UNIT-4 » ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES [1]

UNIT-4 » ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

PART-I ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES WITH ONE BINARY OPERATION

 IMPORTANT SETS
 ℕ(The set of natural numbers) = {1, 2, 3, … , }.

 𝕝 = ℤ(The set of integers) = {, … , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … , }.

p
 ℚ(The set of rational numbers) = {q / p, q ∈ ℤ & q ≠ 0}.

 ℚc (The set of irrational numbers).

 ℝ(The set of real numbers) = ℚ ∪ ℚc .

 ℂ(The set of complex numbers) = {z = x + iy/x, y ∈ ℝ}.

 ℝ+ (The set of positive real numbers).

 ℤ∗ (The set of invertible elements of ℤ with respect to multiplication) = {1, −1}.

 ℤn = {[0], [1], [2], [3], … , [n − 1]}.

(The set of equivalance class for the relation congruence modulo n).

 Let A be a non-empty set then A × A = {(a, b)/a, b ∈ A }. (Cartesian product).

 BINARY OPERATION
 A function ∗∶ A × A → A is said to be a binary operation on A.

 i.e., ∗ (a, b) = a ∗ b ∈ A, ∀a, b ∈ A then ∗ is said to be a binary operation on A.

 Examples

 ‘ + ’ is a binary operation on ℕ.

 ‘ × ’ is a binary operation on ℝ.

 ‘ − ’ is not binary operation on ℕ.

 ‘/’ is not binary operation on ℤ.

 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE
 A nonempty set G equipped with one or more binary operation is said to be an algebraic
structure.

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 Examples: (ℕ, +), (ℤ, +) & (ℝ, +, ⋅).

 SEMIGROUP
 Let S be a nonempty set and ‘∗’ be a binary operation on S. Then (S, ∗) is said to be a
semigroup if the binary operation ‘∗’ is associative in S.

 i.e., ∀ a, b, c ∈ S

 a ∗ b ∈ S (Binary operations/Closure property).

 a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (Associative property on ∗).

 Example: (ℕ, +), (ℕ, ×), (ℤ, +) & (ℝ, ×).

 MONOID
 Let M be a nonempty set and ‘ ∗ ’ be any operation on M. Then, (M, ∗) is said to be a Monoid
if the following conditions are satisfied.

 Closure property: M is closed under ‘ ∗ ’. i.e. ∀ a, b ∈ M ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ M.

 Associative property: ‘ ∗ ’ is associative in M. i.e.

∀ a, b, c ∈ M ⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

 Existence of an identity element: There exists an element e ∈ M such that

a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a; ∀a ∈ M

 Examples

 (ℕ, ×), (ℤ, ×) & (ℝ, ×).

 Let S be a non-empty set and P(S) be its power set. Then

1) (P(S),∪) is monoid with the identity ϕ.

2) (P(S),∩) is monoid with the identity S.

 GROUP
 Let G be a nonempty set and ‘ ∗ ’ be an operation on G. Then (G, ∗) is said to be a Group if
the following conditions are satisfied.

 Closure property: G is closed under ‘ ∗ ’ . i.e. ∀ a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G.

 Associative property: ‘ ∗ ’ is associative in G. i.e. ∀ a, b, c ∈ G ⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

 Existence of an identity element: There exists an element e ∈ G such that

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UNIT-4 » ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES [3]

a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a; ∀a ∈ G.

 Existence of an inverse for each element of G: For every a ∈ G, there exists b ∈ G such
that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a. Here b = a−1 is said to be an inverse of a.

 ABELIAN GROUP / COMMUTATIVE GROUP

 A group (G, ∗) is said to be an Abelian group/commutative group if a ∗ b = b ∗ a; ∀a, b ∈
G.

 Example: (ℤ, +), (ℝ, +), (ℝ − {0}, ×) & (ℚ − {0}, ×).

 COMPOSITION TABLE
 Let G = {a1 , a2 , … , an } is a finite set having n elements then there is a binary operation
defined on G multiplicatively. All possible binary composition elements of G can be
arranged in a tabular form as:

 Write elements of S in a horizontal row, say it column header and in a vertical column, say
it row header.

 The element ai ∗ aj associated with the ordered pair (ai , aj ) is placed at the intersection of
the row headed by ai and column aj .

 Notes

 Let ‘e’ be an identity element in group (G, ∗) then ‘e’ is unique.

 Inverse of each element of a group (G, ∗) is unique.

 If a−1 is the inverse of ‘a’ of group (G, ∗) then (a−1 )−1 = a.

 If (G, ∗) be a group then ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 .

 Let (G, ∗) be a group and a, b, c ∈ G then a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (Left cancellation law).

 Let (G, ∗) be a group and a, b, c ∈ G then b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c (Right cancellation

law).

 If each element of group G is self-invertible then G is Abelian.

 Let (G, ∗) be a group and if ∀a, b ∈ G ⇒ (a ∗ b)2 = a2 ∗ b2 then (G, ∗) must be

Abelian.

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UNIT-4 » ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES [4]

METHOD-1: EXAMPLES ON ALGEBRAIC STRICTURES WITH ONE BINARY OPERATIONS

C 1 Let ∗ be a binary operation on ℝ defined by a ∗ b = a + b + 2ab.

a) Find 2 ∗ 3, 3 ∗ (−5) & 7 ∗ (1/2 ).
b) Is (ℝ, ∗) semigroup? Is it commutative?
c) Find the identity element in ℝ with respect to ∗.
d) Which elements has inverses and what are they?

H 2 Show that the set of square roots of unity forms a group under multiplication.

C 3 Show that the set of cube roots of unity forms a group under multiplication.

T 4 Show that the set of fourth roots of unity forms a group under multiplication.

H 5 Show that the set of rational numbers excluding zero is an Abelian group under
multiplication. i.e., (ℚ∗ , ×) is an Abelian group.

C 6 Show that the set of all positive rational numbers forms an Abelian group under
ab
the composition defined by a ∗ b = .
2

T 7 Show that the set G = {a + b√2 /a, b ∈ ℚ} is a group with respect to addition.

C 8 a b
Show that G = {[ ] /ad − bc ≠ 0 & a, b, c, d ∈ ℝ} is a group under matrix
c d
multiplication.

T 9 cos α − sin α
Show that the set of matrices {Aα = [ ] /α ∈ ℝ} is form a group
sin α cos α
under matrix multiplication.

T 10 Show that G = {[ a b
] /a, b ∈ ℝ} is a commutative group under matrix
−b a
addition.

H 11 Show that G = {[ 1 0
],[
−1 0
],[
1 0
] ,[
−1 0
]} is an Abelian group
0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1
under matrix multiplication.

C 12 Show that (ℤ𝟔 , +𝟔 ) is an Abelian group.

C 13 Show that (ℤ𝟓 , ×𝟓 ) is a monoid but not group.

T 14 Show that (ℤ5 − {0}, ×5 ) is group.

H 15 Write down the composition tables for (ℤ𝟕, +𝟕 ) and (ℤ∗𝟕 , ×𝟕 ).

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C 16 Show that the set of real polynomials in variable x is a group under the operation
of addition.

 ORDER OF A GROUP
 Let (G, ∗) be a finite group then the number of distinct elements in G is called the order of
a group G. It is denoted by O(G) 𝐨𝐫 |G|.

 Examples

 Let G = {1, i, −1, −i} then O(G) = 4.

 O(ℤn ) = n.

 PERMUTATIONS
 Let S be a finite set having n-distinct elements. Then a one-one mapping from S onto S is
called a permutation of S of degree n.

 The number of elements in the finite set S is known as the degree of permutation.

 Notes
a1 a2 … an
 Let S = {a1 , a2 , … , an } then permutation f = ( b b2 … bn ). Where, f ∶ S → S
1

define as f(ai ) = bi , ∀ bi ∈ S.

a b a b
 If S = {a, b} then set of all permutation on S2 is {p1 = I = ( ) , p2 = ( )}.
a b b a

 If Sn be the set consisting of all permutation of degree n, then Sn will have n! distinct
elements. i.e., o(Sn ) = n!.

 Sn = {f ∶ f is a permutation of degree n} is called symmetric group.

 IDENTITY PERMUTATION
 If I is a permutation of degree ‘n’ such that I(a) = a ; ∀a ∈ S, then I is called the identity
permutation of degree ‘n’.

1 2 3 … n
 Thus if S = {1, 2, 3, … , n} then I = ( ) is an identity permutation on S of
1 2 3 … n
degree ‘n’.

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 EQUALITY OF TWO PERMUTATION

 Let S be any finite set. Then, two permutation f and g of degree ‘n’ on S are said to be equal
if we have f(a) = g(a) ∶ ∀a ∈ S.

1 2 3 4 2 4 3 1
 Example: If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f = ( ) = (1 2 3 4) & g = ( )=
2 3 4 1 3 1 4 2
(2 3 4 1) are two permutation of degree 4 then we have f = g.

 Note: If S = {1, 2, 3} then the set S3 of all permutations of degree 3 will have 3! = 6 distinct
elements. Then,

1
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
p1 = I = ( ) , p2 = ( ) , p3 = ( ),
S3 = { 21 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 }
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
p4 = ( ) , p5 = ( ) , p6 = ( )
1 3 2 2 3 1 3 1 2

 PRODUCT OR COMPOSITION OF TWO PERMUTATIONS

 The product(composition)of two permutations f and g of degree ‘n’ denoted by f ∙ g is
obtained by first carrying out the operation defined by f and then by g.

b1 b2 … bn
 Suppose, Sn is the set of all permutation of degree n. Let f = ( ) and
c1 c2 … cn
a1 a2 … an
g =(b b2 … bn ) be any two elements of Sn .
1

b b2 … b n a1 a2 … an a1 a2 … an
 Then f ∙ g = ( 1 )( ) = ( c1 c2 … cn ) ∈ Sn .
c1 c2 … cn b1 b2 … bn

METHOD-2: EXAMPLES ON PERMUTATION GROUP

T 1 Show that S2 (the set of all permutations on two symbols 1 & 2) is a group of
order 2 with respect to composition of permutation.

C 2 Show that S3 (the set of all permutations on three symbols 1, 2 & 3) is a finite
non-Abelian group of order 6 with respect to composition of permutation.

H 3 Let the permutations of the elements of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be given by

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 ),γ = ( 1 2 3 4 5) &
α=( ),β = (
2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4 5 4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
δ=( ).
3 2 1 5 4
Find αβ, βα, α2 , γβ, δ−1 , αβγ and solve the equation αx = β.

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C 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Let σ = ( ) &τ=( ). Find τσ, στ, σ2 , σ−1 .
3 1 5 4 6 2 5 3 1 6 2 4

C 5 Let f = (1 2 3)(1 4 5) ∈ S5 then find f −1 & f 99 .

 CYCLIC GROUP
 A group (G, ∗) is said to be cyclic group if there exists an element a ∈ G such that every
element of G can be written as some power of ‘a’. i.e., an for some integer n. In such a case
cyclic group is said to be generated by ‘a’ or ‘a’ is a generator of the group G.

 Notes

 < a >= {an /n ∈ ℤ } if binary operation is multiplication and < a >= {na/n ∈ ℤ } if
binary operation is addition.

 A cyclic group is Abelian. Because for any p, q ∈ G ⇒ p = ar & q = as for some r, s ∈ I

and

p ∗ q = ar ∗ as = ar+s = as+r = as ∗ ar = q ∗ p

 The generators of the cyclic group (ℤn , +n ) are those elements from ℤn which are
relatively prime to ‘n’. i.e., for 𝑎 ∈ ℤn such that (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1 then ‘a’ is a generator of ℤn .

 SUBGROUP
 Let G be a group under the binary operation ‘ ∗ ’. A nonempty subset H of a group G is said
to be a subgroup of G if H itself a group under the same binary operation ‘ ∗ ’.

 Examples

 (ℤ, +) is a subgroup of (ℚ, +).

 (ℚ, +) is a subgroup of (ℝ, +).

 Note: For any group (G, ∗) we always have two subgroups which are ({e}, ∗) and (G, ∗).
Where ‘e’ is the identity element of G. These two subgroups are called improper/trivial
subgroups of (G, ∗) and other subgroups are called proper/non-trivial subgroups of
(G, ∗).

 Theorem 1: A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if

a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H

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a ∈ H ⇒ a−1 ∈ H

 Theorem 2: A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if

a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b−1 ∈ H

 Theorem 3: If H1 and H2 are two subgroups of a group G, then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup

of G.

 Notes

 The union of two subgroups is not necessarily a subgroup.

 The number of subgroups of the group (ℤn , +n ) is the number of positive divisors of
‘n’.

 LANGRAGE’S THEOREM
 The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of the group.

METHOD-3: EXAMPLES ON CYCLIC GROUP AND SUBGROUP

C 1 Show that ℤ is a cyclic group.

C 2 Find generators of cyclic groups (a) (ℤ5 , +5 ) and (b) (ℤ6 , +6 ).

T 3 Determine all the proper and improper subgroups of symmetric group (S3 , ∘).

C 4 Consider the group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under the binary operation multiplication

modulo 7. i.e., (ℤ∗7 , ×7 ).
a) Find the multiplication table of G.
b) Find 2−1 , 3−1 and 6−1 .
c) Find the subgroup generated by 2 and 3. Also find its order.
d) Is G cyclic?

C 5 Find all subgroups of (ℤ∗7 , ×7 ).

∗
H 6 Find all subgroups of (ℤ10 , ×10 ).

C 7 Find all subgroups of (ℤ12 , +12 ).

H 8 Find all subgroups of (ℤ30 , +30 ).

∗
T 9 Show that ({1, 4, 13, 16}, ×17 ) is a subgroup of (ℤ17 , ×17 ).

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 COSET
 Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗). For any a ∈ G, the set aH defined by aH = {a ∗ h/h ∈ H}
is called the left coset of H in G determined by the element a ∈ G. The element ‘a’ is called
the representative element of the left coset aH.

 Similarly, Ha = {h ∗ a/h ∈ H} is called right coset of H in G determined by a.

 Notes

 Ha and aH both are subsets of G.

 No left or right coset can be empty.

 a ∈ H iff aH = H.

 If the group G is Abelian then we have aH = Ha, ∀a ∈ H.

 If G is additive group then its coset are generated by ‘a’ defined as

H + a = {h + a ∶ h ∈ H}(Right Coset) and a + H = {a + h ∶ h ∈ H}(Left Coset).

 The number of left cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G.

 NORMAL SUBGROUP
 A subgroup H of a group G is said to be normal subgroup of G if

∀x ∈ G & ∀h ∈ H such that xhx −1 ∈ H

 i.e., xHx −1 = H, ∀x ∈ H

⟹ xH = Hx, ∀x ∈ H

⟹ Every left coset of H in G is right coset of H in G.

 Notes

 If a group G is Abelian group then every subgroup of G is normal subgroup of G.

 G and {e} are improper normal subgroups of G.

 A group having no proper normal subgroup is called simple group.

 A subgroup H of a group G is normal subgroup of G if and only if the product of two

right coset of H in G is again a right coset.

 Intersection of two normal subgroups is a normal subgroup.

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 GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
 Let (G, ∗) and (H, ∆) be two groups. A mapping g: G → H is called a group homomorphism
from (G, ∗) to (H, ∆) if for any a, b ∈ G ⇒ g(a ∗ b) = g(a) ∆ g(b).

 CONGRUENCE RELATION AND QUOTIENT STRUCTURES

 Consider the set of integers ℤ and a positive integer m > 1. Then we say that a is congruent
to b modulo m written as a ≡ b(mod m) if m divides the difference a − b. This relation is
an equivalence relation on ℤ.

 Let N be a normal subgroup of group G, then the set of all distinct right(left) cosets of N in
G is called quotient group under multiplication/addition of cosets of N in G.

 Let N be a normal subgroup of group G then G/N = {Na/a ∈ G}.

 For Na , Nb ∈ G/N, the multiplication of cosets is defined as Na . Nb = Nab .

 If G is an Abelian group then G/N is also an Abelian group.

 If a ≡ c(mod m) and b ≡ d(mod m) then a + b ≡ c + d(mod m) &

 If a ≡ c(mod m) and b ≡ d(mod m) then ab ≡ cd(mod m).

METHOD-4: EXAMPLES ON COSET, HOMOMORPHISM, LANGRAGE’S THEOREM,

CONGRUENCE RELATION AND QUOTIENT STRUCTURES

H 1 Find the left cosets of {[0], [3]} in the group (ℤ6 , +6 ).

C 2 Find the left cosets of H = {p1 , p5 , p6 } in the group G = (S3 , ∘).

C 3 Find the left cosets of {[0], [2]} in the group (ℤ4 , +4 ).

T 4 Let H = {p1 , p2 }. Find the left cosets of H in the group (S3 , ∘).

T 5 Let G = (ℤ, +) be a group and H = 5ℤ. Then, find G/H and show that (G/H , +) is
group.

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PART-II ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES WITH TWO BINARY OPERATIONS

 RING
 An algebraic structure (R, +, ∙) is called a ring if the binary operations ‘+’ and ‘∙’ on S
satisfy the following three properties.

 (S, +) is an Abelian group.

 (S, ∙) is a semigroup.

 The operation ‘∙’ is distributive over ‘+’. i.e., for any a, b, c ∈ S,

a ∙ (b + c) = a ∙ b + a ∙ c and (b + c) ∙ a = b ∙ a + c ∙ a

 Example: (ℤ, +, ∙), ( ℚ, +, ∙), (ℝ, +, ∙), (ℂ, +, ∙) & (2ℤ, +, ∙).

 Notes

 The ring (S, +, ∙) is called a ring with identity if (S, ∙) is monoid.

 The ring (S, +, ∙) is called a commutative ring if (S, ∙) is commutative.

 ZERO DIVISORS
 If there exist nonzero elements a, b ∈ (R, +, ∙) such that a ∙ b = 0 then a and b are called
zero divisors.

 Example: In a ring (ℤ6 , +6 , ∙6 ), [2], [3] ∈ ℤ6 such that [2]. [3] = [6] = [0]. Hence [2] and
[3] are zero divisors in ℤ6 .

 INTEGRAL DOMAIN
 A commutative ring (S, + , ∙) with identity and without zero divisors is called an integral
domain.

 Example: (ℤ, +, ∙), ( ℚ, +, ∙), (ℝ, +, ∙).

 FIELD
 A commutative ring (S, +, ∙) with identity element such that every nonzero element of S
has a multiplicative inverse in S is called a field.

 Example: ( ℚ, +, ∙), (ℝ, +, ∙) & (ℂ, +, ∙).

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METHOD-5: EXAMPLES ON ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE WITH TWO BINARY OPERATIONS

H 1 Show that (ℤ6 , +6 , ×6 ) is not an integral domain.

C 2 Show that (ℤ7 , +7 , ×7 ) is an integral domain.

C 3 Show that (ℤn , +n , ×n ) is ring.

T 4 Show that (ℤn , +n , ×n ) is field if and only if n is prime integer.

C 5 Prove that F = {a + b√2 /a, b ∈ ℚ} is a field.

H 6 Prove that F = {a + b√2 /a, b ∈ ℤ} is an integral domain but not a field.

C 7 Prove that R = {a + ib/a, b ∈ ℤ} is an integral domain. Also find it’s units.

C 8 Consider the ring (ℤ10 , +10 , ×10 ).

a) Find the units of ℤ10 .
b) Find -3, -8 and 3−1 .
c) Let f(x) = 2x 2 + 4x + 4. Find the roots of f(x) over ℤ10 .hb

⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

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