sleeves to strengthen the joints.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

3) Perimeter wall:

A perimeter wall - like a house - can be made of any material, whether it is a stone
wall, metal or the use of natural materials such as bamboo and cedar or a live fence
with plants like kei apple shrubs or bougainvillea, among many other live fence
materials.

Stone

This is the most common material used for perimeter walls to keep intruders out.
It is a cheaper alternative to wood. The use of stone can look drab but it can be
made more attractive if well finished. This can be achieved through cladding and
making patterns using different coloured stones.

A perimeter fence can also be made of pre-cast concrete slabs which are arranged
in different ways to create a distinct pattern.

Chain-link

Although it offers less privacy, a chain-link fence is more beneficial when the end
goal is securing your home from stray animals as it is made of mesh. It is
particularly common in farms as it ensures that animals that should be kept out of
the compound stay out and those that should stay in like chicken and other smaller
animals are kept inside.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

It is also a favourite with home owners because of its affordability. It is durable

and does not require frequent maintenance.

A chain-link fence can also be used in residential homes and for more privacy, one
can supplement with a creeping plant or kei apple plants which grow next to the
mesh.

Wood

Wood is an expensive alternative to stone and chain link but more attractive than
both. Whether one is using cypress or cedar wood, ensure you treat the wood first
before using it to avoid termite infestation.

Wood makes for a beautiful finish on your perimeter since there are various ways
to decorate it; either by painting it with an oil-based paint or by simply applying
stain to match your landscape and keep it natural.

The planks of wood can either be tightly joined together for privacy or one can
leave spaces in-between if privacy is not a problem.

However, wood is susceptible to harsh weather conditions, termites and rot if left
untreated, therefore requiring constant maintenance.

Bamboo is also another beautiful alternative to solid wood. Although it can

withstand harsh weather conditions, it also requires treatment in order to last
long.

Vinyl

The use of vinyl products is slowly replacing natural products. Vinyl has been used
to manufacture various materials used in homes, from ceiling boards to flooring and
now can be used for fencing. It is ideal since it is not affected by weather
conditions and is also long lasting.

The only minor drawback is that vinyl may require repainting after some years to
keep it looking fresh.

Plastic planks
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

There are several firms that have started production of plastic planks. Ecopost is
one such company that uses recycled plastic to make plastic posts for sale as
fencing material.

The posts can be used independently for fencing or with a chain-link or a barbed
wire fence.

Plastic is a better alternative to wood since it is not prone to attack by termites

and does not splinter. It also outlasts timber and will not be stolen as in the case
of wood.

Plastic planks also have a smooth finish so one can also repaint them to any desired
colour.

Metal

Metal rods and planks are also good perimeter wall material. They are mostly used
in cases where one does not require privacy as well as in high-security areas since
they work well with electric fencing.

4) Formations:

PLANTING AND MAINTAINING GARDENS

Flowers:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Planning your Flower Garden

1. Get the best soil. Flowers, like most plants, need good soil to grow up strong
and healthy. Regardless of whether you are planting your flowers in a pot or
a garden, good soil is a must. Find out what potting medium is the best for
the flowers you are growing and then try to find the best location or potting
mix for your flowers.
2. Select your location. Although flowers are typically easy to grow, they can’t
be grown just anywhere. An area with too much direct sun or too much shade
will be difficult for some flowers to grow in. Find out what type of light is
best for the flowers you are planting.

 If you have a specific plant in mind to grow, check the light preferences for that
plant and choose your plot accordingly. You may end up wanting to choose an area
with more or less sun than your original plot has.
 If you plan on planting several different types of flowers, choose ones with similar
light/shade requirements so that they grow equally well in the same location.
3. Decide on your flowers. Visit a local gardening center to choose the best flowers
for your garden. Growing from seeds, a small plant, bulbs, or a cutting requires
nearly the same process, so focus on flowers that you enjoy and that will add a
beautiful appearance to your yard. Check the tags that come with the flowers or
seed packets to make sure the flower is right for you.

 Look for the completed growth size of the flower. Will it become very large and
bushy, or stay relatively small? Will it grow upwards and become tall or outwards
like a vine?
 Ask about native flowers before looking at all the available varieties. Flowers
indigenous to your area are already known to be successful growers in your soil,
temperature, and humidity zones.
 Check to see if the flower you are growing is an annual or a perennial. Annuals
bloom only once a year and must be replanted yearly, but are known for their
bright colors and beautiful blossoms. Perennials grow back every year without
needing to be replanted and will continue to grow larger over time.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Read the tag for the watering requirements for the flowers. Some need water
often, while others require it only infrequently. If you are getting multiple
different species of flower, try to choose ones with similar watering requirements.
4. Plant at the right time. Even with the perfect soil, ideal location, and healthy
flowers, if you don’t plant at the right time your garden will be ruined. Most
flowers don’t do well in weather that is too cold or hot, so it is usually best
to plant flowers in spring because it is between these periods. Although
planting in the spring may seem obvious, there is an art to choosing the
perfect time. With the exception of bulbs and wildflowers—plant these
flowers in the fall—wait to plant flowers till at least two weeks after the
most recent frost, and avoid planting until temperatures at night stay above
freezing on a regular basis.

Part2
Planting Your Flowers

1. Dig a hole. If you are planting your flowers from seed, you will usually only
need to plant your seeds 1⁄4 inch (0.6 cm) deep, but it is important to check
the specific planting recommendations for any flower you want to plant to
find out how deep to plant them. A transplanted/potted flower will need a
hole as deep as the root ball that it comes with. Flowers don’t need to be
smothered with soil, so burying them deep isn’t necessary.

2. Get out your flowers. This step is mainly for potted flowers that are being
transplanted. While the flowers are still in a plastic pot, water them heavily
to drench the soil. Then, pull the flowers out of the pot and gently break up
the root ball with your fingers. This will help the roots of the flowers to
grow out into the soil, rather than back into a confined lump.

3. Feed your flowers. Putting a bit of slow-release food for flowers (similar to
fertilizer) will help new plants to grow quickly. Add a few tablespoons to the
bottom of each hole, and gently incorporate it into the soil with your fingers.
4. Plant your flowers. Place each plant into the individual holes prepared for
them. Use your hands to fill in the empty space around each flower and cover
the top of the root ball. Avoid adding much soil to the top of the flower; the
stem of the flowers should never be covered by the dirt.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Part3
Maintaining Your Flowers
1. Water your flowers regularly. Unless you are experiencing rain on a daily basis,
take the time to give water to your flowers. Although individual needs vary based
on humidity and the type of plant, it is most common to add several cups of water
to each plant by using a watering close to the soil to avoid disturbing the growing
flowers or causing soil erosion. You can also have a sprinkler or drip system
installed to do the work for you on an automated basis.

2. Weed the area. You want your flowers to be the focal point of your little garden
plot, so don’t let weeds steal the show! As you see them appear, pull out unsightly
weeds from the soil around your flowers. Not only are the weeds unattractive, they
take nutrients from the soil and space in the ground that your flowers need to
grow healthily.

3. Deadhead your flowers. Whenever blooms on your flowers die off or become old
and wilted, cut them off. Cutting off the dead blossoms and leaves will stimulate
new growth and have your flowers looking even more beautiful than ever.

4. Add support. If your flowers are tall growing, over time they may become too
heavy to stand on their own. Add bamboo stakes or forked branches upright in the
ground for the plants to lean against or wrap around for support. This is
particularly helpful and necessary for vine-y flowers which grow by wrapping
around things.

5. Consider relocating. As you continue to help your flowers grow, they may become
too large for the plot you originally chose for them. Consider moving them to a
larger location and adding new flowers to their old location. This will keep your
garden growing big, healthy, and beautiful!

Turf
CHIMNEYS AND FIRE PLACES
chimney: a structure used to ventilate hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove,
furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

TERMS USED:
1. Hearth: it’s the horizontal base of the fireplace
2. Fireplace: a structure made of brick, stone or metal designed to contain a
fire.
3. Flue: it’s the opening inside the chimney that takes hot air, smoke or flames
outside.
4. Breast: the part of a fire place that and flue that projects into the room.
5. Gathering: it’s the opening in the fireplace where the hearth narrows to the
size of the flue.
6. Head: the top of the fireplace opening which is formed by a concrete or
stone lintel or a brick arch.
7. Jambs: the projecting brickwork at each side of the fire place opening that
can provide adequate depth for fireplace construction.
8. Pargetting: it’s the lining that seals the brickwork from leaking gases. Also
known as a render.
9. Throat: a restrictor at the head of a fireplace that increases the velocity
of the hot gases in the fire and the air flow to the burning fuel.
10. Back: a vertical brickwork surface that provides the opening for the
construction of the fireplace.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

A handy breakdown of the components of a chimney

A Flue lining Usually made of refractory concrete or impervious clay; sometimes

metal
B Flue Must be high enough for sufficient draught, around 4.5m in most cases
C Flue connector Connects the fireplace to the flue
D Smoke chamber Here the smoke gathers before being passed into the flue
E Smoke shelf Prevents downdraughts
F Damper A pivoted sliding metal flap that regulates the amount of draught,
preventing excessive variations. It can also close off the fireplace from the
outside of the house, preventing air loss
G Gather Improves draught and reduces pressure in the smoke chamber
H Air Inlet Controls the quantity of outside air supplied for combustion
I Hearth The required thickness depends on the appliance
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

1. SECURE MAXIMUM HEAT

2. PRECAUTION AGAINST SPREAD OF FIRE
3. EFFECTIVE REMOVAL OF SMOKE
4. AVOIDANCE OF DOWN DRAUGHT
BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS

CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEYS, FIREPLACES AND FLUES

PROCEDURE:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

1. If the floor is made of timber, support the hearth with the walls and
hardcore fill standing on the foundations. Trim the floor where it meets the
hearth so that the timber is more than 50 mm away.
2. If the floor is concrete, build the jambs and fix the lintel across the opening
to carry the brickwork.
3. Form the throat behind the lintel or shape the lintel to form the front edge
of the throat.
4. Build the brickwork so that it gradually narrows to the size of the flue.
5. Build up the chimneybreast with the flue opening in it.
6. Render the flue with the cement and sand.
7. If the chimney goes through a suspended timber floor at the first floor
level, then trim the timber so that it is more than 50 mm away.
8. Trim any timbers in the roof space.
9. Render the external surface of the chimney in the roof space.
10. Make the junction of the chimney and the roof watertight (by
inserting a gutter at the back of the chimney, insert stepped metal flashings
and soakers between the chimney and roof covering, insert a metal flashing
over the roof covering at the front)
11. Finish off the fireplace with a special angled fire back that lines the
two sides and back and slopes inward to meet the throat. It protects the
brickwork and increases the heat from the fire.
12. When the construction is over, install metal baskets to hold the fuel,
they raise the fuel off the hearth and improve combustion.

ROOFS AND ROOFING:

Roof is the upper most portion of the building, which protects the building from
rain, wind and sun.
Roofs can be considered as:
▪ short span;
▪ medium span;
▪ long span
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

i. Short span
These are roofs up to 7.0 m, generally of traditional timber construction with a
flat or pitched
profile. Flat roofs are usually covered with a flexible sheet material, whereas
pitched roofs are
generally covered with small units such as tiles or slates.

ii. Medium span

These are roofs of 7.0–24.0 m, except where reinforced concrete is used; the
usual roof structure
for a medium span is a truss or lattice of standard steel sections supporting a
deformed sheeting
such as corrugated asbestos cement or a structural decking system.

iii. Long span

These are roofs over 24.0 m; they are generally designed by a specialist using
girder, space deck or vaulting techniques, and are beyond the scope of a basic
technology course.

TYPES OF ROOFS
There are various types of roofs used and may be divided broadly into three types:
▪ flat roofs;
▪ pitched roofs;
▪ shells and folded plates.

i. Flat roofs
These roofs are nearly flat with a slight slope of not more than 10° given to drain
out the rain water.
All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times, top of these
roofs is treated
with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in concrete,
providing coba
concrete.

ii. Pitched roofs

The term pitched roof includes any roof whose angle of slope to the horizontal lies
between 10°
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

and 700. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like
workshops, factory
buildings ware houses etc. In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C. sheet, G.I.
sheets, tiles, slates
etc. are supported on suitable structures.
The pitched roofs are classified into:
▪ single roofs;
▪ double or purlin roofs;
▪ trussed roofs.

a. Single Roof:
If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are
used.
▪ Lean to roof
▪ Couple roof
▪ Closed couple roof
▪ Collar beam roof
In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main members
taking
load of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to support the roof covering. Figure
below shows
various types of single roofs.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

b. Double or Purlin Roofs:

If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increases and single roof becomes
uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred.
The intermediate support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar
beams. The figure shows a typical double or purlin roof.

c. Trussed Roof:
If span is more, a frame work of slender members are used to support sloping
roofs. These frames are known as trusses.
A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get wall free longer halls. Purlins
are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof sheets. For spans up to 9
m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses are a must.
In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to connect various
members at a joint. Bolts and straps are also used.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

In case of steel trusses joints are made using gusset plates and by providing bolts
or rivets or welding. Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are
used. End of trusses are supported on walls or on column. The figure below shows
different shapes of trusses used.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
▪ Roof coverings to provide adequate weather exclusion,
▪ Roof coverings to have reasonable durability,
▪ Roof coverings to be aesthetically acceptable,
▪ Roof coverings to provide resistance to excessive heat loss,
▪ Roof structure to provide resistance to failure due to overstressing. It must be
able to
support own self weight, wind loads and imposed loads such as snow,
▪ Provide adequate drainage of roof coverings,
▪ Roof to provide the required degree of sound insulation,
▪ Roof to be accessible for maintenance,
▪ Provide natural daylight if required.

FUNCTIONS
The functions of any roof are:
▪ to keep out rain, wind, snow and dust;
▪ to prevent excessive heat loss in winter;
▪ to keep the interior of the building cool in summer;
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

▪ to accommodate all stresses encountered;

▪ to accept movement due to changes in temperature and moisture content;
▪ to provide lateral restraint and stability to adjacent walls;
▪ to resist penetration of fire and spread of flame from external sources.

BUILDING REGULATIONS
1. Any building work shall be carried out with proper materials and in a workman
like manner.
2. The roof should offer adequate resistance to the spread of fire over the roof.
3. The roof of a building shall adequately resist the passage of moisture to the
inside of the
building.
4. Reasonable provision should be made for the conservation of fuel and power in
buildings.
To satisfy this requirement the roof construction is enhanced with suitable
insulation
material.

ROOF MEMBERS
▪ Ridge: This is the spine of a roof and is essentially a pitching plate for the
rafters that are
nailed to each other through the ridge board. The depth of ridge board is governed
by the
pitch of the roof: the steeper the pitch, the deeper will be the vertical or plumb
cuts on the
rafters abutting the ridge.
▪ Common rafters: The main loadbearing members of a roof; they span between a
wall plate at
eaves level and the ridge. Rafters have a tendency to thrust out the walls on which
they rest,
and the walls and the ceiling joists must resist this. Rafters are notched over and
nailed to a wall plate situated on top of a loadbearing wall; the depth of the notch
should not
exceed one-third the depth of the rafter.
▪ Jack/cripple rafters: These fulfil the same function as common rafters but span
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

from ridge to
valley rafter or from hip rafter to wall plate.
▪ Hip rafters: Similar to a ridge but forming the spine of an external angle and
similar to a rafter
spanning from ridge to wall plate.
▪ Valley rafters: Similar to hip rafters but forming an internal angle.
▪ Wall plates: These provide the bearing and fixing medium for the various roof
members, and
distribute the loads evenly over the supporting walls; they are bedded in cement
mortar on
top of the loadbearing walls.
▪ Dragon ties: Ties placed across the corners and over the wall plates to help
provide resistance
to the thrust of a hip rafter.
▪ Ceiling joists: These fulfil the dual function of acting as ties to the feet of pair
rafters and
providing support for the ceiling boards on the underside and any cisterns housed
within the
roof void.
▪ Struts: These are compression members that transfer the load of a purlin to a
suitable
loadbearing support within the span of the roof.
▪ Collars: These are extra ties to give additional strength, and are placed at purlin
level.
▪ Binders: These are beams used to give support to ceiling joists and counteract
excessive
deflections, and are used if the span of the ceiling joist exceeds 2400 mm.
▪ Hangers: Vertical members used to give support to the binders and allow an
economic section
to be used; they are included in the design if the span of the binder exceeds 3600
mm.
▪ Valley: Internal angle of a roof.
▪ Roof covering: Provides resistance to penetration of elements and conveys
surface water to
gutter at eaves.
▪ Ridge tile/cap: Capping to roof covering.
▪ Ridge board: Spine of roof carcass.
▪ Verge: Termination of a gable. Directs surface water back onto main roof area.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

▪ Hip: External angle of a roof.

▪ Battens: Fixing medium for roof coverings and underlay which acts as secondary
barrier to
elements.
▪ Purlins: These act as beams, reducing the span of the rafters and enabling an
economic
section to be used. If the roof has a gable end, they can be supported on a corbel
or built in,
but in a hipped roof, they are mitred at the corners and act as a ring beam.
[Note: The arrangement of struts, collars and hangers occurs only on every fourth
or fifth pair
of rafters.]
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

ROOF COVERINGS
the basic functions of sheet coverings used in conjunction with steel roof trusses
are to
1. Provide resistance to penetration by the elements.
2. Provide restraint to wind and snow loads.
3. Provide a degree of thermal insulation.
4. Provide resistance to surface spread of flame.
5. Provide any natural daylight required through the roof.
6. Be of low self-weight to give overall design economy.
7. be durable to keep maintenance needs to a minimum.

The basic requirements for covering materials to steel roof trusses are
1. sufficient strength to support imposed wind and snow loadings.
2. Resistance to the penetration of rain, wind and snow.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

3. Low self-weight, so that supporting members of an economic size can be used.

4. Acceptable standard of thermal insulation if habitable or occupational
accommodation
requiring space heating.
5. Acceptable fire resistance and resistance to spread of flame.
6. Durability to reduce the maintenance required during the anticipated life of the
roof.

Suitable materials include:

▪ galvanized corrugated steel sheets
▪ Fibre cement profiled sheets
▪ aluminum sheeting
▪ aluminum and coated steel (profiled sheeting and tiles or slate coverings)

i. Galvanized corrugated steel sheets:

These sheets are often referred to as ‘corrugated iron’ and have been widely used
for many years
for small industrial and agricultural buildings; they can also be used as a cladding to
post and rail
fencing.
The pitch of the corrugations, which is the distance between centres of adjacent
corrugations, is 75
mm with 7, 8, 9, or 10 corrugations per sheet width with lengths ranging from
1.500 to 3.600 m.
GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

The sheets are secured to purlins with hook bolts, drive screws or nuts and bolts in
a similar
manner to that detailed for fibre cement sheets in Figure below. The purlins are
spaced at centres from 1.5 to 3.0 m according to the thickness of the sheeting
being used. To form a weathertight covering the sheets are lapped at their ends
and sides according to the pitch and exposure conditions:
▪ End laps: Up to 20° pitch 150 mm minimum and sealed with a butyl or silicon
sealant.
▪ Side laps: Formed on edge away from the prevailing wind with a 1 1⁄2 corrugation
lap for
conditions of normal exposure and two-corrugation lap for conditions of severe
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

exposure.

On exposure, the galvanized coating oxidizes, forming a thin protective film that is
easily broken
down by acids in the atmosphere. To extend the life of the sheeting it should be
regularly coated with paint containing a pigment of zinc dust, zinc oxide, calcium
plumbate or zinc chromate. When laying new sheeting it is advisable to paint under
the laps before fixing, because the overlap is very vulnerable to early corrosion.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Advantages
1. They form a roof that is easy to construct.
2. They form a strong and rigid roof.
3. The roof is non-porous.

Disadvantages
1. Poor thermal insulation properties which can be reduced by using a 12 mm
insulation fibre
board in conjunction with a 25 mm cavity.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2. Although a non-combustible material, galvanized corrugated steel sheets tend to

buckle
under typical fire conditions.
3. Inclined to be noisy during rain, which produces a ‘drumming’ sound.

ii. Fibre cement profiled sheets

Fibre cement sheets are made by combining natural and synthetic non-toxic fibres
and fillers with Portland cement and, unlike asbestos cement sheets, which are
rolled to form the required profile, these sheets are pressed over templates.
The finished product has a natural grey colour, but sheets with factory-applied
surface coatings are available.

Fixing guidelines:

 the sheets and fittings are fixed through the crown of the corrugation using
either shaped bolts to steel purlins or drive screws to timber purlins;
 At least six fixings should be used for each sheet, and to ensure that a
weathertight seal is achieved at the fixing positions a suitable felt or lead
pad with a diamond-shaped curved washer can be used. Alternatively, a
plastic sealing washer can be employed.
 drilled holes for fixings should be 2 mm larger in diameter than the fixing
and sited at least 40 mm from the edge of the sheet;
 side laps should be positioned away from the prevailing wind;
 End laps on low pitches should be sealed with a mastic or suitable preformed
compressible strip.

iii. Aluminium sheeting

this form of roof covering is available in a corrugated or troughed profile. The
sheets are
normally made from an aluminium–manganese alloy resulting in a non-corrosive,
noncombustible lightweight sheet (2.4–5.0 kg/m2).
Aluminium sheeting oxidizes on the surface to form a protective film upon
exposure to the atmosphere, and therefore protective treatments are not normally
necessary. The general application in design and construction of an aluminium
covering is similar to that described and detailed for fibre cement sheeting.

Fixing guidelines:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 fixings of copper or brass should not be used, because the electrolytic

action
between the dissimilar materials could cause harmful corrosion;
 where the sheets are in contact with steelwork the steel members should
be painted with at least two coats of zinc chromate or bituminous paint;
 a wide range of fittings are available and, like the asbestos cement, sheets
can be
fixed with hook bolts, bolts and clips or special shot fasteners;
 the sheets are intended for a 15° pitched roof with purlins at 1.2 m centres
for the 75 mm corrugated profile and at 2.7 m centres for the trough
profiles;
 laps should be 11⁄2 corrugations for the side lap or 45 - 57 mm for trough
sheets
 End lap should be 150 mm minimum for all profiles.

Tiles: These clay tiles are used as roof coverings. They serve as good covering
materials. Tiles are supported over battens, which are in turn supported by
rafters/trusses etc. They give good appearance also.

A.C. Sheets: Asbestos cement is a material, which consists of 15 per cent of

asbestos fibres evenly distributed and pressed with cement. They are
manufactured in sufficiently large size.
The width of an A.C. sheet varies from 1.0 to 1.2 m and length from 1.75 to 3.0 m.
To get sufficient strength with thin sections they are manufactured with
corrugation or with Trafford’s, they are fixed to the steel purlins using J-bolts.
The roofing is quite economical, waterproof. However not very good thermal
resistant. They are commonly used as covering materials in warehouses, go downs
or for larger halls. In auditorium etc., if these sheets are used, false ceilings are
provided to get good thermal resistance.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

G.I. Sheets: Galvanized iron corrugated sheets are manufactured in the sizes 1.0
to 1.2 m wide and 1.65 m length. Galvanization of iron makes them rust proof. They
are fixed to steel purlins using J-bolts and washers.
They are durable, fire proof, light in weight and need no maintenance. They are
commonly used as covering materials for warehouses, go down, sheds etc. Table 8.6
gives comparison between GI and AC sheets for roof covering.

Thatch Covering: Thatch is a roof covering of straw, reeds or similar materials.

These coverings are provided for small spans, mainly for residential buildings in
villages.
The thatch is well-soaked in water or fire resisting solution and packed bundles
are laid with their butt ends pointing towards eves. Thickness varies from 150 mm
to 300 mm. They are tied with ropes or twines to supporting structures. The
supporting structure consists of round bamboo rafters spaced at 200 mm to 300
mm over which split bamboos laid at right angles at lose spacing.
It is claimed that reed thatch can last 50 to 60 years while straw thatch may last
for 20–25 years.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

Shingles: Wood shingles are nothing but the split or sawn thin pieces of wood.
Their size varies from 300 mm to 400 mm and length from 60 mm to 250 mm.
Their thickness varies
from 10 mm at one end to 3 mm at the other end.
They are nailed to supporting structures. They are commonly used in hilly areas
for low cost housing. They have very poor fire and termite resistance.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

TRIMS AND COVERS:

It is a strip/material used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration.
It is made from solid wood, plaster, plastic or reformed wood.

Functions of trims and covers

1. Moldings hide seal natural joints produced in the framing process of building
a structure.
2. They are a means of weather sealing a joint
3. As decorative elements they are a means of applying light- and dark-shaded
stripes to a structural object without having to change the material or apply
pigments.

MATERIALS FOR TRIMS AND COVERS:

1. Render and plaster based trims and covers: these are trims made using
cement or mortar in moist form. They are applied in wet form and when
they harden, they develop enough strength to attatch and carry their
own weight.e.g a plaster window mould.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2. Cover moulds: these are trims and covers that are obtain in sheet or tile
form. They are usually made of metals, timber, plastic or plastic.

TYPES OF TRIMS AND COVERS:

They include:

1) Skirting: this is usually a wooden board running along the base of an interior
wall. It can also be made using tiles, plaster, render and any other material.
Its purpose is to cover the joint between the wall surface and the floor. It
covers the uneven edge of flooring next to the wall; protects the wall from
kicks, abrasion, and furniture; and can serve as a decorative molding.

i. Hide exposed electrical wiring

ii. Hide the gap/joint between the floor and the wall
iii. Avoid marks by furniture
iv. Improve on the beauty of the room
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2) Cornice: an ornamental moulding round the wall of a room just below the
ceiling. Its generally any horizontal decorative molding that crowns a building
around the top edge of a pedestal or along the top of an interior wall.

The function of the cornice is to protect the structure's walls by directing

rainwater away from the building, although its traditional function is also
decorative.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

3) Quadrant: A convex moulding that has a cross section in the form of a

quarter circle. Can be used to cover gaps or uneven edges between skirting

and flooring.

4) Architrave: it is the strip of material that rounds off the wall and [Link] is
the part of the door which refers to the decorative trim that sits around
the door [Link] is used to hide the joint between the wall and a door
frame and any following shrinkage and movement between the two.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

5) Picture rail: a thin strip of wooden moulding mounted below any crown
moulding that's meant to support your pictures, mirrors, or anything else you
want to hang against your walls.

They were designed for use on plaster walls so that you did not have to
damage your wall (or wall coverings) to hang artwork

6) Cover mould: A cover mould is a multi-purpose piece of timber which is

typically used as a decorative finish on surfaces such as walls and ceilings as
well as on timber furniture.
7) CILL: this is a horizontal structure at the bottom of a window. It supports
and hold the window in place and provides a mechanism for shedding
rainwater away from the wall away from the wall opening. It can also be
described as a shelf at the bottom of a window inside a room.
8) DADO RAIL: it’s a moulding fixed horizontally to the wall around the
perimeter of a room. Its function is mainly beautifying the room although it
can offer the wall with protection from furniture contact
9) Plastic based moulding:
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

FIXING TRIMS AND COVERS:

These moulds can be fixed in various ways:

 Casting: this is giving shape materials which are in flexible state before they
solidify or dry too become hard.
 Pressing into shape,
 Use of screws and nails
 Use of adhesives/glues
 Placing into position using mortar,
 Use of wall plugs and wood pellets

PAINTS AND DECORATION

These are materials that are used to achieve the desired surface finish on a
building element. They protect it from damage by water, corrosion, insects and
mold, beautify a structure, make structures distinct(landmarks), gives a structure
some sense of completion and preserves surfaces hence making them last long

SURFACE PREPARATION:

1. SANDING: this is the process of smoothing or polishing a surface.

This removes imperfections creating a smooth finish while at the
same time adding adhesion by developing small, rough ridges for the
paint to stick to(form a grip for the paint). A sand paper is used to do
the sanding. Sometimes a glass paper and pumice stone is used.
2. CLEANING: the surface should be cleaned to remove any dirt and
dust. The metallic surfaces should be wire brushed to remove the mill
scale and rust. The surfaces should be cleaned using soap and water,
tacky cloth and in the presence of grease, spirit should be used.
These foreign elements if not removed, interfere with the bond
between the paint and the surface to be painted and also lead to a
poor surface finish.

MATERIALS USED TO PAINT AND DECORATE

1. PAINTS: A paint is an opaque pigmented material that is applied in liquid

form to completely cover and hide the surface on which it is applied. it
provides a pleasing appearance and protects a surface against moisture.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

2. VARNISHES: This is a dispersion or solution of resin in thinner or oil or in

both. Its usually a transparent or translucent.
 To protect the painted surface from the effects of weathering agencies..
 To brighten the appearance of the grain of wood.
 To brighten painted surfaces

3. CEMENT BASED: these are water based paints and is applied to either
exterior or interior. It mainly prevents water penetration and reduction of
dirt collection. They include:
A. PREMIXED PROPRIETARY PASTE:
B. WALL MASTER: This is a cement based wall coating used for both
interior and exterior surfaces. Its applied as a troweled coat or
textured to create designer effects thus providing a beautiful finish.
Its long lasting and weather resistance
C. SMOOTHER
4. FACTORY INSTANT BLENDS
5. THINNING AGENTS

WAYS OF APPLYING PAINT.

There are various ways of applying coats in thin films over various surfaces. They
include:

1. Brushing: this is the use of a paint brush to apply a paint finish on

components. They are however not suitable since they are not good for thin
paints since they may not cover the surfaces well and thick paints can pull
under the brush. This means that it produces low quality paint finishes. It
has the advantage of forcing the paint into all nooks corners and
imperfections and its suited for small areas like corners,edged, trims,
moulding and odd shapes.
2. Rollers; this is the use of roller brushes attached on long handles. This
ensures that places high up can be reached easily and painting is much faster
than using a hand brush. They require less skill than the use of brush. Its
preferred for large scale painting since they are fast. Special kind of rollers
give specific paint finishes.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

3. Spraying: it’s the most prevalent paint application method mostly for
metallic structures due to its versatility and economic viability. There are
various spray methods like air-atomized, airless, electrostatic e.t.c it takes
very little time and its preferred for jobs that require a smooth finish.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

STAIRS
For access between floors and different levels in buildings, the following is
provided:

Ladder: this is a structure made with a series of narrow horizontal steps (rungs),
fixed between uprights of wood or metal, on which a person usually ascends or
descends facing it. Its maybe fixed in an upright vertical position or at a steep
slope for ease of use. It occupies least floor area. During use, one holds onto it
since its fixed on a near vertical position- this makes it unsuitable for the young,
elderly and handicapped.

Step ladder: its similar to a ladder but it has comparatively narrow, flat horizontal
steps.

Ramp: this isa surface sloping uniformly as an inclined plane up and down which a
person may pass on foot between levels. It’s constructed at a slope of at least 1 in
20(1 metre rise vertically in 20 m horizontally). It is suited to long low buildings.

Stairs: It’s a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing

it into smaller vertical distances called steps. It’s a set of steps formed so as to
enable access to another level on foot by putting one foot after the other on
alternate steps to climb up or down.

More usually, a stair is formed as two or more straight flights of steps arranged to
make a quarter or half turn at intermediate landings between floors. Using two
flights helps to limit the number of steps in each flight making use of the stairway
potentially safer. Because of the slope of the stair and the need to limit the
number of steps in each flight, a typical half-turn stair occupies a considerable
space in small houses.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

It is the conventional means of access and it is constructed to provide a ready,

easy, comfortable and safe access without taking too much space. A stair has the
following functions

1. Provide a means of circulation between floor levels.

2. Establish a safe means of travel between floor levels.
3. Provide an easy means of travel between floor levels.
4. Provide a means of conveying fittings and furniture between
floor levels.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRS

1. STRENGTH AND STABILITY: a stair serves the same function as afloor in

the support of the occupants during movement between floors. Hence it
should be strong and stable to support its own weight and the weight of
occupants
2. SAFETY IN USE: it should be constructed in a way that it can provide
safety for the user during use. This is done by constructing viable steps,
landings, hand rails and also adequate headrooms.
3. FIRE SAFETY:a stair should be constructed with materials that are capable
of maintaining strength and stability for a period of time sufficient for
evacuation in case of fire. The size of steps and width of the stair should be
adequate for safe escape.
4. DURABILITY: a stair should be long lasting, free from maintainance and
resistant to weathering and wear and tear.
5. EASE OF USE: Many different people will use the stairway. Care is taken so
that stairs are designed for users of all abilities and ages. Handrails can help
all users, but are particularly important for those less able to move between
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

levels. Landings may provide well-needed resting stages, or a platform that

allows others to pass, enabling less mobile users to move at their own pace.
6. SOUND REGULATION: Consideration of materials used for the stair tread
is an important factor in helping to keep impact sound from foot traffic to
an acceptable minimum. For example, metal treads and timber treads can be
noisy and may be a nuisance to building users. This may not be a problem in a
busy bar, but in a house the impact sound could prove a significant irritation
to the building users. Direct impact sound can be reduced by using resilient
packing between stairways and the building structure and/or with the use of
dense material that absorbs sound energy, such as concrete. Carpet is widely
used to absorb impact sound on stair treads.
7. AESTHETIC: the stair may be designed to be a significant architectural
feature within a building. Aesthetic requirements will determine the position
and shape of the stairs as well as the materials used to construct it.
Architectural fashion and increased attention to interior design have led to
a big increase in the designs and materials used in stairs.

TERMINOLOGY:

I. Flight: The series of steps leading from one landing to another. It should
have no fewer than three and no more than 16 risers since it can be
dangerous especially for the young or elderly. The risers and trends(goings)
should be equal so as to avoid tripping people. The width of the stairs should
be from 800mm.
The steps are constructed as a series of horizontal open treads with a space
between them or as enclosed steps with a vertical face between the threads
called a riser.
II. Riser: this is the vertical or near vertical face of a step. The size of trend a
riser determine whether a stair is steep or shallow.
III. Trend: this is the horizontal surface of a step. With enclosed steps, the
trend usually project beyond the riser as a nosing to provide as wide surface
of tread as possible. Its determined traditionally using the formulae
2R + G=500mm to 700mm.
IV. Rise: it’s the vertical distance between two faces of two trends or of the
whole flight. It should be equal.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

V. Going: the horizontal distance between the nosing of one riser to the face of
the nosing of the next riser.

The inclination angle of stairs to the horizontal should not be more than 42 o.
traditionally it was determined using the formulae –twice rise plus going
equals to some notional figure between 500mm and 700 mm.

VI. Headroom: this a vertical distance between the trend and the floor soffit
above it. This is provided for the safety of the users during movement and
when moving goods and furniture. The minimum headroom provided should be
2000mm.
VII. Landing: The floor at the top or bottom of each story where the flight ends
or begins.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

VIII.
Newel: The main post of the railing at the start of the stairs and the stiffening
posts at the angles and platform.
IX. Waist: the thickness of the slab that supports the steps in an inclined
position. Its usually made of reinforced concrete, wood or metal.

X. Nosing: The projection of tread beyond the face of the riser.

XI. Run: The total length of stairs including the platform.

XII. Staircase: The whole set of stairs with the side members supporting the
steps.
XIII. Hand rail: The top finishing piece on the railing intended to be grasped by
the hand in ascending and descending. For closed stairs where there is no
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

railing, the handrail is attached to the wall with brackets.

XIV. Baluster: The vertical members supporting the handrail on open stairs.
XV. Balustrade: a railing supported on balusters especially one that holds the

handrail in position.
XVI. Carriage: The rough timber supporting the treads and risers of wooden
stairs sometimes referred to as the string or stringer.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

TYPES OF STAIRS

Stairs can be constructed with parallel trend plan or with geometric plan.

The three basic ways in which stairs with parallel treads. These are a straight-
flight stair, a quarter-turn stair and a half-turn stair.

STRAIGHT FLIGHT STAIR: A straight-flight stair rises from floor to floor in one
direction with or without an intermediate landing, hence the name. It is usually the
most economical use of a stair.

QUARTER TURN STAIR: A quarter-turn stair rises to a landing between two

floors, turns through 90° and then rises to the floor above, hence ‘quarter turn’.
The quarter-turn landing is sometimes replaced with winders for further economy
in the use of space.

HALF TURN OR DOG LEG STAIR: A half-turn stair rises to a landing between
floors, turns through 180° and then rises parallel to the lower flight to the floor
above, hence ‘half turn’. The landing is described as a half-space or half-turn
landing. A half-turn stair is described as a ‘dog-leg’ stair because it looks somewhat
like the hind leg of a dog. This, the most common arrangement of stairs, has the
advantage in planning that it lands at, or roughly over, the starting point of the
stair which can be constructed within the confines of a vertical stair well, as a
means of access to and escape from similar floors
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

GEOMETRICAL STAIRS: Geometrical stairs are constructed with treads that are
tapered on plan, with the tapered treads around a centre support as a spiral
(helical) stair, an open-well circular stair or as
an ellipse on part of an ellipse on plan,

A spiral (helical) stair with the treads tapering to a central, vertical support is the
most economical way of planning a stair as it takes up little floor area. Because the
treads taper sharply to the central post and one needs to make sharp turns up and
down this type of stair, it is difficult to use and may be dangerous to young
children and people with limited mobility. Spiral stairs, which form a helix around a
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

central column or post, are used where space is limited for access to an
intermediate floor of one room.

Circular or elliptical stairs are constructed around a generous open well with the
treads having a shallow taper towards the well. These stairs, which are extravagant
in the use of space, are used as a feature for grand means of access in large
buildings.

MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRS

TIMBER: It is the traditional stair for houses of two or more floors where the
need for resistance to fire does not dictate the use of concrete. Each flight of a
staircase is made up (cased) in a joiner’s shop as a complete flight of steps, joined
to strings. Landings are constructed on site and the flight or flights are fixed in
position between landings and floors.
The members of the staircase flight are string (or stringers), treads and risers.
The treads and risers are joined to form the steps of the flight and are housed in
or fixed to strings whose purpose is to support them. Because the members of the
flight are put together like a box, the boards can be thin and yet strong enough to
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

carry the loads normal to stairs.

The members of the flight are usually cut from timbers of the following sizes:

 treads 32 or38 mm,

 risers 19 or 25 mm
 strings 38 or 44 mm.

CONCRETE STAIRS:
A reinforced concrete stair has better resistance to damage by fire than a
conventional timber staircase and is used for access and a means of escape stairs
in most buildings of more than three storeys.
The width, rise, going and headroom for these stairs and thearrangement of the
flights of steps as straight-flight, quarter-turn, half-turn and geometrical stairs is
the same as for timber stairs.
The usual form of a reinforced concrete stair is as a half-turn (dog-leg) stair
either with or without an open well. The construction of the stair depends on the
structural form of the building and the convenience in casting the stair in situ or
the use of reinforced concrete supports and precast steps.
Where there are loadbearing walls around the stair, it is generally economic to
build the landings into the side walls as one-way spanning slabs and construct the
flights as inclined slabs between the landings. This form of stair is of advantage
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

where the enclosing walls are of brick or block as it would involve a great deal of
wasteful cutting of bricks or blocks were the flights to be built into the walls and
the bricks or blocks cut to fit to the steps.
Before concrete is cast, formwork is designed and fixed in place so as to mould the
wet concrete. The reinforcement is also weaved in the the right dimensions and
held 20-25 mm above the formwork using spacers so to provide the required cover.

A SECTION THROUGH A
REIGNFORCED CONCRETE STAIR
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

METAL STAIRS
Cold-formed-steel or steel-plate stairs generally are used in fire-resistant
buildings.
They are purchased from various manufacturers in stock patterns. The steel
sheets are formed into risers and sub-treads or pans, into which one of several
types of treads may be inserted. Stringers usually are channel
shaped. Treads may be made of stone, concrete, composition, or metal. Most types
are given a nonslip surface.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

STRUCTURAL GLASS STAIR

Glass stairs, handrails and barriers have become increasingly common in recent
years. This is partly down to architectural fashion, but mainly a result of
considerable advances in the strength of glass used for structural purposes.

Although aesthetics play a considerable part in the choice of a glass stairway,

there are some functional reasons why glass is used, especially when used in
handrails and balustrades/guarding. In many public buildings, such as airports and
other large complexes, it has become increasingly important to be able to see the
movement of people and their belongings.

BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS OF STAIRS

DIMENSIONS:
1. stairs shall be measured as follows:
i. Risers shall be measured vertically from top of trend to top of
trend.(min 7 ½ in)
ii. Trends are measured horizontally from face of riser to face of
riser.(min 9 in)
iii. Width shall be measured between faces of strings, or between
face of string and a baluster or walls(min 2ft 6in)
iv. Headroom shall be measured vertically above the raking line of
nosings( min 6ft 9in)
v. Stairs shall be constructed to have a constant and uniform riser
and trend.
2. No flight of stairs shall exceed sixteen steps and interveneing
landings between flights shall have a minimum length of 2ft 3 in.
3. There should not be more than two successive flights without a turn.
SAFETY:
1. A handrail should be provided at each stair and on each side. The
outer side hand rail shall be continuous throughout the stairwayand
all ends fished up well.
2. Handrails shall not encroach more than 3in within the width.
3. Vertical balusters shall not be spaced more than 5in apart and should
be not less than 2ft 9in vertically.
4. The infilling below the hand rail shall provide for the safety of the
persons using the stair.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

5. Incase the stair width exceeds 7ft. 6in. , a central hand rail is
provided

ACCESS
FUNCTIONABILITY

PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING STAIRS.

SCAFFOLDING
These are temporary working platforms erected around the perimeter of a building
or structure to provide a safe working place at a convenient height. They are
usually required when the working height or level is 1.500 or more above the ground
level.
TERMINOLOGIES/TECHNICAL TERMS
 Base jack/plate- is a load bearing base for the scaffold.
 The standard- is the upright component with connector joints. The standard
transfers the entire weight of the structure to the ground.
 Transom- is the horizontal cross-section load bearing component which holds
the batten, board or decking unit.
 Brace- a component placed diagonally from ledger to ledger to increase
rigidity of a scaffold.
 Ledger- a horizontal brace.
 Coupler- a fitting used to join components.
 Batten or board decking components –used to make working platform.
 Brackets- used to extend the width of working platform.
GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

WORKING PLATFORMS: these are close boarded or plated level surfaces at a

height at which work is being carried out and they must provide a safe working
place of sufficient strength to support the imposed loads of operatives and/or
materials. All working platforms above the ground level must be fitted with a toe
board and a guard rail.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDS
1. PUTLOG SCAFFOLD: these are scaffolds, which have an outer row of
standards joined together by ledgers, which in turn support the
transverse putlogs, which are built into the bed joints or perpends
as the work proceeds, they are therefore only suitable for new
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

work in bricks or blocks.

2. INDEPENDENT SCAFFOLD: these are scaffolds which have two rows

of standards each row joined together with ledgers which in turn
support the transverse transoms. The scaffold is erected clear of
the existing or proposed building but is tied to the building or
structure at suitable intervals.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

3. GANTRY SCAFFOLD: these are elevated platforms used when the

building being maintained or under construction is adjacent to a public
footpath. A gantry over a footpath can be used for storage of
materials, housing units of accommodation and supporting an
independent scaffold.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

4. SLUNG SCAFFOLD: these are a form of scaffold which is suspended

from the main structure by means of wire ropes or steel chains and is
not provided with a means of being raised or lowered. Each working
platform of a slung scaffold consists of a supporting framework of
ledgers and transoms which be held in position by not less than six
evenly spaced wire ropes or steel chains securely anchored at both
ends.
The working platform should be double planked or underlined with
polythene or similar sheeting to restrict the amount of dust reaching
the floor level. Slung scaffolds are an alternative to birdcage
scaffolds and although more difficult to erect have the advantage of
leaving a clear space beneath the
working platform which makes them suitable for cinemas, theatres
and high ceiling banking halls.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

5. PATENT SCAFFOLD: these are systems based on an independent

scaffold format in which the members are connected together using
an integral locking device instead of conventional clips and couplers
used with traditional tubular scaffolding. They have the advantages of
being easy to assemble and take down using semi-skilled.
Generally cross bracing is not required with these systems but facade
bracing can be fitted if necessary. Although simple in concept patent
systems of scaffolding can lack the flexibility of traditional tubular
scaffolds in complex layout situations.

6. MOBILE SCAFFOLD: also known as mobile tower scaffolds. They can

be assembled from pre-formed framing components or from standard
scaffold tube and fittings. Used mainly for property maintenance.
Must not be moved whilst occupied by persons or equipment.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

MATERIALS
 Steel
 Aluminium alloys
 Timber

ERECTION OF SCAFFOLDING
 Standards are erected upright and rests on a square plate which spread the
load to the ground. The base plate has a shank in its center to hold the
standards.
 Ledgers are connected between the standards
 Transoms are put to rest upon the ledgers at right angles. Main transoms
are placed next to the standards to hold them in place and provide support
for boards.
 Cross brace are placed diagonally from ledger to ledger next to the
standards to which they are fitted.
 GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CRAFT YEAR TWO

 Right angle coupler are used to join ledgers to transoms and to standards.
 Spacing between ledgers is 2metres
 Transom spacing is determined by the thickness of the boards, 38mm boards
require a transom spacing of not more than 1.2 meters.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. A competent person should inspect the scaffold before
someone goes up.
2. You should wear a cap when working under or on a scaffold
3. You should wear sturdy shoes with non-slip soles.
4. Always use common sense when working on any scaffold.
5. Watch out for co-workers on the scaffold as well as people
below
6. Ask a supervisor if you are not sure if a scaffold or working
conditions are not safe.
7. Do not keep debris/unnecessary materials on a scaffold where
someone can trip over them.
8. Do not hit a scaffold with anything heavy e.g. truck, forklift
etc.
9. Do not leave materials or equipment on the platform after work.
10. Do not overload a scaffold.