ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND MITIGATION

TECHNIQUES
CASE STUDY: NATIONAL TOBACCO ENTERPRISE
BY
ESTIFANOS DAGNEW MITIKU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING

ADVISOR
DR. ING. GETACHEW BIRU WORKU

NOVEMBER, 2015
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND MITIGATION

TECHNIQUES
CASE STUDY: NATIONAL TOBACCO ENTERPRISE
BY
ESTIFANOS DAGNEW MITIKU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING

Defended date: 21 / 11 / 2015 G.C

APPROVAL BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS

_________________________________ _________________________________
CHAIRMAN SIGNATURE

_________________________________ ________________________________
ADVISOR SIGNATURE

________________________________ ________________________________
INTERNAL EXAMINER SIGNATURE

________________________________ _______________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER SIGNATURE
 Certification
The undersigned certify that he has read and hereby recommend for the acceptance by the Addis
Ababa University a thesis entitled: Power Quality Problems and Mitigation Techniques,
under the case study of National Tobacco Enterprise, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Electrical Power Engineering.

Dr.-Ing. Getachew Biru ______________________ ______________________

Advisor Signature Date
 Declaration
I, Estifanos Dagnew, declare that this MSc thesis is my original work and has not been presented
for the fulfillment of a degree in this or any other university, and all sources and materials used
for the thesis have been acknowledged.

Signature: _________________ Date: _____________________

DEDICATED
TO
MY FATHER
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my advisor [Link]. Getachew Biru for his
guidance, constructive comments, suggestions and encouragement from the start of the study up
to the final work of the paper. He read all the drafts of my thesis and taught me to be thorough in
analyzing problems and rigorous in presenting ideas. This thesis would not have been possible
without his support and guidance.

I would like to extend my greatest gratitude to Electrical Department workers of National

Tobacco Enterprise, with special thanks to Ato Yossef for providing me invaluable information
and facilities during the study period.

I am very grateful to my loving and caring parents for their persistent guidance and
encouragement throughout my academic career. I want them to know that I respect and always
keep in my memory their boundless and valuable support, beyond a simple thank you.
I would also like to thank my friends for their support and love throughout the entire time.

Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all those who
have contributed, directly or indirectly, in accomplishing this research.

I
 ABSTRACT

The electrical energy is one of the easily used forms of energy and with the advancement of
technology; the dependency on the electrical energy has been increased greatly. However, the
quality of power being supplied is affected by various internal and external factors of the power
system and the presence of power quality problems deteriorate the performance of the system.

Nowadays power quality problem is an issue to the industrial customers. As a result, many of the
industries in our country faced with the problem of power quality, having various causes. In this
thesis work the assessment of power quality problems of National Tobacco Enterprise which is
located in Addis Ababa and its mitigation techniques have been studied. The study focuses on
investigating and identifying the power quality problems of the industry as per IEEE standards.

The data required for the study is collected from the industry using Fluke 434/435 three phase
Power Quality Analyzer and from recorded data. Based on the measurement the following data
have been recorded; oscillatory transient that reaches two times as much the standard voltage,
voltage sags which is less than 90% of the rms voltage, sustained power interruptions for 5-6 hrs
per week, voltage unbalance of 2.62% and current distortions of THD value that reach 18.33%.

The collected data have been analyzed and computer simulations are done using
MATLAB/SIMULINK model to show the effectiveness of mitigation techniques. In this thesis
pre-insertion resistor is used to mitigate the problem of oscillatory transient and the result
indicates that the transient voltage reduced from 510 V to 230 V. For the problem of voltage sag,
dynamic voltage restorer is identified as a solution and the results shows that the device restores
the voltage for the three phases from 202.86 V, 201.25 V, and 200.33 V, respectively to 230 V.
Single-tuned multi-branch filters that are 5th and 7th harmonic filters are designed and simulated
for the mitigation of harmonic distortion and the filters are filtered out the harmonics and reduces
the THD value from 18.33% to 3.97%. Standalone photovoltaic system is also designed as a
solution to sustained power interruptions and for the problem of voltage unbalance redistribution
of single phase loads equally among the three phases is taken as a mitigation technique.

Key Words: Power quality, power quality assessment, National Tobacco Enterprise, IEEE
standards, Mitigation Techniques, MATLAB/SIMULINK model.

II
 Table of Contents
Contents Page No

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………………….…..I
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………....II
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………...…VI
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………..VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………IX
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 3
1.5. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.6. Description of the Study Area .............................................................................................. 5
1.7. Outline of the Thesis ............................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2: POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS ASSESSMENT ................................................ 8
2.1. Power Quality Evaluation Procedure ................................................................................... 8
2.1.1. Identify Power Quality Problems .................................................................................. 8
[Link]. Transients ................................................................................................................ 8
[Link]. Short-Duration Voltage Variation......................................................................... 10
[Link]. Long Duration Voltage Variation ......................................................................... 11
[Link]. Voltage Unbalance ................................................................................................ 12
[Link]. Waveform Distortion ............................................................................................ 13
[Link]. Voltage Fluctuation ............................................................................................... 16
[Link]. Power Frequency Variations ................................................................................. 16
2.1.2. Power Quality Problem Characterization .................................................................... 17
2.1.3. Collection and Measurement of Data .......................................................................... 17
2.1.4. Data Analysis and Comparison with Standard Values ................................................ 18
2.1.5. Solutions to the Power Quality Problems .................................................................... 19

III
 2.2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3: POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT AND BENCHMARKING .................... 24
3.1. Transients ........................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.1. Effect Oscillatory Transient Overvoltage due to Capacitor Switching ....................... 25
3.2. Short Duration Voltage Variations ..................................................................................... 26
3.2.1. Effect of Voltage Sag on the Industry ......................................................................... 26
3.3. Long Duration Voltage Variations ..................................................................................... 28
3.4. Voltage Unbalance ............................................................................................................. 29
3.4.1. Causes and Effects of Voltage Unbalance in the Industry .......................................... 30
3.5. Harmonics .......................................................................................................................... 31
3.5.1. Sources and Effect of Harmonic Currents in the Industry........................................... 34
3.6. Flicker................................................................................................................................. 35
3.7. Power Frequency Variation ................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4: THE EXISTING POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND MITIGATION
TECHNIQUES ............................................................................................................................. 38
4.1. Mitigation of Oscillatory Transients .................................................................................. 38
4.2. Voltage Sag Mitigation using Dynamic Voltage Restorer ................................................. 39
4.2.1. Basic Configuration of DVR ................................................................................... 40
4.2.2. DVR Capacity and Specification ............................................................................. 41
4.2.3. Cost and Payback Period of DVR ............................................................................ 42
4.3. Mitigation of Voltage Unbalance ....................................................................................... 43
4.4. Harmonic Mitigation using Harmonic Filters .................................................................... 43
4.4.1. Design of Multi-Branch Single-Tuned Filter .............................................................. 49
4.4.2. Cost of Filter ................................................................................................................ 57
4.5. Solution to Sustained Interruptions .................................................................................... 57
4.5.1. Major Components of PV System ............................................................................... 59
[Link]. Solar PV Array...................................................................................................... 60
[Link]. Rechargeable Batteries.......................................................................................... 62
[Link]. Charge Controllers ................................................................................................ 62
[Link]. Inverter .................................................................................................................. 62
4.5.2. Photovoltaic System Design ........................................................................................ 62

IV
 [Link]. PV Array Sizing .................................................................................................... 63
[Link]. Sizing of the Battery ............................................................................................. 64
[Link]. Solar Charge Controller Sizing ............................................................................. 66
[Link]. Inverter Design...................................................................................................... 66
4.5.3. Automatic Transfer Switch.......................................................................................... 67
4.5.4. Cost Analysis for PV System and ATS ....................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 5: SIMULATION STUDIES AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .......................... 73
5.1. Mitigation of Oscillatory Transients .................................................................................. 73
5.2. Mitigation of Voltage Sag Problem ................................................................................... 76
5.3. Mitigation of Harmonic Pollution ...................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
FUTURE WORK .......................................................................................................................... 82
6.1. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 82
6.2. Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 83
6.3. Suggestions for Future Work ............................................................................................. 84
References ..................................................................................................................................... 85
APPENDIX A: EQUIPMENT OVERVIEW OF FLUKE 434/435 THREE PHASE POWER
QUALITY ANALYZER .............................................................................................................. 88
APPENDIX B: SAMPLE FIELD MEASUREMENT DATA FROM THE INDUSTRY ........... 90
APPENDIX C: DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SINGLE-TUNED FILTER DESIGN ................ 92
APPENDIX D: LOAD TYPES AND SIZES DATA ................................................................... 93
APPENDIX E: ELECTRICAL SIMUINK MODELS FOR SIMULATION............................... 95

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Single Line Diagram of National Tobacco Enterprise………………………………...6

Figure 2.1 Lightning stroke current impulsive transient………………………………………......9
Figure 2.2 Oscillatory transient………………………………………………………………......10
Figure 2.3 Monitoring location and point of common coupling………………………………....18
Figure 2.4 Basic steps involved in a power quality evaluation…………………………………..19
Figure 3.1 Measured value of voltage waveform for oscillatory transient……………….……...24
Figure 3.2 Percent Temperature Rise Due to Voltage Unbalance…………………………….....31
Figure 3.3 Harmonic spectrum……………………………………………………………….….34
Figure 3.4 Current waveform…………………………………………………………………….34
Figure 4.1 Location of DVR…………………………………………………………………......39
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of DVR………………………………………………………......41
Figure 4.3 Insertion of DVR for voltage sag mitigation………………………………………....42
Figure 4.4 Common passive filter configurations……………………………………………......44
Figure 4.5 Three-branch filters………………………………………………………………......46
Figure 4.6 5th harmonic filter branch with designed values……………………………………...54
Figure 4.7 7th harmonic filter branch with designed values………………………………....…...56
Figure 4.8 PV system block diagram…………………………………………………………….60
Figure 4.9 Block diagram showing the working principle of ATS………………………..….….67
Figure 5.1 Oscillatory transient voltage waveform without pre-insertion resistor…………...….73
Figure 5.2 Oscillatory transient current waveform without pre-insertion resistor……….……....74
Figure 5.3 Oscillatory transient voltage waveform with pre-insertion resistor………………….75
Figure 5.4 Oscillatory transient current waveform with pre-insertion resistor…………………..75
Figure 5.5 Voltage sag problem without DVR…………..……………………………………....76
Figure 5.6 Injected voltage by DVR……………………………………......................................77
Figure 5.7 Voltage sag with DVR…………………….………………………………………….77
Figure 5.8 Harmonic currents injected by non-linear loads………………….………………..…78
Figure 5.9 Current waveform without filter………...…………………………………………....78
Figure 5.10 FFT analysis of the harmonic currents before filtering…………………………..…79
Figure 5.11 Current waveform with filter………………………………………………………..80

VI
Figure 5.12 FFT analysis of the harmonic currents after filtering…………………………….....80
Figure A.1 Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer………………………………...88
Figure C.1 Decision flow chart for single-tuned filter design…………………………………...92
Figure E.1 Simulink model for oscillatory transient…………………………………………..…95
Figure E.2 Simulink model for oscillatory transient with pre-insertion resistor………………...95
Figure E.3 Simulink model of voltage sag without DVR……………………………………..…96
Figure E.4 Simulink model of DVR…………………………………………………………..…96
Figure E.5 Simulink model of voltage sag with DVR…………………………………………...97
Figure E.6 Simulink model without filter………………………………………………………..97
Figure E.7 Simulink model with filter…………………………………………………………...98

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Events Table for short and long duration voltage variations…………………….…....28
Table 3.2 Measurement results of maximum voltage unbalances at the industry………….…....29
Table 3.3 Current distortion limits for general distribution systems (120 V to 69 000 V)……...32
Table 3.4 Voltage distortion limits………………………………………………………….…...32
Table 3.5 Maximum voltage and current harmonics level at NTE…………………………........33
Table 3.6 Measured values of Pst and Plt ……………………………………………………......36
Table 3.7 Frequency variation measurements…………………………………………………...37
Table 4.1 Maximum Recommended Limits for Continuous Operation of Shunt
Capacitors under Contingency Conditions………………………………………………………49
Table 4.2 Recorded data of the power and power factor………………………………………...49
Table 4.3 Comparison Table comparing filter duty limit of 5th harmonic filter…………………53
Table 4.4 Comparison Table comparing filter duty Limit of 7th harmonic filter…………...……56
Table 4.5 Design parameters of multi-branch harmonic filter……………………………...……57
Table 4.6 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia - Solar energy and surface meteorology…………………..….61
Table 4.7 Cost summary of the PV system……………………………………………………....69
Table B.1 Sample Measurement of Voltage Unbalance…………………………………………90
Table B.2 Sample Measurement of Harmonics Trend and Current Measurement………………90
Table B.3 Sample Measurement of Power and Power Factor…………………………………....91
Table B.4 Sample Measurement of Flicker……………………………………………………....91
Table D.1 Existing Load Data of NTE…………………………………………………………..93

VIII
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current
Ah Ampere Hours
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ATS Automatic Transfer Switch
CBEMA Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association
DC Direct Current
DOA Days of Autonomy
DOD Depth of Discharge
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
EEPCo Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
GTO Gate Turn-Off thyristor
IEC International Electro technical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE Std Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standard
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors
ITIC Information Technology Industry Council
KV Kilo Volt
KVA Kilo volt ampere
KVAR Kilo Volt ampere reactive
KW Kilo Watt
MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
ms Millisecond
NEMA National Equipment Manufacturers Association
NTE National Tobacco Enterprise
Plt Long-term flicker severity
Pst Short-term flicker severity

IX
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PLC Programmable Logic Controllers
PQ Power Quality
PU Per Unit
PV Photovoltaic
RMS Root Mean Square
TCF Temperature Correction Factor
TDD Total Demand Distortion
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
THDI Current Total Harmonic Distortion
THDv Voltage Total Harmonic Distortion
VSC Voltage Source Converter
VSD Variable Speed drives

X
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

[Link]

Electrical energy is the most efficient and popular form of energy and the modern society is
heavily dependent on the electric supply. Today it is difficult to imagine life without supply of
electricity. In recent times, electric utilities, academic and research centers, equipment
manufacturers, industries and other end users of electric power are becoming increasingly
concerned about the quality of electric power because it is very important for the efficient
functioning of the end user equipments. Thus maintaining power quality is very essential [1].

Power quality is an issue that is becoming increasingly important to both utilities and electricity
consumers at all levels of usage. The term PQ has been widely used by many industrial and
commercial electricity end-users. The quality of power is affected if there is any deviation in the
voltage, current or frequency values at which the power is being supplied. This affects the
performance and life time of the end user equipment. So to maintain the continuity of the power
being supplied, the faults should be cleared at a faster rate and for this the power system
switching equipment should be designed to operate without any time lag [1].

Whenever the issue of power quality is raised, the utility has the responsibility to produce sine
wave voltage; whereas, end-use customers have the responsibility to limit the harmonic currents
their electric loads inject into the utility system. The utility is therefore required to supply its
customers with a certain minimum quality of electric power, while end users should on their
parts limit the power quality disturbances they inject into the power system. In our country, most
of the electric power quality problems occur in the industries. Typical power quality phenomena
include harmonics, transients, short-duration voltage variations, long duration voltage variations,
voltage imbalance, voltage fluctuations, and power frequency variations.

This thesis is mainly concerned on power quality problems existing in National Tobacco
Enterprise these are: oscillatory transient overvoltage, voltage sags, sustained power
interruptions, voltage unbalance and harmonic pollutions. These PQ problems have significant
adverse effects on the power system and equipments of the industry.

1
[Link] of the Problem

An electric utility should supply electric power at a certain minimum quality standard to its
customers and the customers are allowed to draw a certain permissible degree of distorted
current. In most of the countries standards and regulations have developed for the attainment of
the desired electric power quality. In the case of Ethiopia electric power quality problems have a
huge impact on industrial plants, governmental and non-governmental organizations, business
centers, commercial centers, residences and other end electric power users for the achievement
of their goals.

The motivating factor to work on this thesis is the occurrence of different power quality
problems in the industry. Among the PQ problems oscillatory transient overvoltage which is
caused by capacitor bank energization have the effect of malfunctioning sensitive power
electronic device and data corruption. Voltage sags caused by short circuit faults occurred in the
industry power system resulting in failure of the breaker to trip in case of a fault detected by the
protective relays due to prolonged exposure of short circuit currents, the tripping of controls to
the dc drives, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and the remote I/O units, for instance, have
been found to trip which leads to a partly shut down of production for hours or even days leading
to significant financial losses and reduction of efficiency and life span of electrical equipments,
particularly motors. The frequent sustained power interruptions affect the production process;
causing downtimes of several machines and left labors without work as a result this costs the
industry huge amount of money annually. Voltage unbalances due to uneven single-phase load
distribution among the three phases. The utilization of non-linear loads is increasing by the end
users and these loads inject harmonic currents into the power system. Noticeably, the harmonic
currents are potentially dangerous in negatively affecting both the utility and end-users of
electric power.

Thus, the study focuses on finding solutions and appropriate mitigation techniques to the existing
power quality problems and improving the profitability of the industry.

2
[Link]

General Objective

The main objective of this thesis is assessing the quality of the electrical power in National
Tobacco Enterprise and based on the assessment investigating the level of power quality
disturbances to the industry loads.

Specific objective

The specific objectives of this study are to:

1. identify and examine the power quality problems that arises in National Tobacco
Enterprise,
2. compare the level of those disturbances with acceptable values set by IEEE standards
3. identify the causes and adverse impacts of the identified PQ problems,
4. study and design appropriate mitigation techniques to the existing PQ problems,
5. design and simulate the impact of pre insertion resistors, dynamic voltage restore and
harmonic filters for mitigation of oscillatory transients, voltage sags and harmonic
distortions, respectively.
6. draw relevant conclusions and recommendation for the industry.

[Link] of the Study

The output of the study is significant for the industry because the paper addresses the existing
power quality problems and if the industry implements the solutions provided it protects their
equipments from the effect of different power quality problems that result from capacitor bank
switching, system faults, and injection of harmonic currents which arises from non linear loads,
it increases the efficiency and performance of their equipments and it saves the money they lost
due to poor power quality which causes production loss, damage to sensitive electronic devices
and reduction of equipment efficiency. The study may also be used as a reference and may
provide foundation for further research on similar areas of study by other researchers.

3
[Link]

The research methodologies and the flow of the research are presented as follows:

a. Literature review: a number of published ideas about power quality problems

assessment and mitigation techniques in books, papers, articles, journals, lecture notes,
materials have been reviewed.
b. Walk-through tour: to become familiar with the electrical system of the industry and
examine the power quality problems.
c. Interview: with electrical personnel to obtain detailed information about power quality
problems
d. Data collection: the power quality measurement is taken from the secondary of service
transformers of the industry using Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer.
A “Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer” is a portable device utilized for
measurement. The device can measure three-phase and phase-to-neutral true rms voltage
on all three phases, equivalent three phase current and true rms current per phase, total
three phase power and power per phase, total three phase power factor and power factor
per phase, reactive and apparent three phase system power, frequency, active and reactive
energy consumption/export, voltage and current total harmonic distortion per phase.
e. Data analysis: the aforementioned collected data have been analyzed and compared to
the IEEE Standard 1159-1995.
f. Propose solution: appropriate solutions for power quality problems exceeding limits.
g. Modeling and Simulation: using MATLAB/SIMULINK software modeling and
simulation of power quality problems have been carried out for the modeled networks.
h. Analysis of the result: analyze the results of the simulation obtained from the simulating
software.
i. Conclusion and recommendations: significant for the industry have been made.

4
[Link] of the Study Area

In this research the selected site for case study is National Tobacco Enterprise which is located in
ADDIS ABABA LIDETA sub-city. National Tobacco Enterprise (Ethiopia) Share Company
(NTE) was established as per the Tobacco Regie Act No.30, 2nd year Negarit Gazetta, No.2/1935
as “Imperial Ethiopian Tobacco Monopoly” with paid up capital of 50,000 ‘Mariatereza’. It
started its work with a single cigarette machine and a single brand, Nigusu. The production
capacity of the machine was 300 pieces per hour.

In 1981 the Enterprise was re-structured by proclamation No.1971/1981 and has become the
“National Tobacco and Match Corporation” with the capital outlay of 80 million Ethiopian Birr.
Later, the Enterprise has again been re-organized as “National Tobacco Enterprise” in
accordance with proclamation No. 37/1992. In article 4 of this proclamation the enterprise has
been given an exclusive right to produce, process, manufacture, distribute, import and export
tobacco and tobacco products in Ethiopia.

Currently the Company is among the top public enterprises in terms of annual turnover,
profitability, and its contribution to the economy as a whole. Annual turnover has continually
increased, on average by Birr 190 million, during the previous five years period. Similarly, its
contribution to the economy in terms of taxes paid, dividend to the share holders and job creation
to the citizen as a whole is persistently increasing. Annual tax related contribution to the
economy (VAT, Excise tax, Income tax, dividend tax etc) has currently reached more than Birr
700 million. In addition to this, the Enterprise with one cigarette factory at Addis Ababa and four
tobacco development farms at ShewaRobit, Awassa, Bilatie and Wolaita has employed more
than 934 permanent employees and 3,305 temporary and casual workers.

The enterprise is supplied through a 15 kV feeder emanating from the near substation. The
factory contains two, 630 KVA transformers that supply power to the different processes like
steam drier machines, thresher line, blending box, tobacco conditioner, conveyors, and lighting.
Due to the huge investment and the expensive equipments found in the factory problems
associated with power quality should be studied before any major equipment failure or
production loss occurs.

5
Figure1.1 Single Line Diagram of National Tobacco Enterprise

6
[Link] of the Thesis

The thesis is organized into 6 chapters namely Introduction, Fundamentals of Power Quality
Problems, Power Quality Field Measurement Values, Mitigation Techniques to the existing
Power Quality Problems, Simulation Results and Discussions and the last one is Conclusion and
Recommendation.

Chapter 1 discusses the introduction part in which the background, problem statement, literature
review, objective, significance of the study, methodology and description of the study area are
included.

Chapter 2 presents about the power quality problems assessment. This chapter discusses the
power quality evaluation procedures and the seven types of power quality problems categorized
by IEEE Standard 519-1995 in conjunction with their causes and adverse effects on the power
system.

Chapter 3 outlines the power quality measurement and benchmarking and the measurement
results are described along with the standard values.

Chapter 4 discusses the existing power quality problems and mitigation techniques. Proposed
solutions and mitigation techniques are discussed and designed in detail to alleviate the
problems.

Chapter 5 presents simulation studies and discussion of results. In this part, the designed
solutions are simulated using simulating software to see their effects and the level of mitigation
techniques.

Chapter 6 is the last chapter, discussed conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for future
work. The conclusions drawn from the research work, recommended solutions and areas of study
suggested for further research are included in this chapter.

7
 CHAPTER 2

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS ASSESSMENT

In an electrical power system, there are various kinds of power quality disturbances. They are
classified into different categories and their descriptions are important in order to classify
measurement results and to describe electromagnetic phenomena, which can cause power quality
problems. To study the PQ problems a general purpose power quality evaluation (assessment)
procedure is followed [2]:

[Link] Quality Evaluation Procedure

Power quality assessment procedure provides a general framework that contains all the possible
elements that may be needed for power quality study. From a general purpose power quality
assessment, all the major disturbances associated with the power system are investigated in this
research. The investigation emphasizes only on the existing power quality problems. The power
quality evaluation procedure followed in this research includes the following general steps [3].

2.1.1. Identify Power Quality Problems

It is the first and basic step in the task of power quality assessment. The specific power quality
problems that need to be evaluated will be different from customer to customer. A review of the
types of equipment used by the customer, process requirements and economic impacts of
problems will lead to a list of problems that need to be studied. They can include possible
problems with both the utility distribution system and the customer facilities [3].

However, the IEEE Standard 1159-1995, classifies the power quality problem into seven major
categories described as follows:

[Link].Transients

Transients are undesirable momentary changes in voltage and/or current signals in the power
system. There are many causes due to which transients are produced in the power system. Some
of them are: Arcing between the contacts of the switches, sudden switching of loads, poor or

8
loose connections, and lightning strokes. These transients are categorized into impulsive and
oscillatory transients [4].

a. Impulsive Transient

An impulsive transient is “a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity”. Impulsive transients are normally
characterized by their rise and decay times, which can also be revealed by their spectral content.
Impulsive transients are generally caused by lightning strikes. An impulsive transient due to
lightning strokes can occur because of a direct strike to a power line or from magnetic induction
or capacitive coupling from strikes on adjacent lines [5].

Figure 2.1 Lightning stroke current impulsive transient.

b. Oscillatory Transient

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current or both that includes both positive and negative polarity values. An oscillatory
transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes polarity rapidly. It is
described by its spectral content, duration, and magnitude.
They are characterized by fluctuations in the measured quantity at very high frequencies. These
can be further classified according to their frequency as high frequency transients (transients
with a primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration measured in
microseconds), medium frequency transients (transients with a primary frequency component

9
between 5 and 500 kHz with duration measured in tens of microseconds.) or low frequency
transients (transients with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz and duration of from
0.3 to 50 ms), with the cause of the fault dependent upon the frequency. Due to the high
frequency spectral contents of the oscillatory transients, they have undesirable effects of
electromagnetic interference. High magnitude oscillatory transients can also damage electrical
and electronic equipments due to the over voltage condition. Utility switching and capacitor
energization are just two causes of oscillatory transient faults [6].

Figure 2.2 Oscillatory transient

[Link].Short-Duration Voltage Variation

These types of disturbance include root mean square (rms) voltage variations at power
frequencies for a period of less than one minute. They are caused by faulty conditions,
energization of large loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections
in the power wiring. Based on the type of fault, the short duration voltage variation may be
classified into voltage sag (dip), voltage rise (swell), or interruption [3].

a. Voltage Sag

Voltage sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 PU in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 minute [6].
10
Voltage sags are usually caused by system faults, energization of heavy loads, or starting of large
motors that draw very large amount of current during startup (an induction motor will draw 6 to
10 times its full load current during start-up). Possible effect of voltage sags would be system
shutdown or reduce efficiency and life span of electrical equipment, particularly motors.

b. Voltage Swell

A swell (also known as momentary overvoltage) is an increase in rms voltage or current at the
power frequency to between 1.1 and 1.8 PU for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 min. Swells are
commonly caused by system fault conditions, switching off a large load or energizing a large
capacitor bank [6].

c. Interruption

An interruption occurs when there is a reduction of the supply voltage or load current to less than
0.1 PU for a duration not exceeding 1 minute [6].

Interruptions are the result of equipment failures, power system faults and control malfunctions.
The interruptions are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is always less than
10 percent of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the utility system is
determined by the operating time of utility protective devices. Delayed reclosing of the
protective device may cause a momentary or temporary interruption. The duration of an
interruption can be irregular when it is due to equipment malfunctions or loose connections.

[Link].Long Duration Voltage Variation

Long duration voltage variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power

frequencies for longer than 1 minute. They are usually not caused by system faults but system
switching operations and load variations on the system. The long duration voltage variation may
be either of an under voltage, over voltage or sustained interruption as discussed below [3].

a. Overvoltage

An overvoltage is defined as an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110% at the power
frequency for duration of longer than 1 min. Overvoltages can be the result of switching off a

11
large load, energizing a capacitor bank or incorrect tap settings on transformers. These occur
mainly because either the voltage controls are inadequate or the system is too weak for voltage
regulation. Possible effect could be hardware failure in the equipment due to overheating and
insulation flashover of utility equipments [6].

b. Undervoltage

An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90% at the power frequency for a
period of time greater than 1 minute. Undervoltage is the result of switching on a load, a
capacitor bank switching off or overloaded circuits. The root cause of most problems of under
voltage is that there is too much impedance in the power system to properly supply the load.
Therefore, the terminal voltage drops too low under heavy load due to the weak power system
(high voltage drop on the line). Conversely, when the source voltage is boosted to overcome the
impedance, there can be an over voltage condition when the load drops too low. Possible effects
include system shutdown, malfunctioning of certain equipments, and equipment operation at
reduced efficiency [6].

c. Sustained Interruption

When the supply voltage has been zero or drops to less than 10% of the nominal value for a
period of time greater than 1 minute. Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are sometimes
permanent and require human intervention to repair the system for restoration. Interruptions can
result from control malfunction, faults, or improper breaker tripping [6].

[Link].Voltage Unbalance

Voltage unbalance (or imbalance) is non-equalization of the three phase voltages. It is a

condition in which the maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase voltages or
currents, divided by the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in percentage.
The primary source of voltage unbalances of less than 2 percent is single-phase loads on a three-
phase circuit. Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-
phase capacitor bank. Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent) can result from single-
phasing conditions. In addition to these causes unidentified single-phase to ground faults, an

12
open circuit on the distribution system primary, unbalanced or unstable utility supply, unequal
line impedances are also some of the causes of voltage unbalance [7].

Voltage unbalance degrades the performance and shortens the life of a three-phase motor.
Voltage unbalance at the motor stator terminals cause phase current unbalance far out of
proportion to the voltage unbalance. Unbalanced currents lead to increased vibrations and
mechanical stresses, increased losses, and motor overheating, which results in a shorter winding
insulation life [7].

[Link].Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is a condition whereby a steady-state deviations of the voltage and/or

current waveform from an ideal sine wave of power frequency. There are generally five types of
waveform distortion, namely, dc offset, harmonics, interharmonics, notching and noise.

a. DC Offset

DC offset is the presence of a dc current or voltage in an ac power system. This can occur due to
the effect of half-wave rectification. Direct current found in alternating current networks can
have a harmful effect. This can cause additional heating and destroy the transformer [3].

b. Harmonics

Harmonics is a growing problem for both electricity suppliers and users. A harmonics is defined
as a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency usually 50Hz or 60Hz. Distorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the harmonics. Harmonic distortion
originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads on the power system [6].

Harmonics refers to both current and voltage harmonics. Harmonic voltages occur as a result of
current harmonics, which are created by non linear electronic loads. These nonlinear loads will
draw a distorted current waveform from the supply system. Loads like electric arc furnaces,
discharge lighting (such as fluorescent lamps), magnetic cores, such as transformer and rotating
machines that require third harmonic current to excite the iron, adjustable speed drives used in
fans, blowers, pumps, and process drives can cause harmonic distortion. The effect of harmonics
13
in the power system includes the corruption and loss of data, overheating or damage to sensitive
equipment and overloading of capacitor banks. The high frequency harmonics may also cause
interference to nearby telecommunication system.

Using the Fourier series expansion, we can represent a distorted periodic wave shape by its
fundamental and harmonics [1].
∞

u(t) = Udc + ∑(U(n)s sin(nωt) + U(n)c cos(nωt)) … … … … … … … … . . (2.1)

n=1

The coefficients are obtained as follows:

1 2π
U(n)s = ∫ u(t) sin(nωt) dωt … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2.2)
π 0
1 2π
U(n)c = ∫ u(t) cos(nωt) dωt … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2.3)
π 0
2π
Where n is an integer and ω = .T is the fundamental period time.
T

It is also common to use a single quantity, the total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of
the effective value of harmonic distortion. Mathematically, THD values of voltage and current,
THDU and THDI, respectively, are given as follows:

√ ∑∞ 2
n=2 U(n)
THDU = × 100 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … . (2.4)
U(1)

√ ∑∞ 2
n=2 I(n)
THDI = × 100 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2.5)
I(1)

1 T
Effective value URMS = √T ∫0 u(t)2 dt = U(1) √1 + THD2U … … … … … … (2.6)

1 T
IRMS = √T ∫0 i(t)2 dt = I(1) √1 + THD2I … … … … … … . . (2.7)

For characterizing harmonic currents in a consistent fashion, IEEE Standard 519-1992 defines
another term, the total demand distortion (TDD). This term is the same as the total harmonic
distortion except that the distortion is expressed as a percent of some rated load current rather
than as a percent of the fundamental current magnitude at the instant of measurement [3].

14
 √∑∞ 2
h=2 Ih
TDD = × 100 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2.8)
IL
Where, Ih is the harmonic currents,
IL is the rated load-current.

The development of current distortion limits is to:

1. Reduce the harmonic injection from each single consumer so that they will not cause
unacceptable voltage distortion levels for normal system characteristics.
2. Restrict the overall harmonic distortion of the system voltage supplied by the utility.

c. Interharmonics

Interharmonics are defined as voltages or currents having frequency components that are not
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate.
Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes. The main sources of
interharmonic are cycloconverters, static frequency converters and arcing devices. It is generally
the result of frequency conversion activities and is often not constant; it varies with load. Such
interharmonic currents can excite quite severe resonances on the power system as the varying
interharmonic frequency becomes coincident with natural frequencies of the system [7].

d. Notching

A periodic voltage disturbance caused by normal operation of power electronic devices when
current is commutated from one phase to another is notching. It tends to occur continuously and
can be characterized through the harmonic spectrum of the affected voltage [6].

f. Noise

Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral
conductors.

Noise in power systems can be caused by power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing
equipment, loads with solid-state rectifiers, and switching power supplies. Noise problems are

15
often exacerbated by improper grounding that fails to conduct noise away from the power
system. Basically, noise consists of any unwanted distortion of the power signal that cannot be
classified as harmonic distortion or transients. The problem can be mitigated by using filters,
isolation transformers, and line conditioners [6].

[Link].Voltage Fluctuation

Voltage fluctuation is defined as the random variations of the voltage envelope where the
magnitude does not exceed the voltage ranges of 0.9 to 1.1 PU. Higher power loads that draw
current which bears continuous and rapid variations in its magnitude can cause voltage
fluctuations [6].

The term flicker is derived from the impact of the voltage fluctuation on lamps such that they are
perceived by the human eye to flicker. The flicker signal is measured by its rms magnitude
expressed as a percent of the fundamental whereas voltage flicker is measured with respect to the
sensitivity of human eye. It is possible for lamp to flicker if the magnitudes are as low as 0.5%
and the frequencies are in the range of 6 to 8 Hz. One common cause of voltage fluctuations on
utility transmission and distribution system is the arc furnace [7].

[Link].Power Frequency Variations

Any deviation of the power system fundamental frequency from its nominal value (usually 50 or
60 Hz) is defined as power frequency variations. The power system frequency is associated with
the rotational speed of the generators supplying the system. Frequency variations occur as the
dynamic balance between load and generation changes. The size of the frequency deviation and
its duration depend on the load characteristics and the response of the generation control system
to load changes [6].

Frequency variations can be the cause of faults on power transmission system, large load being
disconnected or a large source of generation going off-line. Frequency variations usually occur
for loads that are supplied by a generator isolated from the utility system. The response to sudden
load changes may not be sufficient to adjust within the narrow bandwidth required by frequency
sensitive equipment. Possible effect could result in data loss, system crashes and equipment
damage [8].

16
2.1.2. Power Quality Problem Characterization

Electrical characteristics of the problems are discussed along with the system response at
different conditions at this step. The problems listed above can be described further by listing
appropriate characteristics. For steady-state phenomena, the following characteristics can be
used: amplitude, frequency, and spectrum. On the other hand, for non-steady state phenomena,
the following characteristics are required for describing the power quality problem, rate of rise,
duration, and rate of occurrence [3].

Moreover, all the potential causes of the power quality problems are identified including their
natures of occurrence and levels of severity. It is also that impacts of the power quality
disturbances on utility and end-user equipments are discussed.

2.1.3. Collection and Measurement of Data

Having identified the nature of causes of the power quality problems, the point that from where
and when to take measurements are decided at this step.

The power quality monitoring period should capture a complete power period, an interval in
which the power usage pattern begins to repeat itself. Measurements are also taken while all the
machines of the industry are working at the same time, to see the cumulative characteristics of
the industrial loads. For instance, an industrial plant may repeat its power usage pattern each day,
or each specified period depending on the largeness of the plant and the time-pattern of operation
of its machines. The task of data collection is accomplished through direct measurement, from
recorded data and equipment/ wiring specifications, and by asking the personnel who is in
charge.

To assess the quality of electric power supplied to industrial plants and power quality
disturbances of the industries entering into the electric power system, monitoring will typically
be performed at the service entrance points of the industry. The Points of Common Coupling
(PCC) are the tapping points on the 15 kV feeders to the plant. However, as the distance, and in
turn the line impedance, from the tapping point to the primary of the service transformers is
negligible, the primaries of service transformers are taken as points of common couplings. The
monitoring locations and PCC are shown in the figure 2.3 [3].

17
 Figure 2.3 Monitoring location and point of common coupling.

2.1.4. Data Analysis and Comparison with Standard Values

Data obtained through measurements and from recorded sources are analyzed. Having made
suitable analysis, the data obtained are computed and compared with permissible values set by
some standards such as IEEE recommended practice for power quality monitoring, IEEE
recommended practice for harmonic control, National Equipment Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) [8].

The computed values above are utilized to benchmark the result of the power quality assessment
with a standard tolerable value. The benchmarking process is made with the Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) or Information Technology Industry Council
(ITIC) curves for voltage variation, the harmonic voltage and current limits of IEEE Std. 519-
1992, the voltage fluctuation curves, and the derating curve for unbalanced operation [8].

18
2.1.5. Solutions to the Power Quality Problems

Once the cause and electrical characteristics of a certain power quality problem are identified,
the solution to those power-quality-problems will be discovered. At this step, the technical
feasibility of alternative solutions is also investigated through electrical modeling and simulation
to see how much the problem is solved and the system performance at different working
conditions. Once the range of technical solutions are identified, economic analysis need to be
performed to decide whether or not application of the specific solution has economic advantage.
However, when regulatory limits are violated, solutions are recommended to the plant not to
enable the plant to earn economic advantages but to meet regulations.

Figure 2.4 Basic steps involved in a power quality evaluation [3].

19
2.2 Literature Review

Power quality is a set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its
intended manner without significant loss of performance. In other words power quality problem
is any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in failure
or mis-operation of customer equipment. IEEE Standard 1159 defines power quality as the
concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable for the
operation of that equipment [3].

Now-a-days the customers use large number of devices at their installations that consist of power
electronics. The residential customers use different domestic appliances such as televisions,
video cassette recorders, microwave ovens, personal computers, heating-ventilation-air
conditioning equipments, dishwashers, dryers etc. The business and office equipments include
workstations, personal computers, copiers, printers, lighting etc. On the other hand, the industrial
customers use programmable logic controllers (PLC), automation and data processors, variable
speed drives, soft starters, inverters, computerized numerical control tools and so on. Presently,
many customers use compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) for lighting their installations. Many of
these devices are quite sensitive to power quality disturbances [8].

Case studies and surveys in different countries around the world have been done to estimate the
impacts of poor power quality to the customers. Manufacturers of electrical and electronic
equipments and end users of electric power are challenging utilities to upgrade the quality of
their electric power supplies. Utilities on the other hand are forcing end-users to mitigate the
quality of electric current they draw. The issue of power quality has reached up to making
national regulations in some countries. The following are some of the works done before on
power quality problems and mitigation techniques.

Harjit Singh Birdi, (2006) [9], describes a technique to automate the classification and analysis
of the power quality events using relay recorded data. The technique uses voltage duration and
magnitude (as specified in the IEEE Std. 1159 - 1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for
Monitoring Electric Power Quality) of three phases to detect and classify the events. The
classified results are then presented in a user-friendly graphical form. Fast Fourier

20
Transformation (FFT) is used to estimate the fundamental frequency and harmonic components
in power systems.

Hussein Mohamed El-Eissawi Fathi, (2012) [10], investigates and mitigate the power quality
problems in nuclear installations. Normally electrical power is supplied to the installations via
two sources and each source is designed to carry the full load. The assessment of power quality
was performed at the nuclear installations for both sources at different operating conditions. In
both sources there were several disturbances, which exceeded the thresholds of the power quality
standards defined by IEEE Std. 1159 - 1995. Effective and economic mitigation techniques were
suggested to the power quality problems occurred.

Jeff McGuire, (1999) [11], presents three case studies on power quality. The first case study was
conducted at the Caltex Oil Refinery in the Brisbane suburb of Lytton for duration of 17 days,
followed by a study in the Chemistry building at the University of Queensland for 11days, before
the final study in the laser laboratory within the Physics building also at the University of
Queensland is presented. A thorough description of the equipment used in the surveys is also
presented, as well as a description of the California Instruments AC Power Source- another piece
of equipment useful for studying power quality.

Alexandre Nassif, (2009) [12], presents an evaluation of the relative severity of the harmonic
currents from power electronic-based home appliances and the impact of the discrepancy of the
harmonic current phase angles. An investigation is carried out on the common filter topologies,
and the most cost-effective topologies for mitigating harmonics are identified. As many of the
larger harmonic loads also generate interharmonics, interharmonics have become prevalent in
today’s medium-voltage distribution system. Mitigation cannot be carried out until the
interharmonic source location is known. A method for interharmonic source determination is
proposed and then verified through simulation and field measurement studies.

Muhammad Yasir, (2011) [13], proposes generic evaluation approach for estimating the
financial impact of voltage sag events on customer operations. The proposed technique is based
on the event tree method. Using this approach, it is possible to consider the impacts of
operational failure of various sensitive equipments involved in the customer operations on the
financial losses expected from voltage sag events. A methodology, based on the developed

21
approach, is also proposed for analyzing the effectiveness and practical viability of various
voltage sag mitigation solutions. A quantitative case study is conducted in the thesis to illustrate
the applicability of the purposed approach. Moreover, a comparative assessment was made to
find out the applicability of various mitigation options. The method can be applied by customers
to select the most economical mitigation option for their operations.

Nexant SARI, (2003), [14], found that the main economic impact of power interruptions, both
planned and unplanned, is the loss of output in the industrial sector. These losses can be as high
as US$ 81 million annually (0.65%of GDP) under a typical scenario (300 hours of planned
outages) of imposing power interruptions such as those experienced during 2001. Also the
impact due to unplanned outages can be as high as US$ 47 million (0.38%of GDP) in a typical
year having 100 hours of unplanned outages. This is a significant economic loss especially in
comparison to the 4.5 %to 5%average GDP growth that has taken place in Sri Lanka during the
last few years. The economic losses due to planned and unplanned power interruptions can also
be expressed in other forms. One commonly used measure is the economic loss (in US$) per unit
of supply (kWh); identified as the cost of unserved energy. These findings emphasize the
importance of reducing both planned and unplanned interruptions.

[Link], Kamlesh Keharia, Rajesh Darapu, B. Mariappan, (2008) [15], presents a case
study of application of solid-state harmonic filter to improve electric power quality and reduce
energy consumption in textile industries. Detailed studies were carried out in various textile
firms in India and the effects of poor power quality especially harmonics were analyzed on the
productivity and energy consumption. Harmonic current generated by nonlinear loads like
motors driven by Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) cause power system heating and add to user
power bills. The harmonic related losses are present in the power cables, bus bars linking the
loads with source, the power transformer itself. A more serious effect of harmonic loads served
by transformer is due to an increase in winding eddy current losses. The heat generated due to
harmonics must be removed in order to save electrical energy, thus leading to savings in the
utility bill. The paper is a case study where a 1.5 MVA transformer used for powering the
spinning section of a textile mill. The current harmonics is recorded with & without using the
harmonic filter. The power parameters are recorded on both the primary & secondary side of

22
transformer to demonstrate how the harmonic filter can reduce the effects of harmonics and save
energy.

Franz Alois Hemetsberger, (2003) [16], identify power quality problems in the isolated Porgera
Mine System located in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea. For the problems identified,
recommendations are suggested to improve the power quality. The voltage sag caused by the
starting of large motors is investigated with measured data from the mine and simulated using a
power-system-computer-aided-design-software (PSCAD/EMTDC) to observe the extent of the
sag throughout the system. The extent of sags from faults is also simulated including some
mention of harmonics propagation. Results of the project include the total harmonic voltage
distortion being within IEEE standards, characterization of the measured voltage sags, the
severity of the sag throughout the system, identification that some sags fall below tolerance
curves for sensitive equipment according to the CBEMA curve and correct mitigation techniques
available for the problems identified. It was found that line conditioning practices at the mine are
adequate but advised that for further expansion a further voltage study be carried out.

23
 CHAPTER 3

POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT AND BENCHMARKING

The equipment used for power quality measurement is Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality
Analyzer, the detail of the instrument is described in Appendix A. The equipment measures the following
power quality problems:

[Link]

Transients are disturbances that occur for a very short duration. The main sources of transients
are lightning strokes (Impulsive Transients) and switching events (Oscillatory Transients) at
utilities and/or end-use customers [9]. During the period of monitoring, impulsive transients are
not seen because lightning protection systems are installed at NTE and the substation, the 132 kV
incoming overhead line, and distribution transformers. At the substation, 120 kV, 10 kA surge
arresters are also installed at each phase of the primary side of the transformers to absorb the
transient over voltages which may enter the power line past the lightning protection systems.

But there is frequent oscillatory transient for a period of 15.5 msec detected by the measurements
due to capacitor energization in the industry and it reaches up to 510 V which is twice as much
the standard voltage. The measured value for oscillatory transient is shown in figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Measured value of voltage waveform for oscillatory transient

24
3.1.1. Effect Oscillatory Transient Overvoltage due to Capacitor Switching

Transient overvoltages can cause damage to equipments if they are not adequately protected.
Transients can also reduce insulation life without causing immediate insulation failure.
Oscillatory transient overvoltage is a concern to the industries but most of the time not of
concern to the utility; since peak magnitudes are usually just below the level at which utility
overvoltage protection devices such as surge arresters begin to operate (about 180% of normal
peak operating voltage or above).

Transient overvoltages can cause the following in the connected load equipment: - Malfunction:
behavior other than expected but no immediate damage; Damage: equipment will no longer
function as designed. In NTE oscillatory transient overvoltages due to capacitor switching have
the following effects:

a. Sensitive electronic or power electronic equipment (e.g. programmable logic controllers

(PLC) and variable speed drives (VSD)), are particularly susceptible to such transient
effects and become malfunction or be damaged;
b. Nuisance tripping of variable speed drives;
c. High line-line overvoltages may result on a transformer due to the magnification effects
of power factor correction capacitors;
d. Computer network problems, e.g. data corruption.

Capacitor banks are used in the industries to improve the power factor. However, capacitor
switching gives rise to a transient overvoltage at the instant of switching. It is caused by the
inrush of current into the capacitor bank at the instant of switching.

Transient overvoltages due to capacitor switching can cause a wide range of problems, such as
tripping of variable speed drives (VSD’s) [11], and tripping of power supplies [17]. In order to
reduce the magnitude of this overvoltage, different methods should be applied.

25
[Link] Duration Voltage Variations

Short-duration voltage variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power

frequencies for less than 1 minute. In order to obtain good measuring data of short duration
voltage variations the measurements are taken at the secondary of the service transformer for the
duration of one week. The voltage variations under this category are the following:

a. Voltage Sag

During the measuring process in one week duration from dips & swells events table the voltage
sag is detected on phase 1, 2 and 3 and the voltage decreases to 202.86 V, 201.25 V, 200.33 V
for duration of 200 msec, respectively and occurred on the 3rd day at ([Link]). The problem is
caused by three phase short circuit fault at the electrical system of the industry and the
occurrence of short circuit is recognized when the circuit breakers connected to the machines trip
to clear the fault. The complete data for the voltage sag is obtained from annually recorded data
and interview with the section head. Therefore, it is necessary to find appropriate mitigation
technique to solve the problem.

3.2.1 Effect of Voltage Sag on the Industry

Voltage sags are the most costly of all power quality disturbances. While perhaps not as costly as
interruptions, voltage sags are much more prevalent and in some cases may have the same
impact as a supply interruption. Relatively shallow voltage sags can lead to the disruption of
manufacturing processes due to equipment being unable to operate correctly at the reduced
voltage levels. Industrial equipment such as variable speed drives and some control systems are
particularly sensitive to voltage sags. In many manufacturing processes, loss of only a few vital
pieces of equipment may lead to a full shut down of production; leading to significant financial
losses as well as the time taken to clean up and restart the process must also be considered.

At NTE, during the measuring process for voltage variation the problem of voltage sag was
occurred for a duration of 200 msec. caused by three phase short circuit fault resulting in tripping
of protective device. Based on this recorded data when we discuss with the electrical department
head of the industry about the problem he told me that short circuit faults are frequently occurred
in the industry due to insulation failure of windings, mechanical damage of wires and improper

26
wiring by technicians resulting in reduction of voltage profile, the problem of voltage sag
measured is an indicator for this.

Electronic process controls, sensors, computer controls, PLC’s and variable speed drives, even
conventional electrical relays are all to some degree susceptible to voltage sags. In many cases
one or more of these devices may trip if there is a voltage sag to less than 90% of nominal
voltage even if the duration is only for one or two cycles i.e. less than 100 milliseconds. The time
to restart production after such an unplanned stoppage can typically be measured in minutes,
hours or even days. Costs per event can be many tens of thousands of Dollars or Birr. The
resulting effect of voltage sag in the industry is failure of the breaker to trip in case of a fault
detected by the protective relays due to prolonged exposure of short circuit currents, failure of
sensors which check the quantity and proper packaging of cigarette, the tripping of controls to
the dc drives, and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) system is found in the industry which
is very sensitive to voltage sags and the remote I/O units, for instance, have been found to trip
which leads to a partly shut down of production for hours or even days leading to significant
financial losses. It also reduces efficiency and life span of electrical equipment, particularly
motors. In the industry these events occurred 40 to 45 times per year. As a result, the plant loses
huge amount of money, which is up to 1.6 million Birr/year ($80,000/year) (this includes
production loss, maintenance cost and workers salary payment without work).

b. Voltage Swell

It is an increase in rms voltage or current at the power frequency to between 1.1 and 1.8 PU for
durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 min. During the measurement event the problem of voltage swell
haven’t been detected in any of the three phases.

c. Interruptions

An interruption occurs when there is a reduction of the supply voltage or load current to less than
0.1 PU for a duration not exceeding 1 minute. In NTE, throughout the whole survey, there has
not been short-period interruption detected which lasted for a time duration of less than one
minute. Therefore, in the industry the occurrence of temporary interruption is rare; as a result no
need to install equipments for mitigation of temporary interruptions.

27
[Link] Duration Voltage Variations

a. Overvoltage

During the monitoring period, there is capacitor bank switching on and switching off of large
loads but this doesn’t cause a significant overvoltage in the system. As a result, no need to install
equipments for the mitigation of overvoltages.

b. Undervoltage

Throughout the measurement process noticeable result on undervoltage is not shown even if
there is switching off capacitor bank and switching on of large loads.

c. Sustained Interruptions

During the monitoring period frequent interruptions has occurred which lasted for longer than 1
minute. The interruptions occurred on the 2nd, 4th, and 7th day at ([Link], [Link], and
[Link] respectively). The cause of the interruption in the industry comes from the utility
system problems. Therefore, in order to protect sensitive and power electronic loads from
damage and loss of production, it is required to find a solution to this serious problem.

Table 3.1 Events Table for short and long duration voltage variations

Events ( 16/03/2015 - 22/03/2015)

Date Time Type Voltage Levels Duration

L1 L2 L3

16/03/2015 All day Normal Normal Normal Normal All Day

17/03/2015 [Link] Sustained interruption 0V 0V 0V 38 min.

18/03/2015 [Link] Voltage Dip 202.86 V 201.25 V 200.33 V 200 msec

19/03/2015 [Link] Sustained interruption 0V 0V 0V 108 min.

20/03/2015 All day Normal Normal Normal Normal All Day

21/03/2015 All day Normal Normal Normal Normal All Day

22/03/2015 [Link] Sustained interruption 0V 0V 0V 43 min

28
[Link] Unbalance

The measured values of maximum voltage unbalances at the industry to compute the percentage
of voltage unbalance at NTE are the following:

Table 3.2 Measurement results of maximum voltage unbalances at the industry.

Voltages Measured values in (V)

Phase to neutral V1 217.96
voltage V2 227.42
V3 219.46
Phase to phase V12 377.51
voltage V23 393.92
V31 380.12

According to the NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association of USA) standard

voltage unbalance is defined as the maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase
voltages or currents, divided by the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in
percentage, which is given by the following equation.

maximum deviation from mean of (V12 , V23 , V31 )

% Voltage unbalance = × 100 … … (3.1)
mean of (V12 , V23 , V31 )

Therefore,
mean of (V12 , V23 , V31 ) = 383.85 V

393.92 − 383.85
% Voltage unbalance = × 100%
383.85

% Voltage unbalance = 2.62 %

As can be seen from the result the percentage of voltage unbalance exceeds the accepted IEEE
limit of 2 %, therefore appropriate mitigation method should be applied.

29
3.4.1 Causes and Effects of Voltage Unbalance in the Industry

The underlying causes of voltage unbalance are numerous, and may include [18]:
a. The power supplied by the utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages. This can be
due to malfunctioning equipment including blown capacitor fuses, open-delta regulators,
and open-delta transformers.
b. Voltage unbalance can also be caused by uneven single-phase load distribution among
the three phases.
c. Faulty operation of power factor correction equipment.
d. Unidentified single-phase to ground faults.

The voltage unbalance in the industry under study is caused by uneven single-phase load
distribution among the three phases, this is identified that the load current on phase 2 and 3
reaches up to 1179 A and 1250 A, respectively while phase 1 load current is 913 A as shown in
Appendix B (Table B.2). As a result, many of the single phase loads are on phase 2 and 3.

The main effects of voltage unbalance are decreased motor efficiency and performance resulting
in motor damage from excessive heat which affects the company's profitability. Voltage
unbalance can create a current unbalance 6 to 10 times the magnitude of voltage unbalance.
Consequently, voltage unbalance will increase the I2R losses in the rotor and stator, meaning
more of the supplied power will be converted to heat in the motor windings therefore the motor
will run hotter and it breaks down winding insulation, consequently, the motor becomes less
efficient and damaged permanently. The percent of winding heat increase, expressed in degree
Celsius, due to a voltage unbalance is exponential, and approximately increases by twice the
square of the percent of voltage unbalance. Mathematically, the relationship is given as [18];
% of temperature rise = 2 × (% Voltage Unbalance)2 … … … … … … … (3.2)
The percentage of voltage unbalance obtained in the industry using the measured data is 2.62%.

Therefore, the percentage of temperature rise will be

% of temperature rise = 2 × (2.62)2 = 13.7288 ℃

The result of the voltage unbalance of 2.62% is a motor winding running 13.7288 ℃ hotter than
normal temperature.

30
 Figure 3.2 Percent Temperature Rise Due to Voltage Unbalance

Resistive loads are relatively unaffected by voltage unbalance, but it causes additional
heating/losses with three-phase motors. Variable speed drives (VSD) trip off due to an increase
in AC line currents caused by a compensation for the voltage unbalance.

[Link]

The main industry standard used for harmonics in power systems is IEEE Std 519-1992. This
standard has been developed through the IEEE Industry Applications Society and the IEEE
Power Engineering Society. Through the joint effort of these two societies, IEEE Std 519-1992
suggests limits on the harmonic currents that a user can induce back into the utility power system
and also specifies the quality of the voltage that the utility should supply the user.

The table below lists the harmonic current limits based on the size of the load with respect to the
Isc
size of the power system to which the load is connected. The ratio is the ratio of the short-
IL

circuit current available at the PCC to the maximum fundamental load current. The standard
suggests that the amount of current taken by a facility would have a bearing on the amount of
harmonics it could interject into the utility’s distribution system. The requirement of the utility to
furnish a good quality of voltage is listed in table 3.3.

31
 Table 3.3 Current distortion limits for general distribution systems (120 V to 69 000 V) [3]

The short circuit current and rated current of 15 kV feeder at the point of common coupling are
Isc
averaged to be 10 kA and 1000 A respectively, which give ratio in the range of <20. As a
IL

result, the TDD values of the current harmonics should not exceed 5% at the point of common
coupling.

Table 3.4 Voltage distortion limits [3]

The maximum voltage and current harmonic contents of the electric power of NTE, when the
industry is working at full load are shown in table 3.5.

The voltage THD values obtained in the three phases are within the permissible range of the
IEEE voltage distortion limits, but for current distortion it is beyond the limit. The PCC is taken
as the primary side of the transformers serving the industry loads. The transformer is connected
in delta-wye, so that the triplen harmonics (the harmonics which are multiple of three) cannot

32
enter to the primary side of the transformer which comes from the load side. As a result, omitting
those triplen harmonics, we get a maximum current THD value of 18.10% at the PCC.

Table 3.5 Maximum voltage and current harmonics level at NTE.

TDD value can be computed using the equations given below for the rated current of 1250 A.

√∑∞ 2
h=2 Ih
TDD = × 100 … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3.3)
IL

√∑∞ 2
h=2 Ih = 230.447

230.447
TDD = × 100
1250
= 18.43 %
So the result of TDD is 18.43%. It is therefore necessary to install harmonic filters for filtering
out the harmonics to meet the IEEE standards.

33
 Figure 3.3 Harmonics spectrum

Figure 3.4 Current waveform

3.5.1 Sources and Effect of Harmonic Currents in the Industry

Harmonic current emissions originate from all types of non-linear loads. Non-linear loads are
loads which draw non-sinusoidal current even when the supply voltage is perfectly sinusoidal.
Non-linear loads include saturated magnetic circuits, such as those in power system transformers
and rotating machines, arc furnaces, fluorescent lighting and of course power electronic loads.
Power electronic loads by far are the most significant harmonic contributors relative to the
amount of energy they draw [19].

34
Specifically, fifth and seventh harmonics are caused by static power converters used in
adjustable speed drives for motor control, switched mode power supplies and six-pulse static
drives. Fifth and seventh harmonics creates a negative and positive torque, respectively on
motors running from three phase supply.

Current distortions results from non-linear loads have significant adverse effects on both power
system components and customer devices. These effects may result into permanent damage of
the devices. The effects of harmonics in the industry range from false or spurious operations and
trips of fuses and circuit breakers, overheating of transformers due to increased copper and core
losses. The harmful effects of harmonics on transformers often unnoticed until an actual failure
occurs and increased heating in motors due to additional copper losses and iron losses in the
stator winding, rotor circuit and rotor laminations.

[Link]

Voltage fluctuations can cause light intensity fluctuations that can be perceived by our brains.
This effect, popularly known as flicker, can cause significant physiological discomfort. More
precisely, flicker is the impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus
whose luminance or spectral distribution properly fluctuates with time [20].
From the instantaneous flicker values, the following indices characterizing the intensity of flicker
annoyance are obtained: the short- term flicker severity and the long-term flicker severity. The
short-term flicker severity (Pst) is measured over a period of ten minutes. The long-term flicker
severity (Plt) is calculated from a sequence of 12 Pst values over a two-hour interval, according to
the following relationship:

3 ∑12 P 3
Plt = √ i=1 sti … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3.4)
12

In IEC 61000-3-7–1996, specifies the limit for the short- term flicker and the long-term flicker as
a result the limits are Pst = 1.0 and Plt = 0.8 [20]. Psti is a short- term flicker severity which is
measured over the interval of 10 minutes.

The measured values on flickering in the industry for the three phases are tabulated below. Each
values of the short-term flicker severity (Pst) are measured over a period of ten minutes and the

35
long-term flicker severity (Plt) values are calculated from 12 consecutive values of Pst by using
the above equation.
Table 3.6 Measured values of Pst and Plt

Measured over 10 minutes interval

Phases 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Plt

L1 0.15 0.5 0.13 0.25 0.42 0.56 0.62 0.7 0.78 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.546

L2 0.1 0.25 0.12 0.14 0.21 0.45 0.51 0.43 0.72 0.4 0.45 0.44 0.428
Psti
L3 0.10 0.29 0.1 0.16 0.18 0.45 0.55 0.45 0.71 0.47 0.5 0.47 0.448

Having these measured values and compared with the IEC 61000-3-7 standard limits the short-
term flicker (Pst) and the long-term flicker (Plt) values are within the acceptable limits. And also
in the industry there are no luminance fluctuations in the range of 6–8 Hz. Therefore, the
problem of flickering is not a concern and this is due to the absence of high power loads drawing
a fluctuating current.

[Link] Frequency Variation

The electric power network is designed to operate at a specified value of frequency (i.e., 50 Hz).
The frequency variations are caused if there is any imbalance in the supply and demand. Large
variations in the frequency are caused due to the failure of a generator or sudden switching of
loads.

The permissible value of power frequency variations according to the IEEE standard for normal
operation is ±0.5 (49.5 Hz to 50.5 Hz at 50 Hz nominal frequency). Based on this standard the
measurement result shown below in the table indicates that the power frequency doesn’t vary
much from the permissible limits.

36
 Table 3.7 Frequency variation measurements

Time (24 Hr. format) Frequency (Hz) Frequency variation

[Link]
1 [Link] 50.06 +0.06
2 [Link] 50.00 0
3 [Link] 49.99 -0.01
4 [Link] 49.96 -0.04
5 [Link] 50.03 +0.03
6 [Link] 49.92 -0.08
7 [Link] 50.00 0
8 [Link] 49.96 -0.04
9 [Link] 50.01 +0.01
10 [Link] 49.99 -0.01

37
 CHAPTER 4

THE EXISTING POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS AND MITIGATION

TECHNIQUES

Among the power quality problems those which are existing in NTE are oscillatory transient
overvoltage, voltage sag, sustained interruption, voltage unbalance and harmonic pollution.
These PQ problems have significant adverse effects on the power system and equipments of the
industry. Therefore, various mitigation techniques should be proposed and applied to alleviate
the problems.

[Link] of Oscillatory Transients

I. Pre-Insertion Resistors

The use of pre-insertion resistors involves inserting resistors into the capacitor energization
circuit prior to the closure of the main set of contacts. This is done in order to reduce the
magnitude of the initial inrush current into the capacitor bank. The resistor with the value of 5 Ω
are kept in place for duration of about 15.5 ms once the main switch is closed, at which time they
are shorted out of the circuit. This is to prevent undesired voltage drop across the resistors once
steady state is achieved [11]. The simulink model with pre insertion resistor is shown in
Appendix E (Figure E.2).

II. Pre-Insertion Inductors

The use of pre-insertion inductors operates in a similar manner, except the inductors are not
switched out of the circuit once the transient is completed. Considering that the impedance of
inductors is frequency dependent, then during initial inrush of current into the bank, the
frequency is quite high, and hence the impedance is quite high as well. When the system returns
to steady state, the frequency is lower, and hence the effective impedance is reduced
significantly, therefore the inductors do not interfere significantly with the operation of the
circuit [11]. As a result, using pre-insertion resistor for the mitigation of oscillatory transient is
beneficial since the resistor damps the transient and the standard voltage level is achieved.

38
[Link] Sag Mitigation using Dynamic Voltage Restorer

Voltage sag is one of the power quality problems which exist in NTE. So in order to overcome
this problem, a device called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), which is the most efficient and
effective modern power electronic device, is used in power distribution networks. DVR is a solid
state power electronics switching device consisting of GTO or IGBT, a capacitor bank as an
energy storage device and injection transformers. It is normally installed in a distribution system
between the supply and the critical load feeder at PCC. The basic idea of the DVR is to inject a
controlled voltage generated by a forced commutated converter in series to the bus voltage by
means of an injecting transformer. A DC to AC inverter regulates this voltage by sinusoidal
PWM technique. In normal operating conditions, the DVR injects only a small voltage to
compensate for the voltage drop of the injection transformer and device losses. However, when
voltage sag occurs in the distribution system, the DVR control system calculates and synthesizes
the voltage required to preserve output voltage to the load by injecting a controlled voltage with
a certain magnitude and phase angle into the distribution system to the critical loads [21].

Figure 4.1 Location of DVR

39
4.2.1 Basic Configuration of DVR [21]

The general configuration of the DVR consists of:

I. Injection/ Booster Transformer

An Injection / Booster transformer is a specially designed transformer that connects the DVR to
the distribution network via the HV-windings and transforms and couples the injected
compensating voltages generated by the voltage source converters to the incoming supply
voltage. It also serves the purpose of isolating the load from the system (voltage source converter
(VSC) and control mechanism).

II. Harmonic Filter

The main task of harmonic filter is to keep the harmonic voltage content generated by the VSC
to the permissible level.

III. Voltage Source Converter

A VSC is a power electronic system consists of a storage device and switching devices, which
can generate a sinusoidal voltage at any required frequency, magnitude, and phase angle.
In the DVR application, the VSC is used to temporarily replace the supply voltage or to generate
the part of the supply voltage which is missing.

There are four main types of switching devices which are used in VSC these are: Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET), Gate Turn-Off thyristors (GTO), Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). For this
case IGBT is used as a switching device for compensation of voltage sags due to its high
switching frequency (low switching times) and low ON state power loss.

IV. Storage Devices

The purpose of storage devices is to supply the necessary energy to the VSC via a dc link for the
generation of injected voltage. The different kinds of energy storage devices are superconductive
magnetic energy storage, batteries and capacitance.

40
V. Control and Protection

The control mechanism of the general configuration typically consists of hardware with
programmable logic. Differential current protection of the transformer, or short circuit current
on the customer load side are two examples of many protection functions.

The basic functions of a controller in a DVR are the following:

a. Detection of voltage sag/swell events in the system.
b. Computation of the correcting voltage.
c. Generating of trigger pulses to the sinusoidal PWM based DC-AC inverter.
d. Correction of any anomalous (abnormality) in the series voltage injection.
e. Termination of the trigger pulses when the system has passed.

Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of DVR [21]

4.2.2 DVR Capacity and Specification [22]

Referring to the electrical system of National Tobacco Enterprise:

Vpcc = 15 KV
S = 1260 KVA, PF = 0.82
Response time = 5 msec.
Max three phase voltage sag = 70 %
Duration of sag to protect = 400 msec.
KVA capacity of DVR =?
Required Energy for DVR (kJ) =?

41
 Figure 4.3 Insertion of DVR for voltage sag mitigation

It is recommended to adopt DVR technology to compensate the bus voltage sag and restore to
100 % of the rated value. When the sag depth is lower than 70 %, therefore, the compensating
voltage of DVR should be 75 % or 0.75 PU.
By taking into consideration of peak load 1260 KVA with power factor of 0.82
The compensating power = 0.75 × 1260 kVA = 945 kVA
Energy = power × time … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.1)
The duration of sag to protect is 400 msec. so,
The required energy = (kVA × PF) × time
E = (945 × 0.82) × 400 × 10−3
E = 309.96 kJ.
For more reliability and availability DVR with (1000 KVA, 500 kJ) is selected. And it should be
installed in the 15 kV side of the system.

4.2.3 Cost and Payback Period of DVR [23]

This section describes the cost and benefit analysis of installing DVR to mitigate voltage sag.
Assume Cost of DVR = CDVR
Cost of single voltage sag = CVS
Number of sags per year = NVS
Payback period = T, (year)
Then,
CDVR = CVS × NVS × T … … … … … … . . … … … … … … . (4.2)

42
 $300 $300
Cost of DVR = + 5% ( ) [maintenance and running cost]
KVA KVA
CDVR = 1000 kVA × (300 × 1.05)/KVA = $ 315,000

The cost of voltage sag, CVS at NTE is ($1,778/year), and by taking the upper limit of the number
of voltage sag occurrence, NVS is 45/year.
Then, the payback period will be,
CDVR
T= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.3)
CVS × NVS
$ 315,000
T =
$ 1,778 × 45/year
T = 3.937 year ≈ 4 years

Since the average life time of the DVR is about 15 years, so the solution is very economical and
feasible.

4.3. Mitigation of Voltage Unbalance

Because voltage unbalance can be very harmful, the source of the problem should be thoroughly
investigated and corrected. Balancing the voltage helps to save energy and money by increasing
motor’s efficiency and possibly preventing expensive facility downtime due to equipment
failures. Proper testing and communication with the utility can help to locate and resolve the
problem. For the causes of voltage unbalance due to uneven distribution of single phase loads,
redistributing the loads equally to the three phases improves the problem of voltage unbalance.

4.4. Harmonic Mitigation using Harmonic Filters

Various harmonic-mitigation techniques have been proposed and applied in recent years. In this
case, filters are designed for the distortions that exceed harmonic limits set by the IEEE Standard
[Link] are two types of filters used for filtering the harmonic distortions: passive filters
and active filters.

43
a. Passive Filters

Passive filters contain inductance, capacitance, and resistance elements configured and tuned to
control harmonics. They are commonly used and are relatively inexpensive compared with other
means for eliminating harmonic distortion. They are employed either to shunt the harmonic
currents off the line or to block their flow between parts of the system by tuning the elements to
create a resonance at a selected frequency [19].

Figure 4.4 Common passive filter configurations.

The most common type of passive filter is single-tuned notch filter, shown in figure (4.4a),
which is the most economical and frequently used. In the single-tuned filter circuit, a capacitor
and inductor are connected in series. This filter is also known as low pass filter. The filter is
single-tuned to present low impedance to a particular harmonic current. It is connected in shunt
with the power system there by diverting the harmonic currents from their normal flow path on
the line into the filter. Notch filter can provide power factor correction in addition to harmonic
suppression [19]. The first order high-pass filter, in the above figure, is not normally used, as it
requires a large capacitor and has excessive loss at fundamental frequency. The second order
high-pass filter provides the best filtering performance, but has higher fundamental frequency
losses as compared with the third order. The third order high-pass filter's main advantage over
second order is a substantial reduction in fundamental frequency loss, owing to increased
impedance at that frequency caused by the presence of the capacitor C2. Moreover, the rating of
C2 is very small compared with C1.

44
b. Active Filters

Active filters are relatively new types of devices for eliminating harmonics. They are based on
sophisticated power electronics and are much more expensive than passive filters. They are
designed to inject harmonic currents to counterbalance existing harmonic components as they
show up in the distribution system [19].

However, they have distinct advantage that they do not resonate with the system. They can
address more than one harmonic at a time and combat other power quality problems such as
flicker. They are particularly useful for large, distorting loads from relatively weak points on the
power system.

Most of the time active filters are used in very difficult circumstances where passive filters
cannot operate successfully because of where the parallel resonance lies. In this research passive
filters are designed as effective solution for power system harmonic mitigation because passive
filters are relatively inexpensive as compared to active filters.

c. Single-Tuned Harmonic Filters and their Design

This section illustrates a procedure for designing harmonic filters for industrial applications.
Passive filters always provide reactive compensation to a degree dictated by the volt-ampere size
and voltage of the capacitor bank used, they can in fact be designed for the dual purpose of
providing the filtering action and compensating power factor to the desired level. These passive
filters presents very low impedance, with respect to line impedance, at the tuning frequency,
through which all current of that particular frequency will be diverted [24].

Despite its reactive power compensation advantage, a single tuned shunt filter can only eliminate
a single current harmonic component. Therefore, for a wide range generated harmonics a single
tuned filter is to be designed for each current harmonic to be suppressed, individually. This
means multiple single-tuned filters are designed to eliminate multiple harmonics, as illustrated in
figure 4.8 [24].

45
 Figure 4.5 Three-branch filters

This section presents design procedures and equations of single-tuned filters. The main
components of a harmonic filter are the capacitors, reactor, and a damping resistance if
necessary. The series-connected resistance decides the sharpness of the filtering action. But it is
usually ignored because the value of R usually results in a significant increase in losses within
the filter. Therefore, practically the value of R consists only of the internal resistance of the
inductor.

The recommended procedure for the design and validation of single-tuned harmonic filters is
summarized as follows:
1. Select capacitor bank needed to improve the power factor from the present level typically to
around 0.96 or higher
The capacitive reactance needed to compensate the needed VAR to improve the power factor
from PF1 (associated with θ1) to PF2 (associated with θ2) is given by
Qcom = P(tan θ2 − tan θ1 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.4)
Where P is the active power & Qcom is the reactive power needed for compensation.
The capacitance for a single filter can be set to [25]
Qf = Qcom … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … … … . … (4.5)
For a multiple parallel single-tuned filter system, the capacitance corresponding to the hth
harmonics can be distributed by [25]
Ih
Qfh = Qcom × , h = 2,3, … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.6)
I2 + I3 + ⋯

46
Where Ih is the hth harmonic current and Qfh is the capacity of the hth harmonic filter. Also, the
filter capacity Qfh contains the capacity of capacitance (QC) and capacity of inductor (QL),
h2
Qc = × Qfh … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.7)
h2 − 1
QL = Qc − Qfh … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.8)
1
QL = × Qc … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … (4.9)
h2
2. Choose reactor that, in series with capacitor, tunes filter to desired harmonic frequency. The
use of an inductor in series with a capacitor results in a voltage rise at the capacitor terminals
given by:
h2
Vc = ( 2 ) V … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.10)
h − 1 sys
Where h = tuned impedance harmonic order of the frequency
Vsys = system line-to-line voltage, KV
VC = capacitor line-to-line voltage, KV
The capacitive reactance required is obtained with the following relation
Vc2
Xc1 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . (4.11)
Qc
At harmonic frequency h, this reactance is:
Xc1
Xch = … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.12)
h
And the inductive reactance at frequency of order h is given by
XLh = hXL1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.13)
At the resonant frequency the capacitive and reactive impedances are equal. Then XL and XC are
related by the following equation
Xc
XL =… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.14)
h2
3. Determine whether capacitor-operating parameters fall within IEEE-182 maximum
recommended limits. This may require a number of iterations until desired reduction of
harmonic level is achieved.
a. Capacitor Voltage: The rms and peak voltage of the capacitor must not exceed 110 and
120%, respectively, of the rated voltage. They can be determined as follows:
Vcpeak = √2(Vc1 + Vch ) … … … … … … . … … … … … … . (4.15)

47
 Vcrms = √Vc1 2 + Vch 2 … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … (4.16)

Where voltage through the capacitor at fundamental frequency is given by:

Vc1 = Xc1 Ic1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.17)
Vch is found in terms of Ich, which must be determined from measurements or from a
typical harmonic spectrum of the corresponding non-linear load.
Vch = Xch Ich … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … … (4.18)
IC1 is the current through the capacitor and it is calculated in terms of the maximum phase
-to-neutral voltage, which in turn is specified 5% above the rated value, to account for
voltage regulation practices:
VL−L
√3
Ic1 = 1.05 × [ ] … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.19)
Xc1 − XL1

b. Current through the capacitor bank: The RMS current through the capacitor bank must be
within 135% of the rated capacitor current, to comply with IEEE-18. Its value is
determined from the fundamental current and from the harmonic currents under
consideration:

Icrms = √Ic1 2 + Ich 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.20)

c. Determine the capacitor bank duty and verify that it is within recommended IEEE-18
limits.
Vcrms Icrms
KVAR = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.21)
1000
Where VCrms is the voltage through the capacitor ICrms is the current through the capacitor.
This value must be within 135%. The maximum recommended values are summarized in
table 4.3.

48
 Table 4.1 Maximum Recommended Limits for Continuous Operation of Shunt
Capacitors under Contingency Conditions [19]

If IEEE-18 is not met, the process may require more than one iteration to resize the capacitor
bank. For designing appropriate tuned filter, the IEEE filter design practice for limiting harmonic
and improving reactive compensation, depicted in Appendix C (Figure C.1), is going to be used
for this research.

4.4.1 Design of Multi-Branch Single-Tuned Filter

The filter will be designed for 5th and 7th harmonics because these are the dominant harmonic
frequencies in the plant. Therefore, multiple-branch single tuned harmonic filter is going to be
designed. The harmonic filter design will be done according to the equations given above. The
recorded data of the power and power factor are given in table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Recorded data of the power and power factor

Measured Data
S, KVA 718.1
P, KW 588.842
Q, KVAR 411.014
P.F 0.82

As can be seen from the above table, the current power factor obtained is 0.82 and it is required
to improve this value to 0.96. The total active power for this condition is 588.842 KW. The
harmonic level of 5th and 7th are high and should be eliminated.

49
Step 1: The first step is to determine the reactive power to be provided by the filer capacitor
banks and to calculate the value of the capacitor reactance from it.
Qcom = P × (tan(arccos∅0 ) – tan(arccos∅1 ))
= 588.842(tan(cos −1 (0.82)) − tan(cos −1 (0.96)))
Qcom = 239.069 KVAR
Where Qcom = reactive power to be compensated.
For a multiple parallel single-tuned filter system, the capacitances corresponding to the hth
harmonics are obtained using the equations given above. The reactive power is distributed
among 5th and 7th harmonic filters as follows:
I5
Qf5 = Qcom ×
I5 + I7
168.51
= 239.069 ×
168.51 + 122.68
Qf5 = 138.348 KVAR
I7
Qf7 = Qcom ×
I5 + I7
122.68
= 239.069 ×
168.51 + 122.68
Qf7 = 100.721 KVAR
Where Qf5, and Qf7 are reactive power share of 5th and 7th harmonic filters respectively.

For 5th Harmonic Filter

The voltage across the capacitor is determined as,

h2
Vc = ( 2 )V
h − 1 sys
Where Vsys = 400 V
52
Vc = ( 2 ) × 0.4 KV
5 −1
= 0.417 KV
The standard voltage available near this value is 480 V. The reactive power to be supplied by the
capacitor is,

50
 52
Qc = 2 × Qf5
5 −1
25
= × 138.348
24
Qc = 144.113 kvar
Near to this standard value is 145 KVAR. Then XC is,
Vc2
Xc = × 1000
Qc
0.482
= × 1000
145
Xc = 1.589 Ω

For 7th Harmonic Filter

Using similar procedure voltage across the capacitor is

h2
Vc = ( 2 )V
h − 1 sys
Where Vsys = 400 V
72
Vc = ( 2 ) × 0.4 KV
7 −1
Vc = 0.408 KV
The standard voltage available near this value is 480 V. Similarly the reactive power to be
supplied by the capacitor is calculated as follows
72
Qc = 2 × Qf7
7 −1
49
= × 100.721
48
Qc = 102.819 KVAR
Near to this standard value is 105 KVAR. Then XC is determined as
Vc2
Xc = × 1000
Qc
0.482
= × 1000
105
Xc = 2.194 Ω

51
 Xc
Step 2: The second step is to calculate the reactor size providing the resonance, X L = for
h2
the filters.
Xc1
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝟓𝐭𝐡 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐬 XL =
52
1.589
XL = = 0.064 Ω
52
Xc1
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝟕𝐭𝐡 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐬 XL = 2
7
2.194
XL = = 0.045 Ω
72
Step 3: The third step is to determine whether capacitor-operating parameters, RMS current
through the filter, VAR limit, RMS & peak voltage values fall within IEEE 18 recommended
limits. First the designed values for 5th harmonic filter are compared with the standard values.

For the 5th Harmonics

The designed values for the VAR limit, RMS current through the filter, RMS & peak voltage
values are calculated as follows
Let Xc = Xc1 = 1.589 Ω and XL = XL1 = 0.064 Ω then,
X c1
Xc5 =
h
1.589
Xc5 = = 0.3178 Ω
5
XL5 = hXL1
XL5 = 5 × 0.064 = 0.32 Ω
Vcpeak = √2(Vc1 + Vch )
Vc1 = Xc1 Ic1
VL−L
√3
Ic1 = 1.05 × [ ]
Xc1 − XL1
400⁄√3
Ic1 = 1.05 × [ ] = 159.008 A
1.589 − 0.064
Vc1 = 1.589 × 159.008
Vc1 = 252.664 V

52
 Vch = Xch Ich
= X c5 Ic5
= 0.3178 × 168.51
Vc5 = 53.552 V
Vcpeak = √2(252.664 + 53.552) = 433.055 V

Vcrms = √Vc1 2 + Vch 2

Vcrms = √252.6642 + 53.5522 = 258.277 V

Icrms = √Ic1 2 + Ich 2

Icrms = √159.0082 + 168.512 = 231.688 A

kvarCap (wye),total = √3 × Irms,total × kVL−L,Cap (rms,total)

= √3 × 231.688 × √3 × 0.258277
= 179.519 kvar
And KVARcap, rated can be given as
KVAR Cap ,rated = √3 × Icap,rated × kVL−L,cap(rated)
From this Icap,rated can be calculated as
145
ICap ,rated = = 174.408 A
√3 × 0.48
Now compare the designed values for 5th harmonic filter with the standard values.

Table 4.3 Comparison Table comparing filter duty limit of 5th harmonic filter

53
All the designed values are within the IEEE 18 recommended limits for the 5th harmonics.
Now calculate the capacitance and inductance values for the fifth harmonics
As calculated above, Xc = 1.589 Ω andXL = 0.064 Ω then the capacitance will be
1
C= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . . (4.22)
2πfXc
1
C= = 0.002 F
2π × 50 × 1.589
and the inductance will be
XL
L= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (4.23)
2πf
0.064
L= = 0.204 mH
2π × 50
Therefore, the 5th harmonic filter configuration looks as shown below

Figure 4.6 5th Harmonic filter branch with designed values

For the 7th Harmonics

The designed values for the VAR limit, RMS current through the filter, RMS & peak voltage
values can be calculated as follows
Let Xc = Xc1 = 2.194 Ω and XL = XL1 = 0.045 Ω then,
X c1
Xc7 =
h
2.194
Xc7 = = 0.313 Ω
7
XL7 = hXL1
XL7 = 7 × 0.045 = 0.315 Ω
Vcpeak = √2(Vc1 + Vch )

54
 Vc1 = Xc1 Ic1
VL−L
√3
Ic1 = 1.05 × [ ]
Xc1 − XL1
400⁄√3
Ic1 = 1.05 × [ ] = 112.837 A
2.194 − 0.045
Vc1 = 2.194 × 112.837
Vc1 = 247.564 V
Vch = Xch Ich
= X c7 Ic7
= 0.313 × 122.68
Vc7 = 38.399 V
Vcpeak = √2(247.564 + 38.399) = 404.413 V

Vcrms = √Vc1 2 + Vch 2

Vcrms = √247.5642 + 38.3992 = 250.524 V

Icrms = √Ic1 2 + Ich 2

Icrms = √112.8372 + 122.682 = 166.681 A

kvarCap (wye),total = √3 × Irms,total × kVL−L,Cap (rms,total)

= √3 × 166.681 × √3 × 0.250524
kvarCap (wye),total = 125.273 kvar
And KVARcap, rated can be given as
KVAR Cap ,rated = √3 × Icap,rated × kVL−L,cap(rated)
From this Icap,rated can be calculated as
105
ICap ,rated = = 126.295 A
√3 × 0.48
Now compare the designed values for 7th harmonic filter with the standard values.

55
 Table 4.4 Comparison Table comparing filter duty Limit of 7th harmonic filter

All the designed values are within the IEEE 18 recommended limits for the 7th harmonics.
Now calculate the capacitance and inductance values for the 7th harmonics
As calculated above, Xc = 2.194 Ω andXL = 0.045 Ω then the capacitance will be
1
C=
2πfX c
1
C= = 0.0015 F
2π × 50 × 2.194
and the inductance will be
XL
L=
2πf
0.045
L= = 0.143 mH
2π × 50

Therefore, the 7th harmonic filter configuration looks as shown below

Figure 4.7 7th Harmonic filter branch with designed values

56
 The design parameters for the 5th and 7th harmonics are summarized as follows:

Table 4.5 Design parameters of multi-branch harmonic filter

Qc , KVAR Vc , V Xc , Ω C, F XL , Ω L, mH
Branch
5th 145 480 1.589 0.002 0.064 0.204
7th 105 480 2.194 0.0015 0.045 0.143

4.4.2 Cost of Filter

The cost of fully automatic system is $ 20 / KVAR [26]

For the case study the ratings for 5th and 7th harmonic filters are 145 and 105 KVAR,
respectively, and then the cost of filter can be calculated as:

$20
Cost of filter = (145 + 105)kVAR × = $ 5,000 Or 107,100 Birr
kVAR

Since the effect of harmonics on the industry cause false operations and trips of fuses and circuit
breakers which leads to the damage of equipments and stops production process and also
overheating of transformers and motors resulting in decreased efficiency and failure of winding
insulation causing short circuit and damage the machines permanently. Therefore, the solution is
very economical as compared to the effect of harmonics on electrical equipments and it improves
the productivity of the industry.

[Link] to Sustained Interruptions

Sustained interruption is characterized and quantified by the following major reliability indices
that are computed as follows:
i. SAIFI: System average interruption frequency index indicates how often the average
customer experiences a sustained interruption over a predefined period of time.
Mathematically, it is expressed as
Cn × In
SAIFI = … … … … … … … … … … … (4.24)
Ct
Where, Cn is number of customers interrupted, In is number of interruptions, and Ct is total
number of customers.

57
ii. SAIDI: System average interruption duration index shows the total duration of interruption
for the average customer during a predefined period of time. It is commonly measured in
customer minutes or customer hours of interruption. Mathematically, this is given as
Cn × Id
SAIFI = ∑ … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.25)
Ct
Where, Id is interruption duration.
iii. CAIFI: Customer average interruption frequency index gives the average frequency of
sustained interruptions for those customers experiencing sustained interruptions. The
customer is counted once regardless of the number of times interrupted for this calculation.
Mathematically, this is given as
∑Ci
CAIFI = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.26)
Cn
Where, Ci is number of customer interruptions.
iv. CAIDI: Customer average interruption duration index represents the average time required to
restore service. Mathematically, this is given as
∑Id
CAIDI = … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.27)
∑Ci

The interviews with the electrical section head of the industry have clearly confirmed that
frequent sustained interruptions are major challenges to the industry. During this study, three
sustained power interruptions at different days in one week duration which lasts for 38, 108 and
43 minutes respectively have been recorded. As per the information from the section head, the
power interruption lasts for 5 up to 6 hours in a week and the interruptions come from the utility.
The industry is not equipped with automatic stand-by switching system and is provided only with
a manually operated generator whose power rating is 810 KVA that is used when the power is
interrupted and it requires at least 20 minutes for the starting production because all the machines
stop working and the production process of the industry is interrupted resulting in substantial
losses. The generator is used as a backup power option but its running cost is very high, i.e., it
consumes 172 liters of fuel per hour and the cost of fuel (naphtha) per liter is 19.56 birr as a
result this costs the industry huge amount of money annually as discussed below.

So, the annual fuel cost of the industry due to interruption will be
Annual fuel cost = 6 hrs/wk × 52 wks/yr × 19.56 Birr/lt × 172 lt/hr
= 6 × 52 × 19.56 × 172

58
 Annual fuel cost = 1,067,976 Birr/yr

The daily production of the industry when all the machines are working is 1600 carton, one
carton contains 50 steaka and the selling value of on steaka is 88 Birr. Therefore, selling value of
one carton is 4400 Birr and for 1600 carton it is 7,040,000 Birr/day in the daily production. So, if
this amount of money is obtained in 24 hrs production. Since we have 168 hrs/week and there is
production stoppage which lasts for at least 2 hours/week until the machines start to work by
using the generator when there is power interruption, in 24 hrs the revenue gained is 7,040,000
Birr, and in 2 hrs it will be
2 hrs × 7,040,000 Birr/day
=
24 hrs/day
= 586,667 Birr/week

Hence, the industry faced a loss of 586,667 Birr/week and annually the loss will be 30,506,667
Birr/year or $ 1,525,334/year due to power interruption.

Therefore, another alternative power supply system should be designed which supplies the whole
system automatically when there is power interruption. In this thesis solar photovoltaic (PV)
system with Automatic Transfer Switch is identified to supply power due to its availability and
reliability in that area and it can suit a wide range of applications such as residential, commercial,
industry, etc.

Solar photovoltaic system or solar power system is one of renewable energy system which uses
PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be stored or used
directly, fed back into the grid line or combined with one or more other electricity generators.

4.5.1 Major Components of PV System

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to system type
and applications. The major components for solar PV system are solar panels, solar charge
controller, inverter, battery bank and loads (appliances).

59
 Figure 4.8 PV system block diagram.

[Link] Solar PV Array

A solar cell also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a solid state electrical device that
converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by using the photoelectric effect.
Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules which are also known as solar panels. The
energy generated from these solar modules is referred to as solar power or solar energy.

Solar cells are also usually connected in series, creating an additive voltage. Connecting cells in
parallel will yield a higher current. Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both,
to create an array with the desired peak direct voltage and current [27].

The most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon and categorized into [27].

1. Monocrystalline - silicon (c-Si): Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and do

not completely cover a square solar cell module without a substantial waste of refined
silicon. Its efficiency reaches up to 15 per cent to 18 per cent.
2. Poly or multi crystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si): Poly-Si cells are less expensive to
produce than single crystal silicon cells, but they are less efficient. Its efficiency is 13
percent to 16 per cent. Ribbon silicon is a type of multi crystalline silicon.
3. Amorphous or thin-film Silicon: Amorphous (formless) silicon does not form a regular
crystal structure, but an irregular network. Its efficiency is 5 per cent to 7 per cent module
efficiency (stabilized condition).

60
 One of the most important factors to consider when designing a photovoltaic system is the
location of placement. By understanding the parameters associated with the module’s tilt, one
could optimize the effectiveness of the system to alleviate sizing and costs. More specifically, the
location of placement describes the amount of irradiance the solar panel will be exposed to.
Irradiance is normally used to describe the intensity of sunlight at a surface [27].

a. Peak Sun Hours

Solar irradiation or Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface
area and recorded during a given time. In regards to irradiance, irradiation is normally expressed
in terms of peak sun hours - the amount of solar radiation energy expressed in hours of full
sunlight per square meter. Peak sun hours represent the average amount of sun light available per
day throughout the year and correspond to the length of time in hours at an irradiance level of
1KW/m2 needed to produce the daily irradiation [27].

average irradiance per day

Peak Sun Hour = … … … … … … … … … … … (4.28)
irradiance level

Table 4.6 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia - Solar energy and surface meteorology [28]

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Insolation, 5.57 5.95 5.97 5.94 6.07 5.38 4.78 4.84 5.44 6.01 5.95 5.67
kWh/m²/day

18.54 20.30 22.21 22.36 22.84 20.63 19.06 18.97 19.57 19.67 18.84 18.09
Temperature, °C

4.32 4.21 3.94 3.64 3.60 3.93 3.76 3.41 3.10 3.39 3.74 3.98
Wind speed, m/s

From the above table average irradiance per day for Addis Ababa is, Gav = 5.63 KWhr/m2/day,
therefore,
5.63 KWhr/m2 /day
Peak Sun Hour = = 5.63 hr
1KW/m2 /day

61
b. Tilt Angle

The tilt angle represents the solar panel’s angular displacement, from the horizontal axis, to
achieve the most irradiance throughout the day. Most solar panels are tilted at an angle equal to
the location’s latitude. As Addis Ababa is situated +9.03 (9°01'48"N) north latitude and +38.74
(38°44'24"E) east longitude, the panel inclination should be 9.03 degree facing south [27].

[Link] Rechargeable Batteries

Energy storage is required in most stand-alone systems, as energy generation and consumption
do not generally coincide. Most stand-alone solar systems have batteries. The most common type
of battery found in stand-alone solar systems comprises rechargeable lead-acid-batteries. These
are the most cost-effective and can handle large and small charging currents with high efficiency.
They can also operate reliably for at least eight years [29].

[Link] Charge Controllers

In stand-alone systems, the system voltage of the PV array should be matched to that of the
batteries; the usual system voltages are 12V, 24V and 48V. The charge controller voltage must
be higher than the battery voltage. For example, with a 12V battery, it can be up to 14. 4 V.
Crystalline standard modules with 36 to 40 solar cells supply a nominal voltage of 15V to 18V.
The nominal voltage must be higher than the batteries’ charge voltage. The charge controller
therefore measures the battery voltage and protects the battery against overcharging [30].

[Link] Inverter

Storage batteries use and store Direct Current and have an output usually in the range of 12 - 24
volts. Virtually all modern appliances operate on Alternating Current. An inverter is a device that
takes the power from DC battery source and converts it to AC electricity [31].

4.5.2 Photovoltaic System Design

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system. The total installed

62
power of NTE is 1,082,368 W. Therefore in NTE the power and energy consumption of all the
loads are described in Appendix D.

[Link] PV Array Sizing

From Appendix D, the total watt-hours per day, Eo = 14,460,872 Whrs/day

Average solar radiation for Addis Ababa is, Gav = 5.63 kwhr/m2 /day.
The following parameters are used for sizing:

1. Battery efficiency = 90%

2. Average cell temperature is 60oc @ Temperature Correction Factor (TCF) = 0.8
3. DC bus voltage, VDC = 48V
4. Inverter AC voltage = 400V
5. Inverter efficiency = 85 %.

Siemens Solar M-320 Module Specification is selected

Module Type S/M 320W
Maximum Power, Pm = 320Wp
Maximum Power Voltage, Vm = 36V
Maximum Power Current, Im = 8.88A
Open Circuit Voltage, Voc = 34.9V
Short Circuit Current, Isc = 9.16A
Module Efficiency (%), ηpv = 17.2%
The output efficiency will be,
ηout = ηbat × ηinv … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . … … … … . . … (4.29)
ηout = 0.9 × 0.85 = 0.765
Therefore, the PV array area can be calculated as follows [23]:
Eo
PVarea = … … … … … … … … … … (4.30)
Gav × TCF × ηout
14,460,872Whrs/day
=
5.63 × 1000 whr/m2 /day × 0.8 × 0.765
PVarea = 4,196.958 m2
Now we can calculate PV peak power by using the following equation [32],

63
 w
PVpeakpower = PVarea × 1000 × ηpv … … … … … … … … … (4.31)
m2
= 4,196.958 × 1000 × 0.172
PVpeakpower = 721,876.776 Wp
From the typical module power and PV peak power the total number of modules (Nt) required
can be determined as follows,
Ppeakpower
Nt = … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … . . (4.32)
Pmodulepower
721,876.776 Wp
=
320 Wp
Nt = 2,255.9
Actual requirement, Nt = 2,256
For DC bus voltage (system nominal voltage) of 48 V, the number of modules to be connected in
series, Ns will be
System Nominal Voltage (VDC )
Ns = … … … … … … … (4.33)
Operating Voltage of a single module(Vm )
48
Ns = = 1.33
36
Approximately, Ns=2 modules should be connected in series.
Then the number of solar modules connected in parallel which are called strings (Np) can be
calculated by dividing the total number of modules required to the number of series modules
Nt
Np = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.34)
Ns
2,256
Np = = 1,128
2
Therefore, 1,128 strings will be connected in parallel.
The PV modules can be put on the roof of the buildings and near to the industry there is a huge
area (around 3500m2) occupied by the industry for expansion and at this time used as a store.

[Link] Sizing of the Battery

Solar panels should be used in conjunction with deep cycle batteries. These batteries are
designed to be charged and discharged over a long period of time. Deep cycle batteries are rated

64
in Ampere Hours [Ah]. This rating specifies the amount of current in Amps that the battery can
supply over a period specified in hours.
DOA – Days of Autonomy (largest number of continuous cloudy days of the site) = Two to five
days is recommended. But for this paper, two days are chosen; this is because Addis Ababa has
adequate irradiance level.
DOD – Depth of Discharge = 0.8
The storage capacity of the battery can be calculated according to the following formula [32],
DOA × Eo
Storagecapacity = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.35)
DOD × ηout
2 days × 14,460,872Whrs/day
=
0.8 × 0.765
Storagecapacity = 47,257,751.63 Whrs

The required battery size in AH becomes,

Storagecapacity
AHcapacity = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.36)
VDC
47,257,751.63 Whrs
=
48 V
AHcapacity = 984,536.49 AH
Once the required battery capacity in Amp-Hours has been determined, battery cell can be
therefore be selected by using manufacturers’ catalogue. From the Exide battery manufacturers’
specification a 6E95-11’s with a 12 volt and 673 amp-hours battery capacity is selected.

Now we can determine the number of batteries, Nb required,

AHcapacity
Nb = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.37)
Nominal AH capacity
984,536.49 AH
Nb = = 1,462.9
673 AH
So, the required numbers of batteries, Nb = 1,463. Then the next step is determining the number

of series connected batteries Nbs.

System bus voltage
Nbs = … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.38)
Nominal battery voltage
48 V
Nbs = =4
12

65
Four batteries are connected in series arrangement.

Number of parallel batteries, Nbp

Nb
Nbp = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.39)
Nbs
1,463
Nbp = = 365.75
4
So, Nbp= 366 batteries are connected in parallel arrangement.

[Link] Solar Charge Controller Sizing

To give the battery longer lifetime it should be charged safely and the charge controller protects
the battery from over charging and under charging. It has to be capable of carrying the short
circuit current of the PV array. The size of the controller can be determined as follows [32],
charge controller rating = NP × I SC … … … … … … … … … … … (4.40)
= 1,128 × 9.16 A
charge controller rating = 10,333 A

[Link] Inverter Design

Its size is depending on the demand and its efficiency. The proper design of an inverter enables
to carry the maximum expected power of the AC loads [32].

Total power of the loads, Pt = 1,082,368 W . For reliable operation, the inverter capacity is
increased by 20 – 25 %
Inverterpower rating = (0.2 × Pt ) + Pt … … … … … … … … … … . . . . (4.41)
= (0.2 × 1,082,368) + 1,082,368
Inverterpower rating = 1,298,841.6 W

To obtain the current rating of the stand-alone inverter divide the inverter’s power output rating

by its lowest DC operating voltage, and then multiply by the inverter’s efficiency [33].
Inverterpower rating
Invertercurrent rating = × ηinv … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.42)
VDC
1,298,841.6 W
= × 0.85 = 23,000 A
48 V

66
Therefore, the inverter should have a power rating value of 1,298,841.6 W or greater with 400 V

AC, frequency 50Hz and 48V DC and current rating (short circuit capacity) of 23,000A.

4.5.3 Automatic Transfer Switch

The industry loses huge amount of money because the generator needs manual start up to supply
the loads. So, an Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is required with the solar PV system in order
to avoid this loss of production during power interruption to change the power supply from
utility system to the stand alone PV system. An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is an
electrical/electronic switch that senses when the mains or utility supply is interrupted and
automatically starts up a solar PV system if the utility remains unavailable. It eliminates the
element of manpower interaction in starting a generator and changing power supply from one
source to another [34].

Relay switching: This block consists of the combination of the voltage monitoring relay(VMR)
and the finder relays (11-pin relays) which serve as sensor used to determine the availability or
non availability of voltage supply from either power sources before triggering the control
sections of the ATS. The VMR is used for measuring and comparing the voltage level of the
utility supply with a set voltage tolerance range (365-430V A.C).

Figure 4.9 Block diagram showing the working principle of ATS [29]

67
Timer relay: The Timer relay helps to delay the supply of electric power, thus preventing the
occurrence of equipment damage due to fluctuations in voltage supply. The delay time for the
timer relay is 5-6 seconds.
The contactor switching: This block is made up of contactors on each side of the ATS. The
function of the contactor is to switch the current to the connected loads. This is because they are
made to handle large amount of current flow in electrical installations.

Contactor Selection

With the input voltage supply from either power sources, V = 400Va.c supply
Measured load power, P = 588.842 KW
The power factor, Cos Ø = 0.82
Rated contactor set current in Ampere is,
P
I= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.43)
√3 × V × cos∅
588.842 × 1000
=
√3 × 400 × 0.82
I = 1036.5 A
Therefore, the contactor selected for the ATS is a 1200A rated contactor.
The Digital Multimeter (DMM): The digital multimeter in the ATS is an electronic device used
for measuring the output voltage, load current and frequency of the supply voltage to the
connected load.

4.5.4 Cost Analysis for PV System and ATS

The costs of a stand-alone PV system in the industry include initial costs, operating costs,

maintenance costs, replacement costs, transportation costs and installation costs. The initial cost

for the system is summarized in the table below [32].

The unit costs for PV module, battery, charge controller, and inverter are obtained from Siemens
solar panels, Exide battery, Xantrex manufacturer’s(for both charge controller and inverter),
respectively.

68
 Table 4.7 Cost summary of the PV system

Rating Cost/rating Total cost ($)

Items(components)
PV module 721,876.776 W $0.6/W 433,126.066

Battery 984,536.49 AH $1.2/AH 1,181,443.788

Charge controller 10,333 A $5.2/A 53,731.6

Inverter 1,298,841.6 W 0.7 $/W 909,189.12

Total 2,577,490.57

There is almost no operating and maintenance cost (no fuel costs). Replacement costs are mainly
for batteries and its lifetime is considered to be 8 years so at least there should be a battery
replacement two times. Thus, the batteries have to be purchased, after 8 years and 16 years,
assuming inflation rate i of 5 % and a discount or interest rate d of 8 %. Therefore, the present
worth of the 1st group of batteries (purchased after N = 8 years),CB1PW , can be calculated as,
1+i N
CB1PW = CB ( ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.44)
1+d
Where, CB = Initial cost of batteries
i = inflation rate
d = discount or interest rate
N = number of years
1 + 0.05 8
CB1PW = $ 1,181,443.788 × ( )
1 + 0.08
CB1PW = $ 943,055.846
The present worth of the 2nd group of batteries (purchased after N = 16 years), CB2PW , can be
obtained as,
1 + 0.05 16
CB2PW = $ 1,181,443.788 × ( )
1 + 0.08
CB2PW = $ 752,769.059
CB1PW + CB2PW = $ 1,695,824.906

69
The transportation cost is considered to be 5% of the total cost
Transportation cost, CTrans = 0.05 × 2,577,490.57
CTrans = $ 128,874.529
The Installation cost is considered to be 10% of the PV module cost so
Installation cost, CInst = 0.1 × 433,126.066
CInst = $ 43,312.607
Therefore, the total cost required for the solar PV system in NTE which is expected to work for
25 years is,
𝐂𝐏𝐕 = $(2,577,490.57 + 1,695,824.906 + 128,874.529 + 43,312.607)
𝐂𝐏𝐕 = $ 4,445,502.612
The cost of 3-phase, 1200A Thomson TS870SE-TCP Automatic Transfer Switch is $16,899.00
The total cost of solar PV system and ATS is, CPV&ATS = $ 4,445,502.612 + $ 16,899.00
CPV&ATS = $ 4,462,401.612

Payback Period for the PV System

Total Cost of solar PV system and ATS, CPV & ATS = $ 4,462,401.612
Cost of power interruption per year,Cint = $ 1,525,334/yr
Payback period = T, year
CPV & ATS
T= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.45)
Cint
$ 4,462,401.612
T=
$ 1,525,334/yr
T = 2.9 year ≈ 3 years
Since the average serving life time of the solar PV system is about 25 years, so the solution is
very economical and the industry save the money lost due to power interruption for almost 22
years. Currently the company is among the top public enterprises in terms of annual revenue and
profitability. Annual turnover has continually increased, on average by Birr 190 million, during
the previous five years period.

It is also possible to use the solar PV system as a standalone main supply for the industry by
neglecting the utility supply system, the use of solar PV has these benefits environmental
friendly and renewable energy in addition, the problem of power interruption will not be a
70
concern anymore, no production stoppage and there is no loss of money due to power
interruption. Based on the previous PV cost estimations, the following calculation, which takes
into account the industry expansion for the future, will be done in order to know the total cost
and payback period of the PV system which will be used as a standalone supply system.

By considering the industry works for 24 hours and approximately the installed power of the
industry is 1100 KW and taking diversity factor of 0.85 (meaning 85 % of the machines are
working at the same time), the annual energy production from the PV system will be,

E = 1100 KW × 24 hrs/day × 365days/yr × 0.85

KWhrs
E = 8,190,600
yr
Since the energy produced annually from the PV system which considers the operating time of
each machine (equipment) and the system is used as a backup power option for the industry
during power interruption is,
365days 14,460,872Whrs
E0 = ( × )
yr day
KWhrs
E0 = 5,278,218.28
yr

And the total installation cost of the system needed to produce this much amount of energy
is,$ 4,462,401.612. Then, taking direct relationship of energy production and the cost of
installation for the system, the cost for installing the PV system which generates
KWhrs
8,190,600 of energy will be, CPV = $ 6,924,638.
yr

The industry expansion should be taken into account to estimate the total cost for the PV system
and considering 25 % of the investment cost 𝐶𝑃𝑉 for producing energy which is used to supply
the loads which will be added by industry expansion and it becomes, $ 1,731,160. Therefore, the
total cost needed to install the standalone solar PV system will be,
CPV = $ (6,924,638 + 1,731,160)
CPV = $ 8,655,798
Since the power interruption in NTE reaches up to 6 hrs/week and the expected daily production
of the industry in terms of money is 7,040,000 Birr/day, as result the loss of money due to
power interruption will be,

71
 5 hrs/wk × 7,040,000 Birr/day × 7 days/wk
=
168 hrs/wk
= 1,466,667 Birr/wk
Annually, it will be
= 1,466,667 Birr/wk × 52 wks/yr
Annual loss = 76,266,667 Birr/year
The electric bill shows that the industry pays to EEU up to 1,200,000 Birr annually for electric
power usage but if the industry uses the standalone solar PV system it saves the money paid to
EEU. Therefore, the cost of the industry is Ctotal = 77,466,667 Birr/yr or $ 3,296,454/yr and
the industry will save this much amount of money if solar PV system is installed.

Then, the payback period will be

CPV
T=
Ctotal
$ 8,655,798
T=
$ 3,296,454/yr
T = 2.68 years ≈ 3 years
From this analysis it is clear that, the industry can use the energy obtained from the standalone
solar PV system at least for 20 years without any payment or cost. So, if the industry is
determined to install the system it will be very economical and feasible.

72
 CHAPTER 5

SIMULATION STUDIES AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

[Link] of Oscillatory Transients

Among the causes of oscillatory transient, capacitor energization is the one which occurs in the
industry and has various effects on sensitive industrial equipments. Therefore, proper mitigation
technique should be applied. Since the size of the capacitor bank installed in the industry is 450
KVAR and the study has been performed using this capacitor bank. The solutions for transients
associated with capacitor switching have been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK/ software.
The simulation results show the effect of capacitor switching and the effectiveness of the
technique used to mitigate the transients associated with capacitor switching.

Figure 5.1 Oscillatory transient voltage waveform without pre-insertion resistor

73
 Figure 5.2 Oscillatory transient current waveform without pre-insertion resistor

To circumvent the problem of oscillatory transient overvoltage which lasts for a period of 15.5
msec due to capacitor energization in the industry that reaches up to 510 V, which is twice as
much the standard operating voltage level shown in figure 5.1 causes various problems in the
industry equipments such as malfunction of programmable logic controllers (PLC) and nuisance
tripping of variable speed drives (VSD). As a result, pre-insertion resistor with the value of 5 Ω
is used as mitigation equipment; thus, the overshoot is significantly reduced to the required
standard voltage level, i.e. 230 V. The simulation results that show the effect of transient
reduction by using pre-insertion resistor are shown in figure 5.3.

74
Figure 5.3 Oscillatory transient voltage waveform with pre-insertion resistor.

Figure 5.4 Oscillatory transient current waveform with pre-insertion resistor.

75
[Link] of Voltage Sag Problem

The solution for voltage sag problem is modeled and simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK/
software. The first simulation shows voltage sag problem without DVR when there is a three
phase short circuit fault in the system at a point with fault resistance of 2 Ω for time duration of
200 ms and the voltage is decreased to less than 90%. This voltage sag is needed to be
compensated to get the desired voltage level at the load side.

Figure 5.5 Voltage sag problem without DVR

In order to mitigate the problem of voltage sag, the simulation is carried out using the same
scenario as above but a DVR is now introduced at the load side to compensate the voltage sag
occurred due to the three phase short circuit fault. The proposed dynamic voltage restorer
responds to this sag and injects the appropriate amount of missing voltage that reaches 25 V
during the sag event for compensation. When the DVR is in operation the voltage sag is
compensated and the rms voltage at the load point is maintained to the standard voltage level. It
is clearly observed that the voltage waveform that is obtained after connection of DVR the
voltage restores for the three phases from 202.86 V, 201.25 V, and 200.33 V, respectively to 230
V. This shows that the installed DVR is working efficiently.

76
Figure 5.6 Injected voltage by DVR

Figure 5.7 Voltage sag with DVR

77
5.3. Mitigation of Harmonic Pollution

The solutions for harmonic pollutions have been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK/
software. The designed multi-branch harmonic filters (5th and 7th harmonic filters) are simulated
to see if they can effectively reduce the distortion levels to acceptable values. The current
waveforms before and after filtering are presented for comparison.

Figure 5.8 Harmonic currents injected by non-linear loads

Figure 5.9 Current waveform without filter

78
 Figure 5.10 FFT analysis of the harmonic currents before filtering

As we can seen from figure 5.9 the problem of harmonics produces a distorted waveform and in
figure 5.10 from the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis the THD value is 18.33 which is
above the IEEE acceptable limit, i.e. 5% for this study. Therefore, to alleviate the problem,
harmonic filters are used; consequently, the resulting waveform will be pure sinusoidal.

79
 Figure 5.11 Current waveform with filter

Figure 5.12 FFT analysis of the harmonic currents after filtering

80
The results obtained in figure 5.11 show the multi-branch single tuned filter has significantly
reduced the harmonic currents that appear at the secondary terminal of the transformer. The
current THD level is reduced from 18.33 % to 3.97 %, due to the compensation provided by the
multi-branch harmonic filter. It is clear that the filters effectively reduce the distortion level to
the acceptable magnitude, i.e. less than 5 %.

81
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE WORK

[Link]

The aim of this research was to investigate and examine the power quality problems in the
National Tobacco Enterprise distribution system, compare with standard values, and design
mitigation equipments if the level exceeds the standard level. Based on the results of the power
quality assessment carried out at NTE, the following major conclusions are drawn.

Transients are disturbances that occur for a very short duration. It is of two types, i.e. impulsive
transient and oscillatory transient but the later one is occurred in the industry. The energization
of three phase industry capacitor bank which is used to improve the power factor, gives rise to
oscillatory transient overvoltage which is as much the value 2Umax for duration of about 15.5 ms.
Oscillatory transient overvoltage due to capacitor switching can cause a wide range of problems,
such as tripping of variable speed drives and tripping of power supplies. Therefore, pre-insertion
resistors are used to mitigate the effect of the problem and were observed to reduce the oscillatory
transient overvoltage from 510 V to 230 V.

The short duration voltage variation, voltage sag, was occurred on the three phases and the
percentage voltage reduction are 11.8% and the voltage decreases to 202.86 V, 12.5% and the
voltage decreases to 201.25 V, 12.9% and the voltage decreases to 200.33 V for duration of 200
msec. caused by three phase short circuit fault resulting in tripping of protective device and
failure of sensors which check the quantity and proper packaging of cigarette. It has also caused
equipment malfunctions and ultimately equipment damage, particularly motors. So in order to
overcome this problem dynamic voltage restorer is installed in a distribution system between the
supply and the critical load feeder at the PCC, to restore the voltage to the normal standard
voltage level, i.e. 230 V.

The industry is facing frequent sustained electric power interruptions that enforced them to
invest extra money for the purchase of fuel for the manual diesel generator which is used as a

82
backup power option for the industry during power interruption. It affects the production
process, causing downtimes of several machines, resulting in substantial losses. Early failure of
machines due to wear and tear is the other major problem caused by unexpected power
interruptions. In order to avoid the losses due to sustained power interruptions an alternative
power supply system, which is solar PV system (renewable and environment friendly), was
designed by considering its initial investment cost and payback period of the system to be
installed.

The problem of voltage unbalance is discovered at the industry. The voltage unbalance is caused
by uneven single-phase load distribution among the three phases, most of the single phase loads
are connected to phase 2 and 3, this is identified by measuring the currents in the three phases
and the values are 913 A, 1179 A and 1250 A, respectively, for the three phases. The effect of
voltage unbalance is decreased motor efficiency and performance resulting in motor damage
from excessive heat which affects the company's profitability. So the problem should be
mitigated by redistributing the loads equally to the three phases.

The industry draws a distorted current of up to 18.33% THD at its full load and TDD value of
18.43% which is beyond the IEEE current distortion limits, i.e. less than 5 %. Harmonic current
are originated from non-linear loads, loads which draw non-sinusoidal current even when the
supply voltage is perfectly sinusoidal. Specifically, fifth and seventh harmonics are the dominant
harmonic frequencies caused by static power converters used in adjustable speed drives for
motor control, switched mode power supplies and six-pulse static drives and the negative effects
was studied. As a result, multi-branch single-tuned filters were designed for the 5th and 7th
harmonic current mitigation and the distortion levels were reduced from 18.33 % to 3.97 %. This
reduction in distortion level shows how important a filter is to get rid of the ill effects, additional
heating, false tripping and equipment malfunction associated with harmonics.

[Link]

The solutions given for the mitigation of power quality problems discovered throughout the
study should be implemented and installed by the industry, National Tobacco Enterprise, so as to
avoid the loss of money, improve productivity, profitability and early failure of equipments. And
on a certain interval of time a complete assessment of power quality problems should be done for

83
the industry and compare with IEEE standards because there can be load changes in the industry
which causes power quality problems.

The industry should communicate with the utility on the alleviation of power interruptions and
inspect the equipments provided by the service provider like transformers. Additionally, both the
utility and the industry should also check the injection of harmonic currents by the non-linear
loads to prevent damage of equipments due to harmonic distortion.

At the end, we recommend for the industry to keep the power quality problems measuring
instrument, Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer, properly because this device
provides great help for studying problems associated to power quality issues smoothly and
easily.

6.3 Suggestions for Future Work

As we know harmonic have effects on different equipments, therefore, the impact of harmonics
on the age of a transformer must be studied in detail in the future.
Tuned filters can cause undesirable system resonance and its effectiveness also change when
loads change, other options like active filters, phase-shifting transformers and series reactors
must be considered in future research.

84
References

[1]. Sandeep Kumarn, Power Quality Issues and its Mitigation Techniques, 2011.

[2]. Owyong Siew Leng, Simulating Power Quality Problems, School Of Information
Technology and Electrical Engineering, University Of Queensland, October 2001.

[3]. Dugan, Roger C., Mark McGranaghan, Surya Santoso, and H. Wayne Beaty, Electrical

Power Systems Quality, McGraw-Hill Inc., 2003.

[4]. SANDEEP KUMAR N, Power Quality Issues and its Mitigation Techniques, 2012.

[5]. Surajit Chattopadhyay Madhuchhanda Mitra Samarjit Sengupta, Electric Power Quality, 2nd
edition, 2010.

[6]. IEEE Std 1159-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality,
Approved June 14, 1995, IEEE Standards Board, USA.

[7]. J. Schlabbach, D. Blume and T. Stephanblome, Voltage Quality in Electrical Power

Systems, 2nd edition, The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 1999.

[8]. C. Sankara, Power Quality, 2002.

[9]. Harjit Singh Birdi, Power Quality Analysis Using Relay Recorded Data, August 2006.

[10]. Hussein Mohamed El-Eissawi Fathi, Power Quality Assessment, Journal of Al-Azhar
University Cairo, Egypt , 2012.

[11]. Jeff McGuire, Monitoring of Distribution System Power Quality, October 1999.

[12]. Alexandre Nassif, Modeling, Measurement and Mitigation of Power System Harmonics,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Fall 2009.

[13]. Muhammad Yasir, A Novel Approach for Assessing the Impact of Voltage Sag Events on
Customer Operations, 2011.

85
[14]. Nexant SARI, Economic Impact of Poor Power Quality on Industry, Sri Lanka, 2003,
Prepared for United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Under South Asia
Regional Initiative for Energy (SARI/E).

[15]. [Link], Kamlesh Keharia, Rajesh Darapu, B. Mariappan, A case study of Power
quality improvement and energy saving in textile industry using solid state harmonic filter,
Fifteenth National Power Systems Conference (NPSC), IIT Bombay, December 2008.

[16]. Franz Alois Hemetsberger, An Investigation of Power Quality Problems in a Remote Mine
Site, October 2003.

[17]. R.A. Adams, S.W. Middlekauff, E.H. Camm and J.A. McGee, “Solving Customer Power
Quality Problems Due to Voltage Magnification”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.
13, No. 4, October 1998.

[18]. Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Voltage Unbalance and Motors, October 2009.

[19]. Gebretsadik Teklay, Investigation and Analysis of Harmonic Pollution in Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems, June, 2011.

[20]. Pierluigi Caramia, Guido Carpinelli, Paola Verde, Power Quality Indices in Liberalized
Markets, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex,PO19
8SQ, United Kingdom, 2009.

[21]. Amit Kumar Jena, Bhupen Mohapatra, Kalandi Pradhan, Modeling and Simulation of a
Dynamic Voltage Restorer for Mitigation of Voltage Sags, International Journal of Electrical,
Computer, Electronics and Communication Engineering Vol:8 No:8, 2014.

[22]. P. Daehler and R. Affolter, “Requirements and Solutions for Dynamic Voltage Restorer, A
Case Study”, power engineering society winter meeting, IEEE, 2000.

[23]. M.M. Abdel Aziz, G. A. Abdel Salam and S. M. Kozman, “Cost and Mitigation of Voltage
sag for Industrial Plants”, electrical, electronic and computer engineering international
conference. ICEEC 2004. IEEE, 2004.

86
[24]. Alexandre Nassif, “Modeling, Measurement and Mitigation of Power System Harmonics,”
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Alberta, Fall 2009.

[25]. Kun-Ping Lin, Ming-Hoon Lin, and Tung-Ping Lin, “An Advanced Computer Code for
Single-Tuned Harmonic Filter Design,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, vol. 34,
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[26]. Mark McGranaghan and Bill Roettger, “Economic Evaluation of Power Quality”, IEEE
power engineering review, Feb. 2002.

[27]. Messenger, R. A., & Ventre, J., Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, 3 rdedition, Boca Raton,
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[32]. Abd El-Shafy A. Nafeh, Design and Economic Analysis of a Stand-Alone PV System to
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87
 APPENDIX A

EQUIPMENT OVERVIEW OF FLUKE 434/435 THREE PHASE POWER

QUALITY ANALYZER

Figure A.1 Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer.

Fluke 434/435 three phase Power Quality Analyzer detects power line abnormalities and analyzes
power quality. The main features of the analyzer are the following
1. Continuous Long-term monitoring and recording: Power line anomalities often occur
intermittently, so the y must be captured when an anomaly occurs, along with its type and
intensity.
2. Simultaneous measurement of multiple elements of power supply quality: Multiple power
supply quality parameters can be selected as desired for simultaneous measurement.
a. high speed voltage quality parameter: Transients (impulsive and oscillatory);
b. RMS voltage quality parameters: voltage swell (surge), voltage dip (sag), voltage
interruption ;
c. power quality parameters: frequency, voltage, current, active power, apparent power,
reactive power, power factor (displacement power facto r);

88
 d. harmonic quality parameters: harmonic voltage, current and power, harmonic current
and voltage phase angle, total harmonic voltage and current distortion factors (THD-F,
THD-R),
e. Other parameters: K factor, flicker
3. Data is presented in the formats Events Table, Trend Display, and Bar Graph Screen.
A. Events Table: The events table shows the events that occurred during the
measurement with date/time of start, phase, and duration.
B. Trend Display: The Trend screen shows the changes over time of measuring values.
C. Bar Graph Screen: Bar Graphs showing the percentage of time each phase spent
within limits for harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
4. Four functional section Settings: used to accesses menus to view and change Analyzer
settings.
I. General Settings: Date, Time, GPS time synchronization, wiring Configuration,
nominal Voltage, nominal Frequency, current and voltage probe type, information
language, survey and installation of options.
II. FUNCTION PREFERENCES: adjustment of Offset and Span of Trend and
Waveform displays, contents of harmonics Meter screen and harmonics settings,
power settings, flicker D-parameter settings, Inrush defaults, and Transient
settings.
III. USER PREFERENCES: adjustment of Phase Identification and Colors, Printer
and RS-232 settings, Auto shut-off, definition of User name, and display contrast.
Many menus have a function key for reset to factory default settings.
IV. Limits Settings: for save, recall, and definition of the limits for power quality
monitoring.
5. Save screens and data: into the Analyzer’s memory and show how to view, rename and delete
them and also explains how to setup the Analyzer for communication with a PC, laptop, and
printer.
6. Up to one month continuous measurement: Data is saved to internal memory during the
measurement period. Use of a PC card enables continuous measurement for one month at
maximum.

89
 APPENDIX B
SAMPLE FIELD MEASUREMENT DATA IN THE INDUSTRY
Table B.1 Sample Measurement of Voltage Unbalance

Table B.2 Sample Measurement of Harmonics Trend and Current Measurement

90
Table B.3 Sample Measurement of Power and Power Factor

Table B.4 Sample Measurement of Flicker

91
 APPENDIX C
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR SINGLE-TUNED FILTER DESIGN

Figure C.1 Decision flow chart for single-tuned filter design [33]

92
 APPENDIX D
LOAD TYPES AND SIZES DATA

Table D.1 Existing Load Data of NTE

Watts/item Hrs of Energy Consumption
Loads operation/day Whrs/day
1. Primary Room
A. Ground Floor
i. 18.798E machine 140,130 8 1,121,040
ii. COMAS machine 7,400 16 118,400
iii. Dickinson machine 26,400 16 422,400
iv. Schiff & Stern machine 13,500 8 108,000
v. Finttener machine 19,100 8 152,800
vi. Steam cutter machine 22,000 8 176,000
vii. Compressor 17,400 24 417,600
viii. Lighting 4,160 24 99,840
ix. Machines for steam line 21,170 16 338,720
x. Lifters (2) 2,200 8 17,600
xi. Steam moisturing machine 9,600 16 153,600
Sub Total 283.060 W 3,126,000Whrs/day
A. First Floor
I. Unicutter machine 34,000 8 272,000
II. 18.799 & 18.800 machine 50,400 8 403,200
III. KTF cutter machine 15,500 8 124,000
IV. Lighting 2,400 24 57,600
V. Compressor (2) 15,000 24 360,000
VI. TOFI separator 3,500 8 28,000
VII. Candle machine & Lighting 19,610 12 235,320
Sub Total 140,410 W 1,480,120Whrs/day
2. Secondary Room
i. Maker machine (2) 136,000 16 2,176,000
ii. Packer machine (2) 36,000 12 432,000

93
 iii. Filter Machine 52,250 16 836,000
iv. Hard packer machine 27,500 12 330,000
v. Lighting 20,068 24 481,632
vi. Compressors (5) 75,000 24 1,800,000
vii. Suction machine 79,200 16 1,267,200
viii. COMAS machine 4,900 16 78,400
ix. GODIOLI & BELLANTTI 5,680 8 45,440
x. GISSILA machine & Lighting 63,440 16 1,015,040
Sub Total 500,038 W 8,461,712Whrs/day
3. Offices, Cafeteria, & Clinic 29,300 W 8 234,400 Whrs/day
4. Stores 5,000 W 8 40,000 Whrs/day
5. Garage including lighting 9,000 W 8 72,000 Whrs/day
6. Workshops including lighting 12,000 W 8 96,000 Whrs/day
7. Lifts 45,020 W 8 360,160 Whrs/day
8. Laboratory 8,000 W 8 64,000 Whrs/day
9. Boiler with lighting 30,540 W 12 366,480 Whrs/day
10. Total power for the remaining 20,000 W 8 160,000 Whrs/day
Total 1,082,368 W 14,460,872Whrs/day

94
 APPENDIX E
ELECTRICAL SIMUINK MODELSFOR SIMULATION
E.1 Electrical Models for Oscillatory Transient

Figure E.1 Simulink model for oscillatory transient

Figure E.2 Simulink model for oscillatory transient with pre-insertion resistor

95
E.2 Electrical Models for Voltage Sag

Figure E.3 Simulink model of voltage sag without DVR

Figure E.4 Simulink model of DVR

96
 Figure E.5 Simulink model of voltage sag with DVR

E.3 Electrical Models for Harmonic Distortion

Figure E.6 Simulink model without filter

97
Figure E.7 Simulink model with filter

98