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Understanding Digital Certificates and Encryption

Digital certificates contain the certificate holder's public key, the identity of the certificate issuer, a validity period, a serial number, and a digital signature. They are used to establish secure internet communications. A Certificate Authority issues digital certificates by generating a public-private key pair for the applicant, encrypting the public key with the CA's private key, and signing the certificate with the CA's private key.

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Charles Mahofa

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

179 views16 pages

Understanding Digital Certificates and Encryption

Uploaded by

Charles Mahofa

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

QUESTION 6.

2 Digital certificates are used in Internet communications. A Certificate Authority (CA) is responsible
for issuing digital certificates.

(a) Name three data items present in a digital certificate.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

2 ................................................................................................................................................

3 ............................................................................................................................................[3]

(b) The method of issuing a digital certificate is as follows:

1 A user starts an application for a digital certificate using their computer. On this computer
a key pair is generated. This key pair consists of a public key and an associated private
key.

2 The user submits the application to the CA. The generated ........ (i) ........ key and
other application data are sent. The key and data are encrypted using
the CA’s ........ (ii) ........ key.

3 The CA creates a digital document containing all necessary data items and signs it using
the CA’s ........ (iii) ........ key.

4 The CA sends the digital certificate to the individual.

In the above method there are three missing words. Each missing word is either ‘public’ or
‘private’.

State the correct word. Justify your choice.

(i) ...........................................................................................................................................

Justification ........................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

(ii) ...........................................................................................................................................

Justification ........................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

(iii) ...........................................................................................................................................

Justification ........................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/M/J/16

(c) Alexa sends an email to Beena.

Alexa’s email program:

• produces a message digest (hash)

• uses Alexa’s private key to encrypt the message digest
• adds the encrypted message digest to the plain text of her message
• encrypts the whole message with Beena’s public key
• sends the encrypted message with a copy of Alexa’s digital certificate

Beena’s email program decrypts the encrypted message using her private key.

(i) State the name given to the encrypted message digest.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(ii) Explain how Beena can be sure that she has received a message that is authentic (not
corrupted or tampered with) and that it came from Alexa.

...........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

(iii) Name two uses where encrypted message digests are advisable.

1 ........................................................................................................................................

2 ....................................................................................................................................[2]

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/M/J/16 [Turn over

QUESTION 7. 11

6 (a) The table below gives descriptions of three types of malware.

Description Term
Malware that attaches itself to another program.

Malware that redirects the web browser to a fake website.

Email that encourages the receiver to access a website and

give their banking details.

Complete the table by adding the correct terms. [3]

(b) Ben wants to send a highly confidential email to Mariah so that only she can read it. Plain text
and cipher text will be used in this communication.

(i) Explain the terms plain text and cipher text.

Plain text ............................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

Cipher text .........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [2]

(ii) Explain how the use of asymmetric key cryptography ensures that only Mariah can read
the email.

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [4]

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/O/N/16

QUESTION 8. 5

2 The following incomplete table shows descriptions and terms relating to malware.

(a) Complete the table with appropriate description and terms.

Description Term
(i) A standalone piece of malicious software that can
replicate itself using a network. ...................................... [1]
(ii) Use email to attempt to obtain an individual’s
confidential data. ...................................... [1]
(iii)
.................................................................................

.................................................................................

.................................................................................
Virus
.................................................................................

.................................................................................

................................................................................. [2]

(b) State two vulnerabilities that the malware in part (a)(i) or part (a)(iii) can exploit.

Vulnerability 1 ...........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

Vulnerability 2 ...........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[2]

Question 2 continues on the next page.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17 [Turn over

(c) Anna has to send an email to Bob containing confidential information. Bob and Anna have
never sent emails to each other before.

Bob and Anna both have public and private keys.

The first step is for Anna to request that Bob sends her one of his keys.

(i) State the key that Bob sends. .......................................................................................[1]

(ii) Explain how Anna can be sure that it is Bob who has sent the key.

...........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

(iii) Anna has received the key from Bob.

The following incomplete table shows the sequence of actions between Anna and Bob to
communicate the confidential information.

Complete the table.

The person
performing the What that person does
action

Anna Requests Bob’s <answer to part (c)(i)> key.

Bob
..........................................................................................................

Anna
..........................................................................................................

Anna Sends the email to Bob.

..........................................................................................................
Bob
..........................................................................................................
[4]

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17

Question 3 begins on page 8.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17 [Turn over

QUESTION 9. 7

(c) The definition of <variable> is changed to allow:

• one or two letters and

• zero, one or two digits.

Draw an updated version of the syntax diagram for <variable>.

Variable

Letter

[2]

(d) The definition of <assignment_statement> is altered so that its syntax has

<unsigned_integer> replaced by <real>.

A real is defined to be:

• at least one digit before a decimal point

• a decimal point
• at least one digit after a decimal point.

Give the BNF for the revised <assignment_statement> and <real>.

<assignment_statement> ::= ........................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

<real> ::= ...........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[2]

4 The Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol and its successor, the Transport Layer Security (TLS)
protocol, are used in Internet communications between clients and servers.

(a) (i) Define the term protocol.

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [2]

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/O/N/17 [Turn over

(ii) Explain the purpose of the TLS protocol.

...........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................... [3]

(b) A handshake process has to take place before any exchange of data using the TLS protocol.
The handshake process establishes details about how the exchange of data will occur. Digital
certificates and keys are used.

The handshake process starts with:

• the client sending some communication data to the server

• the client asking the server to identify itself
• the server sending its digital certificate including the public key.

Describe, in outline, the other steps in the handshake process.

...................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

1 ...............................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

2 ...............................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[2]

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/O/N/17

QUESTION 10. 12

(c) The table shows four statements about computer architecture.

Put a tick (✓) in each row to identify the computer architecture associated with each statement.

Architecture
Statement
SIMD MIMD SISD

Each processor executes a different instruction

There is only one processor

Each processor executes the same instruction input

using data available in the dedicated memory
Each processor typically has its own partition within a
shared memory
[4]

6 (a) The following table shows descriptions and terms relating to data transmission security.

Add appropriate descriptions and terms to complete the table.

Description Term
The result of encryption that is transmitted to the
A
recipient. .................................
The type of cryptography used where different keys are
B
used; one for encryption and one for decryption. .................................

.........................................................................................

.........................................................................................
C Digital certificate
.........................................................................................

.........................................................................................

.........................................................................................
D Private key
.........................................................................................

.........................................................................................

[4]

© UCLES 2018 9608/32/O/N/18

(b) The sequence of steps 1 to 7 describes what happens when setting up a secure connection
using Secure Socket Layer (SSL).

Four statements are missing from the sequence.

If the browser trusts the certificate, it creates, encrypts and sends the server a
A
symmetric session key using the server’s public key.

B Server sends the browser an acknowledgement, encrypted with the session key.

C Server sends a copy of its SSL Certificate and its public key.

D Server decrypts the symmetric session key using its private key.

Write one letter (A to D) in the appropriate space to complete the sequence.

1. Browser requests that the server identifies itself.

2. ……………

3. Browser checks the certificate against a list of trusted Certificate Authorities.

4. ……………

5. ……………

6. ……………

7. Server and browser now encrypt all transmitted data with the session key.
[3]

BLANK PAGE

QUESTION 11. 11

5 (a) Wiktor is an employee of a travel agent. He uses asymmetric encryption to send confidential
information to his manager.

Fill in the spaces with an appropriate term to complete the descriptions.

Asymmetric encryption uses different ……………………………. for encrypting and decrypting

data. When Wiktor sends a message to his manager, the message is encrypted into

……………………………. using his manager’s ……………………………. key. When the

manager receives the message, it is decrypted using her ……………………………. key.

When the manager replies, the message is encrypted using Wiktor’s …………………………….

key, and when Wiktor receives the message, it is decrypted into …………………………….

using his ……………………………. key. [5]

(b) When customers pay for their travel booking online, a secure connection is established using
Secure Socket Layer (SSL).

Explain how the customer’s browser and the server used to collect the payment will establish
a secure connection.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [6]

Name two types of malware. State what the company should do to help prevent the effect of
the malware.

The two methods of prevention must be different.

Malware type 1 .........................................................................................................................

Prevention ................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

Malware type 2 .........................................................................................................................

Prevention ................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[4]

QUESTION 12. 8

5 Sanjeet is a member of the public, and he wants to send a private message to a government
department.

(a) Explain how asymmetric encryption is used to ensure that the message remains private.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(b) When the government department replies to Sanjeet, it needs to send a verified message.

Explain how asymmetric encryption can be used to ensure that it is a verified message.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [2]

(c) The government’s computer systems are vulnerable to malware.

(i) Describe two vulnerabilities that malware can exploit in computer systems.

1 ........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

2 .........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................
[4]

(ii) Identify one method that can be used to restrict the effect of malware.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]
© UCLES 2019 9608/32/M/J/19
QUESTION 13. 12

8 Digital certificates are used in internet communications. A Certificate Authority (CA) is responsible
for issuing a digital certificate.

(a) Identify two data items present in a digital certificate.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

2 ................................................................................................................................................
[2]

(b) The following paragraph describes how a digital signature is produced. Complete the
paragraph by inserting an appropriate term in each space.

A ................................................ algorithm is used to generate a message digest from the

plain text message. The message digest is ................................................ with the sender’s

................................................ .
[3]

Common questions

The TLS handshake involves the following steps: initially, the client sends a "ClientHello" message to the server, indicating supported cipher suites and TLS versions. The server responds with a "ServerHello" message, selecting the cipher suite and version to be used. The server then sends its digital certificate including the public key. The client verifies the certificate against trusted CAs and sends a "ClientKeyExchange" message, encrypting a session key with the server’s public key. The server decrypts this with its private key and a secure symmetric session is established .

The TLS protocol secures online communications by providing privacy and data integrity between two communicating computer applications. It accomplishes this by encrypting the data being transmitted using symmetric encryption algorithms and ensuring both parties' authenticity through digital certificates. By doing so, it thwarts eavesdropping, tampering, and message forgery .

In asymmetric cryptography, each user has a pair of keys: a public key and a private key. When Anna requests Bob's public key, she encrypts her message with Bob's public key, ensuring that only Bob can decrypt it with his private key. This ensures confidentiality. Conversely, if Bob wants to ensure the message's authenticity, he can send it signed with his private key, which Anna can verify using Bob's public key .

Asymmetric encryption protects message privacy by using the recipient's public key to encrypt the message, so only the recipient can decrypt it with their private key. For integrity and authenticity, the sender can encrypt the message digest (hash) with their own private key, allowing the recipient to verify it with the sender's public key. This ensures that the message is from the genuine sender and has not been altered during transmission .

A virus attaches itself to a program or file and relies on user actions to spread to other systems. In contrast, a network worm is a standalone malicious software that can replicate itself without user intervention, using network connections to spread quickly to other connected systems .

To ensure the integrity and authenticity of an email, a message digest (hash) is first created from the email content. This digest is then encrypted with the sender's private key, creating a digital signature. When the recipient receives the email, they decrypt the signature using the sender's public key to retrieve the original digest. They can then compare this with a newly computed digest of the received message. If they match, the message hasn't been tampered with and authenticates the sender's identity .

Digital signatures support non-repudiation by using cryptographic techniques to create a signature using the senders’ private key. This signature can be verified by anyone using the sender’s public key, proving that the signed message originated from the sender and wasn't altered. As only the original sender has access to their private key, they cannot deny sending the signed message, providing legal accountability .

SSL/TLS ensures data integrity through the use of hashing algorithms and HMAC (Hashed Message Authentication Code). Data is hashed before transmission, creating a checksum that is appended to the data. At the receiving end, the hash is recomputed and compared to the transmitted checksum. If the hashes match, integrity is confirmed, ensuring that the data has not been altered during transmission .

Certificate Authorities (CAs) are crucial in PKI as they act as trusted third parties attesting to the ownership of public keys by issuing digital certificates. CAs authenticate the identity of certificate requestors and verify their public key. This trust relationship enables users to secure their communications by ensuring the integrity and authenticity of public keys, mitigating man-in-the-middle attacks .

A digital certificate typically includes the public key of the certificate holder, the name of the Certification Authority that issued the certificate, and the digital signature of the CA. These components collectively help in establishing the authenticity of the certificate holder and the integrity of transmitted data .

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Understanding Digital Certificates and Encryption

Uploaded by

Understanding Digital Certificates and Encryption

Uploaded by

QUESTION 6.

(a) Name three data items present in a digital certificate.

(b) The method of issuing a digital certificate is as follows:

4 The CA sends the digital certificate to the individual.

State the correct word. Justify your choice.

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/M/J/16

(c) Alexa sends an email to Beena.

Alexa’s email program:

• produces a message digest (hash)

(i) State the name given to the encrypted message digest.

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/M/J/16 [Turn over

6 (a) The table below gives descriptions of three types of malware.

Malware that redirects the web browser to a fake website.

Email that encourages the receiver to access a website and

Complete the table by adding the correct terms. [3]

(i) Explain the terms plain text and cipher text.

Plain text ............................................................................................................................

Cipher text .........................................................................................................................

© UCLES 2016 9608/31/O/N/16

(a) Complete the table with appropriate description and terms.

Question 2 continues on the next page.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17 [Turn over

Bob and Anna both have public and private keys.

(i) State the key that Bob sends. .......................................................................................[1]

(iii) Anna has received the key from Bob.

Complete the table.

Anna Requests Bob’s <answer to part (c)(i)> key.

Anna Sends the email to Bob.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17

Question 3 begins on page 8.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/M/J/17 [Turn over

(c) The definition of <variable> is changed to allow:

• one or two letters and

Draw an updated version of the syntax diagram for <variable>.

(d) The definition of <assignment_statement> is altered so that its syntax has

A real is defined to be:

• at least one digit before a decimal point

Give the BNF for the revised <assignment_statement> and <real>.

<assignment_statement> ::= ........................................................................................

<real> ::= ...........................................................................................................................

(a) (i) Define the term protocol.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/O/N/17 [Turn over

(ii) Explain the purpose of the TLS protocol.

The handshake process starts with:

• the client sending some communication data to the server

Describe, in outline, the other steps in the handshake process.

© UCLES 2017 9608/31/O/N/17

(c) The table shows four statements about computer architecture.

Each processor executes a different instruction

There is only one processor

Each processor executes the same instruction input

Add appropriate descriptions and terms to complete the table.

© UCLES 2018 9608/32/O/N/18

Four statements are missing from the sequence.

Write one letter (A to D) in the appropriate space to complete the sequence.

1. Browser requests that the server identifies itself.

3. Browser checks the certificate against a list of trusted Certificate Authorities.

© UCLES 2018 9608/32/O/N/18

© UCLES 2018 9608/32/O/N/18

© UCLES 2018 9608/32/O/N/18

Fill in the spaces with an appropriate term to complete the descriptions.

Asymmetric encryption uses different ……………………………. for encrypting and decrypting

……………………………. using his manager’s ……………………………. key. When the

manager receives the message, it is decrypted using her ……………………………. key.

using his ……………………………. key. [5]

© UCLES 2019 9608/31/M/J/19 [Turn over

The two methods of prevention must be different.

Malware type 1 .........................................................................................................................

Malware type 2 .........................................................................................................................

© UCLES 2019 9608/31/M/J/19

(c) The government’s computer systems are vulnerable to malware.

(a) Identify two data items present in a digital certificate.

A ................................................ algorithm is used to generate a message digest from the

© UCLES 2019 9608/31/O/N/19

Common questions

What are the typical steps involved in the TLS handshake process when establishing a secure connection?