This module entitled Kant and Rights Theorist will discuss reason without qualifications.

cations. Thus, good will can freely choose its

Kantian Theory otherwise known as Deontological Theory that moral duty dictated by reason alone.
focuses on duty as the primary factor for determining if an action is Good will is “good” by virtue of being an end in itself or as a
good or not. In this theory, two tests will have to be passed: The means to only one end, which is “good”. It is then bad if the will
universalizability test and the treatment of humans as an end and is a means to another end or ends other than itself. The human
not as means. He is a German Lutheran theologian and reason produces a will that is universally good in itself and
philosopher famous at the most influential in the Age of absolutely good.
Enlightenment and Western philosophy. He has three know bools: As universalist, the reason has only one end or “good”, which
Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, could be found in the will, reason and person. The “good” is
Critique of the Power of Judgment. He is renowned student, found in all activities or instances and not only in some
writer and professor in mathematics, physics, and metaphysics at instances. Thus, there should be no disparity between intention
the University of Konigsberg. and act. Intention and action should be one or good and they
Kant live during the European cultural revolutions of justify the end.
enlightenment or renaissance in the 18 th century. He followed his As absolutist, the reason allows no exceptions or qualifications
predecessors, Voltaire and David Hume in trying to replace religious other than the “good”. Reason is objectively good in itself
traditions, superstitions and monarchy with rationalism through his regardless if there is no one that approves of it. An act should
three Critiques on reason. absolutely and truly proceed, reflect and represent the
 Rationalism aims at providing answers to metaphysical and intention. There are two tests: “categorical imperative” and
other questions though the powers of reason alone. These “persons as ends in themselves.”
influenced German idealism and analytic philosophy.
 Kantianism or Kantian Ethics is a deontological theory that Categorical “Act only according to that maxim whereby
emphasizes morality based on duty, reason, moral Imperative you can, at the same time, will that it should
principle, moral obligation, and motive or intention. It Principle become a universal law.”
rejects consequences as the basis of morality. Kantian ethical Kant’s “good will,” which is universally and absolutely good can be
framework is considered as a Moral Universalism or Moral considered also as the one and the same “categorical imperative.” It
Absolutism and Moral Formalism. is the consistency of intention and the act.
Duty “Humans are motivated by the duty to act morally or This principle is the first test if morality comes from pure intention
Principle rationally instead of emotionally or without reason.” an objective judgment supported by rationality alone. What is
Kant argues that duty or moral obligation is the very nature of right or good is right or good and what is wrong or bad is wrong
the pure human reason. This means that as rational agents, people or bad. This is maxim or formal command to be categorically or
can grasp the moral principles and act out of his principles without the unconditionally followed in order to be moral. In making a right
aid of experience and consideration of consequences. action, it could become a universal law to be acceptable and
followed by all.
Good “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or
Person as “Act so that you treat people never as a mere
Will even out of it, which can be called good without
End means to an end, but always as end in
Principle qualification, except a good will.”
Principle themselves.”
Good Will
This “person as ends in themselves” principle is a second test that
Kant holds that fundamentally, there is only one thing that is
could be considered as the same with the golden rule: “Treat
good in and of itself – the Good Will. It is the overarching principle
others as you would like them to treat you” or “Do to others what
of all morality. Good will is the very nature of the person’s free will.
you want others do unto you.”
Free will as the ability of pure reason is an absolute command of
 But to consider persons only as means to achieving other goals Instrumental Rights Theorists. describe rights as parts of rules
or one’s personal interest rather than being good is wrong. instrumental in achieving an optimal distribution of advantages or
Rationality is fundamentality objective or does not promote greatest utility (happiness) for the greatest number of people.
personal interest and have only one ultimate goal – to be moral. Contractual Rights Theorists. These thinkers hold that rights are
To be moral is the function of practical reason to allow humans stipulations guaranteed by a certain valid contract between peoples.
“to apply general principles to particular instances of action.” They also uphold rights in business contracts.
This means that humans should engage in moral reasoning as a Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), [Kantian and Deontology] holds
way of determining one’s moral duty. They should discover that human persons have rights that are autonomous, universal and
through reason alone “what is the “right” action to do.” They treat persons as ends. The only innate right is “freedom, insofar as
should apply a moral principle such as the “categorical it can coexist with other’s freedom in accordance with a universal
imperative,” “good will” and “persons as end in themselves” as law.” The foundation of Kant’s human dignity and human rights is
duty or reason.
End “Act as if you were, through your maxims, a Rights Theories or Rights Based Ethics
Lawmaker lawmaker of kingdom of ends.” Rights theories are ethical/moral frameworks that consider
Principle rights as moral standards of the rightness or wrongness of
the very source of actions. behaviors.
Rights theorists are considered deontological theories
because the rights themselves are duties (reasons) that
everyone ought to obey regardless of any circumstance or
Kant thinks that persons as ends are autonomous. Autonomous consequence. Natural and human rights are considered
persons are able to exercise free and good will by legislating the deontological.
moral law for everyone. Every rational being is able to regard Two Different Kinds of Rights
himself as a maker of universal law not because of an external 1. Moral Rights
moral authority but under the authority of his own reason alone. Rights that arise from being part of a social community which
Applying 7-Step Model Kant’s Ethical Decision recognizes the inherent worth of a human being to one another. It is
1. Gather the Facts brought out from the basic respect and value one gives to another
2. Determine the Ethical Issues person.
3. What principles have a bearing on the case? 2. Legal Rights
4. List the Alternatives A right created under the law. It can be based in the constitution
5. Compare the Alternatives with Principles or a statute. It is usually the crystallization of the tradition,
6. Weigh the Consequences. (This is not applicable because values and what is generally regarded as ethical and moral
consequences do not matter at all. Even if there are good, better and within a specific political area and recognized by a duly
best consequences, the basis should still and always be the good will authorized authority (which in most cases would be the state
or intention.) and its citizens).
7. Make a Decision Legal: Not Always Moral
Natural Rights Theorists. Greeks like Aristotle had long believed Obviously, moral and legal rights cannot be separated. Some
that rights are natural rights that re inherited from nature and moral rights are legalized even though not all legal rights are
reason, like the rights to life, freedom, property and pursuit of moral. There is an overlap between moral and legal rights
happiness. whereby legal laws are essentially based on moral rights.
Right to life is both legal and moral so that laws on this such
as its violation like murder is both illegal and immoral. One
 may have a legal right to do bad not a moral right to do it.  Individuals have unique identities, driven by a specialized function
Some legal laws can be unjust, thus immoral. or purpose. This can be in college, such as finance, engineering, or
With diverse cultures, what is legal may not necessarily be marketing, or serving others like leadership, doctor, teacher, or
moral. Laws and ethics are not the same. Laws often embody parent. This analysis can also be applied to organizations.
ethical principles or codify ethical principles. They do not  An organization's telos is to coordinate human rationality to create
always prohibit acts that are widely condemned as immoral products and services that meet the needs of consumers or
and do sometimes prohibit those that are perceived as ethical. community members, providing value to the user. For instance, a
computer manufacturer's end goal is to deliver quality and timely
Virtue Ethics
products.
 Is one of the major approaches in: NORMATIVE ETHICS along
Virtue as Habit
with deontology and consequentialism.
 Aristotelian ethics emphasizes the importance of moral virtue in
 It is and ethical theory that emphasizes the person’s virtues or moral achieving happiness.
character in contrast to deontology which emphasizes duties or rules
 Good habits are essential for developing virtue, providing a
and consequentialism which emphasizes the consequences of an
consistent pattern for virtuous actions. Aristotle's Insight:
action.
 Aristotle, in Nicomachean Ethics II:1, highlights the role of habit in
Aristotle’s Ethics (Eudamian Ethics and Nicomachean Ethics)
forming virtues.
 Three General Descriptions: Self-realization, Eudaimonistic, and
 "We are adapted by nature to receive these virtues and are made
Aretaic.
perfect by habit." The Role of Habit in Virtue Development:
a.) Self-realization – when someone ask in line with his nature or
end realizes his full potential, he does moral and will be happy.  While virtue may be a natural inclination, habitual practice is
b.) Eudaimonistic – it focuses on the happiness (eudaimonia), or the necessary for its development.
good for the man, and how to obtain it.  Consistent practice of virtuous acts forms good habits, essential for
c.) Aretaic (virtue based) – focused mainly on what we should do. moral excellence
TELOS Formation of Virtue
 Aristotle defines the telos for humans as Eudaimonia. The best  Virtue formation involves two stages: contemplation, which involves
condition possible for humans is happiness through leading a constantly acquiring knowledge and using one's mind correctly, and
meaningful and virtuous life. He distinguishes between a means and the habit of actual practice of moral virtue. The state of character,
an end. A means always has another end, while a final end has no which shapes moral virtue, requires proper mental activity, not just
further means. Aristotle argues there is only one final end for actual moral action. Therefore, practicing virtue requires constant
humans. It is through this analysis of ends and means that he thinking about it.
concludes that our final end is eudaimonia.  Habitual Actual Practice of Virtue: (Virtue is defined as behavior showing
high moral standards, and Aristotle emphasizes developing a habit of doing good.)
 Humans are motivated by end goals and need to have a purpose,
something to pursue. Aristotle considers the purpose or ends: the  Aristotle suggests that habitual practice of virtue involves
final reason for that function’s existence. Aristotle used the Greek consistently putting into action the contemplated understanding of
term telos to describe the inherent purpose of each thing, the ultimate virtue, leading to the formation of a good habit.
reason for each thing to be the way it is. To return to the earlier  Happiness as Virtue
examples, the telos of the knife is not just to cut (the function), but to  According to Aristotle, happiness is not simply a fleeting feeling of
cut sharply (the purpose). Human telos is not just to think rationally, pleasure or the satisfaction of desires. Instead, he argued that true
but to think rationally in service of a final end. happiness is a state of well-being that is achieved through the
 cultivation of virtues. Virtues, in Aristotle's view, are qualities of  Justice is generally defined as fairness. It is the establishment or
character that enable individuals to live a good and fulfilling life. determination of rights in a society according to its rules of law or
 In Aristotle's view, happiness as virtue involves living in accordance equity.
with reason and acting in virtuous ways. He believed that reason is  Although justice is a global concept, the way it is understood varies
what sets humans apart from other animals and that it should guide from culture to culture.
our actions.
 A good understanding of the frameworks that supports it is
 Another virtue that Aristotle emphasized is temperance, which is
important for the role it plays in maintaining social order.
about finding balance in our desires and appetites.
 The famous Greek philosopher Plato proposed an early theory of
Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good
What is Justice? justice in one of his Dialogue, The Republic. Many other theories
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more since they have a risen to explain the concept of justices:
traditional terms, giving each person his or her due. Justice usually has  From the divine Theory, Natural Law Theory and philosophies
been used with reference to a standard of rightness. within the social contract tradition wherein it is believed that justice
The most fundamental principle of justice that has been widely accepted is derived from the mutual agreement of concerned parties.
since it was first defined by Aristotle (2000 years ago). Aristotle stated that Distributive Justice
"equals should be treated equally and unequal unequally." Distributive Justice refers to the socially just distribution of goods to the
What is Fairness? society. This shows a huge amount of fairness in allocation of resources
Fairness is concerned with actions, processes, and consequences, that are among diverse members of a community. In social psychology,
morally right honorable, and equitable. In essence, the virtue of fairness distributive justice concerns the perceived fairness of how rewards and
establishes moral standards for decisions that affect others. Fair decisions costs are distributed across group members.
are made in an appropriate manner based on appropriate. criteria. Five types of distributive justice:
It is the impartial and just treatment or behavior without favoritism or  Equality - requires that everyone receives the same resources and
discrimination. Fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make
opportunities, regardless of circumstances and despite any inherent
judgments that are not overly general. but that are concrete and specific to
a particular case. Fairness can be interpreted as being equal in provision, in advantages or disadvantages that apply to certain groups.
opportunity or in result.  Equity - considers the specific needs or circumstances of a person or
The Nature of the Theory group and provides the types of resources needed to be successful.
 Giving each person what they deserve, or to use more formal  Power - this refers to the people who have the authority, power or
language. what is legally theirs, is the definition of justice. control over the group should receive a larger amount of reward over
 In contemporary speech, the terms justice and fairness are those in lower levels.
commonly used Interchangeably because of their indissoluble  Need - those who are in need should he given the resources need to
relationship. "Fairness" is typically considered to mean "the meet their needs. These people should be prioritized than those who
capacity to judge without regard to one's thoughts or interests," have already enough resources regardless of their input.
while 'Justice" is typically understood to mean "a standard of  Responsibility - this concerns that those people who already have the
rightness" in most instances. most shared amount should give a part to those who have less. If
 "Fairness" has also been used to describe the capacity to make others receive number of resources that are not enough to satisfy
decisions. that are concrete and specific to a certain situation rather their needs, and you know that you that you have more of it, let it be
than being overly general. your responsibility to give them some of yours.
Egalitarian
  Under distributive justice, Egalitarian is a constitutive of a just motivates them to work long hours if they want to receive more. All legal
society. production and distribution decisions are made by the government, and
 Emphasizes equality and equal treatment across gender, race, individuals rely on the state for everything from food to healthcare. The
government determines output and pricing levels of these goods and
religion, economic status, and political belief.
services.
 Mainly focused on income inequality and the distribution of wealth
in development of various economic and political system and
policies.
Examples of Egalitarian
 Universal Suffrage - The right of all adult citizens to vote in Advantages of Socialism
elections, irrespective of their gender, race, socioeconomic status, or  The system eradicates poverty which means everyone has equal
level of education, is known as universal suffrage. access to health care and education and no one is discriminated
 Equal Pay for Equal Work - This idea supports paying everyone the against.
same amount for doing the same work, regardless of their gender, Disadvantages of Socialism
color, age, or any other attribute.  The government that is set up to represent the masses may abuse its
 Equal Opportunity Employment - Equal opportunity employment position and claim power for itself.
policies ensure that job applicants and employees are not Types of Socialism
discriminated against based on non-job-related factors such as race,  Democratic Socialism - the factors of production are managed by a
gender, age, religion, disability, or sexual orientation. democratically elected government.
Capitalism  Revolutionary Socialism - socialism that will emerge only after
 A form of economic organization known as capitalism is based capitalism has been destroyed. In here, “There is no peaceful road to
primarily on private ownership and is open to new ideas, ventures, socialism”.
and owners, or, to put it another way, to fresh capital.  Libertarian Socialism - this assumes that the basic nature of people is
 Instability is frequently linked to the incidence of financial crises, rational, autonomous, and self-determining. Once the structures of
employment insecurity, and a failure to involve those who are capitalism have been removed, people will naturally seek a socialist
disadvantaged. This tendency of capitalism to generate instability is society that takes care of all because they see that it is the best for
also widely acknowledged. their own self-interest.
 The private ownership of the means of production and the use of  Market Socialism - the production is owned by the workers. They
those means for the aim of making a profit are the cornerstones of decide how to distribute among themselves. They would sell excess
the capitalist economic system. production on the free market. Alternatively, it could be turned over
 The fundamental tenet of capitalist justice is that everyone should be to society, which would distribute it according to the free market.
rewarded in line with their level of productivity, effort, or  Green Socialism - this type of socialistic economy highly values the
contribution. maintenance of natural resources. It emphasizes public transit and
Socialism locally sourced food. Its production focuses on making sure
"From each according to his ability, to each according to his everyone has enough of the basics instead of consumer products one
contribution." doesn't really need.
The mantra of socialism indicates that everyone in society should receive a
share of the production based on how much each has contributed which
 Utopian Socialism - this was more a vision of equality than a
concrete plan. It would be achieved peacefully through a series of
experimental societies.