COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

This is an aspect of physical geography that entirely deals with resultant features developing on a
given coast as a result of coastal processes like weave action, sea level changes and coral
formation.
DEFINITIONS:
A coast
This is a zone of contact between the land and the sea or ocean. It is characterised by being a low
lying area. Some coats are indented while other are somewhat straight eg the European/Asian
coasts and east African coast respectively.
Coast line
It is the limit at which wave action takes place. It is the margin of land where sea water stops.
A shore
Is a trip of land that lies between high water and low water levels.
Shore line
Is the line where the shore and the water meet.
A beach
Is an accumulation of sand, shingle, Pebbles, shells on the shore. This is due to constructive waves
and sometimes eustatism (sea level changes).

Coastal features are mainly produced by three processes i.e

1. Wave action
2. Sea level changes
3. Coral reef formation

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NATURE AND SHAPE OF THE COAST

The nature, type and character of any coast depends on the interaction between several factors
Influence of waves and tidal currents. These act as agents of erosion (destructive waves) ,
transportation and deposition ( constructive waves) on water bodies. They are caused by
movement of winds across the water bodies. Waves play a big role in shaping any given coast
since their energy determines the rate of erosion and deposition that leads to different coastal
features.
Nature of rocks along the coast. Nature of rocks along the coast also influences coastal evolution.
Soft rocks are first eroded compared to hard rocks which remain as head lands. wave effects are
most effective in well jointed rocks and un consolidated rock particles which can easily be plucked
out by hydraulic action therefore coasts along less resistant or weak rocks usually show a different
morphology from those lying on hard rocks.
Special climatic conditions. These have led to evolution of different coastal features e.g some
features like coral reefs and mangrove vegetation are limited to the tropics particularly to the East
African coast. Fiords on the other hand occupy only mountainous areas in high altitude areas where
Pleistocene glaciers have curved out U- shaped valleys below the sea level. This was followed by
deglaciation and a rise in sea level filling the valleys to form fiords.
Coastal configuration/trend of the coast. This also determines how a particular coast evolves. If
the coastal alignment is such that the waves approach the right angles, then coastal erosion is very
effective. This results in to formation of several coastal erosional features. If on the other hand the
waves approach the coast obliquely, erosion is limited.
The influence of man also affects coastal evolution. Several artificial features emerged on the
coastal areas as a result of man’s needs eg marine engineering features like ports, marine artificial
harbours, construction of coastal defences eg fort Jesus etc. All these destroy the original shape of
the coast.
Time. Any process occurring at the coast needs time in order to change the nature of the coast.
The more spent by coastal formation processes, the more the rate of coastal formation and vice
versa.
Other factors include: -
 Coral growth
 Effect of glaciation and deglaciation
 Volcanic activity
 Sea level changes

TYPES OF COASTS
Generally, coasts are divided in to four categories i.e
 Those shaped by organic deposition.
 Those shaped by inorganic deposition.
 Emerged coasts.
 Sub merged coasts.
1: SUB MERGED COASTS.
This is caused either by subsidence of land or arise in sea level. Subsidence can be caused by
folding or faulting along the coast. Sea level rise may also be as a result of global changes
especially during the plestocene period where a worldwide rise in sea level was experience
following the melting of continental ice sheets.
Sub merged coasts are characterised by cliffs and wave cut platforms that are about 10m below
the current sea level.
Note: Submerged coasts are divided in to submerged highland and submerged lowland coats.
Submerged highland coasts include ria coasts and fiord coasts.
A ria coast is a river valley mouth that has been drowned following arise in sea or ocean level.
Rias are funnel shaped with deeper sea ward and shallow land ward sides. They provide good and
sheltered natural harbours eg at Kilindini in Kenya on which port Mombasa rests.
Fiord coats occur in glaciated regions. Glacial erosion through plucking and abrasion leads to the
formation of U- Shaped valleys. Once these valleys are drowned after sea level rise, fiord coasts
are formed. Fiords are usually deeper, narrow and steep side inlets. They are common on former
glaciated regions like British Columbia, Alaska and Norway.
submerged lowland coats.
These occur in gently sloping low lying coastal areas. Water covers extensive area of land and
initial river valleys/ mouths are downed to become broad estuaries.
2: EMERGED COASTS
They occur when the sea level drops or the land near the sea rises relative to the sea due to faulting,
folding or isostatic changes. It is divided in to emerged highland coasts and emerged low land
coasts.
Emerged high land coasts are characterised by raised beaches found some distance away from the
shore. Such raised beaches occur as wave cut platforms or caves. This type of coast can be
identified at Mombasa.
Emerged lowland coasts form broad coastal plains sometimes with vegetation eg at Rufiji delta in
Tanzania.
3: COAST SHAPED BY ORGANIC DEPOSITION
They are subdivided in to coral coasts and mangrove coasts.
Coral coasts are large, organic in origin and they form from small sea organisms called coral
polyps. When these polyps die, their skeletons which are made up of calcium carbonate accumulate
to form coral limestone. In this way, masses of rocks are gradually built up and are called coral
reefs. They are of three types ie fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls. They are common at the
coast of East Africa.
Mangrove coasts are common in equatorial Africa as well as East African coast. Vegetation plays
a major role in coastal deposition by stabilising estuaries, mad banks, dunes and spits. When such
vegetation holds or traps more deposits, the nature of the coast is hardened. When such vegetation
grows in coastal marshy water, then a mangrove coast is formed.
4: COASTS FORMED DUE TO INORGANIC DEPOSITION
These are in form of marine spits and barrier beaches. Here, there are embarkments of sand which
torches to the land at one end and extends to the sea on the other side. Some spits form in a a
parallel way to the coast enclosing lagoons. These types of coats are limited in East Africa but are
very common on the coast of West and South Africa.

WAVE ACTION
Waves are ripples/ oscillations which appear on water bodies when wind blows over the water
body. As wind blows over the water body, a friction drag develops at the point of contact between
the wind and the water. The dragging of the water surface heaps the water hence forming waves
which push towards the direction of wind movement. As the strength of the wind increases, so
does the friction drag and the size of the wave. Also catastrophic events like volcanic eruption,
earthquakes and landslides generate waves on the water. They are called Tsunamis. Such waves
are capable of making heavy destruction due to the high energy they possess. The movement of
water vessels like ships and animals like wales also generate waves.
DEFINITION OF WAVE TERMINOLOGIES
Wave crest and wave trough: The crest of the wave is the highest point of the wave while the
troughs are the lowest points of the wave.
Wave height: This is the distance between the crest and the trough. Wave height I usually less
than 6m except in the case of tsunamis.
Wave length: This is the distance from one wave crest to another.
Wave amplitude: This is the half height of the wave.
Wave frequency: This is the number of crests that pass a point in a minute.
Wave velocity: This is the speed of movement of the wave crest in a given period of time.
Fetch: This is the maximum distance of open water over which wind can blow.
Swash: This is the body of forming water that rushes to the beach when a wave breaks.
Backwash: This is the water returning down to the sea or ocean.
TYPES OF WAVES
Depending on the effect they have on the coast, waves cab be categorised as destructive and
constructive.
Constructive waves. The carry out more deposition than erosion. They are low in height with
long wave length and low frequency of 6-8 crests breaking per minute. The waves break on a
low angle shore. They have wide fetch and reduces energy hence deposition.
Destructive waves. This carry out more erosion than deposition. They are characterised by high
energy used to carry out erosion. They break at sharp angles having their swash energy
concentrate over a small area. They also have a strong backwash hence causing erosion.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WAVE ACTION.
 Wave strength
 Breaking points of the rocks
 Stability of the sea level
 Tidal range
 The fetch covered by the wave
 Nature of the coastal rocks
WAVE EROSION
This is the wearing away of coastal rocks by the action of destructive waves. Destructive waves
break at sharp angles and have strong swashes and back washes. They are large, steep in form
and with a short wave length. They carry out erosion through processes like hydraulic action,
abrasion, corrosion and attrition.
Hydraulic action. This takes place when waves send powerful swashes against the cliff face. In
the process, air is compressed in the cracks that exist in the cliff faces. When water withdraws
from the cliff face, the compressed air suddenly expands causing coastal rocks to brake.
Abrasion/ Corrasion: This occurs when the waves use the materials they are carrying as tools
to wear down coastal rocks. The waves carry boulders, shingles and sand etc. which they hurl
against the beach and eat away the rocks. This the most effective method of erosion especially on
beaches which are attacked by storm waves.
Solution/ corrosion: This where the beach is made up of soluble rocks such as limestone. The
solvent action of the water dissolves away the rocks and the rocks are carried away in solution.
Attrition: In attrition, the debris already eroded is transported while knocking each other and
thus broken in to smaller pieces.
NB: Destructive waves are also called steep or spilling waves
EFFECTS/LANDFORMS OF WAVE EROSION
Wave erosion leads to the landward extension of the shore line a process known as coastal retro
gradation. This has resulted into a number of wave erosional feature:
A notch. The hydraulic and corrosive action of waves leads to the undercutting of the coast to
form a small opening known as a notch. Notches are common in well-developed limestone rocks
which have been removed the chemical action of waves.
ILLUSTRATION
A cliff: Is a steep rock face along the sea coast. It is formed by the wearing back of the beach
through under cutting. Its formation begins with the development of a notch on the beach.
Through hydraulic action and abrasion, the notch is enlarged. Soon the top of the notch is left
hanging and collapses in t the water forming a cliff face. The cliff steepens as its base is attacked
by wave action again. Examples in East Africa include Watamu coast in Kenya and near fort
Jesus in Mombasa.
Illustration

Wave cut platform

These are raised flat pieces of land that are formed at the foot of the cliff. They form between
high and low water tides. During cliff formation, the combined effect of wave erosion at the base
and weathering above leads to the collapse of the upper part of the cliff. The fallen rocks become
further broken by being swept backwards by the backwash and forward by the swash. This
results into the formation of wave cut platforms just at the foot of the cliff. Most wave cut
platforms are buried under water and are only exposed during low tides. Example are found
south of Mombasa port at Mamangina.
Illustration
Headland. A headland is the projection of land into the sea or lake. Its produced by differential
wave erosion on coast with alternating hard and soft rocks. Through hydraulic action, corrosion
and abrasion, soft rocks are eroded to form bays while the hard ones resist erosion and remain as
jutting into the water as headlands eg at Watamu coast and Entebbe peninsular.
Illustration

Caves. It’s a cylindrical tunnel drilled in a cliff face. Its wide at the entrance and narrow at the
end. It commonly develops on cliff faces that have joints. Hydraulic action and solution
contribute to the opening of the joint which in time becomes a cave. When waves break at the
cliff face, they compress air in the joints and when water withdraws, the air expands suddenly
with shockwaves which break the rocks along the joints. This enlarges the joint further to form a
cave. Examples are at Kilifi in Kenya, Kasenyi and around Entebbe peninsular in Uganda.
Illustration

Blow hole/gloup. It’s an erosional feature associated with caves. It develops when hydraulic
action and solution drill a joint vertically from one end of the cave up to the surface of the earth.
Waves compress air within the cave and when the water withdraws, the air expands shuttering
the rocks of the joints. Slowly by slowly, the joint is drilled up to the surface of the earth to form
a blow [Link] at Malindi on the Kenyan coast, Kasenyi on Lake Victoria, Botanical gardens on
Entebbe peninsular, Mamangina Drive in Mombasa.
Illustration
A Geo. This is a long narrow steep sided inlet running inland form the face of the cliff. Its
formed when hydraulic action leads to the collapse of the roof of the cave. Before its formation,
a blow hole is usually formed at the end of the cave. But due to the pressure of hydraulic action
along the joint, the roof of the cave is forced to collapse hence forming a geo.
Illustration

An arch. An arch is formed when a cave is drilled on the side of a headland by hydraulic action
or abrasion and ultimately opens on the other side. It can also form when two caves are drilled
both sides of the headland and eventually meet each other creating a water passage through the
headland. This leaves a raised bridge like roof above the passage called a natural arch.
illustration

A stack
This is an isolated rock feature completely detached from the main land. A stack forms when an
arch is gradually eroded until it collapses resulting in to a detachment of a mass of rock from the
headland. The two are separated by part of the sea.
A stump
This is formed when a stack is gradually attacked by wave erosion to leave a residual feature
called a stamp.
Good examples of stacks include, the rock pillar near Entebbe airport, at Kasenyi, at Malindi and
Mombasa, Ukerewe islands of Lake Victoria etc.
Illustration

A bay
It is an extension of sea or lake in to the land. Bays are formed as a result of differential erosion of
rocks with different resistance levels. The soft rocks are eaten off quickly by abrasion, hydraulic
action and solution in case soluble rocks exist. This leads to the landward extension of water
forming bays eg Sango bay, Homa bay, Murchison bay, Kavirondo gulf, Napoleon bay etc.
Illustration

NB: Avery wide and big bay is known as a gulf.

Avery long headland is known as a peninsular eg Entebbe peninsular.

WAVE DEPOSTION

Materials eroded by waves are eventually transported and find their resting place along the shore. Waves
that carry out deposition are called constructive waves. Such waves are usually low in height, flat in form
and with a long wavelength. The waves have a strong swash but a weaker backwash. This enables
deposition of materials such as, sand, shells, and shingles to take place. The deposition of the materials
creates various features such as beaches, spits, bars, tombolos, mud flats, and cuspate fore land.

Long shore drift = swash, oblique, backwash runs down straight, zigzag.

1. A beach; the term beach is used to refer to deposits that accumulate along the shore. These deposits
may be sand, shingles (pebbles), shells etc. such beaches that develop on the shores are called
normal beaches.
Sometimes waves are strong and throw materials beyond the high water level or the shores. These
are known as storm beaches.

Different beach types may be distinguished depending on the pre-dominance of beach materials e.g. a beach
with sea shells is called a shelly beach. Beaches predominantly composed of sand are called sandy beaches
e.g. Lido and Kasenyi on the northern shores of Lake Victoria.
A barrier beach; it is along ridge of sand that lies parallel to the coast and separated from it by a lagoon.
A wave breaks before reaching the shore hence depositing materials in the sea. When the materials
accumulate an off shore beach or barrier beach is formed. Some of these beaches may be drowned under
water or can be exposed to the surface depending on whether the sea level has risen/ fallen respectively. A
good example is on the coast of east Africa in Madagascar and on the coast of Benin and Nigeria

Bay head beaches-accumulation of sand between two headlands

2. Beaches are also associated with berms. These are ridge like depositional features formed by the
accumulation of heavier stones and boulders at the upper limit of the beach. They are formed by a
strong swash that it capable of transporting bigger materials towards the shoreline. A good example
is on the wami delta in Tanzania.
3. A spit; is a long narrow accumulation of san and shingles attached to the land on one side while
the other terminates in the sea. It is formed by deposition of materials especially along indented
coasts and those broken by river mouth. Examples of spits include Kabo spit and Tonya spit on
Lake Albert. Spits are however categorized into two i.e. hooked spits and cuspate spits.

Hooked spits are those where the sea ward end of the spit curves towards the land. They are formed
when constructive waves reach and deposit materials on the shore line obliquely. In this case, the
sea ward end of the spit ids forced to curve towards the land hence forming a hooked spit. A good
example is Butiaba on Lake Albert.
 Cuspate spits form a triangular shape. This shape is formed when two spits develop and grow
towards the sea and later converge when a simple spit grows and as it curves, it joins the
headland/shoreline at both ends

4. Cuspate foreland; this is a triangular shaped deposits of sand and shingles projecting sea wards.
It is formed when long shore drift creates two spits which grow towards the sea and converge in
the water. The enclosed water (lagoon) is later filled with deposits of sand and shingles and is then
colonized by vegetation. The area colonized by vegetation is known as cuspate foreland e.g. Tonya
point on lake Albert

A bar; is a ridge of materials usually sand or mud which lies parallel or almost parallel to the coast and is
not attached to the land. Bars form on gently sloping coasts and irregular shorelines. Their formation is
associated with both beach drifting and long shore drift which deposit materials at further point from the
shore. The long shore waves break before reaching the shore line while the beach drifting drags materials
from shore seawards. This results into accumulation of deposits on the break point forming a bar. They are
of different types such as bay bars, offshore bars, and barrier bars.

Offshore bars develop on gently sloping sea beds away from the shore and are usually temporarily
submerged in water e.g. at Lamu along the coast of Kenya.
A bay bar, bay bars are formed when deposits accumulate across a bay enclosing a lagoon e.g. Lake
Nabugabo bay from the rest of Lake Victoria.

A barrier bar is an accumulation of deposits away from the shore. Normally a bar is made up of a large
quantity of deposits such that it extends beyond the general level of the sea

A Tombolo

This is a kind of natural bridge joining an offshore island to the main land or an island to an island. It is
formed when longshore drift operating between the main land and the sea/ between two island deposits
sand and shingles between the two eventually linking them up. A good example is tombolo that formerly
linked Bukakata on the shores of Lake Victoria to Lambu Island.

A Lagoon

Wave deposition has also resulted into the formation of lagoons. This is a mass of water trapped behind an
accumulation of deposits. Lagoons are formed when long shore drift deposits materials like sand and
shingles in the sea at some distance from the shore thus enclosing a mass of water. When the water level
falls in the main sea, the material traps the water behind it hence forming a lagoon. Example Lake Nabugabo
on Lake Victoria
Mud Flats

This is a plat form built of mud, silt, and other alluvium. It develops when rivers and waves deposit
materials along gentle coast especially in bays and estuaries. These deposits may be exposed at low
tides but are submerged during high tides. Sometimes mud flats are colonized by salt tolerant
vegetation like mangrove swamps. Examples are found at Mouth of river Rufigi, at Katanga in
Tanzania and Lambu in Kenya.

Wave deposition also leads to the formation of salt mashes. These are coastal swamps that colonize
mud flats. They have salts to tolerate with aerial roots fixed in the mud to support them. A good
example is mangrove on the coast swamps on the coast of Mombassa and Dar es Salaam

IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL LAND FORMS

Mud flats along the east African coasts have provided habitats for the growth of mangrove forests
and swamps. This has boosted the lumbering and craft making industry in east Africa.

The beautiful sceneries created by cliffs, headlands, arches, stucks, and beaches along the coast of
east Africa attract tourists leading to foreign exchange inflow.

Coastal features have boosted mining industry for example sand mining along beaches such as
Kasenyi, Lutembe, and Nabugabo on Lake Victoria. In turn, this has boosted the construction
industry.

Bars and spits protect the coast lands against flood and destruction waves. They are able to check
the strength of power of the wave before it approaches the shore.

Bays and headlands have contributed to the development of fishing industry. They provide a
conducive, stable, and quiet environment for fish breeding e.g. at Kasenyi and Majanji on Lake
Victoria.

Beaches are used for recreation purposes. They are often frequented by people who wish to spent
leisure as such hotels have also developed on most beaches e.g. Speke resort Munyonyo.
 Wave depositional and erosional features have boosted research in oceanology and field work e.g.
thousands of students each year flock to the coast of east Africa for study purposes.

DISADVANTAGES

Strong swash currents are characterized by flooding of the shore line and fishing villages e.g. along
Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga.

Depositional of materials like snail shells as led to the spread of diseases like bilharzias along the
coast of east Africa, mud flats and cuspate forelands are also dominated by swamps which are
breeding grounds for mosquitoes which cause diseases.

Waves have been known to carry poisonous snakes onto the shore. This may result into fatal snake
bite e.g. along the coast of Sri Lanka and India where death reportedly from snake bite is very
common. In east Africa along the shores of Lake Kyoga, snake bites are also common during flood
time

Sand bars and stamps below the water level are the major causes of devastating accidents on water.
Boats tend to capsize on heating such submerged onbastcles.

SEA LEVEL CHANGES (EUSTATISM)

This refers to the rise and fall in sea level relative to the land. It can be positive or negative. Positive sea
level change occurs when sea level rises relative to the land or when the land sinks relative to the sea. This
results into submergence of coastal areas, a process other wise termed as marine transgression.

A negative change on the other hand occurs when sea level falls relative to the land or when land rises
relative to the sea. This results into the emergence of coastal areas also termed as marine regression

The rise and fall in the level of the sea is caused by several factors.

CAUSES OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES

1. Glaciations and de-glaciation; when there is climatic change involving a drop in global temperature,
water freezes on high mountains and Polar Regions into large ice masses. This leads to a fall in sea
level. This is what happened during the Pleistocene period that was characterized by a fall in world
temperatures. On the other hand, climatic change involving increase in temperature causes melting
of ice. This releases water back into the ocean basins causing a major rise in sea level. This
happened during periods of warmer that followed Pleistocene.
2. Earth’s movements that involve uplift and down warp also cause a change in sea level. Uplifting
and up warping that occur in sea level coast result into a fall in sea level whereas down warping
results into a rise in sea level.
3. Sedimentation of ocean basins also causes a rise in sea level. Rivers such as Tana, Rufiji deposit
large quantities of alluvium into the sea. This displaces the water gradually leading to a rise in sea
level. Similarly, the water poured into the seas by rivers such as the Nile in the Mediterranean,
Rufigi and Tana in the Indian Ocean lead to a rise in sea level. The growth of other marine
sediments like coral reefs along the coast of east Africa has also led to a rise in sea level.
4. Climatic changes involving periods of draught and rainfall also results into a change in sea level.
During draught there is excessive evaporation that causes a loss of water from rivers, springs, and
ocean basins. This results into a fall in sea level e.g. east Africa has been experiencing draught
conditions for the past 50 years which has reduced the sea level exposing several features which
were formerly submerged.
Heavy rainfall on the other hand leads to an increase in the amount of water draining into seas as
well as ocean basins. Hence it results into a rise in sea level with the associated submergence effect
on coastal areas.

5. Contraction and expansion of ocean basins leads to a change in sea level. Some geologists have
articulated that some tectonic and other sub marine earth movements result into the contraction and
expansion of the ocean basins affecting the sea level. When the ocean basin expands, say during
sea floor spreading it causes a fall in sea level and when it contracts, it causes a rise in sea level
6. Local change in global temperatures is another cause of sea level changes. As global temperatures
rise, it causes melting of ice globally and water is discharged into the ocean basins through rivers.
Rising temperatures are also responsible for heating the water which expands causing a rise in sea
level.
On the other hand, when temperatures drop, water molecules tend to contract. This leads to a
relative drop in the sea level such an occurrence may take place in winter in the mid latitudes.

7. The influence of solar winds also leads to a rise in sea level. As the sun burns, it releases hydrogen
particles (solar winds) into the air. On reaching the ozone layers, the hydrogen particles combine
with oxygen forming water droplets. The water then finds its way into the ocean basin either
directly from the sky or indirectly through springs and rivers. Over a long period of time, the water
accumulates causing a sea level rise.
8. Human activities like construction of sea defenses, dumping sewage and hard core stones into the
sea etc may lead to a rise in sea level.
LAND FORMS/ EFFECTS OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES

Sea level changes result into a number of land forms which are classified into two i.e. land forms of
emergence and land forms of submergence.

LANDFORMS OF SUB MERGENCE

These are due to drowning of coastal areas following a rise in sea level. A rise in sea level may be caused
by;

-Deglaciation i.e. melting of glaciers

-Earth movements involving down warp of the land relative to the sea

-Contraction of the ocean basins

-Volcanic activity occurring on the floor of the ocean

-Sedimentation of ocean basins which displace water upwards

-Increased rainfall

-Human activities that involve dumping of materials in the ocean

-Global warming

-Solar winds

The features formed due to a rise in sea level/submergence include Rias, fiords, Dalmatian coast sounds,
estuaries, creeks, peninsulas, mud flats and swamps.

Rias; is a submerged river valley in a highland area. It is usually long, narrow, and deep inlet into the coast.
It is funnel shaped and decreases in depth and width landwards.

Rias form on coast lands where hills and rivers meet the sea at right angles. After flooding (or a rise in sea
level), the stream which form the river valley is completely submerged in water to form a Ria. A good
example is Kilindini harbor on which Mombassa port is situated. It was formed as a result of submergence
of the river valley of river Mwachi and river Kembeni.

Structure of a Ria
Dalmatian (longitudinal) coast and sounds; these appear as chains of islands running parallel to the coast.
They form on coasts where ridges and valleys were originally running parallel to the sea before a rise in sea
level. With the rise in sea level, the valleys are flooded while the ridges (highlands) become chains of
islands running parallel to the coast line. The water that invades the valleys and thus separates the mainland
from the off shore longitudinal islands is known as a sound. A good example is on the east African coast of
Pemba islands.

Structure of a Dalmatian coast

An Estuary; these are wide shallow drowned river valleys in low land areas. They have a funnel shape.
When sea level rises, flooding on the river mouth occurs. If it takes place in a low lying area, then estuaries
are formed. Good examples are on the mouth of R. Wami and Rufigi on the coast of east Africa.

illustration
A fiord coast; these are drowned river valleys in glaciated regions. They are characterized by steep sides
and deep water at the head and end to be shallow sea wards. Before a rise in sea level, they appear as deep
river valleys deepened by glacial abrasion. When sea level rises, water submerges the deepened valleys
forming fiords which appear as long indentations. These coasts don’t occur in east Africa but are existence
on the coasts of Sweden, Norway, and Alaska.

illustration

Creeks; these are former sea inlets which have been drowned to form larger inlets at the coast of east Africa
e.g. Mtwara in Tanzania.

Peninsular; this is a piece of highland projecting into the sea. It is formed where highlands occur at right
angles to the coast. When sea level rises, the valleys are submerged leaving the highland projecting into the
sea. A good example is Entebbe peninsular on the shores of Lake Victoria.

salt marshes; These are deposits of fine silt and alluvial materials from drowned rivers following a rise in
sea level. These deposits are usually colonized by vegetation adopted to salty conditions such as the
mangroves along the east African coast. Such deposits may also enclose a mass of water cut off from the
main lake called a lagoon

FEATURES OF EMERGENCE
Raised beaches

Raised cliffs

Raised wave cut plat form

These features are formed after a fall in sea level or when the land near the sea experiences uplift. When
this happens, the features that were initially covered under water are exposed to the surface. These features
include raised beaches, raised cliffs, raised terraces waterfalls, knick points etc.

A fall in level of the sea may be brought about by;

Occurrence of glaciation

Earth movements that involve uplift of land

Expansion of ocean basins

Climatic changes involving drought

Human activities like irrigation

Seasonal changes in temperature e.g. winter season

1. RAISED CLIFFS
As the sea level falls, cliffs which had been in contact with the sea at high tides are gradually left
higher up beyond the tide level. Those cliffs are now found well above the present level of wave
action and are known as raised cliffs. Caves are sometimes revealed along the old cliff lines e.g.
around Mombassa, Bagamoyo, and Kilifi

2. RAISED TERRACES
The fall in sea level also leads to emergence of raised terraces. These are former wave cut platforms
now left high above the sea level. They are therefore, found above the present tide level where a
new terrace is developing.

3. RAISED BEACHES
 When the level of the sea drops, beaches and terraces formerly close to the water are left higher up
on the dry coast. The beaches now have no contact with water since the sea retreats to anew lower
area. They are thus known as raised beaches e.g. at Tanga.

4. WATERFALLS AND PAIRED TERRACES

A fall in sea level may be followed by river rejuvenation. This occurs because the river is forced to
cut deeper in order to reach the new base level. In the process, paired terraces, knick points, gorges,
and waterfalls are formed along river courses.

illustration of the above features of emergence

5. In low land areas when sea level falls, coastal plains and even shore lines are formed. Coastal plains
area low lying region that forms a continuous belt along the coast. When sea level falls, parts of
the continental shelf emerge from the sea forming a coastal plain. Such a plain has no bays or
headland e.g. on the east African coast.

EFFECTS OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Rias have sheltered waters and therefore form good natural harbors which promote port development e.g.
at Mombassa and Dar es Salaam. This has boosted trade in east Africa.

Raised cliffs, terraces and raised beaches attract tourists. Tourists in turn bring foreign exchange to east
African countries.
Sand on the raised beaches is quarried and used as an ingredient in the various construction industries e.g.
at Lutembe and Kasenyi.

Mud flats with their characteristic salty marshes like mangrove have boosted the forestry and craft industry
in east Africa.

Features such as rias, raised beaches, mud flats, and raised terraces are important for study purposes, in
terms of research and field work.

Negatively, mud flats attract vectors like snails and mosquitoes which cause diseases such as malaria and
bilharzias.

Steep raised landscapes such as raised cliffs encourage landslides which are dangerous to humans.

Raised beaches and terraces are associated with poor soils which don’t support agriculture e.g. at Lutembe
and Kasenyi beaches.

CORAL LANDFORMS

Coral landforms/reefs are limestone rock platforms which occur along the coast in east Africa. They are
common along the coast near Mombasa and on the Indian Ocean islands. Coral landforms were formed as
a result of deposition and accumulation of skeletons of tiny marine organisms called coral polyps. Polyps
which live in millions of colonies have outer shells which contain calcium carbonate. When they die, their
softer parts decay but the skeletons drop and accumulate on the continental shelf. These are gradually
compacted, cemented, and compressed into a hard rock known as coral reef.
Other marine organisms like mollusks, echinoderms, and certain cancerous algae help to cement the spaces
between the coral reefs. After millions of years, the reef grows to a very big size.

CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH

Corals grow where there are high temperatures of above 210C or higher. For this reason, coral growth is
confined to tropical and sub-tropical seas between 300N and 300S of the equator and on the eastern side of
continents where warm currents exist.

Corals grow in a water environment. Coral polyps can’t survive for long without water. For this reason,
they are rare above the low tide.

Corals grow where there is salty water. They also require water rich in planktons to act as food for the
polyps.

They survive in clean and clear water which allows sunlight to penetrate to a reasonable depth. This is
because the polyps feed on planktons which require sun light for photosynthesis.

Presence of a continental shell, oceanic ridges and volcanic highlands off the coast on which the corals
grow is also a vital condition for coral formation.

Coral growth takes place in rather shallow water where depth doesn’t exceed 60 meters. Very deep water
doesn’t allow penetration of sunlight for photosynthesis necessary for the growth of planktons.

Coral growth also requires relatively calm and steam water. Instability erodes developing corals and stirs
up dirt from the sea floor which interferes with the sunlight supply. However, gently breaking waves are
good for coral growth because they add plenty of oxygen onto the water on which the polyps depend to live

TYPES OF CORAL REEFS

There are three types of coral reefs and these include fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.

1) Fringing reefs; this is a flattish coral platform attached to the coast and is normally separated from
the coast by a shallow and narrow lagoon. This lagoon may disappear at a low water tide e.g. at
Kilifi in Kenya and at Shanzu beach north of Mombassa.
illustration
2) Barrier reefs; this is a coral platform which forms quite far from the coast and is separated from
the coast by a wide and deep lagoon. Barrier reefs are limited in east Africa because of the limited
continental shelf to provide a shallow platform on which corals grow. A good example is a barrier
reef of Mayote in the Comoro highlands. The largest in the world is the Great Barrier Reef off the
eastern coast of Australia.

3) Atolls; an atoll is a coral reef with a round shape. It forms around a lagoon whose floor is flat or
nearly flat shaped far from the coast. Atolls are sometimes broken by narrow channels (inlets) e.g.
the Aldabara atoll 700km from the east African coast in the Indian Ocean
Illustration
It should be noted that the formation of barrier reefs and atolls presents a puzzle because some of them form
in very deep waters and rise above considerable depth yet at such depth corals would normally not survive
as there is no planktons on which the polyps can feed hence man attempt to understand the mystery, a
number of theories have been suggested i.e. subsidence theory, antecedent theory, and the glacial control
theory.

THE SUBSIDENCE THEORY

This was advanced by Darwin in 1842. According to Darwin, the accumulation of magma around central
openings or vents led to the formation of sub marine volcanic highlands. These islands provided platforms
on which corals grew. As the corals died, their skeletons accumulated on the volcanic platforms and were
eventually compacted, compressed and cemented into a hard rock. The fringing reef was therefore the first
type of coral to form

Barrier reefs and atolls were formed as a result of subsidence of the sub marine volcanic highlands. This
subsidence could have been a result of isostatic readjustment / fall in sea level. As the highlands subsided,
the fringing reef grew upwards and outwards keeping pace with the rate of subsidence and maintaining it
self at sea level. Therefore, fringing reefs developed into barrier reefs and later barrier reefs developed into
atolls as illustrated in the diagrams below.
RELEVANCE OF THE THEORY

The existence of volcanic islands in the Indian Ocean off the east African coast shows that the theory has
strength. It’s on these sub marine volcanic islands that Darwin suggested corals would begin to grow.

The theory is also supported by the fact that some coasts in close proximity to barrier and atoll reefs reveal
evidence of submergence e.g. along the east African coast, there are drowned river valleys forming Rias at
Mombassa and Dar es salaam.

WEAKNESSES OF THE THEORY

The first weakness is that some corals have been found to develop in areas where there is no evidence of
sub mergence at all but instead where uplifting has occurred e.g. on Hawaii island.
Secondly, the theory doesn’t explain why some corals are formed at great depth beyond 60 meters of depth.

The theory doesn’t also adequately explain why in some cases both atolls and fringing reefs appear in the
same group of islands.

ANTECEDENT THEORY

This was propounded by John Murray in 1880. He explained the origin of barrier and atoll reefs in different
ways.

For barrier reefs, he advanced that there was only a fringing reef growing along the coast and separated by
a shallow lagoon. This reef was eroded by waves yielding coral fragments which were gradually deposited
and accumulated on a sea ward sides. So the reef built further and further into the sea. He added that as the
coral built outwards from the fringing reef, the coral on the inner side died due to lack of food. The dead
coral was then dissolved in water to form a deep and wide lagoon hence a barrier reef.

Structure of a barrier reef

As far as atolls are concerned, Murray suggested that sub marine volcanic peaks or accumulation of pelagic
deposits reaching within 60m of sea level existed before the corals. On these platforms, corals begun to
grow more on the outer sea ward side where there was plenty of food. The inner corals therefore lacked
food and died dissolving in water to form a deep and wide lagoon hence atoll reefs.

illustration

Relevance

Recent research has established the existence of pelagic deposits at a depth of 600m on the Mikini islands
in the Indian Ocean. This is in line with what Marry suggested giving credence to his theory.

The other strength of the theory is that most atolls rest on truncated volcanic cones as was suggested by
Marry.

Weaknesses

The first is that coral reefs once formed are so hard and can’t easily be eroded as Mary suggested.

In addition, lagoons formed by barrier and atoll reefs are so deep and wide that they are unlikely to be
formed by dissolving of the corals.

Also the theory doesn’t explain why come corals are found so deep where conditions favoring their
formation don’t exist.

GLACIAL CONTROL THEORY

This was advanced by Daly and was based on changes in sea level. According to the theory, the sea level
lowered considerably during the cold glacial times thus all the pre-glacial islands and reefs were planed
down by marine erosion to the sea level of that time. This then provided platforms for coral growth during
post glacial time.
As temperatures of the sea increased, and hence sea level rose later, corals also grew upwards and outwards
maintaining their positions at sea level. Thus fringing reefs developed into barrier reefs and barrier reefs
finally into atolls as the corals strove to keep pace with the rise in sea level.

Formation of coral reefs from glacial control theory

Strength

The theory is relevant in that it helps to explain the existence of the narrow steep sided reefs which make
up most of the atolls.

Corals grow upwards at a rate of 1 meter in 30 years. Therefore, it is true that they keep pace with the rising
sea level.

We have gone through four ice ages. It is therefore true that the sea level has been rising and falling as
suggested by Daly.

Weaknesses

Old corals are very hard and can’t easily be eroded. Erosion is very slow at a rate of 2mm per year. It is
therefore doubtful that the submarine wave cut platforms which formed new surfaces for coral growth
would have been formed by erosion

Conclusively, all the theories of coral formation have strength and weaknesses in equal measures. Suffice
to say that they have been very helpful in providing a basis for understanding the formation of coral land
forms.

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL LANDFORMS

 1) Fringing reefs may shelter ports from sea waves and tidal currents e.g. Loven and Andromache
reefs at Mombassa and Kitoka reef at Kilifi in Kenya.
2) Coral limestone is a raw material for the manufacture of cement e.g. at Bamburi in Kenya and
Wazo at Tanga in Tanzania. The two factories use coral limestone ass a raw material.
3) The existence of corals along the east African coast is a possible indicator of the presence of
petroleum. The polyps which die have fats which may accumulate into strata of sedimentary rocks.
Therefore, this provides for oil exploitation in east Africa.
4) Corals are quarried to make aggregates and blocks used for house construction. Such houses are
common at Pemba and Zanzibar.
5) Corals are rare and appear in a variety of shapes and colors e.g. sea fan corals, mushroom corals,
soft corals etc. hence they attract tourists increasing foreign exchange inflow into east Africa.
6) The lagoons enclosed by fringing reefs are good avenues for recreational activities such as bathing
and swimming. They also provide a conducive environment for fish breeding boosting the fishing
industry.
7) Corals are weathered down to reproduce soils suitable for tree crops such as coconuts, mangoes,
and cashew nuts. These are widely grown at Zanzibar and Pemba.
8) Coral reefs are used for study and research purposes
9) Corals have also boosted the art craft industry. Corals especially those with hard cores can be
curved to form jewelry.
However, corals may also hinder economic and human activities in the following ways;

1) They weather down into poor shallow soils. This explains why only mangoes, coconuts, and
cashew nuts can reasonably do well in Pemba and Zanzibar characterized by poor coral Wanda
soils.
2) Barrier reefs are a major hindrance to navigation. Under high tide, they are submerged in water
and therefore not easily spotted by sailors. This results into fatal, accidents.
3) Coral growth on the continental shelves interferes with marine fisheries. This is because they
interfere with the movement of the fishing vessels and besides can tear nets.
4) Lagoons enclosed by fringing reefs are sometimes colonized by vegetation and turned into
swamps. These later become habitats for mosquitoes which spread malaria.
 ROCKS /GEOLOGY OF EAST AFRICA
A rock is an aggregate of mineral elements which make up the solid part of the crust. The
mineral elements may include silica, quartz, chlorides, oxides, and carbonates. Rocks
may posses these minerals in combination or as a single mineral e.g. diamond, gold,
copper etc. Apart from their chemical composition, each mineral within a rock exhibits
other properties such as hardness, color, lines of weakness, level of crystallization etc.
which in turn affects the nature of the rocks formed.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Rocks can be classified according to the mode of formation and these include; igneous
rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks are described as fire formed rocks. They are formed as a result of
solidification of molten rocks (magma) either in the interior of the earth or on the surface.
The molten rocks are a product of high temperatures in the interior of the earth that keeps
the mantle in a molten state but under high pressure. When lines of weakness are formed
as a result of earth movements, the pressure is reduced. This forces the molten rock to
rise through the lines of weaknesses to solidify either in the interior or on the surface of
the earth forming igneous rocks. The character of the rocks formed depends on the depth
at which the cooling took place and the chemical composition of the magma.

When magma reaches the earth’s surface, it loses its gaseous content and is called lava.
Once in open air where temperature and pressure are comparatively low, rapid cooling
and solidification of the lava occurs forming volcanic igneous rocks with small crystals
and a fine texture. In some cases, solidification is so rapid that crystallization doesn’t
occur. This results into the formation of glass like rocks such as obsidian. Other examples
of volcanic igneous rocks include basalt, rhyolite and andesite. Examples of these rocks
in east Africa are found around Volcanic Mountains such as Mt. Elgon, Mt Kilimanjaro
and Mt. Kenya.

Sometimes magma doesn’t reach the surface of the earth solidifying at great depth within
the earth crust. The resulting rocks are called Plutonic igneous rocks. The magma
forming these rocks rises for a short distance and then cools very slowly due high
underground temperature. This results into rocks with large crystals or coarse structures.
Examples of these rocks include granite, dolerite, gabbro and peridotite.

Some igneous rocks are formed at positions intermediate or between volcanic and
plutonic rocks. These rocks are called Hypabyssal. They are formed when magma
solidifies at a shallow depth and therefore undergoes immediate cooling. This results into
rocks with medium sized crystals like dolerite and Quartzite.

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Though plutonic and hypabyssal rocks are formed inside the crust they may be later
exposed to the surface by weathering and erosion e.g. the exposed Mubende Batholith
and Inselbergs in North Eastern Uganda.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE DIFFERENT IGNEOUS ROCKS

DEPENDING ON DEPTH

The formation of igneous rocks is also influenced by the chemical composition of the
magma / lava. Magma with high silica content is very acidic and solidifies very quickly
as soon as it is ejected. This results into intrusive (Plutonic) rocks like granite that are
characteristically with large crystals.

Magma with intermediate silica content has a slower rate of cooling compared to that
with high silica content. As a result, the rocks formed i.e. hypabyssal rocks have medium
sized crystals e.g. dolerite.

Basic lava is the one with low silica content. Such lava is fluid and mobile and often
cools rather slowly. It forms rocks such as basalt which may cover extensive areas e.g.
around Kisoro in Uganda and Laikipia in Kenya.

2
Importance of Igneous Rocks
1. Igneous rocks break down to yield fertile volcanic soils capable of supporting the
growing of various crops e.g. coffee, bananas like is the case on slopes of Mt.
Elgon
2. Igneous rocks have formed volcanic highlands e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Elgon
and Mt. Kenya which are sources of rivers that can be used for irrigation.
3. The volcanic highlands from igneous rocks provide favorable conditions for the
growth of montane forests. This has boosted lumbering e.g. on Mt. Elgon.
4. Igneous rocks are made of various minerals which have boosted mining in east
Africa e.g. in Mwadui near Shinyanga in Tanzania, diamond is extracted from
volcanic pipes which are comprised of igneous rocks.
5. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt can be broken down into smaller
aggregates which are used for making concrete during construction e.g. at
Muyenga quarry near Kampala.
6. Several relief features have been formed from igneous rocks e.g. volcanic
mountains, calderas, inselbergs, explosion craters etc. These constitute tourist
attraction features to east African countries hence earning foreign exchange
through tourism.
7. Hot igneous rocks beneath the earth crust have formed hot springs, fumaroles, and
geysers. These have been harnessed to produce geothermal energy e.g. at Olkaria
in the rift valley in Kenya.
8. Some igneous rocks have been intruded along the river courses forming water
falls. These can be harnessed to generate hydro electric power e.g. along river
Sezibwa, there is Sezibwa falls and Bujagali along the river Nile.
9. Impermeable granitic rocks under the ground trap rain water which seeps into the
ground. This acts as a reservoir for under ground water hence a source of spring
water for domestic use in most rural areas.
10. Volcanic highlands have influenced rainfall formation on their wind ward sides
hence promoting agriculture.
11. Volcanic mountains formed from igneous rocks have boosted wild life
conservation and tourism e.g. Mt Elgon National park
12. Igneous rocks provide firm foundations for bridges, dams, and railways e.g. the
Owen falls dam was sited where the underlying rocks are strong and firm
13. Negatively, igneous rocks are formed from violent eruptions which are
destructive to human and plant life as well as property.
14. Igneous rocks form volcanic highlands are prone to landslides which kill people
and destroy crops and settlements e.g. Bududda landslides on Mt. Elgon in 2010.
15. Exposed granitic rocks are a set back to agriculture development as they hinder
machine operations. This is a serious problem in Kabale and Kisoro in Uganda.

3
 16. Igneous rocks have formed massive highlands which have limited transport and
communication networks in areas such as Kabale and Kisoro.
17. Igneous rocks such as granites take long time to weather down to produce mature
soils thus some areas with igneous rocks have thin and poor soils which do not
support agriculture e.g. Turkana land in Kenya.
18. The volcanic highlands which are products of igneous rocks cause rainfall only on
the wind ward side. The opposite side of the mountain is often semi arid limiting
human activities e.g. the North West side of Mt Kilimanjaro.
19. Some igneous rocks are very permeable leading to loss of underground water.
This has resulted into shortage of water in areas like Kisoro in Uganda.
20. Steep slopes of volcanic highlands are prone to soil erosion.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These are rocks built from sediments derived from other rocks types. The weathered
materials are transported by erosional agents like water, ice and wind and are later
deposited in strata (layers) either on flat land or in valleys or under water in seas or
oceans. The sediments when accumulated in an area are squeezed, cemented, and
hardened by pressure of the overlying strata to form sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are characterized by the existence of fossils which are derived from
dead plants and animals. The rocks are also non crystalline and exist in different strata.
Their strata / layers are separated by bedding plains of cementing materials which are
horizontal, gently sloping or steeply inclined.

The formation of sedimentary rocks takes a long period. It starts with weathering of the
already existing rocks by chemical and physical processes. The products of weathering
are then eroded and transported by erosional agents such as ice, wind, water, or waves.
The materials are later deposited in layers, each layer representing a specific generation
of deposition. As more layers are built the weight of the overlying layers compacts and
hardens the layers underneath a process that may take so many years. The laid down
layers are then cemented by calcareous, siliceous and ferruginous materials to eventually
form sedimentary rocks.

4
Diagrammatic summary of formation of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified into three depending on their mode of formation or
origin of sediments. These are mechanically formed, chemically formed and organically
formed.
Mechanically formed
These are derived from agents of erosion like rivers, wind, ice, and waves. These agents
cause erosion on one part of the earth crust, transport and deposit the particles on another.
The deposited materials accumulate and become compact forming rocks which are either
fine textured or coarse. Wind deposition creates a rock known as loess, rivers deposit
alluvium, glacial deposition creates moraines while wave deposition creates spits, bars,
beaches etc. Generally, examples of these rocks include mudstones, clay stones, gravel,
sandstones, boulder clays etc.
Chemically formed
These are formed as a result of chemical precipitation. Original soluble rocks are
dissolved in water or other solvents to form a solution. Later under high temperatures
evaporation occurs leaving evaporates or rock precipitates. Good examples include rock
salt at Lake Katwe, Soda ash from Lake Magadi and gypsum in Garissa in Kenya,
laterites of Iron and Aluminum in Buganda.
Organically formed
These sedimentary rocks are formed from decomposition of remains of living plants and
animals. When animals and plants die their remains may accumulate forming organic
rocks. Good examples include coral limestone which is formed when tiny sea animals
called coral polyps die and their accumulated skeletons are compacted under the sea
forming a rock e.g. at the coast of east Africa.

5
Equally, carbonaceous rocks are formed when plant remains accumulate over a period of
time and are compressed and hardened to form rocks such as coal e.g. in the Ruaha valley
in Tanzania.
Siliceous rocks may be organically formed from remains of animals such as sponges and
radiolaria (a tiny animal whose remains has silica) and plants called diatoms.

Importance of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are collections of various rock materials
hence weather down to produce very fertile soils e.g. alluvium on the Rufiji delta
along swamps, rivers and lakes such as Victoria.
2. Some sedimentary rocks are source of raw materials for industries e.g. coral
limestone is a raw material for the manufacture of cement at Bamburi in Kenya,
Potash is used for making fertilizers, rock salt for the manufacture of common
salt.
3. Sedimentary rocks have boosted the mining sector which contributes to the east
Africa’s economic development e.g. sand mining at the coast of east Africa and at
Kisenyi on the shores of Lake Victoria.
4. Clay which is a form of sedimentary rock has boosted the construction sector. As
it’s a raw material for brick making and tiles e.g. at Kajansi and most swamps in
east Africa.
5. Sedimentary rocks in swamps and along rivers are colonized by hydrophytes
some of which are raw materials for the craft industry e.g. papyrus.
6. Coral reefs at Mombasa, Tanga, Dar-es-Salaam and the coast together with karst
sceneries at Nyakasura in fort portal are tourist attractions.
7. Some sedimentary rocks are sources of medicine as well as food to man and
livestock e.g. rock salt
8. Sedimentary rocks contain fossils which when squeezed for along period of time
produce oil. Oil and natural gas are important sources of fuel. The presence of oil
in the Albertine basin in Uganda is due to the existence of sedimentary rocks in
the region.
9. Lagoons enclosed by coral reefs provide a breeding ground for fish e.g. at
Mombasa.
10. Sedimentary rocks like corals also provide good sheltered harbors hence promote
the shipping industry e.g. at Mombasa
11. Negatively, Sedimentary rocks are made up of very fine materials such as silt and
clay particles. These are not very porous hence are poorly drained. During the
rainy season, they are prone to flooding.
12. Sedimentary rocks like coral reefs are barriers to shipping. Under high tide, they
may be concealed under water and not spotted by sailors. This may result into
devastating accidents.

6
 13. Besides, coral reefs are also a hindrance to fishing as they may tear nets and
obstruct navigation.
14. Some sedimentary rocks like clay are poorly drained and hence are heavily
leached. This makes them infertile for crop cultivation e.g. laterites in Buganda
region.
15. Sedimentary rocks tend to form immature young soils which are unproductive for
agriculture e.g. in the Semiliki valley and the coastal areas of Mombasa.
16. Areas such as swamps that are dominated by sedimentary rocks are breeding
grounds for insect vectors like mosquitoes.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
These are rocks formed from pre-existing rocks igneous or sedimentary after being
subjected to heat or pressure or both. The pressure or heat changes the physical and
chemical characteristics like mineralogy, texture and internal structure of the original
rocks forming metamorphic rocks. Such rocks are generally more compact and harder
than their original rocks and examples include marble from limestone, slate from clay,
gneiss from granite and quartzite from sand.

Metamorphic rocks are classified into two i.e. those from contact/thermal metamorphism
and those from dynamic metamorphism.

Contact / Thermal metamorphism rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks are changed
by great heat but limited pressure. The heat may originate from the interior of the earth
where temperatures are high. This forces the rocks in close proximity to change their
character to metamorphic rocks. Alternatively, some rocks may come into contact with
rising magma and the rocks are melted. Re-crystallization takes place as well as re-
mineralization. The zone where mineral character changes is known as “a metamorphic
aureole” as illustrated in the diagram below.

Diagram illustrating a Metamorphic Aureole

7
Metamorphic rocks due to dynamic metamorphism are formed due to pressure and heat
exerted by earth movements on a large scale (region) to pre-existing rocks. Such earth
movements may be in form of folding produced by compressional forces. When
convergent forces push country rocks from opposite directions towards each other they
experience immense pressure hence change in the nature of their internal structures to
metamorphic rocks e.g. shale may be changed to slate or schist, limestone to marble,
granite to gneiss, sandstone to quartzite etc.
Metamorphism due to both pressure and heat is termed as thermal-dynamic
metamorphism. It is the most effective type of metamorphism that changes rock
characteristics.
Importance of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Metamorphic rocks are always harder than the original rocks. As such they are
quarried to provide aggregates for construction purposes. Besides, marble chips
are used in the decoration of houses while slate can be used for roofing.
2. Minerals such as copper, gold, and diamond often occur in metamorphic rocks.
Thus the rocks have boosted the mining sector in east Africa e.g. the diamonds at
Mwadui in Tanzania, copper at Kilembe and gold in western Kenya.
3. Landforms built by metamorphic rocks like Block Mountains, fault scarps, create
impressive sceneries that attract tourists.
4. The rocks are sources of raw materials for industries e.g. phosphates at Tororo,
are obtained from previously metamorphosed igneous rocks and is a raw material
for making fertilizers.
5. Some of the landforms built by metamorphic rocks such as Mt. Rwenzori have
promoted nature conservation i.e. such areas have been gazetted into game and
forest reserve.

8
6. Metamorphic rocks are generally compact and resistant to erosion. Soils formed
from such rocks are very resistant to erosion.
7. They tend to be hard and compact. As such, they act as natural reservoirs. Man is
able to get water from these rocks through springs or sinking of boreholes.
8. In rural areas, some of the metamorphosed granites are used as grinding stones.
9. Negatively, metamorphic rocks usually result into the formation of poor and
shallow soils. The poor soils are due to the loss of minerals during the process of
formation as well as the long time of exposure to environmental factors like
erosion. The soils are shallow owing to their hardness. A lot of time is needed for
them to be broken down to produce soils.
10. The resistant landforms built by metamorphic rocks such as faults scarps, Block
Mountains, fault guided valleys etc are barriers to transport and communication. It
is very expensive to blast metamorphic rocks if a road is to be constructed. The
result is that some areas remain remote and under developed e.g. Bundibugyo in
Uganda.
11. Landslides are a common occurrence along steeply built metamorphic highlands.
E.g. along Mt. Rwenzori. These are very destructive to life and property.

The summary of all processes leading to the formation of different types of rocks
is contained in the rock cycle which was propounded by James Harton as seen
below.

9
THE ROCK CYCLE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROCKS AND LANDFORMS

OR INLUENCE / EFFECTS OF ROCKS ON LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
Every where on the earth crust, there is a close relationship between rocks and land
forms. Each rock type and structural feature produces its own characteristic landforms
Rock Types and Land Form Development
There are three types of rocks e.g. igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Each of
these types produces different landforms.

Igneous rocks
These are formed from volcanic eruptions. They are of three types i.e. volcanic, hyper-
basal, and plutonic. Since magma solidifies at different levels both intrusive and extrusive
landforms are produced. Intrusive landforms include batholith, Lopolith, Phacolith,
Laccolith, sills, dykes, etc. These may be exposed to the surface by denudation. Extrusive
land forms include composite cones, cumulo domes, basalt domes, ash and cinder cones,
volcanic necks, calderas, explosion craters, geysers, hot springs etc.

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Sedimentary rocks
These are formed through organic, chemical, and mechanical processes.
 Organically formed rocks produce coral reefs like fringing reefs, barrier reefs,
atolls.
 Karst sceneries (limestone features) such as caves, stalactites, stalagmites, clints,
pillars, Uvalas, dolines, and grykes.
 Alluvial features both riverine and lacustrine deposits. River deposition produces
alluvium, flood plains, deltas etc. Wave deposition produces beaches, spits, bars,
cuspate forelands etc.
 Moraine landforms from glacial depositions and fluvial glacial deposition. Glacial
deposition produces erratics, drumlins, and different types of moraine. Fluvial
glacial deposition produces outwash plains, kames and kame terraces.
Metamorphic rocks
These form the basement complex of east Africa. The rocks are over 300million years
old. They include those formed from contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism.
Such rocks have been metamorphosed, folded, faulted, and warped in various degrees.
 Where faulting has occurred, rift valleys, block mountain, escarpments etc have
been formed.
 Cross folding in Ankole has produced arenas
 Granitisation has affected most parts of pre-cambian rocks which have now been
exposed and weathered to form Inselbergs, Peneplanes and tors.
Effects of Rock Structure on Land Form Development
Rock structure is generally used to refer to all the ways in which rocks differ from each
other in their physical and chemical characteristics. These differences can be in form of
color, permeability, hardness, softness, jointing, mineral composition, age, porosity,
faults, folds etc. Due to these difference rocks react differently to endogenic and exogenic
processes. In east Africa, there are many land forms that illustrate the relationship
between lithology (physical characteristics of rocks) and landforms.

1. Rock hardness and softness. Hard rocks are resistant to weathering and erosion and as
a result stand out as residual hills such as Inselberg. An inselberg is an isolated hill that
stands above a level plain. It is formed when erosion removes the top most layer of the
crust exposing the massive resistant granitic intrusion. Examples in East Africa include
Mesasi in Tanzania, Nakasongola and Mubende hills in Uganda, and Maragoli hills in
Kenya.
For diagram refer to intrusive landforms.
If the granitic rocks are less resistant than the surrounding country rocks, the granitic
rocks are eroded to a much lower level leaving behind arenas e.g. Rubanda arena along
Kabale Kisoro road.

11
 Other landforms related to rock hardness and softness includes trenches, ridges.
Volcanic plugs, flat topped hills from erosion of country rocks surrounding sills, Water
falls. Refer to notes on Volcanicity for diagrams and explanation.

2. Existence of alternating hard and soft rocks along the coast has led to the formation of
bays and headlands. A bay is an extension of water into the land. Wave erosional
processes such as hydraulic action, abrasion, and solution eat away softer coastal rocks
resulting into the extension of water into the land hence forming bays.

The area of resistant rocks is not affected in the same hence remains projecting into the
water as a head land. Examples of both can be seen at Kasenyi on the shores of Lake
Victoria.

Structure of a bay and headland

Where hard lateritic rocks (duricrust) overlie softer rocks Mesa and Butte are formed.
These are prominent flat topped tabular hills usually capped with a resistant rock stratum
or duricrust. The duricrust protects the softer rocks underneath from erosion and
weathering while the softer surrounding rocks are eroded to form lowlands. The flat
topped hills are mesa or butte, a mesa being more extensive than a butte e.g. Mutundwe
hills.

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Cuestas are other landforms that illustrate the influence of hard and soft rocks on
landforms. A cuesta is a ridge or upland with a steep slope and a gentle back slope. It is
formed where there are alternating soft and hard rocks that have been tilted and then
subjected to differential erosion. The weaker rocks are worn down leaving more resistant
rocks to form a cuesta with a moderately dipping slope.

3. Rock jointing. Joints in rocks indicate areas of weakness that can be exploited by
weathering and erosion resulting into a number of features such as caves, geos, and blow

13
holes along a coast. A cave is a hole drilled in a cliff face. It is formed as a result of coast
erosional processes of abrasion and hydraulic action which erode a joint on a cliff face.
The process is slow and the joint is gradually widened into a cave. Continued erosion of
the roof of the cave, may result into a depression at the surface of the cliff called a blow
hole.
Refer to coastal geomorphology for diagram
4. Joints/Cracks have influenced the formation of other landforms such as granitic Tors,
cirques and karst sceneries etc.
The existence of faults in rocks has resulted into the formation of fault guided valleys.
Such areas along faults or cracks are always weak and so are easily weathered down to
produce depressions. These depressions in many cases form river valleys e.g. the Aswa
river valley. Refer to diagram in faulting.

The existence of faults in rocks has also facilitated the formation of escarpments. An
escarpment is a steep face that over looks the rift valley. They are formed when faulting
has taken place and one part of the crust slips down in relation to the other. Examples
include Butiaba and Kichwamba in Uganda.

5. Rock solubility has influenced the development of landforms. Soluble limestone rocks
dissolve in weak carbonic acid to form karst landscapes with features such as stalagmites,
dolines, sink holes, pillars, etc. These features are common in east Africa in areas such as
Nyakasura in fort portal, Tanga in Tanzania, and Kilifi in Kenya. Refer to notes on
weathering for explanations and diagrams.

6. Rock permeability also affects landform development. Running water is one of the
main agents of erosion of the landscape. Rocks that allow water to percolate reduce the
rate of run off and hence less erosion. Areas of permeable rocks tend to form uplands e.g.
carbonate rocks forming the Sukulu hills in Tororo, Coral reefs along the coast of East
Africa form raised landforms e.g. at Bamburi and Mombasa.

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 DENUDATION
The term denudation is derived from a Latin word “denudare” which means to strip bare,
uncover or remove. The term includes all processes which work together to wear down
the earth’s surface. It includes the combined effects of weathering, mass wasting, erosion,
and transportation. These processes operate at or near the earth’s surface and are
therefore referred to as sub aerial or exogenic processes. They wear down highlands with
the ultimate goal of creating a uniformly flat landscape.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Weathering is the gradual decay or disintegration of rocks by either chemical or physical
processes and the weathered material (regolith) is left in situ (in one place). Weathering is
generally divided into two types i.e. chemical and physical weathering.

This division of weathering into two types may not imply that these types of weathering
are exclusively independent. There is always inter- dependence as well as
complementarity between these different types. Certain weathering types however,
predominate in certain environmental conditions e.g. physical weathering is dominant in
arid regions while chemical weathering is dominant in humid regions.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING
This is also known as Mechanical Weathering. It involves the mechanical break down of
rocks into smaller particles in situ without change in the chemical composition of the
rock. It is mainly brought about by temperature changes, influence of plants, animals, and
man.
The conditions favouring its occurrence mainly prevail in arid areas and these include
prolonged dry season, high day and low night temperature and hence a large diurnal
temperature range. Arid areas also experience low humidity, low cloud cover, very low
rainfall and scanty vegetation. In east Africa, it’s common in areas such as Karamoja,
Turkana land region, Ankole-Masaka corridor, semiliki, and Albert flats and central
Tanzania.
Physical weathering is accomplished through the following processes: Exfoliation, Block
disintegration, Pressure release, Frost shattering, Granular disintegration, Aridity
shrinkage, Salt crystallization, and biological-physical weathering.
Exfoliation
This is also called insolation or onion weathering. It’s common in arid areas with high
diurnal temperature range. It involves the heating up and expansion of outer rock surfaces
during the day, and the cooling and contraction of the rock layers during night. Repeated
heating and cooling creates internal stress within the top few centimeters of the rock. This
results into cracks on the rock surface. With continued expansion and contraction, the
rock surface peels off leaving behind a smooth landform known as an exfoliation dome.

15
Stages of exfoliation

Good examples of exfoliation domes include Pany Jok rock in Apac in Uganda, Hells
Gate at Naivasha and Mudanda along Nairobi-Mombasa highway in Kenya.
Block Disintegration
This is also brought about by temperature changes and is common in well jointed rocks.
During the day, rocks experience high temperatures and expand. During the night
temperatures fall and rocks contract. The mechanism of contraction and expansion
continues along the joints. Chemical weathering may also take place along the joints
widening them further. When the joints are wide apart, large rectangular shaped blocks
fall apart hence block disintegration. This process results into the formation of granitic
16
tors or inselbergs e.g. Kachumbala Tor in Kumi, Kit Mikai in Kenya and Bismarck rock
in Tanzania.
Block disintegration

Pressure Release
This is a physical weathering process common in igneous and metamorphic rocks
because they were formed under high pressure and heat. It takes place after hitherto or
initially covered rocks are exposed to the surface by denudation processes or human
activities. The release of pressure or exposure to the surface is accompanied by expansion
as the rock adjusts to new conditions. Cracks are then formed on the surface and later
widened by repeated expansion and contraction and chemical weathering along the joints.
The surface layer then peels off in the similar way to exfoliation, a process known as
spalling or sheeting. Examples of pressure release weathering can be seen on the
emerging granite surfaces in Maganjo near Kampala, Nakasongola in Uganda and Iringa
and Mwanza in Tanzania.
Frost Shattering
Frost shattering in the tropics occurs in glaciated areas which rise to an altitude of 4800m
above sea level and areas where temperatures alternate below and above 00C. It is most
effective in rocks which have cracks and joints.

17
During the day, temperatures are warmer and this forces the ice to melt. When ice melts,
the water enters into rock cracks/joints. During the night, temperatures fall below 00C and
the water in the joints/cracks freezes. However, when water freezes, it increases in
volume by about 10% hence it exerts pressure on the walls of the joints/cracks. Repeated
freezing and thawing of ice gradually widens the joints leading to the disintegration of the
rocks into small rock fragments.

Frost shattering is sometimes called congelifraction because it produces block fields of

angular scree called felsenmeer which may cover an extensive area. In east Africa this
process occurs at the tops of mountains Rwenzori, Kenya and Kilimanjaro and has been
partially responsible for the formation of glacial features such as pyramidal peaks,
cirques, arêtes etc.
Granular Disintegration
This is a form of physical weathering which occurs in heterogeneous rocks or rocks
composed of different minerals. As rock minerals have different rates of expansion and
contraction, as the rock is subjected to a rise and fall in temp respectively internal stress
and strains are created between the mineral grains resulting into the crumbling of the
rock. Different rock minerals with different colors also absorb heat and expand at
different rates. This also leads to internal fracturing as the bonds binding the rock
particles are weakened.
Salt Crystallization
In this process, saline water may collect in rock cavities or in pores between rock
particles. As the water evaporates due to high temperatures, salt crystals form and grow

18
in size. When the crystals become larger, they exert pressure on the rock cavities causing
the rock to crumble. In east Africa, this weathering process is common in areas with
carbonates and other salt bearing rocks e.g. around Lakes Nyamununka, Magadi, Katwe,
Natron, Albert etc.
Aridity Shrinkage
This is a physical weathering process in which there is alternate wetting and drying of
porous rocks especially swamp clays. During the wet season, the clays swell because of
absorption of water. As the dry season sets in, evaporation occurs and the rock shrinks
hence disintegration. Evidence of this weathering type is the appearance of cracks during
the dry season on bare compounds and dry swamp beds of seasonal swamps.
Spheroidal weathering
This is common in areas which receive heavy rainfall e.g. around Lake Victoria basin.
Once it rains, the outer layers of rocks absorb water which reacts with the rocks minerals.
In the process the rock surface swells and eventually peels off from the under lying rock
e.g. in limonite rocks.
Biological-physical weathering
This is a physical weathering process in which living organisms break rocks physically.
Tree roots growing in rock joints and spaces between rock particles widen the joints and
spaces eventually causing the rocks to disintegrate. Also animal hooves walking on the
rocks, burrowing animals such as rabbits and rats and human activities like agriculture,
mining, quarrying and road construction also cause rocks to disintegrate physically.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
This is the gradual disintegration of rocks insitu by chemical processes brought about by
the reaction between atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen in
solution and rocks mineral elements resulting into changes in the chemical composition
of the rock.
Chemical reactions usually take place on the exposed surfaces of the rock but may also
take place inside the rocks if water can enter through pores and joints.

This type of weathering is common in humid regions which are characterized by high
temperatures and high humidity, thick cloud cover and heavy rainfall. These areas in east
Africa include the Lake Victoria basin, Kigezi highlands, Kenya highlands, Southern
Tanzania and the coastal areas of Kenya and Tanzania as well as slopes of mountains
such as Rwenzori, Kenya, and Kilimanjaro. Chemical weathering is accomplished
through the following processes: Hydration, carbonation, oxidation, hydrolysis,
reduction, solution and organic-chemical weathering
Hydration
This is a chemical process of weathering in which rocks absorb water, expand and after
getting softened, are broken down into new compounds. It is a simple process involving

19
less fundamental chemical changes in the rock. When the bi- product is heated, the
reactions are easily reversible. The commonest examples include the changing of
hematite rock to limonite.
The other example is the formation of gypsium. When calcium sulphate absorbs water, it
gives rise to gypsum.
Hydration is very common in east Africa e.g. gypsium is found in Garisa and Wajir in
Kenya and Bundibugyo in Uganda.
Carbonation
This is a chemical weathering process in which carbon dioxide ions react with the rock
elements to break down the rock. Carbon dioxide in the air combines with rain water to
form a weak carbonic acid. When the acid comes into contact with limestone or dolomite
rocks (magnesium oxide), they are changed to soluble calcium bi-carbonate and carried
away in solution.
This type of weathering is common in limestone areas such as Kilifi in Kenya, Tanga in
Tanzania, and Fort Portal in Uganda. It leads to the formation of karst scenery features
such as solution lakes, caves, stalactites, stalagmites etc.
Hydrolysis
This is a chemical reaction in which hydrogen in solution reacts with rock minerals to
give rise to different chemical compounds. It is common in feldspars (minerals
commonly found in igneous rocks) where it gives rise to sand, silicic acid, and kaolin
clay. Feldspar reacts with hydrogen ions in water to produce a hydroxide and almino
silicic acid. This is followed by another reaction in which the hydroxide reacts with
carbon dioxide to form a potassium carbonate in solution. The almino silicic acids
decompose further to form silica and residual clay as the final products.
Hydrolysis is common in the broad valleys of Buganda, Bukoba in Tanzania, Kajansi in
Uganda etc.

Oxidation
This is a chemical weathering process that involves the addition of oxygen to minerals of
Ferro magnesium rocks such as iron, magnesium, and aluminum. Oxidation takes place
when rocks are exposed to oxygen in water. It usually results into the change of color of
the original rock. Good example is the oxidation of ferrous oxide which is grey or blue to
ferric oxide which is reddish brown.
Oxidation is also responsible for the formation of lateritic soils. These occur especially in
tropical latitude where high rainfall and temperature cause rapid chemical weathering.
Clay is produced which breaks further into silica and oxides of iron and aluminum. Silica
is then leached leaving behind oxides of iron and aluminum. It is the concentration of
these oxides that gives the soil the deep red appearance e.g. on Buganda hills.

20
Reduction
This is the reverse of oxidation. It’s a chemical weathering process in which oxygen ions
are removed and hydrogen ions are added onto the rocks. The reddish color of ferric
oxide is chemically reduced to give a grey or grey-blue appearance of ferrous oxide. This
form of weathering is common in areas that are waterlogged such as lowlands, swamps,
lake shores and along rivers.
Solution
This is a process of chemical weathering where water dissolves soluble materials which
are carried away in solution. A good example is calcium carbonate and calcium chloride
which dissolve when mixed with water and are carried away in solution. This type of
weathering is common in limestone areas such as Tanga in Tanzania, Kilifi on Kenyan
coast and Nyakasura in Fort portal.
Organic Chemical Weathering
As vegetation decomposes into organic matter, it releases organic acids such as humic
acids which contain elements such as calcium, magnesium and iron which enhance
chemical breakdown of rocks. The action of bacteria and respiration of plant roots
increases carbon dioxide levels which accelerate carbonation and solution process. Plants
such as mosses, algae retain water on the surface of the rock helping to enhance chemical
weathering.
Although these processes of chemical weathering are discussed separately, they are
Inter-dependent, i.e. in any chemical process of weathering there are a number of other
chemical weathering processes taking place as well.

FACTORS LEADING TO (CONDITIONS INFLUENCING) WEATHERING OF

ROCKS
These include climate, relief, parent rock, living organisms and time; these factors
generally influence the type and rate of weathering,
Climate
This operates through its elements such as rainfall and temperature. Higher amounts of
rainfall between 1500-2000mm with high temperatures between 21-270C like those
experienced in Lake Victoria and coastal regions of E. Africa, promote rapid chemical
weathering through processes like hydration, hydrolysis solution, and oxidation.
Weathering can go further than 400 meters deep. Equatorial climate also limits physical
weathering due to the formation of thick layers of chemically weathered material that
protects the underlying layers.

Tropical climate is characterized by high temperature and seasonal rainfall. The

alternating wet and dry seasons alternate the occurrence of both physical and chemical
weathering processes. During the dry season, physical weathering is active and during the
wet season chemical weathering processes are dominant.

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Arid and semi arid areas are characterized by high day temperatures and low night
temperatures, low rainfall, low humidity, and low cloud cover. These conditions are
favorable to physical weathering processes like exfoliation, block disintegration, and
granular disintegration. The alternate expansion and contraction speeds up rock
disintegration resulting into features like exfoliation domes, granitic tors and screes
common in arid areas like Chalbi desert in Kenya and Nakasongola in Uganda.

Montane climate characterized by very low temperature some times dropping below 00C,
leads to a physical weathering process called frost shattering. During a warm period, ice
melts and water enters into rock joints and therefore expands in volume. As it expands, it
exerts pressure on the walls of the joints eventually leading to rock disintegration.
High rainfall and high temperature also influence weathering through their effects on
vegetation and animals where flora and fauna are abundant, both physical and chemical
weathering processes are faster.
Relief
This refers to the nature of the land. It can be flat, rugged or mountainous. The role of
relief in weathering is mainly indirect.

On the wind ward side of high mountains, moist conditions exist because of relief
rainfall. Therefore, there is predominance of chemical weathering. On the lee ward side,
there is very little rainfall and physical weathering process like exfoliation, pressure
release, and block disintegration are dorminant.

High mountains of Kilimanjaro, Rwenzori, and Kenya which rise to over 4800m above
sea level have ice capped peaks. This has promoted frost shattering as a physical
weathering process.

On steep slopes weathered layers are rapidly removed and the under lying rocks are
exposed to further physical weathering. However, chemical weathering is limited on the
steep slopes due to rapid runoff which reduces water medium for chemical reactions.

Gentle slopes and flat landscapes have a high water retention capacity. The presence of
water along these slopes accelerates chemical weathering through processes like
hydration solution and hydrolysis. However, physical weathering is inhibited along gentle
slopes due to the accumulation of soils and thick vegetation.

Valleys with their characteristic impeded (poor) drainage experience mainly chemical
weathering through processes like reduction and hydrolysis. The processes are rather

22
slow owing to permanent saturation under water in the valleys. Physical weathering
mainly occurs through aridity shrinkage.

Nature of the parent rock

The parent rock refers to the original rock that is broken down to form smaller rock
fragments. Rocks influence weathering mainly through their structural differences. Rocks
with different minerals react to weathering agents differently e.g. granite which is made
up of silica is very resistant to weathering than gabbro/mica. Rocks with iron compounds
such as hematite easily break down by oxidation and hydration to limonite.

Aspects like rock jointing, faults/cracks on rocks accelerate movement of water into
rocks hence an avenue for rapid chemical weathering processes such as hydration,
solution, hydrolysis, and carbonation e.g. in limestone areas such as Nyakasura in fort
portal. Jointed rocks also facilitate physical weathering processes such as frost shattering
and block disintegration. The presence of joints also facilitates penetration of plant roots
leading to physical and chemical break down of rocks.

The rock color also influences weathering. Dark colored rocks like granite are weathered
faster by physical means other than light rocks like obsidian. When subjected to
temperature changes, dark colored rocks absorb heat expand and contract more easily. As
a result, they are broken down by physical weathering processes such as exfoliation,
block disintegration, and granular disintegration. On the other hand, bright and shinny
rocks such as obsidian reflect much of the heat and so take long to be heated. As such
they are resistant to physical weathering.

Different rock types also react to weathering processes differently. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks when exposed to weathering processes are highly affected by
chemical weathering because they were formed under high temperature and pressure
different from the conditions on the earth’s surface. Hydration and hydrolysis break them
down easily. Sedimentary rocks on the other hand tend to be stable more than igneous
and metamorphic rocks which slow down the rate of weathering.
Living things
These include both plants and animals. Plants aid physical weathering as rocks
disintegrate under the pressure of their growing roots. Plant roots also cause chemical
weathering as they add chemicals like nitric acid, humic acid as well as gases like
ammonia and carbon dioxide to the soil. Plant roots also increase spaces in rocks through
which water penetrates to cause chemical decomposition. Other plant types like lichens,
algae, mosses cling on the rock surfaces where they retain moisture hence activating
chemical weathering.

23
Animals contribute to physical weathering in many ways. Hooves of larger animals such
as cattle, buffaloes, elephants etc break down rocks when they step on them. Smaller
animals like termites, earthworms, rodents, ants also break rocks physically by their
burrowing activities. Decaying animals release acids such as urea, ammonia, lactic acids
which react with rocks to cause chemical weathering. Bacteria and other soil organisms
increase chemical activities through nitrogen fixation and release of carbon dioxide.

Human activities such as construction, agriculture, mining etc can accelerate physical
weathering as they involve physical break down of rocks. Man can also add fertilizers
onto his fields and the reaction between some of these inorganic fertilizers and rock
minerals brings about chemical weathering. Man can also expose rocks to further
weathering processes by clearing vegetation cover.

Organisms influence the rate of weathering mainly through the number of organisms or
biomass. In humid tropics, weathering is faster partly due to greater amount of biomass
Time
This is significant in weathering because the longer the time weathering processes have
been in operation, the deeper the weathering and the shorter the time, the lesser the
degree of weathering.

WEATHERING IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENTS

Different weathering processes pre-dominate in different climatic environments.
Weathering under equatorial climate
Equatorial regions are characterized by heavy rainfall of over 1500mm per year, high
temperatures over 27o C, high humidity, low diurnal and annual temperature ranges.
These conditions give rise to the predominance of deep chemical weathering. Chemical
weathering here is manifested though hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation,
solution, reduction and organic activities.
Hydrolysis attacks most rock minerals. Quartz, being the most resistant is broken down
by chemical weathering. Minerals such as Mica and feldspar in granite are attacked by
hydrolysis to form new compounds like clay iron and aluminum. The iron and aluminum
compounds then combine with oxygen through oxidation to form laterites (from iron and
bauxite). In valleys and water logged areas, de-oxygenation takes place resulting into
reduction weathering which forms gleyed soils (grey or bluish in color).

Limestone areas under equatorial climate are affected by carbonation to form karst
topography as in coastal Kenya and fort portal in Uganda. Where solution pits, sink
holes, dolines, stalactites, and stalagmites have been formed, soluble salts like rock salt
are dissolved and carried away in rock solution.

24
Heavy biomass presence also facilitates the occurrence of both physical and chemical
weathering.

Chemical weathering in equatorial regions produce features like rock extracts, colloidal
materials, suspensions, oxides of iron and aluminum, clay minerals and unweathered
residues of quartz to make sand.

Weathering under Tropical Climate

Tropical climates are characterized by rainfall totals between 750 and 1500 mm. This
rainfall is concentrated in rainy season of about 3-7 months and the rest of the year
remains dry.
During the rainy season, conditions are approximate to those of equatorial climate. As
such, chemical weathering through hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, solution, and
reduction pre-dominate. Due to loss of vegetation cover, both runoff and percolation of
water are high causing leaching of products of chemical weathering especially iron and
aluminum oxides. These oxides dry out during dry season to form lateritic duricrust.
Hydrolysis in granites produces clay e.g. in Gulu, Amolatar, Lira, and Awoja in Soroti

Physical weathering is active during dry season. Exfoliation through temperature changes
is common. Aridity shrinkage is also an important weathering process together with
colloidal plucking especially in areas of limonite and Hematite. Granular disintegration
mainly takes place in granite through differential expansion and contraction. In the drier
tropics, salty solutions accumulate in the rock cavities where salt crystals begin to form
and grow until the rock is disintegrated by salt crystallization. Intrusive granite may also
be exposed by the force of denudation to be attacked by pressure release to cause
spawling.
Tropical regions also allow a wide range of game animals to survive. That is why most
game parks are found in savannah regions. The animals can break the rocks by trampling
on them. There are also small animals like rats, rabbits etc that break rocks. Through
human activities like construction, quarrying etc, rocks can physically break down.

Weathering in Arid and Semi Arid Areas

Deserts and semi arid deserts are characterized by low rainfall (less than 750 mm), high
rates of evaporation, large diurnal and seasonal changes of temperature and cloudless
skies. Vegetation cover is either absent or very limited due to little rainfall. As a result of
the above conditions, physical weathering dominates in arid and semi arid areas.

Exfoliation through temperature changes is very pronounced. Granular disintegration of

granites is also common through differential expansion and contraction of rock. Salt

25
crystallization also occurs and not only affects granites but also dolomite and limestone
both of which are reduced to dust and sand. Salt solutions rising through rocks by
capillary action become concentrated as some of the water is lost through evaporation.
Salt crystals grow between rock particles and eventually the rock crumbles.

However, even in arid and semi arid areas there is an appreciable amount of moisture that
brings about chemical weathering. There are sporadic showers, night dews and other
sources of moisture to enhance chemical processes like hydration which causes changes
in the structure of the rock causing them to swell and disintegrate.
Hydrolysis through cation exchange causes the formation of clays while oxidation forms
reddish black minerals common in desert environment. Desert limestone is affected by
carbonation to produce dust while solution dissolves soluble salts and are brought and
deposited at the surface by capillary action as in salinization and calcification.

Animals like donkeys, camels etc are also common in dry areas and hence promote
physical break down of rocks.

INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL

WEATHERING
Physical and chemical weathering processes are interdependent and complementary i.e.
they usually aid each other and take place together. However, each type is predominant in
a particular environment.
Ways through which physical weathering aids chemical weathering:
1. Physical weathering involves expansion and contraction of rocks which leads to the
creation of cracks and joints. The presence of joints and cracks allows deeper penetration
of water into the rock which enhances chemical weathering processes such as hydrolysis,
oxidation, hydration and carbonation.
2. Frost shattering in areas of 4800m above sea level opens and widens rocks through
which dissolved carbon dioxide penetrates to cause carbonation. In addition, the presence
of water in rock joints in those areas promotes chemical weathering processes such as
hydration, hydrolysis etc
3. Animals such as worms, rodents are good agents of physical weathering. They break
rocks by drilling holes into rocks which allow water penetration to aid chemical
weathering processes such as hydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation. These animals as they
burrow into the soil release carbon dioxide which when dissolved in soil water promote
carbonation weathering.
4. Human activities such as road construction, agriculture, mining and quarrying result
into physical breakdown of rocks and exposure of new rocks to the surface. This
increases the surface area for chemical weathering to take place through processes like
hydration, oxidation, and reduction.

26
5. Roots of plants and hooves of animals create cracks on rocks which increases
permeability of the rock resulting into more chemical weathering processes. Plant roots
also produce carbon dioxide which may be dissolved in soil water to cause carbonation
weathering.
Ways through which Chemical weathering aids physical weathering:
1. Chemical weathering processes such as hydration which involve the absorption of
water by the rock makes the rocks to expand. Such rocks easily undergo physical
weathering due to high temperature which causes evaporation of water and the resultant
contraction. This results into aridity shrinkage and granular disintegration which are
physical weathering processes.
2. Chemical weathering processes such as hydrolysis, hydration, carbonation etc change
the molecular structure of rocks. The rocks’ internal bonds are weakened and generally
the rocks become soft. This facilitates physical weathering processes like frost shattering
and exfoliation.
3. Salts such as sulphates, chlorides, carbonates which are a result of chemical processes
may crystallize in rock cavities between rock particles exerting pressure which causes
physical disintegration
4. Presence of thick vegetation with a network of roots aids physical disintegration of
rocks. However, when vegetation dies, it decomposes into organic matter which enhances
vegetation growth which eventually increase root action as a form of physical
disintegration.

In conclusion, physical and chemical weathering processes don’t work in isolation

although a certain weathering type may predominate in certain environmental conditions.
In all cases one is aided by the other hence complementary to each other.

LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WEATHERING

There are two types of weathering i.e. chemical and physical weathering. Each of these
types of weathering produces distinct landforms.
Chemical Weathering
This is a weathering process in which rocks are broken down as a result of the reaction
between atmospheric gases in solution water with the rocks’ mineral elements. It results
into changes in the chemical nature of the rocks and is common in humid areas. It is
accomplished through hydrolysis, oxidation, solution, reduction etc. Chemical weathering
results into a number of features.

1. In limestone areas, carbonation and solution processes have led to the formation of
karst landscapes with features such as stalactites, stalagmites, pillars, dolines, limestone
pavements, sinkholes etc. When it rains, water mixes with carbon dioxide gas to form a

27
weak solution of carbonic acid. The acid dissolves limestone rocks resulting into the
formation of several of the features mentioned above.
Caves
These are natural underground chambers in limestone rock areas usually joined to the
land surface by a system of inter-connected shafts and pillars. They are formed due to the
dissolving away of limestone rock through carbonation and solution weathering.
Sometimes, mechanical erosion by underground streams as well as rock collapse may
also produce empty cavities hence the formation of caves e.g. at Nyakasura in Fort Portal.
Stalactites
This is a column of calcium carbonate hanging from the roof of a limestone cave. They
are formed when carbonic acid dissolves limestone rock in a cave and the solution starts
dripping from the roof to the floor of the cave. When the water evaporates, dripping
stops, leaving behind protrusions on top of the cave. These harden to form stalactites.
Examples are found at Nyakasura in Uganda where they are termed as “Mabere Ganyina
Mwiru” and Tanga in Tanzania.
Stalagmites
These are whitish or grey protrusions on the base of a cave in limestone regions. They are
formed from accumulation of dripping limestone in solution after the process of solution
weathering. When water evaporates from the dissolved limestone, it leaves behind a dry
and compact mass of limestone which hangs from the base of the cave called a stalagmite
e.g. at Nyakasura.
Pillars
These are vertical stands of calcium carbonate which form after the stalactite and
stalagmite grow and converge to form a stand or pillar e.g. at Tanga and Nyakasura

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Sink Holes / Swallow Holes
This is a deep hole with nearly vertical sides leading into an underground cave. Through
the process of carbonation and solution, limestones from the surface up to the cave may
be dissolved and removed in solution to leave behind deep holes which penetrate into the
cave. Alternatively, they are formed due to sub surface collapse.
Dry Valley
This is a valley with no permanent stream and often with steep sides. Rivers disappear
underground through the sink hole on entering a limestone region and re-appear on the
surface at the junction of the limestone rock and impermeable underground rocks. The
resulting surface valley is the one termed as a dry valley e.g. on River Molopo in South
Africa.

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Limestone Gorge
This is a deep narrow steep sided valley which is formed when the roof of an
underground cave collapses. Sometimes it forms when a river cuts across and down into a
limestone region e.g. the cave of river Manambolo in Central Madagascar.

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Dolines
These are shallow depressions or hollows with gently slopping sides generally circular or
oval in shape. They are formed at the intersection of major joints where there is
concentration of chemical reactions which quickly dissolves limestone rocks to form
small basins.

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Limestone Pavements
This is a bare rock surface which is criss-crossed by many grooves where differential
solution weathering has worked along the joints. The relatively resistant limestone forms
flat topped ridges called clints while the less resistant limestone forms hollows called
grykes.
Illustration

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Uvala
This is a large depression intermediate in size between a doline and a polje. They are
formed when dolines are enlarged or joined due to the solvent action of carbonic acid on
limestone rocks e.g. at Nyakasura.
Polje
This is a shallow but very large steep sided depression with a generally flat bottom. It
covers hundreds of square kilometers. They are formed when Uvalas or dolines are
enlarged and joined by solution weathering. Polje may get filled up with water to form
Solution lakes.
Importance of Karst landscapes in EA.
 They form unique features that attract tourists earning foreign exchange to east
African countries.
 Limestone rocks when metamorphosed turn into marble which is used for
decoration purposes.
 Limestone is used in the manufacturer of cement which is used for construction
purposes.
 Limestone is used as an agent in the steel and iron industry for separating iron
from other impurities.
 Thin soils which are associated with limestone rocks support the growth of short
grass which is used for grazing animals.
 Negatively it beaks down to form poor soils that are unsuitable for arable farming.
 Limestone rocks may form steep slopes which may lead to land slides.
 They are very permeable rocks and leads to loss of surface drainage resulting into
occasional water shortages.
2. Oxidation process results into the formation of lateritic soils through the oxidation of
iron and aluminum.
3. Hydrolysis results into the formation of residual clays.

Physical Weathering
This is the disintegration of rocks by physical means. It’s brought about mainly by
temperature changes, influence of plants, animals and man. It’s accomplished through
processes like exfoliation, block disintegration, pressure release, granular disintegration,
etc. It is responsible for the formation of various land forms.

Exfoliation domes
These are smooth and round toped hills formed due to alternating high day and low night
temperatures. During the day, rock surfaces expand and contract at night when
temperatures drop. Repeated expansion and contraction results into the peeling off of
outer surfaces of the rock leaving behind an exfoliation dome. These features are
common in arid areas like Chalbi desert.

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Castellated Tors
These are pillars of rounded weathered boulders rooted in the bed rock. They are formed
through the physical weathering process of block disintegration in rocks that have vertical
and horizontal joints. Through repeated expansion and contraction during the day when
temperatures are high and nights when the temperatures are low, joints are enlarged and
pieces of blocks fall off leaving upstanding pillars called Tors. A good example is
Kachumbala Tor in Kumi district.
Inselberg
These are masses of hard and resistant rock which are exposed to the surface due to
weathering and removal of surface layers. Examples are found at Mubende, Nakasongola,
Moroto etc. Refer to vulcanicity.
Arenas
These are large circular depressions on the earth surface. They are formed in areas with
alternating hard and soft rocks. The soft rocks are attacked by weathering and erosion
leading to the formation of basins while the resistant rocks stand prominently around the
basins e.g. in Ntungamo and Mbarara.
Rock Pedestals
These are tower like structures of various sizes standing prominently on a flat landscape
in desert or arid areas. They are formed where a mass of rock is composed of alternating
hard and soft rocks. The soft rocks are attacked by abrasion and physical weathering and
shaped into a tower like structure. A good example is the Devils Rock in Niger.

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IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING
Weathering has resulted in to the formation of touristic attraction features such as caves,
stalactites, and stalagmites, limestone pavements, inselbergs etc.

It has resulted into the formation of minerals like clay at Kajansi hence encouraging
construction industry through brick and tile making. In the same way it has boosted
mining by exposing underground ores e.g. at Mwandui in Tanzania

Exposed granitic rocks have been quarried to provide aggregates for construction e.g.
Nakasongola rocks was quarried for the construction of Gulu–Kampala Highway.

Weathering is the first and very important process in soil formation. Volcanic lavas have
weathered down to produce very fertile soils in east Africa e.g. at the slopes of Mt. Elgon,
Kenya, and Tanzania that supports cultivation.

Exfoliated slabs can be curved to provide grinding stones.

Negatively, weathering on steep slopes leaves behind loosened rock materials that are
prone to erosion by running water. This has increased erosion of soil on slopes of Mt.
Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and in Kigezi.

Weathering in limestone areas such as Tanga in Tanzania, Nyakasura in Uganda, and

Kilifi in Kenya has left behind a rugged terrain of clints, caves, and grykes. These have
limited cultivation and settlement.

Inselbergs pose a problem towards road construction. They need blasting before a road
can be constructed and this is very expensive.
Physical weathering results into the cracking of buildings and their eventual collapse.
This increases costs of construction.

Weathering in other areas has resulted into the formation of very hard infertile soils e.g.
lateritic soils in Buganda.

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SLOPES AND SURFACES / LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT
Most of the land surface is made up of slopes which are generally convex in their upper
parts, concave in the lower valley floors and to the level of the sea at their ultimate depth.
Only a very small part of the land can be said to be truly flat vertically or horizontally.
The development of landscapes has been explained by several theories and these include
peneplanation, pediplanation and etchplanation.
PENEPLANATION
This was propounded by William Morris Davis and is sometimes referred to as the
Davisian cycle of erosion, geomorphic/erosion cycle or slope decline. Generally, the
theory explains the modification of the physical landscape as a result of the action of
natural agencies in an orderly progressive sequence starting from the uplift of the land
into upland to an ultimate low, almost featureless plain.

According to Davis, landscapes / landforms develop through a progressive sequence of

stages i.e. the youthful stage, mature stage, old stage and rejuvenation all again. The
cycle begins with the uplift of the land leading to building of highlands/uplands. These
uplands become the youthful stage and can be due to earth movements like faulting,
folding, warping and Volcanicity.

The uplift has to be simple and fast enough that it does not experience significant erosion
during this phase. The uplifted land then undergoes a cycle of erosion by rivers, snow,
wind, running water, wind and weathering processes. Rivers in the uplifted slopes
quickly erode and deepen the valleys, erosion decreases and slopes and valleys become
gentler. Lateral erosion is more dominant and valleys now more V-open become broader
and broader. This is the mature stage.

As the relief becomes relatively flat due to constant cutting down flood plains begin to
form. This is then the old stage where materials eroded from the youthful and mature
stages are deposited. Deposition results into meandering of rivers as the relief becomes
flattened. A lowland finally develops which Davis termed as peneplain.

When a peneplain stage is achieved uplift occurs so that the cycle starts again. This Davis
referred to as a return to a level or point of origin.

In conclusion Davis’ cycle points out to the value of structure, process and stage/time in
landform evolution.

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROCK STRUCTURE AND SLOPE
FORMATION
Hard rocks are more resistant to erosion than soft rocks hence form upland areas with
convex or waxing slopes on top. Examples of such hard rocks include quartzite, granites
and gabbro.

Below the waxing slope is the free face which is very steeply sloping. This is due to
erosion, weathering and mass movement.

Down the free face is the constant or straight/even slope that is gently sloping resulting
from uniform weathering/erosion of hard or soft rocks and deposition from the free face.

Soft rocks like clay and shale form lowlands that are deeply weathered or eroded to form
concave slopes or waning slopes. Such slopes may also result from deposition from the
upper slopes.
Illustration

37
Sample questions
1. “Landform evolution is a result of complex processes” with reference to examples
from east Africa illustrate this statement.
2. “Land form evolution is a result of structure process and time” Discuss
3. a) Using the Davisian cycle of erosion concept, examine land scape development in
east Africa.
b) Examine the relationship between rock hardness and slope formation.
4. Describe the processes of chemical weathering taking place in humid areas of east
Africa.
5. (a) With specific examples, examine the dominant processes of denudation in the
savannah regions of east Africa.
b) To what extent have the features resulting from the processes above influenced human
activities?
6. Examine the influence of climate on the processes of physical and chemical processes?
7 (a). Draw a sketch map of east Africa and on it mark and label semi arid areas.
(b) Examine the weathering processes taking place in the labeled semi arid areas
8(a) Discuss the processes of chemical weathering.
(b) Giving specific examples, describe the effects of chemical weathering on the
economic geography of either Uganda or Kenya.
9. With reference to the equatorial regions of east Africa examine the view that chemical
and physical weathering processes are interdependent and complimentary.
10.” Climate is by far the most important factor determining /influencing the weathering
of rocks”. Discuss

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MASS WASTING
This is also called mass movement and it describes the bulk movement of weathered
materials (regolith) down slope under the direct influence of gravity. It includes the
various forms of creeping, flowing, sliding or falling of the weathered materials from
higher to lower slopes due to the pull of gravity. Gravity plays its role when the materials
over come their initial resistance to movement. Rain water helps to overcome this
resistance as it not only increases the weight but also acts as a lubricant between the slope
and the weathered materials.
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
There are various ways in which weathered materials move down the slope under gravity.
They are broadly divided into two;
 Slow movements
 Rapid movements
Slow movements
These processes are very slow and are only discernible over a long period of observation.
Under this, there are processes such as Soil creep, Talus creep and Solifluction.
Soil creep.
This is the commonest and wide spread. It’s a slow movement of fine rock materials and
soil down a hill. It takes place on slopes of angles as low as 50 or less. It is facilitated by
rain water that contributes to soil saturation and lubricates the slope, heating and cooling
of the soil, burrowing of animals and trampling of grazing animals. The presence of soil
creep can be detected by such phenomena such as trees telephone / electric poles and
walls that lean down slope. Soil creep also create terrace like features called terracettes
on hill slopes. These features are common in Shema district and Kajara county in
Bushenyi District.

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ILLUSTRATION OF SOIL CREEP

Talus creep
It’s the movement of angular rock debris of different sizes on moderate slopes. The talus
in cold areas comes from frost shattering which tears out rock particles from the rocks.
Under the influence of gravity and melt water, earthquakes and moving heavy objects,
the talus begins to move en-masse along the [Link] on the slopes of Mt. Rwenzori and
Mt. Kilimanjaro.

40
Solifluction
This is a form of mass wasting common in glaciated environments which are prone to
freezing and thawing. During the cold period, the bed rock and the regolith are frozen. As
temperatures rise during the warm period, the surface layer melts while the under ground
layer remains frozen. The existence of a frozen layer underneath prevents the infiltration
of water thus any top soil and surface rock debris becomes saturated. The saturated
materials may then flow down slope as an active layer to produce solifluction lobes in
valleys at the foot of mountains. In east Africa, this form of mass wasting is common in
mountainous areas such as Rwenzori and Mount Kenya.

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RAPID MOVEMENT PROCESSES/ LANDSLIDES
These are generally called land slides. Land slides are defined as sudden and rapid
movements of rock and soil debris down the slope under the influence of gravity. The
major types of land slides include: earth flows, mud flows, slumping, rock slide, and rock
fall. In east Africa, land slides are common in high land areas such as Kigezi high lands,
mountains Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro, Elgon, Kenya and Usambara. Other areas include
Bundibugyo, Bududa, Bulambuli and Kapchorwa in Uganda, Kenya highlands and the
southern highlands of Tanzania. The types of landslides are elaborated below:
Earth flows
This is a rapid down slope movement of water saturated regolith on moderate slopes. It
takes place on slope angles between 50-150, at a rather slow rate. It’s estimated that it
takes place at a rate varying between one and 15km per year. When it rains, slope
materials may be soaked, albeit in a small amount of water and are saturated. The
presence of water in the material increases not only the weight but also lubricates the
slopes. A sudden movement of material takes place producing short flow trucks and small
bulging lobes or turns at the feet of the slope.
Mud flow
This is a rapid movement of saturated soils mainly clay mixed with unconsolidated gravel
and boulders occurring on steep slopes. When it rains, the materials absorb water,
become super saturated and plastic. Such materials may move down slope at high speed
over 15km per hour. A good example is the mud flow in Columbia in 1985 from mount
Nevado Del Ruiz that buried the town of Amero moving at an estimated speed of about
80km/hour. In March 2010, a mud flow occurred on the slopes of Mount Elgon killing an
estimated 450 people in Bududa District in Uganda.

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Slumping.
This is the commonest type of land slides. It involves an actual tearing away of rock
materials from a surface of a steep face such as an escarpment / cliff. The sliding block
doesn’t break up but moves rotationally on a curved plain tilting back wards and leaving
a fresh scarp on a mountain slope. Slumping is common where massive well jointed
rocks such as limestone overlie clay or other weak rocks that may be easily ruptured.

Rock slide (debris slide).

This involves the dislocation of large quantities of rock which roll on the slope at great
speed. It takes place where slopes are very steep such as fault surfaces, vertical cliffs, and
therefore gravity has a significant effect. It is accelerated by the occurrence of
earthquakes that loosens and detaches rocks from steep slopes.

43
Rock fall (rock avalanche)
This is the fastest type of land slide. It’s a spontaneous movement of individual big rocks
down a steep slope of over 400 like a steep escarpment or a cliff. There is no sliding on
the ground but rather a mass of rock detaches from the steep slope and falls freely on the
ground where it may cause a lot of destruction. In east Africa, they are common on slopes
of mountains Rwenzori, Kenya, Kilimanjaro and Elgon.

CAUSES OF MASS WASTING/ SLOPE FAILURE/ SLOPE COLLAPSE

Mass wasting is caused by several factors both physical and human.
1. Nature of the land scape. This determines the rate of downward movement of the
weathered materials. Very steep slopes encourage faster mass wasting types such as rock
fall, rock slides and slumping e.g. on slopes of mount Rwenzori, Kigezi high lands,

44
mount Muhavura etc. Moderate slopes favor the occurrence of talus creep and mud flows
while gentle slopes encourage soil creep, earth flows and solifluction.
2. Heavy rainfall. This results into lubrication of weathered materials and the slope,
increased weight of the regolith, and loose attachment of rocks / soils which eventually
lead to soil creep, earth flow and mud flows.
3. Freezing and thawing in cold environments also lead to mass wasting. When
temperature rises, ice melts and water is added on to weathered materials. This increases
the weight of weathered debris and friction between the rock surface and the debris is
reduced. Moreover, water from melting ice contributes to the saturation of the weathered
materials thus being able to move on the frozen surface a process termed as solifluction.
4. Volcanic eruption may also trigger mass wasting. As eruption takes place, it shakes the
ground hence loosens the rock particles. This may result into rock slides, slumping and
rock falls. Eruptions also yield rock particles of different sizes such as cinders that when
lubricated may flow down slope in form of mud flows.
5. Earth movements like earthquakes also lead to mass wasting. Once an earthquake
occurs, the ground is shaken and ground vibrations loosen rocks resulting into processes
such as rock falls, rock slides and slumping. These are common in Bundibugyo and
Kabarole in Uganda.
6. The nature of rocks also leads to the occurrence of mass wasting. In areas where
permeable rocks overlie impermeable rocks, the permeable rocks get soaked in water
when it rains and easily slide off inform of rock slides and slumping. Where jointed rocks
overlie hard but slippery surface, they tend to loosen from the mother rock thus mass

45
movement.

7. Human activities such as cultivation and settlement on steep slopes also cause mass
wasting. This is because they contribute to the clearance of vegetation. The roots of trees
and other vegetation types bind the rock particles and soils together. When vegetation is
cleared, the binding force disappears and the soil particles become loose and
unconsolidated. Once it rains, such rock particles and soils become saturated and slippery
and may flow down slope inform of earth flows and mud flows.
8. Grazing on steep slopes also offsets mass wasting. Large herds of grazing animals such
as cattle, buffaloes, elephants, sheep, and goats loosen soil particles along the slope. Such
soils are prone to saturation leading to soil creep, earth flow and mud flows.
9. Mining and quarrying also contribute to mass wasting. Mining weakens rocks and
make them prone to rock slides e.g. vermiculite mining in Mbale, tin and gold mining in
Bushenyi in Uganda. Quarrying on hill sides create steep slopes which enhance land
slides occurrence. Further more, during mining and quarrying, explosives may some
times be used to blast and break rocks. The impact of these explosives shakes the ground
triggering off movement of the weathered particles to result into landslides.

46
10. Moving heavy objects such as Lorries, buses and trains exert a lot of force on the
ground. The ground tends to vibrate and this destabilizes unconsolidated materials resting
loosely on the slope. Such materials can start rolling down slope inform of rockslides
and rock falls e.g. along Ntungamo-Kabale road.
11. Poor farming methods like ploughing up and down slope contributes to the movement
of materials on the slope. Over cropping results into soil exhaustion and erosions and this
promotes the occurrence of mud flows, earth flows and soil creep.

EFFECTS OF MASS WASTING

Mass wasting has a number of effects on both the land scape and human activities.
Effects on the Physical Environment
The effects on the physical environment include the following;
1. Formation of terracettes. Slow movement e.g. soils creep usually create step like
features known as terracettes. Theses are common in the hills of Ankole and Kigezi.
Refer to soil creep for diagram
2. Formation of patterned grounds (pattern polygons). These are stones which are
arranged in polygonal shapes in glacial areas. They are formed from solifluction /soil
creep due to frost heaving.
3. Formation of scars. A scar is a hollow left on a hill side where rock debris has been
detached. Where debris eventually rests, land forms such as a lobes or tongues are
produced.
4. Formation of straight slope soil creep and slope wash fill up cavities or irregularities
along the slope resulting into unusual straight slopes e.g. on some hill slopes in Ankole.
5. Drainage blockage. Land slides and slumps on the sides of river valleys may block
river courses to create temporary lakes. One of the Tukuyu landslides in Tanzania
blocked river Mbaka creating a lake which lasted for 8 hours.
Effects on Human Activities
The effects on human activities are both positive and negative.
1. Negatively, mass wasting causes loss of life. Several land slides especially those
associated with earth quakes and heavy rainfall such as rock falls, rock flows and mud
flows destroy settlements and kill people living down the slopes. The Bulucheke land

47
slides on slopes of Mount Elgon between 1997-2001 killed at least 100 people while the
Bundibugyo land slides in 1966 destroyed almost half of the town. In Bududa land slides
of March 2010 killed an estimated 450 people.
2. Agricultural land and crops are often destroyed in areas prone to land slides. On the
steep slopes, soil may be carried away and deposited in valleys e.g. in Kigezi high lands
and southern high land s of Tanzania. Crops may also be carried down by the creeping
soil and destroyed by land slides. This in the long run may bring problems like famine
and poverty.
3. There is destruction of forest resources e.g. the Bulucheke landslides on Mount Elgon
destroyed a large section of Mount Elgon forest. Even slow processes like soil creep
result into the bending of tree trunks hence reducing the timber quality.
4. Mass wasting also results into destruction of infrastructure. Electric transmission and
telegraphic lines are usually destroyed while roads and railways may be blocked or
destroyed by slides and creeps e.g. in 1989 telephone and road links with Bundibugyo
were cut off by land slides. Earlier in 1985, Kisoro-Katuna road was also blocked by land
slides.
5. Besides, mass wasting creates engineering hazards. Construction along steep slopes is
made very difficult and dangerous by creeps and slides. There is a poor road net work in
Kisoro and Kapchorwa partly because of this factor.
6. Positively, persistent removal of surface rocks from hill slopes may expose underlying
rock areas. This contributes to the development of the mining industry e.g. gold in
Bushenyi at Kyamuhunga is often exposed by land slides.
7. Mass wasting may also lead to formation of fertile soils on lower slopes of highlands.
The soil particles removed from upper slopes in processes like soil creep and solifluction
are deposited at lower levels where they can be used for cultivation. In addition, mass
wasting facilitates soil formation as new rock surfaces are exposed to weathering
processes such as exfoliation.
8. Massive rocks that are detached from hill slopes leave behind beautiful sceneries e.g.
scars that are appealing to curious people thus attracting tourists.

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STEPS BEING TAKEN TO REDUCE LAND SLIDES
There are various measures that have been taken to curb the impact of land slides. These
measures aim at ensuring slope stabilization and maintenance of slope equilibrium. They
include the following:
1. Reforestation i.e. planting trees on those slopes where they have been cut. This helps to
bind the soil once again, reduce the impact of rain drops and soil saturation as well as
binds the soil particles together e.g. in Kigezi highlands
2. Afforestation is being encouraged. Trees are being planted even on slopes where they
never existed. Good examples are in Kenya high lands and Kiisi areas of Kenya and
Kigezi high lands.
3. Better farming methods have been introduced e.g. terrace farming in Kigezi on the
slopes of mount Moroto, Kenya high lands and Mount Kilimanjaro. Terracing reduces the
down slope movement of debris.
4. Forest reserves and national parks have been created in high land areas partly to reduce
deforestation and reduce slope wash and land slides. In Uganda, examples include; mount
Mughahinga, Rwenzori, Elgon, Kadam and Morongole in Kidepo valley.
5. Mining and quarrying have been done in Uganda following safety provisions produced
by NEMA. NEMA as an organization is mandated to carry out environmental impact
assessment before mining and quarrying can be done.
6. Hill slope draining is being done to reduce excess water that causes over loading and
lubrication. Deep trenches have been dug on hill slopes in high land regions especially
the Kenya and Kigezi high lands. In Kigezi it takes the form of land reclamation. Another
way in which excessive water is being drained is by planting Eucalyptus trees in valleys
and other water logged areas.
7. Resettlement of excess people is being under taken. People from densely populated
areas have been resettled in less populated areas in order to minimize land slides. E.g.
people from Kigezi have been resettled in Kasese, Kabale and Kamwenge areas, People
from Bududa have been resettled in Kiryandongo refugee camp while people from
Kenyan high lands have been resettled in Kiisi, Mwea-Tebere, Galole etc.
8. Settlement on steep slopes is being discouraged in Kenya highlands, Kigezi highlands
and Elgon slopes. This is to ensure that slopes remain naturally intact.

49
9. Environmental education is being done to create awareness about the dangers of
clearing vegetation in highlands. People in mountainous areas are also being taught better
farming methods like crop rotation, contour ploughing, mixed cropping etc.
10. Concrete walls are being built along steep faces so as to control mud flows and soil
creep. Such walls are common at Kololo, Muyenga, and Naguru in Kampala.
11. Other measures that may control land slides include implementing a policy of
controlled grazing i.e. reducing the number of animals grazing on slopes prone to land
slides and law enforcement in areas where environmental education fails. This could
involve strict punishment for those breaking government legislation like illegal felling of
trees. Family planning aimed at reducing population pressure on land is also being
encouraged.
Like all natural disasters, land slides can’t be completely stopped but rather their impact
can be minimized.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. With reference to either Kigezi or Bugishu highlands, discuss the causes of landslides
and their effects on human activities.
2. (a) with the aid of a sketch map, identify areas in Uganda where land slides are
common.
(b). To what extent is man responsible for the occurrence of land slides in the areas
above.
3. Account for the occurrence of increasing cases of slope failure in East Africa.
4. Examine the factors that influence the nature of mass movement in East Africa.

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