EUKARYOTIC MICROBES

DR. MARY JOCELYN VILLEJO-BATTUNG

 ALGAE
Characteristics and Classification of Algae

(sing., alga) are photosynthetic, eukaryotic

organisms that, together with protozoa, are
classified in the second kingdom (Protista) of
the Five Kingdom System of Classification.

The study of algae is called phycology (or

algology), and a person who studies algae is
called a phycologist (or algologist).
All algal cells consist of cytoplasm, a cell
wall (usually), a cell membrane, a
nucleus, plastids, ribosomes,
mitochondria, and Golgi bodies.

In addition, some algal cells have a

pellicle (a thickened cell membrane), a
stigma (a light-sensing organelle, also
known as an eyespot), and flagella.
Most algal cell walls contain cellulose, a
polysaccharide not found in the cell walls of
any other microorganisms.

Depending on the types of photosynthetic

pigments they possess, algae are classified
as green, golden (or golden brown), brown,
or red.
Although they are not plants, algae are more
plantlike than protozoa , Algae lack true roots,
stems, and leaves.

Algae range in size from tiny, unicellular, micro-

scopic organisms (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates,
and desmids) to large, multicellular, plantlike
seaweeds. Thus, not all algae are microorganisms.

Algae may be arranged in colonies or strands and

are found in freshwater and salt water, in wet soil,
and on wet rocks.
Diatoms are tiny, usually unicellular algae that live
in both freshwater and seawater (Fig. 5-1). They
are important members of the phytoplankton. Over
200 genera of living diatoms are known.

Diatomaceous earth, consisting of fossilized

remains of diatoms, is a naturally occurring soft
rock that is easily crumbled into a fine white
powder.
It is used as a filtration aid and a mild abrasive in
products, such as metal polishes and toothpaste.
Diatoms have been investigated for use as drug
delivery systems in medicine, and their potential
use in nanotechnology has drawn great interest.
Dinoflagellates are microscopic, unicellular,
flagellated, often photosynthetic algae. Like
diatoms, they are important members of the
phytoplankton, producing much of the oxygen in
our atmosphere and serving as important links in
food chains.

Dinoflagellates are responsible for what are known

as “red tides”. Green algae include many different
genera, all of which can be found in pond water
Some of the many algae and protozoa found in pond water. A. Ameba sp. B.
Euglena sp. C. Stentor sp. D. Vorticella sp. in extended and contracted
positions. E. Volvox sp. F. Paramecium sp. (B) and (E) are algae. (A), (C), (D),
and (F) are protozoa.
Algae are easy to find. They include large
seaweeds of various colors, brown kelp (up to 10 m
in length) found along ocean shores, the green
scum floating on ponds, and the slippery green
material on wet rocks (Fig. 5-3).
Algae are an important source of food, iodine and
other minerals, fertilizers, emulsifiers for pudding,
and stabilizers for ice cream and salad dressings;
they are also used as a gelling agent for jams and
nutrient media for bacterial growth.
The agar used as a solidifying agent in laboratory
culture media is a complex polysaccharide
derived from a red marine alga. Because algae
are nearly 50% oil, scientists are studying them as
a source of biofuels.
On the down side, damage to water systems is
frequently caused by algae clogging filters and
pipes if many nutrients are present.
 Medical Significance
One genus of algae (Prototheca) is a very rare
cause of human infections (causing a disease
known as protothecosis). Prototheca lives in soil
and can enter wounds, especially those located
on the feet.

It produces a small subcutaneous lesion that

can progress to a crusty, warty-looking lesion. If
the organism enters the lymphatic system, it
may cause a debilitating, sometimes fatal
infection, especially in immunosuppressed
individuals.
Algae in several other genera secrete substances
(phycotoxins) that are poisonous to humans, fish,
and other animals.
 PROTOZOA
Characteristics:
Protozoa (sing., protozoan) are eukaryotic
organisms that, together with algae, are classified
in the second kingdom (Protista) of the Five
Kingdom System of Classification.

As previously stated, not all taxonomists agree

that algae and protozoa should be combined in
the same kingdom. The study of protozoa is
called protozoology, and a person who studies
protozoa is called a protozoologist.
Most protozoa are unicellular (single-celled),
ranging in length from 3 to 2,000 µm. Most of
them are free-living organisms, found in soil and
water. Protozoal cells are more animal-like than
plantlike.

All protozoal cells possess a variety of

eukaryotic structures and organelles, including
cell membranes, nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, lysosomes,
centrioles, and food vacuoles.
In addition, some protozoa possess pellicles,
cytostomes, contractile vacuoles, pseudopodia,
cilia, and flagella. Protozoa have no chlorophyll
and, therefore, cannot make their own food by
photosynthesis.

Some ingest whole algae, yeasts, bacteria, and

smaller protozoans as their source of nutrients,
whereas others live on dead and decaying
organic matter.
Protozoa do not have cell walls, but some,
including some flagellates and some ciliates,
possess a pellicle, which serves the same
purpose as a cell wall—protection. Some
flagellates and ciliates ingest food through a
primitive mouth or opening, called a cytostome.

Paramecium spp. (common pond water ciliates)

possess both a pellicle (thickened cell
membrane) and a cytostome. Some pond water
protozoa (such as amoeba and Paramecium)
contain an organelle called a contractile vacuole,
which pumps water out of the cell.
A typical protozoan life cycle consists of two
stages:

Trophozoite stage- is the motile, feeding, dividing

stage in a protozoan life cycle.

Cyst stage - is the nonmotile, dormant,

survival stage. In some ways (e.g., the
presence of a thick outer wall), cysts are
like bacterial spores.
Some protozoa are parasites. Parasitic
protozoa break down and absorb nutrients
from the body of the host in which they live.

Many parasitic protozoa are pathogens, such

as those that cause malaria, giardiasis, African
sleeping sickness, and amebic dysentery.
Other protozoa coexist with the host animal in a
type of mutualistic symbiotic relationship—a
relationship in which both organisms benefit.

A typical example of such a symbiotic

relationship is the termite and its intestinal
protozoa.

The protozoa digest the wood eaten by the

termite, enabling both organisms to absorb the
nutrients necessary for life. Without the intestinal
protozoa, the termite would be unable to digest
the wood that it eats and would starve to death.
 Classification and Medical Significance
In some classification schemes, protozoa are
divided into groups (variously referred to as phyla,
subphyla, or classes) according to their method of
locomotion.
Amebae (or amebas) move by means of
cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia (sing.,
pseudopodium; false feet) . An ameba (pl.,
amebae) first extends a pseudopodium in the
direction it intends to move and then the rest of
the cell slowly flows into it; this process is called
ameboid movement.

Digestive enzymes, released from lysosomes,

then digest or break down the food into nutrients.
Some of the white blood cells in our bodies ingest
and digest materials in the same manner as
amebae.
One medically important ameba is Entamoeba
histolytica, which causes amebic dysentery
(amebiasis) and extraintestinal (meaning away
from the intestine) amebic abscesses.

Other amebae of medical significance, described

include Naegleria fowleri (the causative agent of
primary amebic meningoencephalitis) and
Acanthamoeba spp. (which cause eye infections)
A pond water ameba
Ciliates (sing., ciliate) move about by means of large
numbers of hairlike cilia on their surfaces. Cilia exhibit
an oarlike motion. Ciliates are the most complex of all
protozoa.

A pathogenic ciliate, Balantidium coli, causes

dysentery in underdeveloped countries. It is usually
transmitted to humans from drinking water that has
been contaminated by swine feces. B. coli is the only
ciliated protozoan that causes disease in humans.
Ciliates such as Paramecium can often be observed
in pond water.
Flagellated protozoa or flagellates (sing.,
flagellate) move by means of whiplike flagella. A
basal body (also called a kinetosome or
kinetoplast) anchors each flagellum within the
cytoplasm. Flagella exhibit a wavelike motion and
some flagellates are pathogenic.
For example:

Trypanosoma brucei, transmitted by the tsetse fly,

causes African sleeping sickness in humans;

Trypanosoma cruzi causes American

trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease);
Trichomonas vaginalis causes persistent sexually
transmitted infections (trichomoniasis) of the male
and female genital tracts; and

Giardia intestinalis (also known

as Giardia lamblia and Giardia duodenalis) causes
a persistent diarrheal disease (giardiasis)
A digitally colorized scanning electron micrograph of Giardia lamblia,
a flagellated protozoan that causes a human diarrheal disease known
as giardiasis. (Provided by Dr. Stan Erlandsen, Dr. Dennis Feely, and
the CDC.)
Nonmotile protozoa—protozoa lacking pseudopodia,
flagella, or cilia are classified together in a category
called sporozoa.

The most important sporozoan pathogens

are the Plasmodium spp. that cause malaria in many
areas of the world.

Malarial parasites are transmitted by female

Anopheles mosquitoes, which become infected
when they take a blood meal from a person infected
with malaria
Although not endemic to the United States, malaria
is often diagnosed in travellers who arrive in the
United States having been infected elsewhere.

Another sporozoan, Cryptosporidium parvum,

causes severe diarrheal disease (cryptosporidiosis)
in immunosuppressed patients, especially those
with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

A 1993 epidemic in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, caused

by Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water,
resulted in more than 400,000 cases of
cryptosporidiosis, including some fatal cases.
Other pathogenic sporozoans include :

Babesia spp. (the cause of babesiosis, an

infectious disease caused by intraerythrocytic,
tick-borne protozoa).

Cyclospora cayetanensis (the cause of a

diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis, an
intestinal illness caused by the microscopic
parasite).

Toxoplasma gondii (the cause of toxoplasmosis)

an infection caused by a single-celled parasite
 FUNGI

Characteristics :

Fungi are a diverse group that are now classified

across three kingdoms. Those that are pathogenic
to humans and animals are placed in the Kingdom
Fungi (also called Eumycota). The study of fungi is
called mycology, and a person who studies fungi is
called a mycologist.
Fungi are found almost everywhere on Earth; some
(the saprophytic fungi) are living on organic matter
in water and soil, and others (the parasitic fungi)
living on and within animals and plants. Some are
harmful, whereas others are beneficial.

Fungi also live on many unlikely materials,

causing deterioration of leather and plastics and
spoilage of jams, pickles, and many other foods.

Beneficial fungi are important in the production

of cheeses, beer, wine, and other foods, as well
as certain drugs (e.g., the immunosuppressant
drug cyclosporine) and antibiotics (e.g.,
penicillin).
It is estimated that fungi are the most diverse
group of organism on the earth and include
yeasts, molds, and even mushrooms. As
saprophytes, their main source of food is dead
and decaying organic matter.

Fungi are the “garbage disposers” of nature—

the “vultures” of the microbial world. By
secreting digestive enzymes into dead plant
and animal matter, they decompose this
material into absorbable nutrients for
themselves and other living organisms;
thus, they are the original “recyclers.” Imagine
living in a world without saprophytes, stumbling
through endless piles of dead plants and animals
and animal waste products. Not a pleasant
thought!

Fungi are sometimes incorrectly referred to as

plants,but they are not. One way that fungi differ
from plants and algae is that they are not
photosynthetic; they have no chlorophyll or other
photosynthetic pigments.
The cell walls of algal and plant cells contain
cellulose (a polysaccharide), but fungal cell walls
do not.

Fungal cell walls do contain a polysaccharide

called chitin, which is not found in the cell walls of
any other microorganisms. Chitin is also found in
the exoskeletons of arthropods.
Although many fungi are unicellular (e.g., yeasts
and microsporidia), others grow as filaments
called hyphae (sing., hypha), which intertwine to
form a mass called a mycelium (pl., mycelia ) or
thallus; thus, they are quite different from
bacteria, which are always unicellular.

Also remember that bacteria are prokaryotic,

whereas fungi are eukaryotic.
Some fungi have septate hyphae (meaning that the
cytoplasm within the hypha is divided into cells by
cross-walls or septa), whereas others have
aseptate hyphae (meaning that the cytoplasm
within the hypha is not divided into cells; no septa).

Aseptate hyphae contain multinucleated cytoplasm

(described as being coenocytic).
 Reproduction of Fungi

Depending on the particular species, fungal cells

canreproduce by budding, hyphal extension, or
the formation of spores.

There are two general categories of fungal

spores:

 sexual spores and

 asexual spores.
Sexual spores are produced by the fusion of two
gametes (thus, by the fusion of two nuclei).

Sexual spores have a variety of names (e.g.,

ascospores, basidiospores, and zygospores),
depending on the exact manner in which
they are formed.

Fungi are classified taxonomically in

accordance with the type of sexual spore that
they produce or the type of structure on which the
spores are produced
Asexual spores are formed in many different
ways, but not by the fusion of gametes .

If the reproductive structure is formed within a

sac-like structure called a sporangium, then the
asexual form is referred to as a sporangiospore
(or more commonly “spore”).
However, if the reproductive structure arises from a
fungal component called a conidiophore, then the
spores are referred to as conidia (sing., conidium).

Fungal spores and condidia are very resistant

structures that are carried great distances by
wind. They are resistant to heat, cold, acids, bases,
and other chemicals. Many people are allergic to
fungal spores
 Microscopic appearance of various fungi.
A. Aspergillus fumigatus. B. Aspergillus flavus. C. Penicillium sp.
D. Curvularia sp. E. Scopulariopsis sp. F. Histoplasma capsulatum.
 Classification

The taxonomic classification of fungi has undergone

significant changes in recent years.

One current classification divides the Kingdom

Fungi into five phyla. Classification of fungi into
these phyla is based primarily on their mode of
sexual reproduction.
The two phyla known as “lower fungi” are the

1. Zygomycotina (or Zygomycota)

include the common bread moulds and other
fungi that cause food spoilage.

2. Chytridiomycotina (or Chytridiomycota)

which are not considered to be true fungi
by some taxonomists, live in water (“water
moulds”) and soil
The two phyla known as “higher fungi” are the
Following :

1. Ascomycotina (or Ascomycota) include certain

yeasts like Candida species, moulds like
Aspergillus and Penicillium, and some fungi that
cause plant diseases (e.g., Dutch elm disease).
2. Basidiomycotina (or Basidiomycota)
include some yeasts like Cryptococcus, some fungi
that cause skin infections and plant diseases, and
the large “fleshy fungi” that live in the woods (e.g.,
mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, and
puffballs).
Some fungi classification schemes contain a
phylum called Deuteromycotina (or
Deuteromycota). This phylum is sometimes
referred to as the Fungi Imperfecti.

Contained in this phylum are fungi in which the

sexual form of the organism has not been
discovered or that the organisms have lost the
ability to perform sexual reproduction.
Deuteromycetes include certain medically
important moulds such as some species of
Aspergillus and yeasts such as Candida
albicans.