Module 3:
An Introduction to
Composite Materials
Bishakh Bhattacharya
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Topics covered in module 2
q Induced Strain Actuation (ISA) – Uniform Strain
Model
q ISA – Euler-Bernoulli Model
q Large Deformation Model (TBD)
q ISA Model for Magnetostrictive Mini Actuator (TBD)
q Active Fiber Composite Actuation (TBD)
Organization of this Lecture
• What is Composite Material?
• What are Laminated Composites?
• Various Fibres for Composite Reinforcement.
What is Composite?
• Natural or artificial mixtures of two or more distinct
phase/constituents.
• Primary engineering goal is to achieve a better
balance of properties from the combination of
materials.
• Mixtures may consist of metals, polymers or
ceramics.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Types of Particulate/Whisker Reinforcement
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Types of Composite
Fabrics
Inorganic Fibres
• Glass Fibre
• Boron Fibre
• Carbon Fibre
Glass Fibre
• Generic Name, available in three forms:
i. E-Glass (Insulating),
ii. C-Glass(Anti corrosive), and
iii. S-Glass (High Silica - higher temperature application)
• Major Constituent SiO2 (55-65%) & Al2O3(8-25%), other
constituent: Ca0, Na2O etc.
• Manufacturing - Molten Glass, fed through Platinum
Bushings
• Pure crystalline glass melts at 1800oC breaking Si-O bond,
impurities substitute some of the bonds and hence reduce
Tm.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Glass Fibre
• Nextel Fibres of 3M uses relatively low-temperature Sol-
Gel technique.
• Filaments susceptible to surface damage - hence sizing is
necessary.
• E-glass density-2500 kg/m3, Tensile strength - 1750
Mpa, E-70 Gpa
• Susceptible to moisture absorption, strength decreases.
• Used in roofing, frames, tanks, etc.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Boron Fibre
• Properties borderline between metals and non-metals.
A good conductor at high temp. Chemically closer to
silicon. Crystalline boron is chemically inert .
• First synthetic fibre, used since 1960 (Space Shuttle),
very brittle to directly draw.
• Deposited through CVD on fine (10-12µm) Tungsten
wire / some times on Carbon core
• Hydrogen Gas used to reduce Boron Trihalide:
2BX3 + 3H2 2B+6HX
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Boron fibre
• High temperature around 1000oC req. - hence Tungsten
base is required - resistive heating of wire.
• Temperature to be controlled during CVD - beyond
1300o C, unwanted crystal-form occurs.
• Core diffusion forming WB4, W2B5 etc causes
unwanted increase in core thickness - hence SiC
coating is used.
• Density 2340 Kg/m3, Tm-2040oC, expensive - used in
F14, F15, space shuttle.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Carbon Fibre
• Generic Term, Ex-PAN, Ex-Cellulose, Ex-Pitch
• Density : 1700-1600 -2200 Kg/m3, E : 230 - 390 -
340,690 Gpa
Manufacturing steps -
• Fibearization - to make a precursor fibre - wet, dry or
melt spinning.
• Stabilization. (to prevent from melting)
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Carbon Fibre contd..
• Carbonisation - to remove impurity.
• Graphitisation to enhance strength etc.
• Ex-Pan - ladder polymer, Polyethylene with a nitrile
CN group in every alternate carbon atom
• PAN stabilisation 250oC, carbonisation 1000-1500oC,
Graphitisation up to 3000o C.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Carbon Fibre contd..
Carbon Fibre ..
• Ex-Cellulose from Cotton, Rayon etc. are expensive,
not commonly used.
• Ex-pitch, source PVC, Coal-Tar etc. are quite cheap.
• Anisotropic, Liquid Crystalline Mesophase could be
directly spun.
• Due to high alignment /orientation, high E is
possible.
• Used in shuttle booster, turbine & compressor
blades, prosthetics.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Organic Fibres
• Kevlar
• Polyethylene
Organic Fibre: Kevlar
• Aramid Fibre – Generic Term, commercial form
Kevlar & Nomex (Dupont), Technora (Teijin),
Twaron (Akzo).
• Processed from the solution polycondensation of
diamines and diacid halides at low temperature.
• Mesophase order (random –liquid crystalline –
nematic) controls mechanical property.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Kevlar contd ..
• Strong covalent bond axially, weak hydrogen bond
transversely.
• Density 1440 Kg/m3, Tensile Strength (2.8 GPa),
Modulus ( 65-125 GPa).
• Negative Coeff. of expansion due to kinks.
• UV sensitive – degrades.
• Kevlar – rubber reinforcement, K-29 – ropes, cables
etc., K-49 aerospace & automotive applications.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Org Fib: Polyethylene
• Molecular chain extension coupled with orientation.
• HDPE 90-95% crystalline.
• Melt crystalised polyethylene is drawn to a very high ratio.
(200)
• Surface treatment necessary for bonding. (involving cold
gas plasma – Amonia or Argon)
• Density 970 Kg/m3, Tensile Strength 2.7 GPa, Modulus
119 GPa
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Ceramic Fibres
• Alumina
• Basalt
Ceramic Fibre
• Alkyl Aluminium or Alkoxy Aluminium polymerised
to form Precursor fibre in sol phase.
• Extruded and coagulated to form gel fibres.
• Dried and Calcined to form final fibre. (3-5 micron)
Hazardous for health!
• Inviscid melt technique is often used to reduce cost
and draw fibre at low temperature – trade off high
fibre dia >100 micron
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Ceramic Fibres ..
• Density 2000-3000 Kg/m3, Tensile strength – 2Gpa,
E- 150-370 Gpa
• Used as a refractory materials, re-entry vehicle,
shuttle etc.
• Fine fibers have the best thermal insulation properties
and good thermal shock resistance, and do not
crumple up when heated and cooled over and over
again.
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Basalt Fibre
• Raw material for producing basalt fibre is a rock of
the volcanic origin.
• Fibres are received by melting basalt stones down at
the temperature of 1400ºC. Melted basalt mass passes
through the platinum bushing and is extended into
fibres.
• Because of its wide range of temperature resistance
from –260C to 800C basalt fibre products will
outperform GFRP!
SMART MATERIALS &
STRUCTURES (SMSS)
LABORATORY
Micro-mechanics of Composites
Longitudinal modulus
What material properties can we calculate here?
E1=s1/e1
or n12=-e2/e1
E11=s1/e1
Failure of Laminated
Composites
Tensile strength in the fiber direction
As the load increases several things occur:
1) Both fibers and matrix deform elastically
2) Fibers continue to deform elastically,
but matrix deforms plastically
3) Both fibers and matrix deform plastically
4) Fiber-fracture followed by fracture of the
composite material
Schematic of tensile failure
Mixture theory approach to
tensile strength
Assuming parallel orientation of fibers and matrix (this is a
good approximation for tension in the longitudinal
direction).
Assuming all fibers having same strength and the composite
has more than a certain minimum volume fraction of fibers:
ecmax= efmax
P P
P = Pf + Pm
sAc = sf Af + sm Am
Ec e Ac = Ef e Af + Em e Am
Ec = Ef Vf + Em Vm
Failure stress in tension
Failure in tension
Failure in tension
‘Fibre failure causing composite failure’
assumption breaks down for low volume
fractions. The critical volume fraction
where fibers increase strength of
composite is:
When, Vm > Vmin
scmax = smmax Vm
Minimum Volume Fraction
Transverse modulus
E2=s2/e2
or n21=-e1/e2
E22=s2/e2
In-plane Shear Modulus G12
G12=t12/g12
Iosipescu shear test pure shear
Property in the Transverse
Direction: Halpin-Tsai Model
x = 2 for CFRP, GFRP
References
• Crawley, E.F. and Luis, J.D., Use of Piezoelectric
actuators as elements of intelligent structures, AIAA
Journal, Vol. 25 (10), 1371-1385, 1987
• Anjanappa M. and Bi, J., Magnetostrictive mini
actuators for smart structure applications, Smart
Materials and Structures, Vol. 3, 383 390, 1994
• Nguyen, C. and Kornmann, X., A comparison of
dynamic piezoactuation of fiber-based actuators and
conventional piezo patches, Journal of Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures, Vol. 17, 45-56,
2006
END OF LECTURE 12
