Structural Organisation in Animals

03 (Animal Tissue)

01. INTRODUCTION
• In unicellular organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction are
performed by a single cell.

Food vacuole

Cell membrane

Ectoplasm
Cytoplasm
Contractile
Endoplasm
vacuole

Nucleus
Nucleolus Water globules
Figure : Amoeba

• In the complex body of multicellular animals the same basic functions are
carried out by different groups of cells in a well organised manner.
• The body of a simple organism like Hydra is made of different types of
cells and the number of cells in each type can be in thousands.
• The human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various
functions. Figure : Hydra
• How do these cells in the body work together?

Tissue :
• In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells along with intercellular substances perform a
specific function. Such an organisation is called tissue.
• All complex animals consist of only four basic types of tissues. These tissues are organised in
specific proportion and pattern to form an organ like stomach, lung, heart and kidney. When

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two or more organs perform a common function by their physical and/or chemical interaction,
they together form organ system, e.g., digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Cells, tissues,
organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour and
contribute to the survival of the body as a whole.
• In a tissue, cells may be dissimilar in structure and function but they are always similar in origin.

White blood corpuscles

(Amoeboid shaped) (helps in
defence and provide immunity)

Blood Platelets
(Disc like / Oval shaped)
(Helps in blood clotting)

Red blood corpuscles

(Biconcave shaped)
(Helps in transport of gases)
Figure : Blood

• Blood is a fluid connective tissue and is mesodermal in origin. Blood has two components –
plasma and formed elements. Formed elements include RBC, WBC and blood platelets. These
formed elements have different shapes and different functions but all are mesodermal in
origin.

On The Basis of Functions and Structure Tissues are of Four Types :

1. Epithelium/Epithelial Tissue – Covering & protective tissue.
2. Connective Tissue – To connect structures, provide support to the body and transport
substances in the body.
3. Muscular Tissue – Helps in contraction & locomotion.
4. Neural tissue – To generate and conduct nerve impulses in body.

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Nervous tissue

Figure : Types of tissues

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02. EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Word epithelium is derived from two words – epi and thelia
• Epi – upon, thelia – growth
• These tissues develop first during embryonic development.
• Power of regeneration is present in this tissue while power of regeneration is absent or least
power is found in nervous tissue.
• Epithelium cells are compactly packed with little intercellular matrix.
• Because of very little intercellular spaces blood capillaries and lymph capillaries are absent.
• It always rest upon underlaying connective tissue.
• Cells of epithelial tissues derive their nutrition from underlying connective tissue.
• In between epithelium and connective tissue, basement membrane is present.
• Basement membrane : Between epithelium and connective tissue, a thin non-living acellular
basement membrane is present which is highly permeable.
• This tissue has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid (examples epithelium of blood
vessels, epithelium of nephron, epithelium of stomach and intestine etc.) or the outside
environment (examples nails, horns, hoof, feathers, scales) and thus provides a covering or a
lining for some part of the body.

MODIFICATION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE AND CELL JUNCTIONS :

MODIFICATION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

Microvilli Cilli / Kinocilia Steriocilia

• Minute process • Long cylindrical process • Conical shape Function-
Function-Increase Function-Help in movement & Increase surface area
surface area for Locomotion e.g. Epididymis, Crista &
absorption & section e.g. Inner surface of Hollow organ macula of internal ear
e.g. gall bladder,
P.C.T. of nephron

INTERCELLULAR JUNCTION

Adhering Junction Tight Junction Gap Junction

• Perform cementing to • Help to stop • Facilitate the cell to communicate with
keep neighbouring cell substances from each other by connecting the cytoplasm
together leaking across a of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of
tissue ions, small molecules and sometime big
molecules.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

1. Tissues differ from group of cells in –

(1) Function (2) Division of labour
(3) Association (4) Organisation as a structure
2. Which of the following is an incorrect statement from the following?
(1) In unicellular organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction are
performed by a single cell
(2) RBC transport carbon dioxide and oxygen
(3) WBC helps in blood clotting
(4) Blood is mesodermal in origin
3. Select the odd one out –
(1) Epithelial (2) Connective (3) Lymphoid (4) Neural
4. Which of the following is a function of connective tissue?
(1) Transport of gases (2) To connect various parts of body
(3) Both (4) Form lining and covering
5. Which of the following tissue type is responsible for generation and conduction nerve
impulses in body?
(1) Nervous tissue (2) Muscle tissue
(3) Connective tissue (4) Lymphoid tissue
6 Epithelial tissue originate from :-
(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm (3) Mesoderm (4) All of these
7. Correct statement about epithelial tissue is –
(1) Tissue has a free surface
(2) Faces either a body fluid or the outside environment
(3) Provides a covering or a lining for some part of the body/organ
(4) All of the above
8. Tissue which provide support to the body is :
(1) Epithelial tissue (2) Connective tissue (3) Muscular tissue (4) Nervous tissue
9. Ciliated Epithelium found in :-
(1) Oviduct (2) Trachea (3) Brain ventricles (4) All of these
10. Gap junctions :-
(1) help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue.
(2) perform cementing to keep neighbouring cells together
(3) provide stretchability to the epithelium
(4) facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the cytoplasm of
adjoining cells.

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CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE :
Types of Epithelium Tissue

Simple epithelium Compound epithelium (Stratified)

– Composed of single layer of cells – Consists of 2 or more cell layers
– Functions as lining for body cavities, – It has protective function as it does
ducts and tubes in our skin
On the basis of shape/structural
modifications of cells Non-stretchable Stretchable
(1) Simple Squamous (Transitional)
Stratified squamous
(2) Simple Cuboidal
Stratified columnar
(3) Simple Columnar
Stratified cuboidal
• All the cells of simple epithelium rest upon basement membrane.
• Only the cells of lowermost layer rest upon basement membrane.

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM:
• Made up of single layer of cells.
• All the cells rest upon basement membrane.
• Functions as lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes.

Simple Squamous Epithelium :

• The squamous epithelium is made of a single thin layer of flattened cells with irregular
boundaries.
• They are found in the walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs and are involved in a function
like forming a diffusion boundary.
• It is also called pavement epithelium due to its tile like appearance.
• Also called Tesselated epithelium due to its wavy appearance in blood vessel and coelom.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm
Cell boundary Nucleus Cement
substance

(Simple Squamous Epithelium)

• Bowman's capsule (Podocyte), Alveoli (air sacs of lungs), Walls of blood vessels.

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium :
• The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a single layer of cube-
like cells.
• This is commonly found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of
Cube-like cell
nephrons in kidneys.
• Its main functions are secretion and absorption.
• Found in ducts of glands and tubular parts of nephron in the kidneys.
• This epithelium is also called Germinal epithelium because in gonads (testis & ovaries) cuboidal
cells divide to form egg & sperm.
• Epithelium of proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) of composed of nephron in the kidney has
microvilli.

Simple Columnar Epithelium:

• The columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer
of tall and slender cells.
• Nucleus is present at the base of the cell.
• Function : It helps in absorption and secretion. Figure : Columnar Epithelium

If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface they
are called ciliated epithelium. Their function is to move particles or
mucus in a specific direction over the epithelium. They are mainly
present in the inner surface of hollow organs like bronchioles and
fallopian tubes. Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialised
for secretion and are called glandular epithelium.

Pseudostratified Epithelium :
• These cells are pillar like in shape so it is also a modification of columnar epithelium.
• In this epithelium two types of cells are present i.e. Long cells, Short cells.
• Nucleus in both cells are present on different level so it appears bilayered because few cells are
too short to reach the top surface.
• But all cells are present on single basement membrane so it is unilayered.
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Pseudostratified Epithelium Columnar Ciliated Glandular Epithelium:
• In this epithelium cilia are present of free end of long cells and mucus secreting cells are also
present in this epithelium.
e.g. Nasopharynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Bronchioles, Respiratory epithelium of nasal chambers.

Nasal chamber
Cilia
Long cells Nasopharynx
Mucus
secreting cells Trachea
Short cells
Nuclei
Bronchus

PSCCGE Bronchioles

GLANDS :
• A cell or a group of cells which secretes chemical substances are called glands.
• All glands are composed of epithelial tissue.
• Glands can be originate from all the three germinal layers.
• Ectoderm – Sweat gland
• Mesoderm – Gonads
• Endoderm – Thyroid gland

On the basis of number of cells

(a) Unicellular glands (b) Multicellular glands

e.g. Goblet cells, Paneth cells e.g. All glands except
Goblet cells, Paneth cells
Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialised for secretion and are called glandular
epithelium (Figure). They are mainly of two types: unicellular, consisting of isolated glandular
cells (goblet cells of the alimentary canal), and multicellular, consisting of cluster of cells
(salivary gland).

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Unicellular
gland

Multicellular
gland

(a) Unicellular glands (b) Multicellular glands

On the basis of nature of secretion :- 3 types of glands are.

On the basis of presence of secretory duct glands are of 3 types -
(a) Endocrine glands :- Secretory duct absent.
e.g. Thyroid, pituitary, thymus, pineal, parathyroid, adrenal
(b) Exocrine gland :- Secretory duct present – Liver (largest gland), Salivary gland, Gastric glands,
intestinal glands etc. Exocrine glands secrete mucus (Goblet cells), saliva (Salivary glands),
earwax (Ceruminous glands), oil (Sebaceous glands), milk (Mammary glands), digestive
enzymes (Gastric glands, Intestinal glands) and other cell products.
(c) Heterocrine/mixed gland :- Both endocrine & exocrine parts are present.
e.g. Pancreas, Gonads etc.

COMPOUND EPITHELIUM :
• It is multi-layered and have limited role in secretion and absorption.
• Main function is to provide protection against chemical & mechanical stress.

On the basis of stretching ability (2 types)

Stretchable Epithelium Non-stretchable

(Transitional Epithelium) Epithelium

Stratified Squamous Stratified Cuboidal Stratified Columnar

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• Compound epithelium is made of more
than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and
thus has a limited role in secretion and
absorption. Their main function is to Multi-layered
cells
provide protection against chemical and
mechanical stresses. Compound Epithelium
• They cover the dry surface of the skin (stratified squamous keratinised epithelium), the moist
surface of buccal cavity (stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium), pharynx (stratified
squamous non-keratinised epithelium), inner lining of ducts of salivary glands (stratified
cuboidal epithelium) and of pancreatic ducts (stratified cuboidal epithelium).

BEGINNER’S BOX-2 TYPES OF EPITHELIUM AND GLANDS

1. The correct statement with respect to epithelial tissue is :-

A – cells are compactly packed
B – cells have no intercellular matrix
C – cells have little intercellular material
D – it is single or multi-layered
(1) A & D (2) B & C (3) A, C & D (4) All of these
2. Which of the following tissue functions as lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes?
(1) Epithelial tissue (2) Connective tissue
(3) Muscles (4) Neural tissue
3. Based on shape/structural modifications of cells, how many type of division of simple
epithelium are there?
(1) Zero (2) One (3) Two (4) Three
4. Which of the following consists of simple squamous epithelium?
(1) Blood vessels (2) Alveoli of lungs
(3) Outer surface of intestine (4) All of the above
5. Which of the following tissue covers moist surface of buccal cavity and pharynx?
(1) Cuboidal epithelium (2) Columnar epithelium
(3) Transitional epithelium (4) Compound epithelium

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6. Which of the following epithelium is also known as Germinal epithelium?
(1) Simple columnar epithelium
(2) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(3) Stratified columnar epithelium
(4) Transitional epithelium
7. Identify the following diagram –
(1) Simple columnar epithelium
(2) Transitional epithelium
(3) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(4) Simple squamous epithelium
8. Main function of simple cuboidal epithelium is –
(1) Diffusion (2) Absorption only
(3) Secretion only (4) Secretion and absorption both
9. Pseudostratified epithelium is present in :-
(1) Nephron & Neuron (2) Larynx & Pharynx
(3) Trachea & Bronchi (4) Urinary Bladder & Intestine
10. Identify the following diagram –
(1) Simple squamous
(2) Stratified cuboidal
(3) Pseudostratified epithelium
(4) Transitional epithelium
11. Pseudostratified epithelium is the modification of -
(1) Transitional epithelium (2) Cuboidal epithelium
(3) Columnar epithelium (4) Squamous epithelium
12. The main function of protection against chemical and mechanical stress is provided by which
type of epithelium?
(1) Simple Squamous epithelium (2) Brush border epithelium
(3) Columnar epithelium (4) Compound epithelium
13. Compound epithelium mainly provides covering for –
(1) Dry surface of the skin
(2) The moist surface of buccal cavity
(3) Inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and of pancreatic ducts
(4) All the above

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14. Identify the epithelium type in the following diagram –
(1) Squamous epithelium
(2) Compound epithelium
(3) Ciliated columnar epithelium
(4) Squamous epithelium
15. Inner lining of gut, stomach & liver is made up of :-
(1) Simple squamous (2) Simple cuboidal
(3) Simple columnar (4) Pseudo stratified epithelium.

03. CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Connective tissues are the most abundant and widely distributed in the body of complex animals.
• They are named connective tissue because of their special function of linking and supporting
other tissues/organs of the body fibres.
• They range from soft connective tissues to specialised types, which include cartilage, bone,
adipose, and blood.
• In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of structural proteins called
collagen or elastin.
• The fibres provide strength (collagen fibres), elasticity (elastin fibres) and flexibility to the
tissue.
• These cells also secrete modified polysaccharide or mucopolysaccharides which accumulate
between cells and fibres and acts as matrix (ground substance).

Connective tissue

Loose connective tissue Dense connective tissue Specialised C.T.

(More matrix, less fibres) (less matrix, more fibres)

Areolar Adipose Dense regular Dense irregular Skeletal C.T. Fluid C.T.
tissue tissue tissue tissue
e.g. – Tendons e.g. – Found Matrix solid and Liquid and fibre
Ligaments in skin mineralised free matrix
e.g. – Cartilage e.g. – Blood
and bone and lymph

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Macrophage Fibroblast Collagen fibres

The functions of connective tissues are :
1. To connect structures.
2. To form packing around organs.
3. To form a supporting framework.
4. To replace tissues which have been
destroyed by injury.

Elastic fibres
Adipocyte Blood Mast cell Reticular
capillary fibres

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE :

• It has more matrix and less fibres.
• The cells and fibres are loosely arranged in a semifluid ground substance.
• It is of two types :- Areolar and adipose connective tissue.
Loose connective tissue
(More matrix, less fibres)

Areolar tissue Adipose tissue

(A) Areolar Connective Tissue :

• Also known as spongy connective tissue.
• It is most widely distributed tissue in the body.
• In this tissue maximum intercellular space and matrix is present.
• It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres), macrophages and mast cells.
• Function :- It serves as a support framework for epithelium.
• Areolar tissue present beneath the skin.

(B) Adipose Connective Tissue :

• Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue
located mainly beneath the skin. Fat storage
• It contains adipocytes / fat cells abundantly. area
Nucleus
• The cells are specialised to store fats, the excess of
nutrients which are not used immediately are converted Plasma
into fats and are stored in this tissue. Membrane

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DENSE / FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE :
• It contains more fibres and less matrix.
• Fibres and fibroblast cells are compactly packed in dense connective tissue.
• Orientation of fibres show a regular or irregular pattern and are called dense regular and dense
irregular tissue.

Dense connective tissue

(less matrix, more fibres)

• Dense regular tissue • Dense irregular tissue

• Collagen fibres are present in rows • fibroblasts and many fibres
between many parallel bundles of (mostly collagen) that are
fibres. oriented differently
e.g. – Tendons and ligaments e.g. – Found in skin

fibroblasts

collagen
fibres

(a) Dense regular connective tissue (b) Dense irregular connective tissue

Tendon – Attach skeletal muscles to bone.

Ligaments – Attach bone to bone.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Find the pair of loose connective tissue –

(1) Areolar, adipose (2) Areolar, white fibrous
(3) White fibrous, Yellow fibrous (4) Yellow fibrous, Adipose
2. Which of the following is not an example specialised connective tissue?
(1) Blood (2) Bone
(3) Areolar connective tissue (4) Cartilage
3. Yellow, White fibres made up of protein
(1) Elastin, Reticulin respectively
(2) Reticulin, Elastin respectively
(3) Collagen, Elastin protein
(4) Elastin, Collagen protein
4. In all connective tissues except ____________, the cells secrete fibres of structural proteins
called collagen or elastin or reticulin.
(1) blood (2) bone
(3) areolar connective tissue (4) cartilage
5. Which of the following is known as spongy connective tissue :-
(1) Dense fibrous connective tissue
(2) Adipose connective tissue
(3) Areolar connective tissue
(4) Reticular fibrous connective tissue
6. The connective tissue that connects the skin to the underlying structures is –
(1) Areolar tissue (2) Dense regular connective tissue
(3) Reticular tissue (4) Dense irregular connective tissue
7. Collagen fibre and fibroblast arrangement is regular in –
(1) Tendon (2) Ligament (3) Dura mater (4) Both (1) and (2)
8. Ligament is an example of –
(1) White fibrous dense regular connective tissue
(2) Yellow fibrous dense regular connective tissue
(3) Yellow fibrous dense irregular connective tissue
(4) White fibrous dense irregular connective tissue

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Specialised Connective Tissue :
Specialised C.T.

Skeletal C.T. Fluid C.T.

Matrix solid and mineralized Liquid and fibre free matrix

e.g. Cartilage and bone e.g. Blood and lymph

Skeleton Connective Tissue :

• Matrix is dense & mineralised. Due to deposition of minerals it becomes hard.
• Also known as Supporting Tissue i.e. Provide support to the body.
• It is of 2 types : 1. Cartilage 2. Bone

CARTILAGE :
• Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in adults
• Matrix (inter-cellular materials) is solid, pliable and can resists compression.
• Cells of this tissue (Chondrocytes) are enclosed
in small cavities (Lacuna), with in the matrix
Collagen fibres
secreted by them. (occur singly or in groups
within the lacunae) Cartilage cell
• Matrix of cartilage provides rigidity and (Chondrocyte)

elasticity to cartilage.
e.g. - Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.

Types

Hyaline Cartilage Fibrous Cartilage

e.g. Nasal septum,

White fibrous Yellow fibrous
Laryngeal cartilage,
e.g. Pubic symphysis, e.g. Tip of Nose,
Articular cartilage
Intervertebral disc Ear Pinna, Larynx,
Wall of eustachian tube

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BONE :
• Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground substance rich in Ca-salts and collagen fibres which
gives bone its strength.
• It is the main tissue that provide structural framework to the body.
• Bones support and protect softer tissues and organs.
• Mature cell of bone is called Osteocyte which is found in lacuna. Only one osteocyte is found
in one lacuna.
• Limb bones, such as the long bones of the legs, Bones cell
serve weight bearing functions. (osteocyte)
Haversian canal
• They also interact with skeletal muscles attached
Haversian lamellae
to them, to bring about movements.
• The bone marrow in some bones is the site of
production of blood cells.

BLOOD :
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells
(WBC) and platelets.
• It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances.
Blood

Plasma Formed elements

(Liquid part of blood)

RBC WBC Platelet

Transport of gases Defence Blood clotting

MUSCLE TISSUE :
• Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel arrays.
• These fibres are composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
• Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to
their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion.

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• Their action moves the body to adjust to the changes in the environment and to maintain the
positions of the various parts of the body.
• In general, muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body. Muscles are of three
types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Smooth Striations
Striations muscle
fibers
Nucleus

Inter
Nucleus calated
disc

(a) Skeletal muscle (b) Smooth muscle (c) Cardiac muscle

• Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones. In a

typical muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle
fibres are bundled together in a parallel fashion.
• A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of muscle fibres.
• The smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform) and do not show striations. Cell
junctions hold them together and they are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath.
• The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and intestine contains this type
of muscle tissue.
• Smooth muscles are ‘involuntary’ as their functioning
cannot be directly controlled.
• We usually are not able to make it contract merely by thinking about it as we can do with
skeletal muscles.
• Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the
heart. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac Intercalated
disc
muscle cells and make them stick together.
• Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points
allow the cells to contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell receives a
signal to contract, its neighbours are also stimulated to contract.

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NERVOUS TISSUE :
• Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing
conditions.
• Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells.

Cell body
with nucleus
Axon
Dendrite
• The neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons.
• Neuroglia make up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in our body.

Oligodendrocyte Microgliocyte Astrocyte

• When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which swiftly

travels along its plasma membrane.
• Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that may
cause stimulation or inhibition of adjacent neurons and other cells.

ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM :

• The basic tissues mentioned above organise to form organs which in turn associate to form
organ systems in the multicellular organisms.
• Such an organisation is essential for more efficient and better coordinated activities of millions
of cells constituting an organism.
• Each organ in our body is made of one or more type of tissues. For example, our heart consists
of all the four types of tissues, i.e., epithelial, connective, muscular and neural.
• Morphology refers to study of form or externally visible features.
• In the case of plants or microbes, the term morphology precisely means only this.
• In case of animals this refers to the external appearance of the organs or parts of the body.
• The word anatomy conventionally is used for the study of morphology of internal organs in the
animals.

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SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUE,

BEGINNER’S BOX - 4
MUSCLES, NERVOUS TISSUE

1. Major Inorganic components of bone :-

(1) Calcium phosphate (2) Calcium carbonate
(3) Sodium hydroxide (4) Potassium hydroxide
2. Eustachian tube is supported by :-
(1) Elastic cartilage (2) White fibrous cartilage
(3) Calcified cartilage (4) Hyaline cartilage
3. Which of the following is incorrect statement about cartilage?
(1) Cartilage producing cells are arranged on periphery of cartilage known as chondroblast.
(2) Chondroblast are active cells & divide to form chondrocytes, and synthesize the matrix of
cartilage.
(3) Elastic cartilage is the most common cartilage of human body.
(4) White fibrous cartilage is the strongest cartilage.
4. How many statements are incorrect for bones?
(a) Bones have hard and pliable ground substance
(b) Matrix is rich in collagen fibres
(c) Bone is a specialized connective tissue
(d) They serve weight-bearing function
(e) Osteocytes are present in lacunae
(1) three (2) four (3) one (4) two
5. Match the columns I, II and III and choose the correct combination from the options given.
Column-I Column-II

a. K. Wall of blood vessels

b
L. Nodal tissue
.

c. M. Biceps

(1) a-M, b-L, c-K (2) a-L, b-K, c-M (3) a-L, b-M, c-K (4) a-M, b-K, c-L

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6. Fill in the blanks:
a. The …..1…. tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones.
b. The ….2…. fibres taper at both ends (fusiform).
c. The ….3…. fibres are found in wall of internal organs such as stomach and intestine.
d. Communication junctions of intercalated discs are found in ….4…. tissue.
(1) 1 and 3–skeletal muscle, 2–smooth muscle, 4–cardiac muscle
(2) 2 and 4–skeletal muscle, 3–smooth muscle, 1–cardiac muscle
(3) 1–skeletal muscle, 2 and 3–smooth muscle, 4–cardiac muscle
(4) 1 and 4–skeletal muscle, 3–smooth muscle, 4–cardiac muscle
7. Recognise the figure and find out the correct matching.
a
(1) b–cell body, c–dendrite, d–neuroglia, a–axon
b
(2) b–cell body, a–dendrite, d–neuroglia, c–axon
c
(3) d–cell body, c–dendrite, b–neuroglia, a–axon
d
(4) d–cell body, a–dendrite, b–neuroglia, c–axon
8. Which is characteristic feature of neurons?
(1) Excitable cells
(2) Totipotent cells
(3) Power of regeneration
(4) All of the above
9. Which statement is correct?
(1) A few organ in our body is made of one or more type of tissues
(2) Each organ in our body is made of single type of tissues
(3) Each organ in our body is made of one or more type of tissues
(4) Each organ in our body is made of two type of tissues

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BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BEGINNER'S BOX-1
Ans. 2 3 3 3 1 4 4 2 4 4

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 1 4 4 4 2 3 4 3 3
BEGINNER'S BOX-2
Que. 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 4 4 2 3

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
BEGINNER'S BOX-3
Ans. 1 3 4 1 3 1 4 2

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BEGINNER'S BOX-4
Ans. 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 1 3

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• Group of similar cells along with intercellular substance perform a specific function called
tissue.

ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION & STRUCTURE TISSUE ARE 4 TYPES

Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscular Tissue Nervous Tissue

• Covering • Connect structure • Contraction & • Conduct
& protection • Support to the body Locomotion Nerve impulse
• Transport substances
in the body

MODIFICATION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

Microvilli Cilli / Kinocilia Steriocilia

• Minute process • Long cylindrical process • Conical shape Function-
Function-Increase Function-Help in movement & Increase surface area
surface area for Locomotion e.g. Epididymis, Crista &
absorption & section e.g. Inner surface of Hollow organ macula of internal ear
e.g. gall bladder,
P.C.T. of nephron

INTERCELLULAR JUNCTION

Adhering Junction Tight Junction Gap Junction

• Perform cementing to • Help to stop • Facilitate the cell to communicate
keep neighbouring substances from with each other by connecting the
cell together leaking across a cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for
tissue rapid transfer of ions, small
molecules and sometime big
molecules.

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TYPE OF EPITHELIUM TISSUE

Simple Epithelium
Compound Epithelium
(composed of single layer of cells)
(composed of two or more cell layers)
• Lining of body cavity
• Help in protection
• Help in absorption & secretion

Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium

• Flattened cells with • Cube like cells • Cells Tall & slender • cells bear cilia on
irregular boundaries Function-absorption & like their free surface
Function-Filtration & secretion Function-Absorption e.g. inner surface of
diffusion e.g. Acini of pancreas e.g. lining of stomach hollow organs like
e.g. Alveoli of lungs D.C.T. of nephron and intestine bronchioles and
(Pneumocytes type-1) fallopian tubes
Endothelium
(Inner lining of blood
vessels)

Non-Stretchable Stretchable (Transitional)

• In this epithelium basement
membrane becomes
invisible during stretching

Stratified Squamous Stratified Cuboidal Stratified Columnar

• Outer most layer are • Outer most layer are • Outer most layer of
scale like flat cells cube like cells cells pillar shaped

GLANDS
Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get
specialised for secretion and are called
glandular epithelium
ON THE BASIS OF

Number of cells Method of secretion

Unicellular Multicellular Endocrine Exocrine

e.g. Goblet cells e.g. All glands Secrete Secrete mucus,
Paneth cells except goblet cell hormone saliva, earwax, oil,
and paneth cell milk & enzymes

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Loose Connective Tissue Dense Connective Tissue Specialised

(More matrix, less fibres) (More fibres, less matrix) Connective Tissue

Areolar Tissue Adipose Tissue Skeleton Fluid

Connective Tissue Connective Tissue
• matrix solid & • Liquid & fiber free
mineralised matrix
e.g. Bone & Cartilage e.g. blood & lymph
Dense Regular Dense Irregular
e.g. Tendon, Ligament e.g. Found in skin

NCERT SUMMARY
Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that ensures the survival of
the body as a whole and exhibit division of labour. A tissue is defined as group of cells along with
intercellular substances performing one or more functions in the body. Epithelia are sheet like tissues
lining the body’s surface and its cavities, ducts and tubes. Epithelia have one free surface facing a body
fluid or the outside environment. Their cells are structurally and functionally connected at junctions.
The Indian bullfrog, Rana tigrina, is the common frog found in India. Body is covered by skin.
Mucous glands are present in the skin which is highly vascularised and helps in respiration in water
and on land. Body is divisible into head and trunk. A muscular tongue is present, which is bilobed at
the tip and is used in capturing the prey. The alimentary canal consists of oesophagous, stomach,
intestine and rectum, which open into the cloaca. The main digestive glands are liver and pancreas. It
can respire in water through skin and through lungs on land. Circulatory system is closed with single
circulation. RBCs are nucleated. Nervous system is organised into central, peripheral and autonomic.
The organs of urinogenital system are kidneys and urinogenital ducts, which open into the cloaca. The
male reproductive organ is a pair of testes. The female reproductive organ is a pair of ovaries. A female
lays 2500-3000 ova at a time. The fertilisation and development are external. The eggs hatch into
tadpoles, which metamorphose into frogs.

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
04 (Cockroach)

01. INTRODUCTION
• Cockroaches are brown or black bodied animals.
• Bright yellow, red and green coloured cockroach have also been reported in tropical regions.
• Cockroaches are included in class Insect, of Phylum Arthropoda.
• Their size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm) and have long antenna, legs and flat
extension of the upper body wall that conceals head.
• They are nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places throughout the world.
• Cockroaches are cursorial insects, i.e., they run very fast.
• They have become residents of human homes.
• Cockroaches are serious pests and vectors of several diseases like :-
(i) Typhoid fever (ii) Cholera (iii) Dysentery (iv) Giardiasis

MORPHOLOGY :
• The adults of the common
Filiform antennae
species of cockroach,
Compound eye Head
Periplaneta americana are
Pronotum Tegmina
about 34-53 mm long with wings Mesothorax
that extend beyond the tip of the Prothoracic leg
Hind wing
abdomen in males. Metathorax
Mesothoracic leg
• The body of the cockroach is
Metathoracic leg Abdomen
segmented and divisible into
Anal cerci
three distinct regions – head,
thorax and abdomen.
External features Cockroach

Body = Head + Thorax + Abdomen

= 6 + 3 + 11 = 20 segments in embryo.
= 1 + 3 + 10 = 14 segments in adults.

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• The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in colour).
• In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites (tergites dorsally, sternites
ventrally and pleurites laterally) that are joined to each other by a thin and flexible articular
membrane (arthrodial membrane).
Sclerites of dorsal side - tergum or tergite
Sclerites of ventral side - sternum or sternite
Sclerites of lateral side - pleurons or pleurites.
• The arthrodial membrane that joins the 5th and 6th tergites bears a pair of scent glands whose
secretion probably helps in repelling enemies. According to some entomologists, these glands
occur only in males and secrete, in breeding season, a scent that excites the females for
copulation.

ANATOMY :
BODY WALL :
• Body wall of cockroach consists of the following 3 layers :-
(i) Cuticle (ii) Epidermis (Hypodermis) (iii) Basement membrane

02. HEAD
• Head is triangular in shape and lies anteriorly at
Triangular head at
right angles to the longitudinal body axis 90° to longitudinal
(hypognathous). axis of body

• It is formed by the fusion of six segments and

shows great mobility in all directions due to flexible neck.

Ocellus
Labrum Compound eye
Grinding
Region
Mandible Incising mandible
region
Hypopharynx
Maxilla

Mandible
Labrum

Maxilla Maxilla Labium

Labium
Head region of cockroach
Mouth parts of cockroach

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Structural Organisation in Animals (Cockroach)
• In adult all sclerites of the head are fused to from a head capsule. The head capsule bears a
pair of compound eyes.
• A pair of thread like antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in front of eyes.
• Anterior end of the head bears appendages forming biting and chewing type of mouth parts.
• The mouthparts consisting of a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labium
(lower lip).
• A median flexible lobe, acting as tongue (hypopharynx), lies within the cavity enclosed by the
mouthparts.
• Antennae have sensory receptors that help in monitoring the environment.

BEGINNER’S BOX-1 HEAD OF COCKROACH

1. Cockroach belong's to phylum :-

(1) Annelida (2) Arthropoda (3) Porifera (4) Mollusca
2. Which of following all tegmata of cockroach fused in adult stage ?
(1) Head (2) Abdomen (3) Thorax (4) (1) & (2)
3. How many segment found in adult cockroach :-
(1) 12 (2) 15 (3) 20 (4) 14
4. Which movable chitineous plate joined with dorsal part of head :-
(1) Labrum (2) Clypeus
(3) Labium (4) Forhead or frons
5. Which is the correct location of mandibles in mouth of cockroach :-
(1) Upper side (2) Lateral side (3) Lower side (4) Anterior side
6. Function of arthroidial membrane is _____.
(1) Circulation (2) Respiration
(3) Joining/Articulation (4) Excretion
7. Cockroach belongs to class _______of phylum arthropoda.
(1) Crustacea (2) Arachnida (3) Insecta (4) Myriapoda
8. Size of cockroach is :-
(1) from 3 cm to 15 cm (2) from 0.6 cm to 7.6 cm
(3) from 7.6 cm to 20 cm (4) from 1 cm to 3 cm

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9. In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called ________, _______ dorsally and
________ ventrally.
(1) sclerites, tergites, sternites (2) tergites, sclerites, sternites
(3) tergites, sternites, sclerites (4) sternites, tergites, sclerites
10. The entire body is covered by a hard exoskeleton made up of :-
(1) Cellulose (2) Chitin (3) Glycogen (4) Glucose
11. Head of cockroach is __________ in shape and lies anteriorly at _________ angles to the
longitudinal body axis.
(1) triangular, acute (2) triangular, obtuse
(3) triangular, right (4) circular, right
12. A median flexible lobe, acting as tongue (_______________), lies within the cavity enclosed
by the mouthparts.
(1) hyperpharynx (2) hypopharynx (3) labial palp (4) maxilla
13. What will happened when mandibles remove from mouth part's of cockroach ?
(1) Only grinding of food will be affected
(2) Only incisor of food will be affected
(3) No incisor and grinding of food take place
(4) No effect on Biting & chewing of food

03. THORAX
• Thorax consists of three parts – prothorax,
Prothorax
mesothorax and metathorax.
Mesothorax

Metathorax

• The head is connected with thorax by a short

extension of the prothorax known as the neck. Neck

• The thorax bears three pairs of legs and two pairs

of wings.

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Structural Organisation in Animals (Cockroach)
• Each leg is composed of five podomeres - Coxa

(i) Coxa Femur

(ii) Trochanter
(iii) Femur Trochanter Tibia

(iv) Tibia
(v) Tarsus
Planulae
Tarsus
Pulvillus (arolium)
Claw
Leg of cockroach

• Two pairs of wings are found in cockroach.

• The first pair of wings arises from mesothorax and the second pair from metathorax.

Mesothoracic wings (tegmina) /Fore wings

Opaque dark and leathery and cover the
hind wings when at rest
Metathoracic wings/Hind wings
Transparent, membranous and are used in flight.

04. ABDOMEN
• The abdomen in both males and females consists of 10 segments.
• In females, the 7th sternum is boat shaped and together with the 8th and 9th sterna forms a
brood or genital pouch whose anterior part contains female gonopore, spermathecal pores
and collateral glands.
• In males, genital pouch or chamber lies at the hind end of abdomen bounded dorsally by 9th
and 10th terga and ventrally by the 9th sternum.
• It contains dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore and gonapophysis.
• Males bear a pair of short, threadlike anal styles which are absent in females.
• In both sexes, the 10th segment bears a pair of jointed filamentous structures called anal cerci.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-2 THORAX AND ABDOMEN OF COCKROACH

1. How many segments present in thorax ?

(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 1 (4) 3
2. Coxa is the _____ of the leg of cockroach :-
(1) Small segment
(2) Long segment
(3) Broadest segment
(4) Longest segment
3. Which is the structure act as sound receptor in cockroach :-
(1) Anal style (2) Anal cerci
(3) Antenna (4) Both (2) and (3)
4. Identify the correct labelling-
(1) Middle leg
(2) Thoracic leg
(3) Mesothoraic leg
(4) Prothoracic leg
5. Second pair of wings in cockroaches arises from -
(1) Pronotum (2) Metathorax
(3) Mesothorax (4) Prothorax
6. Identify the wrong statement: -
(1) Males bear a pair of short, thread like anal styles
(2) Males have anal styles which are absent in females
(3) Males do not have anal styles which are present in females
(4) Anal styles are present in male on 9th sternum

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Structural Organisation in Animals (Cockroach)

05. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• The alimentary canal present in the body cavity Pharynx
Salivary gland
is divided into three regions: -
Salivary
(i) Foregut (Stomodaeum) reservoir
Oesophagus
(ii) Midgut (Mesenteron)
Crop
(iii) Hindgut (Proctodaeum)
Gizzard
Hepatic caeca
• Foregut comprises the preoral cavity, mouth, Mesenteron
or midgut
pharynx, oesophagus, crop and gizzard. Malpighian
tubules
• The mouth opens into a short tubular pharynx, Rectum
Ileum
leading to a narrow tubular passage called Colon
Alimentary canal of cockroach
oesophagus.

• This in turn opens into a sac like structure called crop used for storing of food.

• The crop is followed by gizzard or proventriculus. It has an outer layer of thick circular muscles

and thick inner cuticle forming six highly chitinous plate called teeth.

• Gizzard helps in grinding the food particles.

• The entire foregut is lined by cuticle.

• A ring of 6-8 blind tubules called hepatic or

Longitudinal grooves
gastric caeca is present at the junction of foregut
Circular
and midgut, which secrete digestive juice.
muscles
• Midgut is thin walled coiled tube with almost
Six highly
uniform thickness. A peritrophic membrane is chitinous plate
called teeth
formed around the food in the midgut, which is

permeable to digestive enzymes and digested Gizzard

foods. Most of the food is digested in the midgut.

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• At the junction of midgut and hindgut is present another ring of 100-150 yellow coloured thin

filamentous Malpighian tubules. They help in removal of excretory products from

haemolymph.

• The hindgut is broader than midgut and is differentiated into ileum, colon and rectum.

• The rectum opens out through anus.

• Cockroach has paired salivary glands lying one on each side of the oesophagus and crop.

• Salivary glands secrete saliva which contains amylase, chitinase and cellulase enzymes.

06. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• The respiratory system consists of a network of trachea,

that open through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles

present on the lateral side of the body.

Thoracic
• First two pairs are known as thoracic spiracles and Spiracle

remaining 8 pairs are called abdominal spiracles.

Cilia
• Each spiracle is surrounded by annular sclerite, which

leads into chamber (atrium). Dorsal

tracheae
• Thin branching tubes (tracheal tubes subdivided into
Abdominal
tracheoles) carry oxygen from the air to all the parts. The spiracles
Ventral
tracheae
opening of the spiracles is regulated by the sphincters.

• Tergo-sternal muscles play an important role during Atrium

Tracheal system in cockroach
inspiration and expiration.

• Exchange of gases take place at the tracheoles by diffusion.

• The spiracular valves control and regulate the in and out passages of the air in abdomen.

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BEGINNER’S BOX-3 DIGESTION AND RESPIRATION

1. In cockroach salivary glands attached with :-

(1) Oesophagus (2) Pharynx (3) Crop (4) Gizzard
2. Which of the main function of tergosternal muscle ?
(1) Respiration (2) Blood circulation (3) Excretion (4) Chewing
3. Grinded food enters into the midgut through :-
(1) Sieve (2) Stomodial valve (3) Gizzard (4) Crop
4. Gastric caeca are present at _____.
(1) Junction of fore gut and midgut (2) Foregut
(3) Hindgut (4) Junction of midgut and Hindgut
5. Cockroach can digest _____.
(1) Protein (2) Carbohydrate (3) Fat (4) All of them
6. Which of the following is the correct function of crop in cockroach?
(1) Grinding of food (2) Cutting of food
(3) Storage of food (4) All of the above
7. In cockroach which of the following help in exchange of gases ?
(1) Spiracles (2) Respiratory tubule
(3) Tracheoles (4) Abdomen
8. Spiracles present on the which side of the body :-
(1) Dorsal side (2) Ventral side (3) Lateral side (4) Medially
9. One of the following muscles deal with respiration of cockroach–
(1) Alary muscles (2) Sternotergal muscles
(3) Intercostal muscles (4) Adductor muscles

07. BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

• Blood vascular system of cockroach is an open type.
• Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space (haemocoel). Two horizontal
partitions (diaphragms), divide the heamocoel into three large spaces :-
(i) Dorsal or pericardial sinus :- It encloses the heart.
(ii) Middle or perivisceral sinus :- It encloses most of the viscera.
(iii) Vental or perineural sinus :- It encloses nerve cord.

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Ostia Alary
Valves muscles Anterior
Dorsal Aorta
Antenna
Diaphragm

PERIVISCERAL SINUS (HAEMOCOEL)

Pericardial sinus
Perineural sinus
Ventral
Diaphragm Pulsatory
Nerve
Ampulla
cord
Blood vascular system of cockroach

• Both the diaphragms are perforated by a number of apertures through which all the three
sinuses are inter-connected.
• Some blood-filled spaces are also found in the head (head sinuses).
• Visceral organs located in the haemocoel are bathed in blood
(haemolymph). Anterior aorata

• The haemolymph is composed of colourless plasma and

Alary muscles
haemocytes.
• Heart of cockroach consists of elongated muscular tube lying
along mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen.
• It is differentiated into 13 funnel shaped chambers with ostia on
Chambers
either side.
of heart
• The first chamber forms a single narrow tubular anterior aorta
leading into the head sinuses. At the posterior end of each
Open circulatory
chamber, a pair of apertures (ostia) are present laterally. system of cockroach
• Heart receives blood from the pericardial sinus through ostia.
• The last chamber is closed posteriorly.
• Heart of cockroach is neurogenic (heart beat is initiated by a nerve impulse).
• Blood from sinuses enter heart through ostia and is pumped anteriorly to sinuses again.
• There are present twelve pairs of fan shaped and triangular alary muscles, their narrow ends
are inserted into terga, while their broader ends are attached to dorsal diaphragm. The
contractile alary muscles play a significant role in the blood flow from the heart to other
haemocoelic spaces in blood circulation.

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08. EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• Excretion is performed by Malpighian tubules (100-150 yellow coloured) which are present at
the junction of midgut and hindgut. Each tubule is lined by glandular and ciliated cells.
• They absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric acid which is excreted out
through the hindgut.

• Therefore, this insect is called uricotelic.

• In addition, the Fat body, Nephrocytes (pericardial cells) and Uricose glands (mushroom gland)
also help in excretion.

• Fat body is functionally analogous to the liver of vertebrates.

09. NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The nervous system of cockroach consists of a Brain
Brain
(Supraoesophgeal
(Supraoesophgeal
series of fused, segmentally arranged ganglia ganglion)
ganglion)

joined by paired longitudinal connectives on the

ventral side.
Prothoracic
PROTHORACIC
• Three ganglia lie in the thorax, and six in the GANGLION
ganglion
abdomen. Mesothoracic
MESOTHORACIC
GANGLION
ganglion
• The nervous system of cockroach is spread
Metathoracic
METATHORACIC
throughout the body. GANGLION
ganglion

• 1ST
The head holds a bit of a nervous system while the 1 1st ABDOMINAL
Abdominal
GANGLION
ganglion
rest is situated along the ventral (belly-side) part of 2

its body. So, now you understand that if the head 3

of a cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as long

4
as one week.
• In the head region, the brain is represented by 5

supra-oesophageal ganglion which supplies nerves st ABDOMINAL

6
6TH
6 Abdominal
GANGLION
to antennae and compound eyes. ganglion

• In cockroach, the sense organs are antennae, eyes,

Central
Centraland
andperipheral
peripheral
maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci, etc. Nervous
nervous systemsoofcockroach
systems cockroach

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• The compound eyes are situated at the dorsal surface of the head.
• Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia (sing.: ommatidium). With the help of
several ommatidia, a cockroach can receive several images of an object.

10. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Cockroaches are dioecious and both sexes have well developed reproductive organs.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM :
• Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes one lying on each lateral side in the 4th
-6th abdominal segments. Each testis consists of 3 or 4 interconnected lobes.
• From each testis arises a thin vas deferens, which opens into ejaculatory duct through seminal
vesicle.
• The ejaculatory duct opens into male gonopore situated ventral to anus.
• A characteristic mushroom shaped gland (Utricular gland) is present in the 6th-7th abdominal
segments which functions as an accessory reproductive gland. It is formed of 3 types of small
sac-like tubules :-
(i) long tubules or utriculi majores
(ii) small tubules or utriculi breviores
(iii) seminal vesicles

Testis
Phallic gland (Conglobate gland)
Small tubules (Utriculi breviores)
Long tubules (Utriculi majores) Utricular gland
(Mushroom gland)
Seminal vesicle
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Right phallomere
Ventral phallomere
Anal cercus
Caudal style
Left phallomere Pseudopenis
Titillator
Male Reproductive System

• Phallic or Conglobate gland is a long, flattened, club-shaped accessory gland, located ventrally
beneath the utricular gland.

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Structural Organisation in Animals (Cockroach)
• The external genitalia are represented by male gonapophyses or phallomeres (3 asymmetrical
chitinous asymmetrical structures)
(i) Right phallomere
(ii) Left phallomere
(iii) Ventral phallomere).
These genitalia surround the male gonopore.
• Mature sperms are conducted by vasa deferentia from the testes into the seminal vesicles. All
sperms of a seminal vesicle are glued together into a large mass called spermatophores, males
discharge spermatophores during copulation. During its discharge, spermatophore becomes
invested by a covering formed by milky secretion of long tubules (utriculi majores). This
covering gives a pouch-like shape to spermatophore with a small aperture on one side.
• The secretion of small tubules (utriculi breviores) fills into the spermatophore and nourishes
the sperms.
• As the spermatophore reaches at about the middle of ejaculatory duct, it becomes invested by
a second converting formed by the secretion of the wall of ejaculatory duct.
• Finally, as copulation concludes, spermatophore is discharge, it becomes invested by a third
covering formed by the secretion of phallic gland poured upon it.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM :-

• The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries, lying laterally in the 2nd – 6th
abdominal segments. Each ovary is formed of a group of eight ovarian tubules or ovarioles,
containing a chain of developing ova.

Ovary
Oviduct
Spermatheca
Common oviduct
or vagina
Collaterial glands

Genital chamber
Genital
Gonapophyses Vestibulum pouch

Female Reproductive System

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• Oviducts of each ovary unite into a single median oviduct (also called vagina) which opens into
the genital chamber (gynatrium).
• Becoming broad and boat-shaped, 7th sternite forms the floor of a large genital pouch. The
8th and 9th sternites become telescoped inwards to form the roof and sides of this pouch. The
pouch itself is divisible into a genital chamber in front and oothecal chamber behind. The
vagina and ducts of accessory reproductive glands open into the genital chamber. The posterior
part of 7th sternite is divided into two large and oval gynovalvular plates or apical lobes.
• Collaterial glands are a pair of white and highly branched accessory reproductive glands
located dorsally to the genital pouch. The left gland is larger and more opaque than the right
one. The secretions of these two glands also differ.
• Spermathecae are a pair of small structures located close to the collaterial glands.
• Female cockroach has 3 pairs of chitinous external genitalia or gonapophyses, hanging from
the roof of oothecal chamber into its cavity. These are also called ovipositor processes, because
these serve to arrange the ova in a newly forming ootheca, and possibly help in giving proper
shape to the oothecae.
• Fertilisation is internal, it occurs in the genital pouch of females. Eggs of cockroach are
centrolecithal.
• Fertilised eggs are encased in capsules called ootheca. Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown
capsule, about 3/8" (8 mm) long. Oothecae are formed in the oothecal chamber. On an average,
females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. Formation of an ootheca takes about
20 hours. Eventually, the female deposits oothecae in some dark and dry place.
• The development of P. Americana is paurometabolous, meaning there is development through
nymphal stage.
• The nymphs look very much like adults. The nymph condition persists for about 6 months to 2
years.
• The nymph grows by moulting about 13 times to reach the adult form. Ecdysone or moulting
hormone initiates the process of moulting, it is secreted by prothoracic gland. These glands
degenerate after metamorphosis.
• The next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have wings.
• Many species of cockroaches are wild and are of no known economic importance yet.
• A few species thrive in and around human habitat.
• They are pests because they spoil food and contaminate it with their smelly excreta.
• They can transmit a variety of bacterial diseases by contaminating food material.
• In between moulting nymph called "instar"

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BEGINNER’S BOX-4 CIRCULATION, EXCRETION, NERVOUS

SYSTEM AND REPRODUCTION

1. Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space known as?
(1) Lymphocoel (2) Blood Cavity
(3) Circulatory Cavity (4) Haemocoel
2. Visceral organs located in the haemocoel -
(1) Supplied by blood vessels
(2) Bathes directly in the haemocoel
(3) Do not need any circulatory structure
(4) Receives blood from ostia
3. Heart of cockroach consists of elongated muscular tube lying along–
(1) Mid ventral line of thorax (2) Mid ventral line of abdomen
(3) Lateral to the alimentary canal (4) Mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen
4. If the head of cockroach is cut-off, it will still live for as long as one week, because–
(1) Head holds a large mass of nervous system
(2) Most of the Nervous system is present in ventral part of its body
(3) Nervous system present only in abdominal part
(4) No control of brain over the body
5. On the basis of nature of excretory products, cockroaches are :-
(1) Ammonotelic (2) Uricotelic (3) Ureotelic (4) Guanotelic
6 In cockroach which of the following features is not associated with conservation of water?
(1) Wall of rectum is provided with six rectal papillae
(2) Uricotelism
(3) Presence of waxy layer above the epicuticle
(4) Presence of thin and transparent chitinous membrane on the inner linning of mesenteron
7. Antennae of cockroach function as-
(1) Tactile, olfactory, thermal and gustatory receptor
(2) Only tactile and Auditory
(3) Only Auditory, Olfactory
(4) Only Auditory receptor
8. Which of the following is not a sensory organ in cockroach?
(1) Antennae (2) Wings (3) Maxillary palps (4) Anal cerci

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9. Main character for the distinction between male and female cockroach is:-
(1) Antennae (2) Mandibles (3) Anal cerci (4) Anal Style
10. Find out the incorrect pair for cockroach–
(1) A pair of testis – 4th – 6th abdominal segmental
(2) Mushroom gland – 6th – 7th abdominal segmental
(3) Titillator – Left phallomere
(4) Innermost layer – Utriculi brevivores
of spermatophore
11 Mark the incorrect match in the given option –
(1) Seminal vesicle – Storage of sperm
(2) Phallic gland – Covering of spermatophore
(3) Colleterial gland – Oothecal covering
(4) Phallomeres – Nourishing sperms
12. In male cockroach, outermost layer of spematophore is secreted by–
(1) Ejaculatory duct, during copulation
(2) Phallic gland, during copulation
(3) Mushroom gland, during copulation
(4) Conglobate gland, after copulation
13. Nymph differs from adult cockroach in –
(1) Absence of wings
(2) Smaller in size
(3) Absence of mature reproductive organs
(4) All of these
14. In cockroach, ootheca is produced by secretion of–
(1) Conglobate gland (2) Prothoracic gland
(3) Gonapophyses (4) Collaterial gland
15. During metamorphosis, under the ecdysone hormone moulting occurs_______ times in
Periplaneta–
(1) 3–5 (2) 15–20 (3) 13 (4) 1–2
16. The haemolymph helps in removal of -
(1) Excretory products (2) Digestive products
(3) Respiratory products (4) Circulatory products

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BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 1 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 2
BEGINNER'S BOX-1
Que. 11 12 13
Ans. 3 2 3

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6
BEGINNER'S BOX-2
Ans. 4 3 4 4 2 3

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BEGINNER'S BOX-3
Ans. 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 3 2

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 4 2 4 2 2 4 1 2 4 4
BEGINNER'S BOX-4
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 4 2 4 4 3 1

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• Cockroach belong to Class-Insecta and Phylum-Arthropoda.

• Their size range from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6 – 7.6 cm).
• Cursorial and nocturnal.
BODY
(segmented, divided in three region)

Head Throax Abdomen

• Derived by fusion of ‘6’ • Have 10 segments in adult
Embryonic segments • 11 segments in embryo
• Bears a pair of long antennae
(Sensory receptors present)
• Pair of Ocelli / Fenestrae
• Pair of compound eyes

Prothorax Mesothorax Metathorax

• 1 Pair jointed leg • 1 Pair mesothoracic • 1 Pair metathoracic /hind
wing/fore wings wings-transparent,
/Tegmina (Elytra)- membranous, used in flight
thick, dark, opaque, • Pair jointed leg
leathery
• Pair jointed leg

SEGMENT OF LEG

Coxa Trochanter Femur Tibia Tarsus

Swollen/Broadest Smallest Longest
segment segment segment

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretory Organ Excretory Product

Malpighian Tubules Uric acid (Uricotelic)

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary Canal Glands

(Long coiled, divided in 3 region) Salivary gland
(Secrete mainly Amylase)

Fore gut Mid gut Hind gut

(stomodaeum) (Mesentron) (Proctodaeum)
Buccal chamber • Absorption of food
Ileum
takes place
Pharynx Colon
Oesophagus Rectum (6 Rectal)
Crop (Storing of food) papillae present, help
Gizzard (Muscular & internally covered in absorption of water
with ‘6’ cuticular teeth which crush the food) & salts)

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Open type and blood is filled in haemocoel
HAEMOCOEL DIVIDES INTO THREE SINUS

Pericardial Sinus Perivisceral Sinus Perineural Sinus

(Dorsal) (Middle) (Ventral)
* Heart is 13 chambered
* Blood circulation maintained by 12 pairs of Alary muscles
* Heart is neurogenic
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Consist of tracheal system, open outside by 10 pairs of spiracles (2 pairs thoracic and
8 pairs abdominal)
* 1st pair of thoracic and 1st pair of abdominal spiracles open all the times.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Peripheral Autonomic

Brain Nerve cord

(Nerve ring) (Double, ventral, solid
with 3 thoracic and 6
abdominal ganglia)

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ENDOERINE SYSTEM

Corpora allata Corpora cardiaca Prothoracic gland

Secrete juvenile hormone Secrete moulting hormone
or Neotinin or ecdysone
SENSORY ORGAN

Photo-receptors Thigmo-receptors Chemo-receptors Auditory-receptor

Compound Eyes Antennae Maxilla, Labial palp Anal cerci
(Composed of Labium, Hypopharynx
about 2000 ommatidia)

TWO TYPE OF VISION IN INSECT

Mosaic vision Super position vision

Day time, sharp image Dark / night time, dull image
* In cockroach pigment sheath of ommatidia is non-contractile so capable of only mosaic
vision even during night.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System

Testes (1 pair present in
4 - 6th abdominal segment)
Vasa differentia, Ejaculatory Long tube (utriculi majores)
duct, Mushroom / Utricular
gland Phallic / conglobate Short tube (utriculi breviores)
gland, Male gonapophyses
Ovaries (1 pair) present 2 - 6 abdominal seg.
Oviducts (1 pair present)
Vagina (1)
Genital chamber
Spermathecae (two)
Collateral gland-formation of ootheca
Female gonapophyses
* Metamorphosis in cockroach is incomplete or paurometabolus type.
* Metamorphosis is regulated by two hormone ecdysone, secreted by prothoracic gland
and juvenile hormone secreted by corpora allata.

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 Structural Organisation in Animals
05 (Frog)

01. INTRODUCTION
⚫ Classification :
Phylum – Chordata
Sub-phylum – Vertebrata
Super class – Tetrapoda
Class – Amphibia
Genus – Rana
Species – tigrina
⚫ Rana tigrina is the most common species of frog.
⚫ Toad have the poisonous gland in its skin but it is absent in frog.
⚫ Frogs do not have constant body temperature i.e., their body temperature varies with the
temperature of the environment. Such animals are called cold blooded or poikilotherms.
⚫ They have ability to change the colour to hide them from their enemies (camouflage). This
protective coloration is called mimicry.
⚫ We also know that the frogs are not seen during winter. During this period they take shelter in
deep burrows to protect them from extreme heat and cold. This is called as summer sleep
(aestivation) and winter sleep (hibernation).

Head
Trunk
Eye

Fore limb

Hind limb
External features of frog
Colour of frog → Dorsal part is olive green and ventral part is uniformly pale yellow.
Body of frog is adapted for burrowing, jumping and swimming.
The frog never drinks water but absorb it through the skin.
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02. MORPHOLOGY
Body of frog is divided into 2 parts :-
(1) Head (2) Trunk
Neck and tail are absent in it.

(A) HEAD :
• Head is triangular.
• Head bears the following structures -
(i) Mouth (ii) Nostrils – 1 pair
(iii) Eyes – 1 pair (iv) Tympanic membrane – 1 pair
(v) Vocal sac – 1 pair
(1) Eyes – Each eye has 3 eyelids :-
(i) Upper eye lid – It is immovable
(ii) Lower eye lid – It is movable
(iii) Third eye lid – It is thin, transparent, freely movable membrane also called nictitating
membrane. It protect them while in water.
(2) Eyes are bulged
(3) Tympanic Membrane/Eardrum : It receives the sound waves so it is related with hearing.
(4) Vocal Sac : It is a pair of balloon like elastic structures in throat of male frog. It acts as a
resonater. It increases the pitch of croacking of male frog. At the time of breeding season,
it is used to attract the female.

(B) TRUNK :
• Frog is a tetrapod animal. Four limbs are attached to its trunk.
• The forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and burrowing. Fore limbs have
four digits.
• The hind limbs are larger and muscular than fore limb. The hind limb end in five digits.
• Hind limb have webbed digits that help in swimming.
• Frogs exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing vocal sacs and also a
copulatory pad on the first digit of the fore limbs which are absent in female frogs.

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03. ANATOMY
Following systems are present in frog :-
(A) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM :
Function of digestive system is ingestion of food, digestion & egestion of undigested food.
Digestive system is divided into 2 parts :-
The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands. The alimentary canal is
short because frog is carnivores and hence the length of intestine is reduced.
Digestive tract or food passage : In frog, passage of food is through
Mouth → Oral cavity → Oesophagus → Stomach → Intestine → Rectum → Cloaca → Cloacal
aperture
Tongue : Tongue of frog is long, folded, sticky & bilobed at its anterior end. It is adapted for
capturing the prey (insect).

Heart Oesophagus
Liver
Gall bladder
Lung
Stomach
Fat bodies
Kidney
Ureter Intestine
Urinary bladder Rectum
Cloaca
Cloacal Aperture

Diagrammatic representation of internal organs of frog

showing complete digestive system

(1) Stomach : It is a muscular bag. It contains HCl & proteolytic enzyme. HCl makes the acidic pH
of food & it is bacteriolytic.

(2) Intestine : Partially digested food called chyme is passed from stomach to the first part of the
small intestine, the duodenum.
• Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger like folds in the inner wall of intestine
called villi and microvilli.

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• The duodenum receives bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juices from the pancreas
through a common bile duct.
• Undigested food is excreted through cloacal aperture

(3) Digestive Glands : -Two digestive glands are present in it.

(i) Liver : It forms bile. Bile is stored in gall-bladder.
(ii) Pancreas : It secrete pancreatic juice in intestine. Pancreatic juice is called digestive juice
as it is complete digestive juice.

(B) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM :

⚫ Exchange of gases from the environment is the function of its respiratory system.
⚫ 3 types of respiration are present in frog.
(i) Cutaneous respiration : cutaneous respiration is present in it. Skin contain the mucous
gland which secrete the mucous on the surface to moist the skin that causes exchange of
gases from the environment by diffusion.

(ii) Pulmonary respiration : pulmonary respiration is present in it. Two pear shaped lungs are
present in anterior part of trunk, which is responsible for pulmonary respiration.

(iii) Buccal cavity respiration : buccal respiration is present in it. Large network of capillaries is
present in its oral cavity that cause exchange of gases through diffusion.

(C) CIRCULATORY SYSTEM :

(1) Heart :
• The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type.
• The blood vascular system involves heart, blood vessels and blood.
• Heart is a muscular structure situated in the upper part of the body cavity.
• It has three chambers, two atria and one ventricle and is covered by a membrane called
pericardium.
• A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood through the
major veins called vena cava.

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• The ventricle opens into a sac like conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart. The blood
from the heart is carried to all parts of the body by the arteries (arteria system).

Aortic trunks

Right auricle Right auricle

Left auricle Pulmonary veins
Truncus arteriosus

Ventricle Sinus venosus

(A) (B)
Heart of Frog (external structure) A-Ventral view, B-Dorsal view

(2) Portal system :

• The veins collect blood from different parts of body to the heart and form the venous system
• Hepatic portal system- Special venous connection between liver and intestine
• Renal portal system- kidney and lower parts of the body

(3) Blood :
• The blood is composed of plasma and cells.
• The blood cells are RBC (red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or leucocytes
and platelets.
• RBC’s are nucleated and contain red coloured pigment (Haemoglobin).

(4) Lymphatic system :

• The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph channels and lymph nodes
• The lymph is different from blood. It lacks few proteins and RBCs.
• The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the respective sites during the circulation.
• The circulation of blood is achieved by the pumping action of the muscular heart.

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(D) CONTROL AND COORDINATION (NEURAL & HORMONAL) :
• The system for control and coordination is highly evolved in the frog. It includes both neural
system and endocrine glands. The chemical coordination of various organs of the body is
achieved by hormones which are secreted by the endocrine glands.
• The prominent endocrine glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,
pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads.

(1) Central Nervous System :

Central nervous system is made up of brain & spinal cord. It is involved in analysis of sense.
Brain is enclosed in a bony structure called brain box (cranium). The brain is divided into fore-
brain, mid-brain and hind-brain
Forebrain includes olfactory lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and unpaired diencephalon.
The midbrain is characterised by a pair of optic lobes.
Hind-brain consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata passes out through the foramen magnum and continues into spinal
cord, which is enclosed in the vertebral column.

(2) Peripheral Nervous System :

It is made up of cranial nerves and spinal nerves. 10 pairs of cranial nerves.
⚫ (In Rana tigrina, 9 pairs spinal nerves are present) 12 pairs cranial nerves & 31 pairs spinal
nerves are present in human.

(3) Autonomous Nervous System :

This controls the autonomous parts (automatic) of the body.
This system control the autonomic parts of the body like heart, lungs & intestine. Two type of
nerves are present in it.
(i) Sympathetic Nerve : It increase the rate of autonomous organs.
(ii) Parasympathetic nerve : It decrease the rate of autonomous organs.

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(E) SENSE ORGANS IN FROG :
• Organ of touch called sensory papillae.
• Organ of taste called taste buds.
• Organ of smell called nasal epithelium.
• Organ of vision called eyes (Possessing only one unit)
• Organ of hearing called tympanum with internal ears.
• Eyes and internal ears are well-organised structures and the rest are cellular aggregations
around nerve endings

(F) EXCRETORY SYSTEM :

• The elimination of nitrogenous wastes is carried out by a well developed excretory system.
• The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. These
are compact, dark red and bean like structures situated a little posteriorly in the body cavity on
both sides of vertebral column.
• Each kidney is composed of several structural and functional units called uriniferous tubules
or nephrons. Two ureters emerge from the kidneys in the male frogs. The ureters act as
urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca. Kidney
• In females the ureters and oviduct open seperately in Adrenal
gland
the cloaca. The thin-walled urinary bladder is present
ventral to the rectum which also opens in the cloaca. Ureter
Urinary bladder
• Kidney form urine which is stored in urinary bladder
& excreted through cloacal aperture. The main
Openings
excretory product in frog is urea, so it is a ureotelic of ureter
Cloaca Cloacal aperture
animal. Excretory system of Frog

(G) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM :

(1) Male Reproductive System :
• One pair of testis are attached to the upper part of kidney by the help of membrane
mesorchium. Sperms are formed in testis by spermatogenesis. At the time of copulation, these
sperms enter into bidder's canal from the testis through 10 to 12 small ducts.
• These ducts are called Vasa efferentia. This bidder's canal opens into cloaca through the
urinogenital duct. The cloaca is a small, median chamber that is used to pass faecal matter,
urine and sperms to the exterior.

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Vasa
efferentia
Fat bodies
Testis

Kidney
Adrenal
gland
Urino
genital
duct
Rectum
Cloaca
Urinary Cloacal aperture
bladder
Male reproductive system
NCERT Figure No. 7.21

(2) Female Reproductive System :

Oviduct

Ovary
Ova

Ureter

Cloaca
Cloacal aperture
Urinary bladder
Female reproductive system
NCERT Figure No. 7.22

• One pair of ovaries are present on the upper pole of kidney and it opens into cloaca by a
separate duct that is called oviduct, so there is no connection between the ovaries and kidney.
• Mature female can lay 2500 – 3000 ova at a time.
• Fertilization is external and takes place in water. Its larva is called tadpole.
• Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.

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Structural Organisation in Animals (Frog)
SPECIAL POINTS
• Sexual dimorphism is present in frog. Copulatory pad & vocal sac are present in male frog only.
▪ Frog skull - dicondylic type.
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE OF FROG
Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insects and protect the crop. Frogs maintain
ecological balance because these serve as an important link of food chain and food web in the
ecosystem. In some countries the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man.

BEGINNER’S BOX-1 FROG (MORPHOLOGY & ANATOMY)

1. In male frog copulatory pad present on the :

(1) Second digit of the fore limbs
(2) First digit of the hind limbs
(3) First digit of the fore limbs
(4) Second digit of the hind limbs
2. The site for final digestion in frog is :
(1) Stomach (2) Rectum (3) Oesophagus (4) Intestine
3. Which of the following is not a character of frog's heart?
(1) Muscular structure (2) Three chambered structure
(3) Covered by pericardium (4) Non-muscular structure
4. How many pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain of frog?
(1) 12 pairs (2) 10 pairs (3) 8 pairs (4) 9 pairs
5. In frog ureter act as urinogenital duct in :
(1) Male frog (2) Female frog
(3) In both male and female frog (4) None
6. Frogs are beneficial for mankind because :
(1) They eat crop and protect insect
(2) They eat insect and protect crop
(3) they eat both crop and insect
(4) They protect both crop and insect

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7. Which of the following statement is not correct for Indian bull frog?
(1) Bidder's canal in male frog communicates with the urinogenital duct
(2) In female frog oviduct and ureter not open independently in cloaca
(3) There is no functional connection between ovary and kidney of frog
(4) Bidder's canal present in the kidney of male frog
8. Find out the correct classification of Rana tigrina :-
Phylum Sub-Phylum Class
(1) Vertebrata Chordata Amphibia
(2) Amphibia Vertebrata Anura
(3) Chordata Vertebrata Amphibia
(4) Chordata Invertebrata Amphibia

9. Match the column-I with column-II.

Column-I Column-II
(A) Hibernation (i) Winter sleep
The ability to change the colour to hide
(B) Camouflage (ii)
them from their enemies
(C) Poikilotherm (iii) Cold blooded
(D) Aestivation (iv) Summer sleep

(1) A–iv, B–ii, C–iii, D-i (2) A–i, B–ii, C–iv, D-iii
(3) A–i, B–ii, C–iii, D-iv (4) A–i, B–iii, C–iv, D-ii
10. Given below is a list of some structure :
Diaphragm, Tail, Anus, Cloaca, Nictitating membrane and the cortex and medulla in kidney.
How many of the above structure are not found in Rana tigrina?
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 5 (4) 6

BEGINNER’S BOX ANSWERS KEY

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
BEGINNER'S BOX-1
Ans. 3 4 4 2 1 2 2 3 3 1

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• Common species of Frog found in India is Rana tigrina

• Cold blooded or poikilothermic
• Ability to change the colour of body (camouflage)
• Aestivation (summer sleep) and hibernation (winter sleep)
BODY OF FROG

Head Trunk
• Consist of eye,
Either side of eye a membranous tympanum (ear) that received sound
• signals
Skin of frog is smooth and slippery due to presence of mucus.
• Dorsal side of body olive green colour and ventral side pale yellow.
• Neck and tail is absent.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary canal Digestive glands

Short because carnivores
Mouth opens into buccal cavity
Pancreas Gastric gland
Salivary gland absent.
* Liver secretes bile store in gall bladder.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS OF FROG

Skin Lungs Bucco Pharyngeal

(Cutaneous respiration) (Pulmonary respiration) (Bucco pharyngeal respiration)

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood vascular system Lymphatic system

Heart Blood vessels Blood

3 chamber
(2 atria & 1 ventricle) Blood cells Plasma
with additional
R.B.C. (nucleated) with Hb
chamber sinus venous
and conus arteriosus W.B.C.
* Renal portal system is present Platelets

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NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerve Spinal Nerve Sympathetic Parasympathetic

(10 pairs)

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

• Testis (1 pair yellowish ovoid) • Ovary (1 pair)
• Vasa efferentia (10-12 in number) • Mature female can lay 2500-3000 ova at a time
• Bidder’s canal • Fertilization is external and takes place in water
• Larva of frog known as tadpole.

NCERT SUMMARY
The Indian bullfrog, Rana tigrina, is the common frog found in India. Body is covered by skin.
Mucous glands are present in the skin which is highly vascularised and helps in respiration in water
and on land. Body is divisible into head and trunk. A muscular tongue is present, which is bilobed at
the tip and is used in capturing the prey. The alimentary canal consists of oesophagous, stomach,
intestine and rectum, which open into the cloaca. The main digestive glands are liver and pancreas. It
can respire in water through skin and through lungs on land. Circulatory system is closed with single
circulation. RBCs are nucleated. Nervous system is organised into central, peripheral and autonomic.
The organs of urinogenital system are kidneys and urinogenital ducts, which open into the cloaca. The
male reproductive organ is a pair of testes. The female reproductive organ is a pair of ovaries. A female
lays 2500-3000 ova at a time. The fertilisation and development are external. The eggs hatch into
tadpoles, which metamorphose into frogs.

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