BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY

MODULE 5:
HEREDITY
AND
EVOLUTION

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Heredity and evolution are two fundamental concepts in biology that are closely related.

Heredity refers to the passing of traits from parents to offspring, while evolution refers to the

gradual change in the genetic makeup of a population over time. In this lecture note, we will

discuss the key concepts of heredity and evolution, including the theories of Darwinism and

Lamarckism, Mendelian laws, and key genetic terms.

UNIT 1:
DARWINISM
AND
LAMARCKISM

DARWINISM AND LAMARCKISM

DARWINISM

Darwinism, also known as natural selection, is a biological theory of evolution proposed by

Charles Darwin in his book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. According to Darwinism,

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evolution occurs through the process of natural selection, which favors individuals with

advantageous traits that help them survive and reproduce. These traits are passed down to

offspring through genetic inheritance. Darwin's theory was supported by evidence from the

study of variations within species, comparative anatomy, embryology, and geological records.

Darwinism Key Principles:

 Descent with Modification: Darwin proposed that all species share a common

ancestry and that over time, species change through a process of descent with

modification.

 Natural Selection: Natural selection is the driving force of evolution. It favors the

survival and reproduction of individuals with traits that confer a reproductive

advantage in a given environment. Over time, advantageous traits become more

prevalent in a population.

 Adaptation: Darwin emphasized that organisms are adapted to their environments,

and natural selection acts on heritable variations that improve an organism's fitness.

LAMARCKISM

Lamarckism, named after Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, is an earlier theory of evolution that suggests

organisms can acquire traits during their lifetime to better adapt to their environment. These

acquired traits can then be passed on to offspring. Lamarck believed that the environment

directly influences the body, causing changes that can be inherited. Lamarckism was based on

the principle that physical changes in organisms could be transferred to their offspring over

time.

Lamarckism Key Principles:

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 Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Lamarck suggested that changes in the

environment lead to changes in an organism's behavior, and these changes are reflected

in its structure and function. Traits acquired through use or disuse of body parts are

passed on to the next generation.

 Continuous Improvement: Lamarck believed in the idea of a continuous improvement

of species over time as a result of environmental interactions.

Critiques and Limitations

Lamarckism faced criticism due to a lack of empirical evidence and the absence of a clear

mechanism for the transmission of acquired traits. The theory was largely superseded by

Darwinism but contributed to early evolutionary thought.

Evidence and Acceptance

Darwinism has been supported by modern genetic research, which has shown that traits are

passed down through DNA. Lamarckism, on the other hand, has been largely discredited due

to a lack of scientific evidence supporting the inheritance of acquired traits. Most biologists

today accept Darwin’s theory of natural selection as the primary mechanism of evolution.

Table 1. Comparison between Darwinism and Lamarckism

ASPECT DARWINISM LAMARCKISM

Basic Principle Darwinism is based on natural Lamarckism suggests that

selection, where favourable organisms can acquire traits during

traits are passed down through their lifetime to adapt to the

generations due to survival of environment, and these acquired

the fittest. traits can be inherited by offspring.

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Mechanism Darwinism emphasizes genetic Lamarckism focuses on the

inheritance and random inheritance of acquired

variations within a population characteristics, suggesting that

that lead to the survival of changes in an organism's lifetime

individuals with advantageous can be passed on to future

traits. generations.

Environmental Darwinism attributes changes in Lamarckism proposes that changes

Influence organisms to random genetic in an organism's behavior or use of

mutations influenced by organs in response to the

environmental pressures. environment can lead to inheritable

adaptations.

Inheritance In Darwinism, traits are Lamarckism suggests that acquired

inherited through genetic traits during an organism's lifetime

material (DNA) passed down can be inherited by offspring,

from parents to offspring. leading to evolutionary change.

Acceptance Darwin's theory of natural Lamarckism has been largely

selection is widely accepted in discredited in favor of Darwinism,

modern biology due to as there is limited scientific

supporting genetic evidence. evidence supporting the inheritance

of acquired traits.

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UNIT 2:

MENDELIAN
LAWS

MENDELIAN LAWS

Gregor Mendel, known as the father of modern genetics, formulated three fundamental laws

that laid the foundation for the science of heredity. These laws are crucial in understanding

how traits are passed from parents to offspring.

Mendelian Laws provide a robust framework for understanding the inheritance of traits in

organisms. The principles of segregation and independent assortment have stood the test of

time, forming the cornerstone of classical genetics. As we delve deeper into molecular genetics,

we build upon Mendel's work to uncover the intricacies of how genes are transmitted and

expressed at the molecular level. These laws continue to guide research in genetics and

contribute to advancements in medicine, agriculture, and various other fields.

LAW OF SEGREGATION

During gamete formation, the two alleles for a trait segregate independently of each other. Each

parent contributes one allele, and offspring receive one allele from each parent. This law

explains why offspring inherit traits from both parents.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

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Genes for different traits segregate independently during the formation of gametes. This law

explains how traits are inherited independently of each other. It helps understand the

inheritance of multiple traits simultaneously.

LAW OF DOMINANCE

In a heterozygous pair of alleles, one allele is dominant over the other. The dominant allele is

expressed in the phenotype, while the recessive allele remains hidden. This law clarifies how

certain traits can be masked but still passed on to future generations.

Mendel's laws provide a solid framework for understanding genetic inheritance and have paved

the way for modern genetics research.

UNIT 3: GENETICS TERMS

GENETICS KEY CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY:

 Genes and Alleles:

Genes are units of heredity located on chromosomes, and they exist in alternative forms called

alleles.

Alleles can be dominant or recessive, influencing the expression of a trait.

 Genotype and Phenotype:

Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual, representing the combination of alleles for a

particular trait (e.g., TT, Tt, or tt).

Phenotype: The observable traits of an individual, resulting from the interaction of its genotype

with the environment.

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 Homozygous and Heterozygous:

Homozygous: An individual with two identical alleles for a particular trait (e.g., TT or tt).

Heterozygous: An individual with two different alleles for a particular trait (e.g., Tt).

 Dominance and Recessiveness:

Dominant Allele: An allele that, when present, determines the phenotype, masking the effect

of the recessive allele.

Recessive Allele: An allele that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant allele.

References
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance - National Center for Biotechnology Information
Gregor Mendel and the Principles of Inheritance - Nature Education
Mendelian Genetics - Khan Academy

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MODULE 6:
ECOLOGY

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY

Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between living organisms and their

environment. It is a broad field that encompasses various sub-disciplines, including population

ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. The term "ecology" was first coined by

the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, and it has since evolved to become a critical area

of research in biology and environmental sciences.

OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGY

The main objectives of ecology are to:

 Understand the relationships between organisms and their environment.

 Investigate the processes that shape communities and ecosystems.

 Explore the interactions among different species within an ecosystem.

 Study the effects of human activities on ecosystems.

 Develop strategies for the conservation and management of natural resources.

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KEY CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY

 Population Ecology: This sub-discipline focuses on the study of populations, which

are groups of individuals of the same species living in the same area. Key concepts

include population growth, density, and distribution.

 Community Ecology: This sub-discipline deals with the interactions between different

species within a specific area. Key concepts include species interactions, competition,

predation, and mutualism.

 Ecosystem Ecology: This sub-discipline examines the interactions between living

organisms and their environment, including the flow of energy and nutrients through

an ecosystem. Key concepts include trophic levels, food webs, and nutrient cycling.

ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 Principle of Adaptation: Organisms have evolved specific traits that enable them to

survive and reproduce in their environment. These traits can be physical (e.g.,

coloration, body shape), behavioral (e.g., mating rituals), or physiological (e.g.,

metabolic processes).

 Principle of Competition: Organisms often compete for limited resources, such as

food, water, and space. Competition can lead to the evolution of specialized adaptations

that allow species to exploit resources more efficiently.

 Principle of Predation: Predation is a key process in ecosystems, where one species

(the predator) consumes another species (the prey). Predation can influence population

dynamics, community structure, and the flow of energy through an ecosystem.

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 Principle of Mutualism: Some species form mutualistic relationships, where both

species benefit from the interaction. Examples include pollination, where plants provide

nectar for pollinators in exchange for pollen transfer, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria,

which convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use.

 Principle of Succession: Succession is the process by which an ecosystem changes

over time, as different species colonize and replace each other. This process can be

influenced by environmental factors, such as disturbances (e.g., fires, floods) and

resource availability.

UNIT 2: ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY

ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY

Elements of Ecology is a comprehensive study that delves into ecological processes,

emphasizing the relevance of ecology to various aspects of life.

 Abiotic Factors: These are non-living components of an ecosystem such as

temperature, water, sunlight, soil, and nutrients.

 Biotic Factors: Living components including plants, animals, fungi, and

microorganisms that interact within an ecosystem.

 Ecosystems: An ecosystem is a combination of abiotic and biotic factors that interact

to support life. It includes physical components like air, water, and soil, as well as

living organisms. Ecosystems can be classified based on their energy flow, nutrient

cycling, and the types of organisms present.

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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY

 Energy Flow: Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from primary

producers to various consumers. This flow is represented in food chains and food webs,

where energy is transferred through a series of steps involving organisms and their

interactions with their environment.

 Population Dynamics:Population dynamics deals with the growth and decline of

populations over time. This includes factors such as birth rates, death rates, and

migration. Population growth can be modeled using mathematical equations, and

population dynamics can be influenced by environmental factors and the availability of

resources.

 Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms within an ecosystem. It

includes the number of species, their genetic makeup, and the ways in which they

interact with each other and their environment. Biodiversity is important for

maintaining ecosystem stability and resilience.

 Biogeochemical Cycles: Biogeochemical cycles are the processes by which elements

like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are cycled through ecosystems. These cycles

involve the movement of elements between living organisms, the environment, and the

atmosphere. They are essential for maintaining the health of ecosystems and supporting

life.

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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY

UNIT 3:
TYPES
OF
HABITATS

TYPES OF HABITATS

Habitats are defined as the natural environments where organisms live, interact, and reproduce. These

environments are characterized by specific physical and biological conditions that support the survival

and growth of the organisms present. There are several types of habitats, each with unique

characteristics and organisms adapted to their specific conditions. In this lecture note, we will discuss

the two main types of habitats: terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and provide some examples and

references for further reading.

1. Terrestrial Habitats

Terrestrial habitats are those found on land. They are characterized by the presence of soil and the

absence of a permanent water source. These habitats can be further divided into various categories based

on their vegetation, climate, and other factors. Some examples of terrestrial habitats include:

A. Forests: These are habitats dominated by trees and shrubs, with a dense canopy that provides

shade and shelter for the organisms living there. Forests can be found in various climates, from

tropical rainforests to temperate forests.

B. Grasslands: These are habitats characterized by grasses and other herbaceous plants, with minimal

tree cover. Grasslands can be found in various climates, from arid to temperate regions.

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BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY

C. Deserts: These are habitats characterized by low precipitation, high temperatures, and minimal

vegetation. Deserts can be found in various regions, from the Gobi Desert in Asia to the Sahara Desert

in Africa.

D. Mountain habitats: These are habitats found at high altitudes, characterized by cold temperatures,

strong winds, and limited water availability. Examples of mountain habitats include alpine meadows,

subalpine forests, and tundra.

2. Aquatic Habitats

Aquatic habitats are those found in water, either freshwater or saltwater. These habitats are

characterized by the presence of water and the absence of soil. Some examples of aquatic habitats

include:

A. Freshwater habitats: These are habitats found in freshwater bodies, such as lakes, rivers, and

streams. Freshwater habitats can be further divided into various categories based on their water

flow, depth, and other factors.

B. Saltwater habitats: These are habitats found in saltwater bodies, such as oceans, seas, and estuaries.

Saltwater habitats can be further divided into various categories based on their water salinity, depth,

and other factors.

C. Wetlands: These are habitats characterized by the presence of water, either permanently or

seasonally, and the absence of a permanent water source. Wetlands can be found in various regions,

from coastal marshes to inland swamps.

References
Carter Center. (2017). Introduction to Ecology. Retrieved from
[Link]
ence_students/ln_ecology_final.pdf
British Ecological Society. (n.d.). Key Concepts in Ecology. Retrieved from
[Link]
concepts-in-ecology/

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Hank Stevens. (n.d.). Primer of Ecology using R. Retrieved from

National Science Foundation. (n.d.). Case Studies. Retrieved from

MIT OpenCourseWare. (n.d.). Lecture Notes | Ecology I: The Earth System. Retrieved from
[Link]

Your Article Library. (n.d.). Ecology: Lecture Notes of Ecology and Ecosystem. Retrieved from
[Link]

[Link]
habitat/

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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