MecEst
MecEst
Instituto de Fı́sica
Statistical Mechanics
Lecture Notes – Graduate Course
These Lecture Notes (LN) result from teaching this course several times since 1984, in
PUC/Rio, UFF, and UFRJ. Over the years I have benefitted enormously from discussions
with Sergio LA de Queiroz on choice of topics and depth of presentations.
The students are strongly advised not to use these LN as a replacement for studying
through books, since these provide deeper analyses and are far more complete.
Recommended literature:
3
4
5
6 CONTENTS
3.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1 Introduction
When the study of a piece of material is focused on its macroscopic properties, such as the
dependence of the resistivity with temperature, one is faced with the task of processing
information from a microscopic realm into an output describing its collective behaviour.
Since the microscopic description encompasses the basic (classical or quantum) laws of
motion governing a system consisting of the order of NA (the Avogadro number, ∼ 1023 )
particles, this task requires a framework with an outstanding power of synthesis. Indeed,
even if we were able to solve the said equations of motion for the NA particles, the
gathered data by themselves would still be unable to provide information beyond the
microscopic realm. It is through the framework of Statistical Mechanics that we are able
to establish a bridge between the microscopic and macroscopic worlds.
Despite having its origin as a kinetic theory of gases, Statistical Mechanics is applica-
ble to matter in any state. In effect, through this framework many features of matter in
solid, liquid or gaseous phases (as well as mixtures of phases and constituents) have been
elucidated, even at extreme conditions of density and temperatures, as well as matter
in equilibrium with radiation, such as in stars. Further, the framework can be used to
study both equilibrium and non-equlibrium phenomena, thus shedding light on how a
system approaches equilibrium.
9
10 CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ENSEMBLE THEORY
pressure, while keeping fixed the volume of the container; for a magnet, one may specify
the magnetisation, while keeping fixed an applied magnetic field. The set specifying the
macrostate can be comprised of a single variable or by several ones.
The microscopic state (microstate) is specified in the usual way in the realm of
classical or quantum mechanics. A classical system of N particles in a three-dimensional
space is specified, at a given time, by 3N generalised coordinates q ≡ q1 , q2 , . . . , q3N ,
and by the 3N generalised conjugate momenta p ≡ p1 , p2 , . . . , p3N ; the number, 3N , of
pairs (qi , pi ) is the number of degrees of freedom of the system. For a system described
by a Hamiltonian, H(q, p), its time evolution can in principle be obtained by solving
Hamilton’s equations of motion,
∂H ∂H
q̇i = , ṗi = − , (1.2.1)
∂pi ∂qi
for a given set of initial conditions. One can therefore represent the microstate of this
system, at a given instant of time, by a point
in a 6N -dimensional space, called the phase space. As time evolves, (q, p) follows a
trajectory in phase space. For instance, the state of a single particle undergoing one-
dimensional harmonic motion with a fixed total energy is represented by a point describ-
ing an ellipse in the two-dimensional phase space, (x, p).
The microstate of a quantum mechanical system of N particles is specified by a
complex wave function, Ψ(x, t) ≡ Ψ(x1 , x2 , . . . , x3N , t), where the xi are the particle
coordinates; when internal degrees of freedom (such as spin states) are relevant, the
wave function depends on additional quantum numbers specifying these variables, e.g.
Ψ{σ} (x, t). We recall that the wave function provides the maximum information available
about the system. One may equivalently think in terms of an abstract state, |Ψ(t)i,
whose projection in the so-called coordinate representation, |x1 x2 . . . x3N i, yields the
wave function, Ψ(x, t). The time evolution of the microstate |Ψ(t)i is governed by the
Schrödinger equation,
∂
i~ |Ψ(t)i = H|Ψ(t)i, (1.2.3)
∂t
whose solution can be expressed in terms of the time evolution operator,
which is unitary, U † = U −1 , as
where |Ψ(0)i represents the initial condition on the state, assigned at t = 0. Therefore,
the microstate evolves in time in a Hilbert space, instead of in a phase space.
Usually many initial microstates (classical or quantum) correspond to the same
macrostate specifications. For instance, there are many ways in which one can mi-
croscopically prepare an isolated system of non-interacting particles with a specified
1.3. CLASSICAL ENSEMBLES 11
PN
macroscopic (total) energy E = i εi , where εi is the energy of the i-th particle.
Therefore, measurements of most (classical or quantum) dynamical quantities at a given
time would be strongly dependent on the microstate under consideration, thus ultimately
being dependent on the initially prepared state. This is totally unsatisfactory, since such
measurements are not reproducible: if one repeats the experiment at a later time, most
certainly the initial microstate would be different, hence leading to a different outcome
of the measurement. By contrast, if we measure, say the resistivity of a pre-heated
metallic wire as a function of time, we see that the outcome is reproducible, provided
the initial conditions (i.e., the temperature distribution) are the same every time the
experiment is performed, even though the initial microstate is most likely different. We
must therefore abandon the notion of ‘absolutely precise’ measurements of quantities
related to individual particles, in favour of a statistical framework which incorporates,
at a fundamental level, the multiplicity of acceptable microstates.1 That is, through this
framework we expect to predict an average outcome of a great number of experiments,
carried out under identical conditions, to measure collective properties of a system. The
need for a statistical framework is therefore much more deeply rooted than the common
misconception of attributing this need to our inability to solve the equations of motion
for 1023 particles.
This statistical framework may be introduced by simultaneously considering all pos-
sible initial microstates compatible with the specified macrostate; we call this set our
ensemble of microstates. Our first task is then to mathematically characterise the dis-
tribution of microstates. Since the classical and quantum approaches differ in the way
each microstate is defined, one should now split the discussion into classical and quantum
ensembles.
At a given instant, a local maximum of ρ [and, of course, of dN ] at (q̃, p̃) means that
one is more likely to find microstates with the particles distributed over (q̃, p̃) than over
nearby values of q and p. Hence, we also refer to ρ(q, p; t) as the probability distribution
function.
Let us now derive an equation of motion for ρ(q, p; t). The differential of ρ(q, p; t) is
3N
∂ρ X ∂ρ ∂ρ
dρ = dt + dqi + dpi , (1.3.2)
∂t ∂qi ∂pi
i=1
so that with dqi = q̇i dt and dpi = ṗi dt, we arrive at Liouville’s equation,
3N
dρ ∂ρ X ∂ρ ∂ρ
= + q̇i + ṗi . (1.3.3)
dt ∂t ∂qi ∂pi
i=1
Now,
∂ρ ∂(ρq̇i ) ∂ q̇i
q̇i = −ρ
∂qi ∂qi ∂qi
∂(ρq̇i ) ∂2H
= −ρ , (1.3.4)
∂qi ∂qi ∂pi
∂ρ ∂(ρṗi ) ∂ ṗi
ṗi = −ρ
∂pi ∂pi ∂pi
∂(ρṗi ) ∂2H
= +ρ . (1.3.5)
∂pi ∂pi ∂qi
Let us now use the fact that the number of members in the ensemble is conserved: if
we consider a volume Γ in phase space, the rate of probability change in Γ results from
a flux of probability current, j ≡ ρv, through the closed surface SΓ bounding Γ. That
is,
∂
Z Z
dq dp ρ(q, p; t) = − j · n dS
∂t Γ SΓ
Z
= − dq dp ∇ · j, (1.3.10)
Γ
where, in the first equality, dS is a surface element of SΓ , and n is the outward unit
vector normal to SΓ at each point; in the second equality we made use of the divergence
theorem. Rearranging terms leads to
∂ρ
Z
dq dp + ∇ · ρv = 0. (1.3.11)
Γ ∂t
Since this must hold for any Γ, the integrand must vanish identically, thus establishing
a continuity equation for the probability distribution, in analogy with fluid dynamics.
We have therefore proved Liouville’s theorem:
dρ ∂ρ
= + ∇ · ρv = 0. (1.3.12)
dt ∂t
The continuity equation allows us to view the theorem as a statement that the distribu-
tion of representative points moves in phase space as if it were an incompressible fluid.
Moreover, recall that ∂ρ(q, p; t)/∂t captures changes in ρ at a fixed point in phase space,
while ∇ · ρv picks up contributions due to changes in ρ along the trajectory in phase
space; the dρ/dt = 0 part in Liouville’s theorem therefore implies that the distribution
function remains constant in the neighbourhood of a point moving with this fluid.
At this point it is instructive to seek a formal solution to the continuity equation.
Taking (1.2.1) into (1.3.3) yields
3N
∂ρ X ∂ρ ∂H ∂ρ ∂H
=− − , (1.3.13)
∂t ∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi
i=1
where the RHS is recognised as the Poisson bracket between ρ and H, denoted by [ρ, H]P ;
we may use an even more compact notation,
[H]ρ ≡ [ρ, H]P , [H]2 ρ ≡ [[ρ, H]P , H]P , . . . . (1.3.14)
Assuming ρ(q, p; t) can be expanded in a power series in time leads to [we omit here
the arguments (q, p)]
∂ρ 1 ∂2ρ
ρ(t) = ρ(0) + t+ t2 + . . .
∂t t=0 2 ∂t2 t=0
1
= 1 − [H] t + [H]2 t2 + . . . ρ(0), (1.3.15)
2
14 CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ENSEMBLE THEORY
or, schematically,
ρ(q, p; t) = e−t[H] ρ(q, p; 0), (1.3.16)
which is the formal solution we were seeking.
If we now define the Liouvillian operator, L, as
3N
X ∂H ∂ ∂H ∂
L ≡ −i − , (1.3.17)
∂pj ∂qj ∂qj ∂pj
j=1
∂ρ
i = Lρ(q, p; t). (1.3.18)
∂t
In many texts L is defined without the i, but here we adopt this definition in order to
render L Hermitian, and directly exploring the analogy with the Schrödinger equation.
We see that while H determines the evolution of a single point in phase space, L de-
termines the evolution of the distribution function (hence of the ensemble) in the same
space.
Once ρ(q, p; t) is determined, we can normalise it,
Z
dq dp ρ(q, p; t) = 1. (1.3.19)
Since ρ(q, p; t) is a probability density, it can also be used to calculate averages of any
microscopic quantity B(q, p ; x), where x is a point in space (e.g. the height where the
pressure of a gas is being determined), as
Z
hB(x, t)i = dq dp ρ(q, p; t)B(q, p ; x), (1.3.20)
with ρ(q, p; t) evolving in time according to Eq. (1.3.16). We adopt Eqs. (1.3.19) and
(1.3.20) as the basic postulate of classical Statistical Mechanics.
2
Here we use a “hat” (e.g., b̂) to distinguish a quantum operator from a number, but later we will
drop this notation, if no confusion is likely to arise.
1.4. QUANTUM ENSEMBLES 15
with U (t − t0 ) being the time evolution operator (between instants t0 and t), as given
by Eq. (1.2.4). The subscript S stands for Schrödinger picture [7]. If the observable b̂
does not depend explicitly on time, the equation of motion becomes
d
i~ b̂H = [b̂, Ĥ]H . (1.4.3)
dt
As mentioned before, the outcome of an experiment measuring the observable b̂ in a
pure state |Ψ(t)i is necessarily one of the eigenvalues of b̂. Therefore, the most we can
predict is the expectation value,
we have X
b̄ = c∗m cn bmn , (1.4.6)
m,n
where Z
bmn ≡ hm|b̂|n i = dx ϕ∗m (x) B(x) ϕn (x), (1.4.7)
The system is then said to be described by a statistical mixture ofPstates. As such, this
cannot be represented by a linear superposition of states, |χi = i α(i) |Ψ(i) i. Indeed,
when one takes hχ|χi in the latter case, interference terms appear which are absent in
the former [7].
In order to obtain an expression for the ensemble average of an observable b̂, it
is convenient to first expand each of the states in the mixture in terms of the same
orthonormal basis, |ri, as X
|Ψ(i) i = c(i)
r |ri. (1.4.9)
r
16 CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF ENSEMBLE THEORY
where the order of the indices should be noted. It should also be noted that ρsr is only
concerned with the ensemble (and the chosen basis), not with the observable b̂. In order
to eliminate the reference to the basis, we define the density operator (or density matrix )
as the one whose elements in the {|ri} basis are given by
ρsr = hs|ρ̂|r i. (1.4.13)
The ensemble average (1.4.11) can then be written as
X X X
hbi = brs ρsr = hs|ρ̂|r ihr|b̂|s i = hr|ρ̂ b̂|r i. (1.4.14)
r,s r,s r
The last sum above is the trace of the operator ρ̂ b̂, which, in turn, is actually independent
of the basis used. Hence,
B = hbi = Tr ρ̂ b̂ = Tr b̂ ρ̂, (1.4.15)
where in the last equality we used the property that the trace is invariant under cyclic
permutations of the operators.
(i)
Note that as time evolves the coefficients acquire a time dependence, cr (t), which
in turn leads to a time dependent ρ̂(t), and to
B(t) = hbi(t) = Tr b̂ ρ̂(t). (1.4.16)
In particular, if b̂ = 1 we check if ρ̂ is normalised,
X X
Tr ρ̂ = γi c(i) (i)∗
r cr = γi = 1, (1.4.17)
i,r i
∂
i~ ρ̂(t) = [Ĥ, ρ̂(t)], (1.4.22)
∂t
which is known as the von Neumann equation, and plays the role analogous to the
Liouville equation for the classical case.
We may then say that, at least formally, the starting point of Statistical Mechanics
consists in the study of solutions to the Liouville or von Neumann equations.
Figure 1.1: Schematic constant energy surface in phase space for an ergodic system.
Two features show that this is not the case. First, the fact that the eigenvalues
of L are real3 indicates that the solutions to the Liouville equation oscillate in time,
thus not leading to a stationary solution as t → ∞. Second, the Liouville equation is
invariant under time reversal, which is incompatible with irreversible phenomena such
as the decay towards equilibrium.
The description of irreversibility and decay to equilibrium is part of an area of Sta-
tistical Mechanics called Ergodic Theory, whose aim is to understand the origin of irre-
versibility from the flow of distribution functions in phase space. In this course we will
not discuss these issues in detail, but we will provide a very brief introduction to non-
equilibrium systems in the final part. For our purposes here it suffices to mention (see,
e.g. Ref. [5], Chapter 6, for details) that two kinds of flow are important to understand
the decay to equilibrium: ergodic flow and mixing flow. In order to understand ergodic
flow, imagine an isolated system with energy E. To this system therefore corresponds
a (6N − 1)-dimensional surface in phase space, and, as time evolves each representative
point moves in that surface. One says that the flow of these points is ergodic if almost
all of them will pass through an arbitrary neighbourhood within this surface. Figure 1.1
schematically illustrates this surface and some trajectories.
The Ergodic Theorem provides a criterion to determine whether a system is ergodic.
Consider a function f (q, p), integrable in phase space. A system is ergodic if for all
functions f the time average,
t0 +T
1
Z
hf iT = lim dt f (q(t), p(t)), (1.5.1)
T →∞ T t0
3
This is a consequence of the fact that L is Hermitian; for a detailed discussion of the properties of
L, see, e.g. Ref. [8].
1.6. EQUILIBRIUM SOLUTIONS 19
exists for almost all (q, p), and when it does, it is equal to the ensemble average,
1 1
Z Z
hf iS = P f (q, p) dSE = P dqdp δ[H(q, p) − E] f (q, p), (1.5.2)
(E) SE (E)
where dSE is an P element of SE , the energy E surface, invariant during the evolution of
the system, and (E) is the area of this surface. Therefore, ergodic flow corresponds to
the set of representative points visiting almost all of the surface SE , after a sufficiently
long time, spending equal time in equal areas.
Systems with ergodic flow do not reach equilibrium, unless they already depart from
an equilibrium state. In order to reach equilibrium, the flow must also have the property
of mixing. In this kind of flow, the probability distribution spreads through the phase
space as time evolves. One should note that systems with mixing flow are ergodic, but
the converse is not necessarily true.
In the next chapter we will study equilibrium ensembles without referring to the
mechanisms responsible for taking the systems to this state.
1.7 Exercises
1. Consider a one-dimensional classical harmonic oscillator.
(a) Sketch the trajectory in the phase space for the representative point for this
oscillator.
(b) Consider now an ensemble of these oscillators in which the initial phase is random,
but uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π]. Show that the system is ergodic.
[Hint: explore the condition for time averages being equal to averages over the
ensemble.]
2. Consider a box of volume VT with NT particles. Assume that each of the NT particles
has equal probability of being in any point of the box. Now focusing on a volume V
within the box,
3. A book with 1 400 pages has 700 typos. Under assumptions that one should find
reasonable, determine the probability that a page has 2 typos.
4. A beam of Ag atoms, each with spin-1/2, is prepared in a way that 60% of the atoms
are in the Sz = +~/2 eigenstate of Sbz , and 40% are in the eigenstate Sx = −~/2 of
Sbx .
2.1 Introduction
Our first aim is to set up a distribution function representing an equilibrium state.
We start with the quantum description, which is more clear and fundamental in many
aspects, as it will become evident when discussing quantum gases.
The simplest case we can consider is that of an isolated system: without interacting
with the external world, it is characterised by having constant energy. This is clearly
an idealisation, since it is impossible to switch off the interaction with the external
world. In addition, the number of states per energy interval is very large (∼ aN , where
a is a typical linear size of the system and N is the number of particles), so that a
small – though macroscopic – uncertainty in the total energy amounts to incorporate
or exclude from the discussion a great number of compatible states. Therefore we will
extend the definition of an isolated system to one with energy between E and E + ∆E,
with ∆E E. Further, we will assume the system is contained in a volume V much
larger than typical volumes in the molecular scale (i.e., V 10−30 m3 ), with N (∼ 1023 )
particles.
In order to obtain the density operator for this isolated system, we choose the rep-
resentation of Hamiltonian eigenstates, which renders ρ̂ diagonal due to its dependence
with Ĥ,
1
ρmn = am δmn , (2.1.1)
Ω
where m represents a set of quantum numbers which completely specify the Hamiltonian
eigenstates, and am and Ω will be defined below. Each pm ≡ am /Ω must be positive
since it represents the probability of finding the system in the state m (and not with the
energy Em ).
In line with the discussion of § 1.2, we introduce the postulate of equal a priori
probabilities,
(
1 if E ≤ Em ≤ E + ∆E
am = (2.1.2)
0 otherwise,
21
22 CHAPTER 2. THE MICROCANONICAL ENSEMBLE
where the lines in the integrals restrict the volume in phase space to that corresponding
to the energy in the interval between E and E + ∆E. The constant Ω0 is introduced to
render Ω dimensionless: for each product dqi dpi in the integral, we divide by a constant,
h0 , with dimensions of angular momentum; h0 → h in the quantum limit. Thus, for N
particles in a d-dimensional space we have
1
Ω0 = . (2.1.8)
h0dN
Instead of calculating the number of states within an interval ∆E, it is often more
convenient to calculate the number of states with energy smaller than E,
Z
Σ(E) = Ω0 dq dp, (2.1.9)
H<E
where one should note that the phase space integral incorporates the factor Ω0 given by
(2.1.8). Using Σ(E), we may write
D
( )
( )
E
Figure 2.1: Schematic density of states for N free particles in a cubic box of volume V as a function of the total
energy.
since ∆E E, and
∂Σ
D(E) = (2.1.11)
∂E
is the density of accessible states with energy E. A similar discussion applies to the
quantum case.
In § 2.4 we will see that for N non-interacting particles in a box, the dependence
with energy is
ΣN (E) ∝ E 3N/2 . (2.1.12)
Since N 1, the density of states grows very rapidly with E. Figure 2.1 schematically
illustrates the dependence of D with E, and we also identify Σ(E) and Ω(E) = D(E)dE.
where d−Q is the amount of heat absorbed by the system, and d−W is the work done by the
system. These latter quantities depend on the path followed in the process, while the
internal energy is a state function, depending only on the inital and final states, but not
on the path; for further discussions and applications of the First Law, see, e.g. Reif [10],
Reichl [6], and Huang [2].
24 CHAPTER 2. THE MICROCANONICAL ENSEMBLE
Second Law (Entropy increase): In a closed system away from equilibrium, the pro-
cesses occur in such way that a state function, called entropy, S, increases continuously
until reaching a maximum value, corresponding to the equilibrium state. The entropy
is thermodynamically defined through its variation,
d−Q
dS ≥ (2.2.2)
T
where T is the absolute temperature of the system. The equality holds in an infinites-
imal quasi-static process, i.e. one in which the system slowly evolves, in a succession of
equilibrium states; the process is therefore reversible.
As a consequence of these two laws, we have
T dS ≥ dE + d−W (2.2.3)
Third Law (Limiting value of the entropy): The entropy of a system is such that
lim S = S0 , (2.2.4)
T →0+
of the Second Law, the entropy must therefore be related with the number of accessible
microstates. In order to set up such relation, we must take into account two constraints
the entropy must satisfy. The first is its additivity, which is not satisfied by Ω, but by
ln Ω, since if a non-interacting system is made up of two parts, the total number of states
is the product of the number of states of each part. The second is the fact that T d−S
has units of energy, so that S must have units of the Boltzmann constant, kB . In view
of all this, one may write
S ≡ kB ln Ω(E, V, N ). (2.2.5)
We note that the dependence of Ω with ∆E was omitted. Indeed, in the majority of
cases of interest, the number of states with energy between E and E + ∆E grows so fast
that the contribution to Ω from the immediate neighbourhood of E is much larger than
the contribution relative to all energies up to E. Therefore, the leading contribution to
the entropy in Eq. (2.2.5) is the same whether one uses Ω(E), Σ(E), or even D(E)∆E,
since the differences are on the order of ln N or smaller; see § 2.4.
In summary, the entropy is a measure of the degree of the system’s amount of dis-
order, in the sense that the larger the number of accessible states, the larger is the
randomness associated with the macrostate. Thus, the Second Law tells us that the
macrostate of equilibrium is the most random or, equivalently, the most likely. At this
point it is worth appreciating another aspect of Eq. (2.2.5): on the left-hand side lies a
thermodynamic quantity, while the right-hand side carries information about the sys-
tem’s spectral properties.
The extensivity of the entropy allows us to write a scaling form as
S = N s(E/N, V /N ), (2.2.6)
where s is the entropy per particle, which, in turn, can only be a function of the intensive
variables, E/N and V /N . This illustrates a general feature: an additive thermodynamic
quantity must be a homogeneous function of degree 1 in its additive variables, such that
if E → λE, N → λN , and V → λV , one has s → s, but S → λS.
We now consider the system, S, as made up of two parts, S1 and S2 (Fig. 2.2),
whose macrostates are characterised by the parameters (E1 , V1 , N1 ) and (E2 , V2 , N2 ),
respectively; to these parameters correspond Ω1 and Ω2 states. Let us initially assume
S1 and S2 are in thermal contact through a fixed and impermeable partition wall, i.e. it
only allows exchange of energy between them.
In view of this, V1 , V2 , N1 , and N2 are kept separately fixed, but the energies are
subject to the condition
E = E1 + E2 = constant (2.2.7)
The number of states accessible to S is, therefore,
S1 S2
( E 1, V1 , N1) ( E 2, V2 , N2)
of maximum of Ω becomes
∂Ω ∂Ω1 ∂Ω2 ∂E2
= Ω2 (Ē2 ) + Ω1 (Ē1 ) =0 (2.2.9)
∂E1 E1 =Ē1 ∂E1 E1 =Ē1 ∂E2 E2 =Ē2 ∂E1
In view of (2.2.7), ∂E2 /∂E1 = −1, so that the condition for thermal equilibrium becomes
∂ ln Ω1 (E1 ) ∂ ln Ω2 (E2 )
= . (2.2.10)
∂E1 E1 =Ē1 ∂E2 E2 =Ē2
If we now define
∂ ln Ωi (Ei )
βi = , (2.2.11)
∂Ei Ei =Ē
we have
β1 = β2 , (2.2.12)
or, identifying βi = 1/kB Ti , i = 1, 2, with Ti being the absolute temperature of each
sub-system,
T1 = T2 , (2.2.13)
which is the expected condition for thermal equilibrium: the two subsystems must be at
the same temperature.
Let us now assume that in addition of being thermally conducting, the partition in
Fig. 2.2 is movable and permeable, so that the number of states is Ω(E, V, N, E1 , V1 , N1 ),
since now each of the sums V1 + V2 = V and N1 + N2 = N ia a constant. Imposing
dΩ = 0, for independent changes in E1 , V1 , and N1 , leads to ∂Ω/∂V1 = ∂Ω/∂N1 = 0,
from which one extracts the conditions on mechanic equilibrium,
P1 = P2 , (2.2.14)
dE = T dS − P dV + µ dN. (2.2.19)
variables is dictated by the experimental conditions at hand. In principle, if one knew the
three functions (2.2.21)-(2.2.23), one could express any set of three variables in terms of
the remaining ones. Clearly this situation is unusual in practice, but it can be remedied
using other ensembles, or, equivalently, by performing Legendre transformations on the
different thermodynamic potentials; see Sec. 3.3.
N
X
H= Hj , (2.3.1)
j=1
where, for a gas, Hj is a function solely of the coordinates and momenta of a finite
(usually small) number of degrees of freedom; this set is designated by j. Quantum
mechanically, Hj is an operator acting solely on a finite set of coordinates in the config-
uration space. A typical example is the case in which j involves the three translational
degrees of freedom of the molecule’s centre of mass; for polyatomic molecules, the de-
grees of freedom describing their rotation and vibration must also be included. Further,
Hj0 may also involve the spin quantum number referring to the projection onto a given
direction, such that of an external magnetic field. Accordingly, in order to simplify
the notation we will think of j as a ‘particle’, but always keeping in mind that j may
include both translational and internal (includng spin) degrees of freedom. It is also
worth stressing that Hamiltonians such as (2.3.1) may also describe systems which are
not composed of material particles, such as harmonic oscillators, phonons, magnons,
excitons, and so forth.
A very important property of the Hamiltonian (2.3.1) is additivity: it describes a
set of independent particles. At first, we will consider ideal ‘classical’ systems, in the
sense that quantum effects such as indistinguishability are irrelevant: the motion of one
particle is not influenced by any other, so that the N -body problem reduces to N in-
dependent one-body problems; these ‘classical’ particles are described by the so-called
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics3 As we will see in Chapter 5, indistinguishability imposes
stringent constraints on the wave functions, leading to surprising quantum behaviours.
These quantum gases are described by either Bose-Einstein or Fermi-Dirac statistics, re-
spectively for particles with integer- or half-integer spins, but in such way that their high
temperature or low-density limits must reproduce the results from Maxwell-Boltzmann
statistics.
3
References to Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics usually imply the description, in the canonical ensemble,
of particles without symmetrisation constraints in the wave function; here we will understand this as
extended to any ensemble.
2.4. THE IDEAL GAS 29
One of the most significant aspects in the study of ideal systems is their simplicity, for
these are the Statistical Mechanical models which can be treated more thoroughly, and
even exactly in some cases. However, one must always keep in mind that ideal systems do
not exist in Nature. Attempts to insist in this concept may lead to severe inconsistencies:
it can be shown (see, e.g. Ref. [1], Chapter 13) that, if starting from an arbitrary state,
a system described by Eq. (2.3.1) will never reach thermodynamic equilibrium. This is
due to the fact that it is the interaction between the constituents which provides the
crucial mechanism to drive the system towards equilibrium. If the interactions are small,
in some sense, the equilibrium properties of the system are described by a distribution
(or density operator) corresponding to that of an ideal system with corrections.
Similarly, the first integral yields L3N ,√while the second yields the volume of a 3N -
dimensional hypersphere of radius R = 2mE, given by (see, e.g. App. C of Refs. [3, 4])
π 3N/2
V3N (R) = R3N , (2.4.5)
(3N/2)!
so that
3N
(2mπE)3N/2
L
ΣN (E) =
h0 (3N/2)!
3N
4eπmE 3N/2
L
≈ , (2.4.6)
h0 3N
30 CHAPTER 2. THE MICROCANONICAL ENSEMBLE
The quantum mechanical evaluation of the number of accessible states for a single
free particle starts with the choice of boundary conditions for one-dimensional motion
(see, e.g. Ref. [7]). If the particle is within two infinite potential barriers, located at x = 0
and x = L, it is described by stationary waves such that an integer number, n, of half-
wavelengths can be accommodated in the length L; thus the momentum quantisation
yields p = nh/2L, with n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , ∞. Alternatively, one may impose periodic
boundary conditions (PBC), ψ(x + L) = ψ(x), which amounts to eikL = 1, leading to
p = nh/L, with n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ±∞.4 The presence of positive and negative values
of p reflects the possibility of propagating modes, closer in spirit to the classical motion
considered above, so in what follows we will adopt this point of view.
The single-particle energy levels are then given by
p2
εn = = ε1 n 2 n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ∞, (2.4.8)
2m
where ε1 ≡ h2 /(2mL2 ). The separation between two successive energy levels is
h2
∆εn = εn+1 − εn = (2n + 1)
2mL2
→ 0, as L → ∞, (2.4.9)
thus showing that the spectrum may be regarded as continuous for large L. For a cubic
box, these results are easily generalised to
p2
εnx ,ny ,nz = = ε1 (n2x + n2y + n2z ), nν = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ∞, ν = x, y, z, (2.4.10)
2m
again forming an almost continuum for macroscopic boxes.
For N such particles, the energy levels are
En = ε1 n2N , (2.4.11)
with
nN ≡ (n1x , n1y , n1z , n2x , n2y , n2z . . . , nN x , nN y , nN z ), (2.4.12)
where niν = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ∞, i = 1, 2, . . . N, and ν = x, y, z.
The number of states with total energy smaller or equal to E is the number of points
in this n-space satisfying the equation
X
ε1 n2 ≤ E. (2.4.13)
n
4
We allow for zero-energy states since they are needed for consistency with the possibility of zero-
particle states.
2.4. THE IDEAL GAS 31
For macroscopic boxes, we may therefore assume a continuum of levels, so that the sum
becomes an integral
p over the (dimensionless) volume of a 3N -dimensional hypersphere
of radius R ≡ E/ε1 . With Eq. (2.4.5), we get
3N/2 3N
π 3N/2 2mL2 E 4eπmE 3N/2
(Q) L
ΣN (E) = ≈ (2.4.14)
(3N/2)! h2 h 3N
= ΣN , (2.4.15)
where to establish the last equality we assumed h0 = h.
The entropy (for classical and quantum particles) is therefore
" #
V 4πmeE 3/2
S(E, V, N ) ≈ N kB ln 3 , (2.4.16)
h 3N
This inconsistency was detected in the analysis of the entropy of mixing (see Exer-
cise 1), and is known as the Gibbs paradox. The fundamental reason for this lies in the
fact that it is assumed the particles are distinguishable. For indistinguishable particles
(in the classical sense), all N ! permutations of particles correspond to the same state,
so we are overcounting states in ΣN ; we should therefore divide the RHS of Eq. (2.4.6)
by this factor,
3N 3N/2
e N (E) = 1
Σ
L 4eπmE
,
N! h0 3N
!3N/2
4e2 πmEV 2/3
≈ , (2.5.2)
3h20 N 5/3
With this, there is no λ left within the brackets when E, V and N are scaled, thus
guaranteeing that its logarithm is extensive.
From now on, classical indistinguishability should be incorporated into the definition
of Σ, even when the counting is quantum.
2.6 Exercises
1. Consider two ideal gases initially occupying each side of a container, separated by an
insulating, fixed, and impenetrable partition; see Fig. 2.2. On the left-hand side there
are N1 distinguishable molecules of mass m1 occupying a volume V1 at a temperature
T ; on the right-hand side there are N2 distinguishable molecules of mass m2 occupying
a volume V2 at the same temperature T of the left hand side.
(a) Write down an expression for the entropy of each gas, in terms of Ni , Vi , mi ,
i = 1, 2, and T , before the partition is removed.
(b) The partition is removed. Write down an expression for the total entropy, ST , in
terms of Ni , V ≡ V1 + V2 , mi , i = 1, 2, and T , after equilibrium is reached.
(c) Define the entropy of mixing as
∆S ≡ ST − (S1 + S2 ), (2.6.1)
2.6. EXERCISES 33
and show that if the gases have the same densities, one has
N1 + N2 N1 + N2
∆S = kB N1 ln + N2 ln , (2.6.2)
N1 N2
∆S ≈ kB [ln(N1 + N2 )! − ln N1 ! − ln N2 !] . (2.6.3)
2. Obtain the density of quantum states for a single particle of mass m, in a d-dimen-
sional box of linear size L. The energy-momentum relation (dispersion relation) for
each particle is given by ε = aps .
1
E = N hν + M hν (2.6.4)
2
where ν is the common frequency of all oscillators, and M is an integer.
(M + N − 1)! E 1
Ω(M, N ) = , with M = − N. (2.6.5)
M !(N − 1)! hν 2
(b) Assuming N, M 1, show that the energy is expressed in terms of the temper-
ature as
1 1
E = N hν + . (2.6.6)
2 ehν/kB T − 1
Sketch E/N hν as a function of kB T /hν, and discuss the limits of high and low
temperatures.
34 CHAPTER 2. THE MICROCANONICAL ENSEMBLE
µ = kB T ln [2 sinh(hν/2kB T )] . (2.6.7)
Sketch µ/kB T as a function of kB T /hν, and discuss the limits of high and low
temperatures.
4. A system of N independent particles is such that each one of them can be in either
of two energy levels, ±ε0 .
3.1 Definition
In the previous Chapter we focused on isolated systems. This hypothesis, in addition to
being unrealistic, is too restrictive since it does not allow the study of systems interacting
with its surroundings through the exchange of energy in different ways. In order to study
these cases, let us first consider a very large isolated system – let us call it the Universe,
U –, with energy EU ; it is described by a microcanonical ensemble. The system S, object
of our study, is a subsystem of U. It has NS particles in a volume VS , and interacts with
the complement of S, the external world, W, with NW particles in a volume VW ; see
Fig. 3.1.
Let us adopt the following hypotheses: (1) 1 NS NW , such that Statistical
Mechanics is applicable to S; (2) U is in equilibrium, so that particle densities and
other local properties are uniform, apart from fluctuations; (3) S does not correspond to
regions with large fluctuations, so that densities in S and in W are approximately the
same, or
NS NW
≈ . (3.1.1)
VS VW
That is, S and W are assumed to be in equilibrium with each other.
The results we are about to derive are valid in the so-called thermodynamic limit,
NS , NW → ∞
NW
→∞
NS
VS , VW → ∞,
but such that the densities are approximately the same,
NS NW
≈ = n. (3.1.2)
VS VW
The energy of the Universe may be written as
0
EU = ES + EW + HSW , (3.1.3)
35
36 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
R0 S
RS W
Figure 3.1: Schematic representation: The system S has typical dimensions RS , and is a subsystem of the
microcanonical Universe, U. The external world, W, is much larger than its complement S. R0 is the length scale
of the interactions between the particles.
where ES is the energy of S, which, being extensive (i.e., additive), is on the order of VS ;
EW is the energy of W which, similarly, is on the order of VW ; HSW 0 is the interaction
energy between S and W, which is on the order of VC , the volume of the region where
the interaction between S and W takes place. That is, VC ∼ RS2 R0 , where RS is a typical
linear size of S, and R0 is the range of the interaction potential between the particles;
see Fig. 3.1. Therefore, in comparison with the smaller energy scale (amongst S and W)
one has
0 |
|HSW R2 R0
VC −1/3
∼ ∼ S 3 ∝ VS . (3.1.4)
|ES | VS RS
Thus, by taking S as a very large system we may neglect HSW 0 in comparison with
0
ES . Nonetheless, one must always keep in mind that HSW is physically important for
providing the mechanism through which S and W exchange energy, though it contributes
with a numerically small to the total energy. In this way, S and W may be considered
as practically uncoupled, or
EU ≈ ES + EW , with ES EW . (3.1.5)
At this point we pose the fundamental question in the canonical ensemble: Given
that the Universe is microcanonical, what is the probability, pm , of finding S in a given
quantum state, characterised by a set, m, of quantum numbers, and having an energy
Em ?
The quest for an answer may start by noticing that since U has energy between EU
and EU + ∆E, then W has energy between EU − Em and (EU − Em ) + ∆E, when S
has energy Em ; see Fig. 3.2. The number of states in W satisfying this condition is
ΩW (EU − Em ; ∆E), which is also the number of configurations in the Universe, Ω e U , in
which S is in the specific state m, with energy Em , and, jointly, W has energy in this
interval; that is,
e U (EU ; ∆E) = ΩW (EU − Em ; ∆E) · 1.
Ω (3.1.6)
3.1. DEFINITION 37
EW EW + EU EU +
Em
Figure 3.2: S is in a state of energy Em , the energy of U lies in the range EU and EU + ∆, and the energy of W
lies in the range EW and EW + ∆.
Ω
e U (EU ; ∆E) ΩW (EU − Em ; ∆E)
pm = = . (3.1.7)
ΩU (EU ; ∆E) ΩU (EU ; ∆E)
1 −βEm
pm = e , (3.1.9)
Z
where, as suggested by (2.2.11), the parameter β will be interpreted (apart from a multi-
plicative constant; see Sec. 3.2) as the inverse temperature of the Universe; further, due
to our assumptions of U, W and S being in equilibrium, T ≡ 1/βkB is also the temper-
ature of S, and it appears as a parameter, independent of E Pm . The other parameter, Z,
is also independent of Em and, through the normalisation m pm = 1 (the sum extends
to all states m), may be determined solely in terms of quantities related to S. We then
have,
X
Z= e−βEm , (3.1.10)
m
known as the system’s partition function. It is one of the most important quantities in
equilibrium Statistical Mechanics, since many important thermodynamic quantities may
be obtained from it. Note that for a fluid Z depends explicitly on the temperature, and
parametrically (through Em ) on the volume, V , and on the number of particles, N .
In order to set up the density matrix in the canonical ensemble, we recall that it
must be a function solely of the Hamiltonian operator, Ĥ. This ensemble will therefore
be a solution to the von Neumann equation.
In the basis of eigenstates of Ĥ we may write
since the diagonal elements of ρ̂ represent the probabilities of finding a member of the
ensemble in state m. Using Eq. (3.1.9), we have
1 −βEm
ρmn = e δmn . (3.1.12)
Z
It is convenient to express ρ̂ in terms of operators, hence becoming basis independent.
To this end, we first note that
1 X
ρ̂ = |ni e−βEn hn|, (3.1.13)
Z n
where the sum runs over all eigenstates of ρ̂, satisfies Eq. (3.1.12). Further, since
e−βEn |ni = e−β Ĥ |ni, if Ĥ|n = En |n , we have, finally
1 −β Ĥ
ρ̂ = e , (3.1.14)
Z
with
Z = Tr e−β Ĥ . (3.1.15)
Since the trace is basis-independent, Eq. (3.1.15) allows one to calculate Z in any basis.
This property is often helpful in the development of systematic approximations to obtain
Z.
Having obtained ρ̂, the basic postulate of Statistical Mechanics (Sec. 1.4) determines
that the average values of observables are given by
For classical systems, we may use the analogy with the quantum case just discussed.
From Eq. (3.1.13), the distribution function in the classical canonical system is defined
as
1 −βH(q,p)
ρ(q, p) = e , (3.1.17)
Z
where the partition function is
1
Z
Z = fN dq dp e−βH(q,p) , (3.1.18)
h0 N !
where f is the number of degrees of freedom per particle. Note that following the same
indistinguishability arguments of Sec. 2.5 (see also Problem 3.1 and, e.g. Pathria [3, 4]),
the above expression for Z incorporates the factor 1/N ! introduced to avoid the Gibbs
paradox.
By the same token, the thermodynamical averages of dynamic quantities b(q, p) are
given by
1
Z
hbi = f N dq dp ρ(q, p) b(q, p). (3.1.19)
h0 N !
3.2. THERMODYNAMICS IN THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE 39
S2
S1
W
Figure 3.3: The system S of Fig. 3.1 is made up of two subsystems S1 and S2 .
(1) External parameters – are those fixed in a precise way by external conditions, with-
out reference to the internal state of the system. Examples: Volume, number of
particles, external fields, etc.
(3) Thermal quantities – are associated with collective properties, hence cannot be de-
fined as averages of microscopic quantities. Examples: Temperature, Entropy, Free
energy, etc.
The external parameters are specified in a precise way, so they don’t require a sta-
tistical treatment. The mechanical quantities, since they are defined as averages of
dynamical variables, may be directly determined [c.f. Eqs. (3.1.16) or (3.1.19)].
In order to define thermal quantities, we imagine two weakly interacting Universe
sub-systems, S1 and S2 , exchanging energy, as schematically illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The
same reasoning used to neglect the interaction between S and W in §3.1 may be used
here to neglect the interaction between S1 and S2 . Therefore, the joint probability of
finding S1 in state n (with energy E1n ) and S2 in state m (with energy E2m ) is given by
1 −β1 E1n 1 −β2 E2m
pnm = e e , (3.2.1)
Z1 Z2
with X
Zi = e−βi Eir , i = 1, 2. (3.2.2)
r
40 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
Now we impose that S1 and S2 are in mutual equilibrium, so that the situation is
equivalent to that of a system S with energy Enm = E1n +E2m , immersed in the external
world W. In this case, the probability distribution in the canonical ensemble is given by
1 −β(E1n +E2m )
pnm = e , (3.2.3)
Z
with X
Z= e−β(E1n +E2m ) . (3.2.4)
m,n
The condition for thermal equilibrium allows us to equate (3.2.1) and (3.2.3), thus
leading to the expected result,
β1 = β2 = β, (3.2.5)
that is, same temperature, βi = 1/kB Ti , and
Z = Z1 Z2 ⇒ ln Z = ln Z1 + ln Z2 , (3.2.6)
such that using the prescription to calculate ensemble averages, Eqs. (3.1.16) or (3.1.19),
the average energy may be written as
∂(βA)
hHi = (3.2.8)
∂β N,V
∂A
=A−T . (3.2.9)
∂T N,V
Comparison with the well established relation from Thermodynamics (see, e.g.
Reif [10] or Huang [2]),
E = A + T S, (3.2.10)
where E is the internal energy, and A is the Helmholtz free energy, suggests that
E = hHi, and that A(T, V, N ) as given by (3.2.7) is indeed the Helmholtz free en-
ergy, and, as such, a thermodynamic potential. Again, we note that, similarly to
Eq. (2.2.5), Eq. (3.2.7) provides the bridge between the microscopic world (through Z)
and the macrscopic world (through A). Further, the extensive quantity A is a function
of one intensive variable, T , and two extensive variables, V and N ; its scaling with N
must therefore be expressed as
where a (the Helmholtz free energy per particle) is a function solely of two intensive
variables.
3.2. THERMODYNAMICS IN THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE 41
We rewrite (3.2.10) as
A(T, V, N ) = E − T S, (3.2.12)
whose differential is
dA = dE − d(T S). (3.2.13)
Using (2.2.19), and the fact that d(T S) = S dT + T dS, we get
(ii) Pressure:
∂A ∂
P =− = kB T ln Z; (3.2.16)
∂V T,N ∂V
dA = dE − d(T S)
= d−Q − d−W − T dS − SdT, (3.2.18)
where we used the First Law, Eq. (2.2.1). The work done by the system is then
Table 3.1: Examples of pairs of thermodynamically conjugate control variables. The extensive variables, X,
correspond to generalised displacements, and the intensive variables, Y , to generalised forces. Despite not being
associated with actual work, the temperature, T , and the entropy, S, appear on the table with the sole purpose of
highlighting their role of mutually conjugate variables; the same holds for the chemical potential. µ, and number
of particles, N .
where we replaced
S dT = d(T S) − T dS. (3.3.2)
Regrouping terms yields
where we used Eq. (3.2.12), and one should have in mind that T , Y and µ are to be
considered functions of S, X, and N .
The right-hand side of Eq. (3.3.3) allows us to obtain T , Y and µ as derivatives of
E with respect to their respective conjugate variables, S, X and N . Therefore,
∂E ∂E ∂E
T = , Y = , e µ= . (3.3.4)
∂S X,N ∂X S,N ∂N X,S
44 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
One should also have in mind that the internal energy can be obtained directly as
the thermodynamic average of Ĥ, i.e. E = hĤi, as in Eq. (3.2.8).
(2) Gibbs Free Energy: G(T, Y, N )
In processes in which one controls the temperature, the generalised force, and the
number of particles, the Gibbs free energy is the most adequate thermodynamic
potential, since one assumes the system is thermally and mechanically coupled to
the external world.
Performing a Legendre transformation analogous to the one used to obtain E, we
have
G(T, Y, N ) = A − XY = N g(T, Y ), (3.3.5)
where g(T, Y ) the Gibbs free energy per particle, and
dG = −SdT − XdY + µdN, (3.3.6)
which allows us to obtain S(T, Y, N ), X(T, Y, N ) and µ(T, Y, N ) as
∂G ∂G ∂G
S=− , X=− , and µ = = g(T, Y ). (3.3.7)
∂T Y,N ∂Y T,N ∂N T,Y
It is interesting to notice that the Gibbs free energy per particle is distinct from
the other thermodynamic potentials in the sense that it only depends on intensive
variables, e.g. g(T, P ) in the case of fluids.
Still in the context of fluids, and similarly to the Helmholtz free energy, G is related
to a partition function, Ξ(T, P, N ). To show this, we consider a situation similar to
that of Fig. 3.3, but now with S having a specified pressure, P , while the volume
V is undetermined; the quantum state now depends on the volume V through, say
the boundary conditions. The energies are still additive, following Eq. (3.1.5), and
so are the volumes,
VU = V + VW = constant. (3.3.8)
Let ΩW (EU − EmV , VU − V ; ∆E) be the number of states in which W has energy
between EU − EmV and EU − EmV + ∆E, and volume VU − V . Expanding ln ΩW
to first order around (EU , VU ) leads to
ln ΩW (EU − EmV , VU − V ) ' ln ΩW (EU , VU ) − β(EmV + P V ), (3.3.9)
where we made use of (2.2.11) and (2.2.15). The probability of finding S with volume
V and in the state with energy EmV , is then
1
pmV = e−β(EmV +P V ) , (3.3.10)
Ξ(T, P, N )
where Ξ(T, P, N ) is the partition function, determined by the normalisation of pmV
over all volumes and states:
Z ∞ X
dV pmV = 1. (3.3.11)
0 m
3.3. THERMODYNAMIC POTENTIALS 45
Therefore,
!
Z ∞ X Z
−βEmV −βP V
Ξ= dV e e = dV Z(T, V, N ) e−βP V , (3.3.12)
0 m
so that Ξ(T, P, N ) can be seen as an average of Z(T, V, N ) over all possible volumes,
weighted by exp(−βP V ); the volume V is therefore integrated out.
At this point it is worth making a few remarks. We recall that when the control
variables are (T, V, N ), Eq. (3.2.16) allows us to regard the pressure as an average
value, * +
X ∂Em ∂Em
P = hP i = − pm =− , (3.3.13)
m
∂V T,N ∂V
whose fluctuations are small, i.e.
p
hP 2 i − hP i2
1. (3.3.14)
hP i
Therefore, the equilibrium state is unique and does not depend on the choice of
control parameters; that is, the equation of state relating P and V at a given tem-
perature is the same whether we control V or P .
In the present case of Ξ(T, P, N ), the average volume is given by
dV V e−βP V Z(T, V, N )
R
∂
hV i ≡ R −βP V
= −kB T ln Ξ(P, T, N ) , (3.3.15)
dV e Z(T, V, N ) ∂P
which should be close to the most probable value, V ∗ , the one maximizing the dis-
tribution of V , irrespective of the quantum state,
!
X 1
pV ≡ pmV e−βP V = Z(T, V, N ) e−βP V ; (3.3.16)
m
Ξ(T, P, N )
Z0
f 0 (V ) = e−βP V Z 0 − βP Z
= 0 ⇒ βP = , (3.3.18)
V∗ V∗ Z ∗
V
where the last inequality reflects the condition that A must be a minimum in equi-
librium.
We can now plug these into an expansion of f (V ) near V ∗ . Collecting terms, we
have
Z ∞ ( )
∗ 1 f 00 ∗ 2
∗ 3
Ξ= dV f (V ) 1 + (V − V ) + O (V − V ) . (3.3.20)
0 2 f ∗
V
Recalling the final inequality in (3.3.19), the term in curly brackets in (3.3.20) may
be approximated by a Gaussian,
∞
1 ∂2A
Z
−βP V ∗ ∗ ∗ 2
Ξ' dV e Z(T, V , N ) exp − β (V − V ) , (3.3.21)
0 2 ∂V 2 V∗
thus emphasising that the dominant contributions to the integral come from the
immediate neighbourhood of V ∗ . Taking ln Ξ and multiplying by −kB T yields
− kB T ln Ξ = A(T, V ∗ , N ) + P V ∗ , (3.3.22)
where we used Eq. (3.2.7) and the fact that the contribution from the Gaussian
term is of order ln N (Why?), hence being negligible in comparison with A and V ∗ .
Equation (3.3.22) therefore yields
∂
−kB T ln Ξ(P, T, N ) = V ∗ .
(3.3.23)
∂P
thus confirming our earlier expectation that the most probable value of V is, to a
very good approximation the actual average value in the canonical distributuion at
a given pressure.
In view of Eqs. (3.3.5)-(3.3.7), and of (3.3.23), we may identify
as the Gibbs free energy, and Eq. (3.3.22) reduces to Eq. (3.3.5). Note that the
maximum of the integrand in (3.3.12) represents the minimum of G for fixed T ,
P , and N . Therefore, similarly to what we have established for the Helmholtz free
energy,
H(S, Y, N ) = A + T S − Y X = E − Y X
= N fH (S/N, Y ), (3.3.25)
provides
∂H ∂H ∂H
T = , X=− , and µ = . (3.3.27)
∂S Y,N ∂Y S,N ∂N S,Y
Later we will see that CY > CX ≥ 0. It should also be noted that the heat capacity
is an extensive quantity, since so is the entropy; hence one often uses the specific
heat, c, defined as the ratio between C and some extensive variable such as the
number of moles or particles, or the volume.
1 ∂2G
1 ∂V
KT = − =− , (3.4.3)
V ∂P T,N V ∂P 2 T,N
1 ∂2H
1 ∂V
KS = − =− . (3.4.4)
V ∂P S,N V ∂P 2 S,N
We see that for a given increase in pressure the relative decrease in volume is larger
the larger is the compressibility.
A measure of the change in volume with temperature is given by the thermal ex-
pansion coefficient, defined as
1 ∂V
αP = . (3.4.5)
V ∂T P,N
Note that both the compressibility and the thermal expansion coefficient are inten-
sive quantities.
It can be shown (see Problem 2) that the thermal and mechanical response functions
are related through
∂2G
∂M
χT = =− , (3.4.7)
∂h T,N ∂h2
∂2H
∂M
χS = =− . (3.4.8)
∂h S,N ∂h2 S,N
One should note that, unlike the compressibility, the susceptibility is defined as an
extensive quantity.
In an analogous way,
∂M
αh = , (3.4.9)
∂T h,N
ET = EA + EB , (3.5.1)
ST = SA + SB . (3.5.4)
Let us assume that spontaneous changes may occur in the energy, in the volume, and
in the number of particles on each side of the partition, but subject to the constraints,
since the system is isolated and there are no chemical reactions. The change in total
entropy for these processes may be written as
X ∂Sα `
∂Sα X ∂Sα
∆ST = ∆Eα + ∆Vα + ∆Nαj ,
∂Eα Vα ,{Nαj } ∂Vα Eα ,{Nαj } ∂Nαj Eα Vα
α=A,B j=1
(3.5.6)
up to terms in first order.
Since
1 ∂S P ∂S µj ∂S
= , = , and − = , (3.5.7)
T ∂E V,{Nj } T ∂V E,{Nj } T ∂Nj E,V,{Ni6=j }
1
This discussion can be easily generalised to the case in which A is the system of interest, and B the
external world, as in §3.1.
3.5. STABILITY OF THE EQUILIBRIUM STATE 51
which are the conditions for local equilibrium in a system without chemical reactions.
Note that if the partition is not porous, then ∆NA = ∆NB = 0 and we may have
µAj 6= µBj even in equilibrium. If, in addition, the partition is fixed in position, we may
also have PA 6= PB , and still be in an equilibrium state.
Thermal stability:
Suppose the temperature spontaneously rises in a region R of the system, as shown
in Fig. 3.4. According to Le Châtelier’s Principle, this causes the region R to give away
heat to its external environment, d−Q < 0, in order to lower R’s temperature, dT < 0,
thus restoring equilibrium. Therefore,
d−Q
C≡ > 0. (3.5.10)
dT
Mechanical stability:
Suppose that the volume occupied by a quantity of fluid increases, as a result of
fluctuations (see Fig. 3.5). This, in turn, causes a decrease in the pressure of that region.
According to Le Châtelier’s Principle, with a larger pressure outside R, the region is
52 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
T T’ > T dQ T
T T
inicial final
Figure 3.4: In a system in equilibrium at a temperature T (leftmost panel), fluctuations cause a temperature rise
to T 0 > T in a given region (second panel). The system restores equilibrium by this region giving away heat
(third panel), d−Q < 0, thus reducing the temperature again, dT < 0 (rightmost panel).
P’
V V
V+ V P>P’
inicial final
Figure 3.5: A region of volume V , part of a system in mechanical equilibrium (leftmost panel), increases its volume
to V 0 > V , as a result of spontaneous fluctuations (second panel), which, in turn, causes a pressure drop in the
region (third panel). The system restores equilibrium by decreasing the volume again, dV < 0, and increasing its
pressure dP > 0 (rightmost panel).
forced to decrease its volume, dV < 0, until restoring the original volume; in this latter
stage, dP > 0. Therefore,
1 dV
K=− > 0. (3.5.11)
V dP
CP ≥ CV > 0, (3.5.12)
and
KT ≥ KS > 0. (3.5.13)
In the magnetic case, the corresponding conditions are
A A S P
(a) (b) (d)
(c)
T V T V
Figure 3.6: The Helmholtz free energy is (a) a concave function of T , and (b) a convex function of V , whose
monotonicity follows from the positivity of the entropy (c) and pressure (d); see Eqs. (3.2.15) and (3.2.16).
P T P T
Figure 3.7: The Gibbs free energy is a concave function both of (a) P , and (b) T , whose monotonicity follows
from the positivity of the volume (c) and entropy (d); see Eqs. (3.3.7).
which means that the internal energy grows monotonically with the temperature, at
constant volume. In an analogous way,
∂H
CP = > 0, (3.5.16)
∂T P
indicating that the enthalpy also grows monotonically with the temperature, at constant
pressure.
We can also determine some constraints governing the behaviour of the Helmholtz
and Gibbs free energies. Equations (3.4.1), (3.2.16), and (3.4.3) lead to
2
∂ A CV
=− <0 (3.5.17)
∂T 2 V,N T
2
∂ A ∂P 1
2
=− = > 0. (3.5.18)
∂V T,N ∂V T,N V KT
That is, the Helmholtz free energy, A(T, V, N ), is a concave function of the temperature
and a convex function of the volume. Given that the entropy, S = −∂A/∂T, and the
pressure, P = −∂A/∂V, are positive quantities, the decreasing monotonicity of A with
respect to T and V follows suit. These interrelations are illustrated in Fig. 3.6.
By the same token, Eqs. (3.4.2), (3.3.7), (3.5.12) and (3.5.13) lead to
2
∂ G CP,N
2
=− < 0, (3.5.19)
∂T P,N T
54 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
and
∂2G
= −V KT < 0. (3.5.20)
∂P 2 T,N
Therefore, the Gibbs free energy, G(T, P, N ), is a concave function of the temperature
and of the pressure. Further, the monotonicity of G with P and with T are set by the
positiveness of V = ∂G/∂P and of S = −∂G/∂T ; see Fig. 3.7.
For magnetic systems, one cannot claim on general grounds that the above results
remain universally valid. A counterexample is provided by diamagnetic systems, for
which χ < 0. Nonetheless, it can be shown [12] that for systems in which the coupling
between the magnetisation M and the magnetic field, H, enters the Hamiltonian through
H = H0 − HM, (3.5.21)
where H0 contains the interaction terms between the spins, the following statements
hold:
• The Helmholtz free energy is a concave function of the temperature and a convex
function of the magnetisation.
• The Gibbs free energy is a concave function of both temperature and magnetic
field.
The reader should check these statements vis-à-vis Figs. 3.6 and 3.7, taking into account
the correspondences V → M and −P → H.
By carefully retracing the derivation, the reader should be able to generalise this to
∂H
pi = kB T δij , (3.6.3)
∂pj
and to establish that
∂H ∂H
qi = pi = 0. (3.6.4)
∂pj ∂qj
Equations (3.6.2)-(3.6.4) express The Equipartition Theorem of Classical Statistical Me-
chanics.
As a simple example, we note that for
p2ν
H= , ν = x, y, z (3.6.5)
2m
Eq. (3.6.3) yields
p2ν
1
= kB T, (3.6.6)
2m 2
that is, the average energy associated with this quadratic term is (1/2)kB T . In three
dimensions we have
2 * 2 +
p px + p2y + p2z
hHi = =
2m 2m
1
= 3 × kB T (3.6.7)
2
where Eq. (3.6.6) was used for each term.
Similarly, the average potential energy for a classical one-dimensional harmonic os-
cillator is
1 2 2 1
mω q = kB T, (3.6.8)
2 2
that is, the average energy associated with this quadratic degree of freedom is also
(1/2)kB T , and generalises to three dimensions as
1 2 2 1
mω r = 3 × kB T, (3.6.9)
2 2
where each Hj only involves the degrees of freedom of constituent j, which, from now
on we will refer to as particle j. More specifically, Hj is typically a function of operators
describing position and momentum for the centre of mass motion of each molecule,
rotational and vibrational degrees of freedom, spin degrees of freedom, etc. The energy
of a given configuration may be written as
N
X
E= ε(j) , (3.7.2)
j=1
where each trace is carried out over all single-particle states, and it may be written as
(j)
X
Tr {j} e−βHj = gε(j) e−βε , (3.7.4)
ε(j)
with gε(j) being the degeneracy of level ε(j) , and we note that the label j is only kept to
remind us that we are taking the sum over the possible states of particle j.
This expression overestimates the number of accessible states: a given distribution
of particles amongst the various single-particle states, characterised by the occupation
numbers {nk }, may be obtained in N !/n1 !n2 ! . . . distinct ways. Given that all these ways
correspond to the same configuration, each term of the partition function sum must be
divided by this factor,
n1 !n2 ! . . . −β Pj Hj
Z = Tr {1} Tr {2} · · · Tr {N } e . (3.7.5)
N!
At low temperatures, the dominant terms in (3.7.5) come from the lowest energy levels;
that is, quantum effects must be important. At high temperatures, a large number of
energy levels contribute to Z: all energy levels are equally likely to be occupied by the
N particles, so that the corresponding occupation numbers are mostly nk = 0 or 1,
hence nk ! = 1 for the majority of configurations. Similarly, for gases at low densities,
N/V 1, we may also take nk ! ' 1. Therefore, under either of these conditions we may
write
1 P
Z= Tr e−β j Hj , (3.7.6)
N!
where we used the short-hand notation,
Equation (3.7.6) is the quantum analogue of Eq. (3.1.18): particles are considered as
nearly distinguishable, with the ‘nearly’ being due to the factor 1/N !. For particles
bound to lattice sites, the 1/N ! factor should not be considered, since the particles are,
3.8. THE IDEAL GAS IN THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE 57
in fact, distinguishable for they occupy the given sites. These situations will be discussed
in the remainder of this Chapter.
Equation (3.7.6) may be written in a form which reveals a very important simplifying
property of ideal systems in Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, namely that the partition
function is factorised,
1 N
ZN = Z , (3.7.8)
N! 1
where we included the subscript N to stress that it refers to the N -particle partition
function, while
Z1 = Tr {j} e−βHj , (3.7.9)
is the single-particle partition function, written in terms of the degrees of freedom of the
generic j-th particle.
Another consequence of the non-interacting form of the Hamiltonian concerns average
values such as hAi Bj i, where operators Ai and Bj only involve particles i and j, j 6= i,
respectively. We have,
1 1 1
hAi Bj i = Tr Ai Bj e−βH = Tr {i} Ai e−βHi Tr {j} Bj e−βHj
Z Z1 Z1
= hAi ihBj i, (3.7.10)
where spherical coordinates were introduced in the second line. The integral can be
easily calculated by taking the λ-derivative of the Gaussian integral,
Z ∞ r
(2) −λx2 1 π
I0 (λ) ≡ dx e = , (3.8.3)
0 2 λ
thus yielding
3
L
Z1 (T, V, N ) = , (3.8.4)
Λ
where 1/2
h2
Λ≡ , (3.8.5)
2πmkB T
is essentially the thermal wavelength.2
Let us now evaluate the single-particle partition function quantum mechanically,
though without imposing symmetrisation constraints on the wave function.PAssuming
the basis states are plane waves with PBC [see Eq. (2.4.10)], we have Tr ≡ p , and
2 2 2
X
Z1 = e−β(px +py +pz ) . (3.8.6)
px ,py ,pz
For a macroscopic box, the energy levels form a continuum, so that each sum can be
replaced by an integral,
L ∞
X Z
−→ dpν . (3.8.7)
p
h −∞
ν
Thus, we see that the calculation of the single-particle ‘quantum’ partition function
reduces to that for the classical case, (3.8.2), with the result also given by (3.8.4).
It is important to note that Z1 is expressed in Eq. (3.8.4) as the ratio of the two
relevant length scales: the linear size of the system and the thermal wavelength of
the particles. On physical grounds, we may expect quantum indistinguishability to be
irrelevant when the wave packets associated with the particles do not interfere with each
other. This occurs when their thermal wavelength is much smaller than the scale of the
system size, L, which, in turn, is satisfied when the gas is sufficiently dilute or at very
high temperatures, since Λ ∝ T −1/2 . Conversely, quantum effects of indistinguishability
dominate at low temperatures, or for very dense gases.
For N particles the partition function becomes
1 N
ZN (T, V ) = Z , (3.8.8)
N! 1
with Z1 given by (3.8.4). The Helmholtz free energy is then
Figure 3.8: The entropy for a Maxwell-Boltzmann Figure 3.9: The chemical potential for a Maxwell-
ideal gas. Boltzmann ideal gas.
A(T, V, N ) = N kB T ln N Λ3 /eV .
(3.8.10)
From Eq. (3.8.10) we obtain the well known result for the pressure of the ideal gas,
∂A N
P =− = kB T. (3.8.11)
∂V T,N V
where T0 = (h2 /e5/3 2πmkB )(N/V )2/3 , which has ‘dimension’ of temperature. The sim-
ple logarithmic dependence with the temperature highlights the limiting behaviors of
the entropy,
It is important to notice that the entropy, sketched in Fig. 3.8, behaves unsatisfactorily
for T < T0 : it is both negative and violates the 3rd Law of Thermodynamics by not
approaching a constant value as T → 0.
Using Eq. (3.8.10), we can write Eq. (3.8.12) as
A 3
S=− + N kB , (3.8.16)
T 2
so that the internal energy is calculated either as
3
E = A + T S = N kB T, (3.8.17)
2
60 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
or from Eq. (3.2.8). As expected, given the additive form of the Hamiltonian, Eq. (2.3.1),
and the Equipartition Theorem, Eq. (3.6.7) corresponds to the contribution of each of
the N particles.
Let us now discuss the chemical potential,
∂A
µ= = kB T ln(N Λ3 /V ). (3.8.18)
∂N T,V
In order to plot µ(T ), we first examine some limiting cases, starting with high temper-
atures,
lim kB T ln(N Λ3 /V ) → −∞. (3.8.19)
T →∞
At low temperatures, since µ = kB T ln(nΛ3 ) → 0 × ∞ one needs to evaluate
ln nΛ3 −(3/2)T −5/2 /T −3/2 3
lim µ = lim → = kB T
T →0 T →0 1/kB T −1/kB T 2 2
+
→0 , (3.8.20)
but with an infinite slope,
∂µ 3Λ2 Λ0
= kB ln nΛ3 + kB T 3
∂T T →0 | {zΛ }
=−(9/2)kB
→ ∞. (3.8.21)
Figure 3.9 shows the resulting plot for µ(T ).
It is illustrative to calculate the heat capacity at constant pressure by first calculating
the Gibbs free energy,
P Λ3
G(T, P, N ) = A(T, P, N ) + P V (T, P, N ) = N kB T ln (3.8.22)
kB T
−5/2
T
= N kB T ln , (3.8.23)
T00
where T00 does not depend on T , and has ‘dimension’ of temperature. We then have
∂G 5
= N kB ln(T /T00 )−5/2 − N kB , (3.8.24)
∂T P,N 2
so that, finally,
∂2G
5
CP = −T = N kB . (3.8.25)
∂T 2 P,N 2
For the heat capacity at constant volume it is simpler to calculate from the internal
energy,
∂E
CV =
∂T V,N
3
= N kB . (3.8.26)
2
3.9. MOLECULAR GAS 61
As expected, the heat capacities satisfy the thermodynamic relation for ideal gases,
C P − C V = N kB . (3.8.27)
εm = εtr + εi , (3.9.1)
where εtr is the energy associated with the translational motion of the centre of mass
of each molecule (e.g. εtr = εp = p2 /2m), and εi corresponds to the internal degrees of
freedom (rotations, vibrations, electronic excitations, etc.), as we will see shortly. For
reasons which will become apparent soon, it is necessary to treat the internal motion
quantum-mechanically, so with the purpose of unifying the discussion, we think of the
quantum numbers m as including both translational, p, and internal degrees of freedom.
The singe-particle partition function is then written as
X
Z1 = e−βεm , (3.9.2)
m
Z1 = Z1tr Zi , (3.9.3)
where Z1tr is given by (3.8.4), and Zi is the partition function for the internal degrees
of freedom of a single molecule.
The Helmholtz free energy can be written as
1 N he i
A(T, V, N ) = −kB T ln Z1 ' −N kB T ln Z1 (T, V ) (3.9.4)
N! N
eV
= −N kB T ln Zi , (3.9.5)
N Λ3
where in the second equality we used Stirling’s approximation, and we may take, gener-
ically, X
Zi = gi e−εi /kB T , (3.9.6)
εi
with
eV
Atr (T, V, N ) = −N kB T ln , (3.9.8)
N Λ3
and
ai (T ) = −kB T ln Zi (T ). (3.9.9)
From (3.9.7) we see that the internal degrees of freedom do not contribute to the
pressure,
∂A N kB T
P =− = , (3.9.10)
∂V T,N V
which is the well known result for the ideal Maxwell-Boltzmann gas.
The chemical potential is given by
∂A
µ= = µ0 + µi , (3.9.11)
∂N T,V
where
N Λ3
µ0 = kB T ln (3.9.12)
V
3.9. MOLECULAR GAS 63
µi ≡ ai (T ) (3.9.13)
expresses the fact that the chemical potential associated with the internal degrees of
freedom is simply their contribution to the Helmholtz free energy per particle.
The entropy of the system is also additive, being written as
∂A
S=− = Str + N si (T ), (3.9.14)
∂T V,N
where !
e5/2 V
Str = N kB ln (3.9.15)
N Λ3
and si = −dai /dT is the entropy associated with the internal degrees of freedom of a
single molecule. The internal energy is
E = A + T S = Etr + N ei (T ), (3.9.16)
with
3
Etr = N kB T (3.9.17)
2
and
ei = ai (T ) − T a0i (T ). (3.9.18)
Equation (3.9.17) reflects the principle of equipartition of energy. Further, Eqs. (3.9.16)-
(3.9.18) also recover the well known result that the internal energy per particle of an
ideal gas depends only on the temperature.
The heat capacity is
∂E 3 T 00
CV = = N kB − a (T ) . (3.9.19)
∂T N,V 2 kB i
CV
NkB
f
2
congelado classico
i T
Assuming each molecule to be in the electronic ground state,3 the partition function
Zi only involves rotational and vibrational motions. In a first approximation, these
degrees of freedom may be considered decoupled, which allows us to write
and
ai = arot + avib . (3.9.21)
As illustrated in Fig. 3.10, the different dynamical processes are associated with dif-
ferent energy scales, which may be conveniently expressed in terms of characteristic
temperatures, Θi ; these are such that kB Θi provides a measure of level spacing. Then,
for temperatures such that T Θi , the system cannot thermally access the excited
states for this motion. The associated free energy, ai , does not depend on the temper-
ature, hence there is no contribution to the heat capacity. One therefore says that in
this temperature range the degrees of freedom are frozen. In the opposite limit, T Θ,
the energy levels associated with the motion can be regarded as forming a continuum,
thus classical behaviour is expected. This discussion is summarised in Fig. 3.11, which
schematically shows the behaviour of a generic motion with f degrees of freedom. Table
3.2 shows examples of Θi for rotational and vibrational motions of diatomic molecules:
we see that these motions are well separated in energy so that their independence is
justified. In what follows, we separately discuss rotation and vibration in detail.
L2 ~2
εrot = = j(j + 1) , j = 0, 1, 2 . . . (3.9.22)
2I 2I
where I is the molecule’s moment of inertia. Each rotational level has a degeneracy
g = 2j + 1, and the characteristic temperature is defined as
~2
Θrot = . (3.9.23)
2IkB
leading to
2
T 1 1 Θrot 4 Θrot
Zrot (T ) = + + + + ··· , (3.9.32)
Θrot 3 15 T 315 T
so that the heat capacity becomes
( )
1 Θrot 2 16 Θrot 3
CV, rot = N kB 1 + + + ··· , (3.9.33)
45 T 945 T
from which we see that the corrections to the classical result are positive; see Fig. 3.12.
For T Θrot , only the first terms in the sum of (3.9.24) need to be kept,
CV,rot C V,k
NkB NkB
1 1
Figure 3.12: Temperature dependence of the spe- Figure 3.13: Temperature dependence of the spe-
cific heat associated with molecular rotations; see cific heat associated with molecular vibrations; see
text. text.
c [cal/(mol K)]
7R/2
5R/2
3R/2
is carried out according to the usual rules of addition of angular momentum (see, e.g.
2 ,
Ref. [7]) leading to the possible eigenvalues of Jop
1 3 5
J(J + 1) ~2 with J = , , . . . or J = 0, 1, 2 . . . , (3.10.2)
2 2 2
since |L − S| ≤ J ≤ L + S, where the eigenvalues of L2op and S2op are L(L + 1)~2 and
S(S + 1)~2 , respectively. Further, the proportionality constant in (3.10.1), ge/2mc, is
the dipole’s gyromagnetic ratio, with g being the Landé factor, given by
3 1 S(S + 1) − L(L + 1)
g= + . (3.10.3)
2 2 J(J + 1)
Now consider a system with N of these magnetic dipoles, each of which with a
moment µi located on the site i of a lattice. In a first approximation, we neglect the
interaction between the dipoles,4 and assume they are in the presence of an external
magnetic field, H, in the direction of which they tend to align.
The system is therefore described by the Hamiltonian,
N
X
H=− µi · H. (3.10.4)
i=1
where in the second equality we introduced the Bohr magneton, µB = e~/2mc, and the
z /~: m = −J, −J + 1, . . . , J.
mi ’s are the eigenvalues of Jop i
The partition function for the N independent dipoles is therefore factorised,
ZN = (Z1 )N , (3.10.6)
where
J
X 1 − e(2J+1)x
Z1 = emx = e−xJ , (3.10.7)
1 − ex
m=−J
4
Similarly to what happens in gases, the interaction between dipoles provides the mechanism by
which equilibrium is achieved when the external conditions are changed. Further, the interaction must
also be taken into account if one wants to describe the phase transition between demagnetised and
magnetised states.
70 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
The average magnetic moment is the magnetisation per spin, and may be obtained
as
!
1 X −βH z 1 X −βH X
M= hµzi i = e µi = e µzi , (3.10.9)
Z NZ
{m} {m} i
1 ∂ 1 ∂
M= ln Z = − G(T, H), (3.10.10)
N β ∂H N ∂H
where we have now identified G = −kB T ln Z, since the independent variables are T and
H, following the discussion of §3.3 about the free energy of a fluid at constant pressure.
Explicitly, we have
1 ∂
M= ln Z1 = µ BJ (x), (3.10.11)
β ∂H
1.0
BJ (x)
0.5
J=1/2
J=1
J=2
J=20
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
x
Figure 3.15: The Brillouin function [Eq. (3.10.12)] plotted as a function of x ≡ gµB H/kB T , for different values of
J.
1 1 1 1
BJ (x) = 1+ coth 1 + x − coth x , (3.10.12)
2J 2J 2J 2J
and is shown in Fig. 3.15.
It is instructive to examine some limiting cases. For strong fields and/or low tem-
peratures, x 1, one has BJ (x) ≈ 1, for all J; this corresponds to magnetic saturation,
when all moments are aligned with the field. On the other hand, for weak fields and/or
high temperatures, x 1, the behaviour of BJ is linear with x,
1
BJ (x) ' (1 + 1/J) x, (3.10.13)
3
but with a slope dependent on J: maximum when J = 1/2 and minimum in the classical
limit, J → ∞; see Fig. 3.15.
The intensive isothermal magnetic susceptibility,
1 ∂2G
∂M
χT = =− , (3.10.14)
∂H T N ∂H 2 T
is then given by
∂M ∂x g 2 µ2B J(J + 1) C
χT = = ≡ , (3.10.15)
∂x ∂H 3kB T T
which is known as Curie’s law: χ ∼ 1/T .
The limit of classical dipoles is recovered if one takes J → ∞ with g → 0, such that
µ ≡ gµB J → constant.
72 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
1.0
ln 2
0.0
S/NkB
E/N
M/µ
CH/NkB
−1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
kBT/
Figure 3.16: Plots of Eqs. (3.10.18)-(3.10.21) as functions of temperature (in units of ε/kB ). The vertical axes are
scaled in order to render the quantities intensive and dimensionless.
spins, while in the opposite limit of high temperature, x 1, each spin is likely to point
up or down, thus contributing with zero magnetisation.
With respect to the heat capacity, first we must note that for x 1 we have
2
CH ∆
∼ e−∆/kB T , (3.10.22)
N kB kB T
where ∆ = 2ε is the energy gap between the ground state, E0 = −N ε, and the first
excited state, E1 = −(N − 2)ε. Therefore, in the presence of a gap in the spectrum,
the low-temperature heat capacity vanishes exponentially. Given that the heat capac-
ity is a readily measurable quantity, it is an important asset in the study of spectral
properties. For instance, the existence of a gap in the superconducting state (but not in
the normal state) has shed light into the mechanism responsible for the appearance of
a zero-resistance state in conventional superconductors. Another important feature of
the heat capacity is the maximum around x ∼ 1 – maxima of this sort in C are called
Schottky anomalies –, which reflects the inflection point in E(T ), due to the saturation
of the internal energy at high temperaures. And, finally, when kB T ε, CH → 0, also
a manifestation of the saturation of E at high temperatures.
Negative Temperatures
A closer look at Eqs. (3.10.18) and (3.10.19) – or, equivalently, if we treat this problem
in the microcanonical ensemble as in Problem 2.4 – allows us to plot the entropy and
the temperature as functions of the internal energy, as shown in Fig. 3.17. The negative
74 CHAPTER 3. THE CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
1.0
(a)
S/NkB
0.5
0.0
10
(b)
kBT/
−10
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
E/N
Figure 3.17: (a) Entropy (per particle, in units of kB ) and (b) temperature (in units of ε/kB ) as functions of
energy (per particle, in units of ε).
total energy portion of Fig. 3.17(b) is ‘normal’, in the sense that the entropy increases
with E, until E = 0.
By contrast, the positive energy portion shows a decreasing entropy with increasing
energy, and from Eq. (3.10.19) we see that the energy itself can only be positive if one
had negative absolute temperatures. Indeed, from S(E, N ) in Fig. 3.17(a), we obtain
1 ∂S
= . (3.10.23)
T ∂E N
[see Fig. 3.17(b)], showing that, indeed, T < 0 for E > 0. In this ‘abnormal’ region,
the occupation of the highest single-particle level becomes progressively dominant as
E increases. This corresponds to the magnetisation being opposite to the applied field
[c.f. Eq. (3.10.20)].
Despite these surprising predictions, this situation can indeed be realised experimen-
tally in a system of nuclear spins on a LiF lattice, in which the spin-spin relaxation time
is T2 ≈ 10−5 s, while the spin-lattice relaxation time is T1 ≈ 5 min at room tempera-
tures; see [14], and references therein. With this, assume that at time t = 0 the applied
magnetic field acting on the crystal is suddenly reversed. Then at times T2 . t T1 the
spins haven’t had time to follow the field, so they are still pointing antiparallel to the
field, with total energy E > 0. Since they are in equilibrium with each other, they are
at a negative temperature, T < 0. At times T2 T1 . t, equilibrium with the lattice
sets in through the spins finally aligning with the field, thus restoring T > 0. Note that
this latter equilibrium situation results from the spins giving away energy to the lattice:
3.11. EXERCISES 75
3.11 Exercises
1. (a) For a generic thermodynamical system, discuss the behaviour of E, S, CP , CV ,
αP , (∂P/∂T )V , and KT as T → 0.
(b) Does the ideal Maxwell-Boltzmann gas, discussed in §3.8, behaves as expected in
this limit? Comment.
where KX and CY are the compressibility (at constant X) and the heat capacity (at
constant Y ), respectively; αP is the coefficient of thermal expansion,
1 ∂V
αP = .
V ∂T P
where v ≡ V /N = 1/n.
(b) Show that for an ideal gas at a given temperature T , the chemical potential
difference between an arbitrary pressure, P , and a reference pressure, P0 , is given
by
µ(P ) − µ(P0 ) = kB T ln (P/P0 ) .
(c) For the case of an incompressible liquid, the volume per particle, v ≡ V /N , is
independent of the pressure; show that in this case, one has
µ(P ) − µ(P0 ) = v (P − P0 ).
(d) Discuss the features common to the results obtained in (b) and (c).
(a) Assuming the oscillators are classical, show that the partition function is given
by
N
1
Z(T, N ) = , u ≡ ~ω/kB T,
u
and calculate the following quantities: µ, P , S, E, CP , and CV . Make sketches
of their dependence with the temperature.
(b) For quantum oscillators, show that the partition function is given by
Z(T, N ) = [2 sinh(u/2)]−N ,
and calculate the same quantities as in (a). Comment graphically on their main
differences relative to (a).
6. Obtain the partition function Ξ(T, P, N ) for an ideal gas in the T -P canonical en-
semble, and derive the equation of state.
7. Consider a classical ideal gas in a d-dimensional box, such that the dispersion relation
for each of the N particles is
ε = aps , (3.11.1)
where a is a constant and p ≡ |p|. The particles are enclosed in a volume V ≡ Ld ,
where L is the linear size. Use the equipartition theorem to show that the internal
energy is given by
d
E = N kB T. (3.11.2)
s
8. Consider an ideal Maxwell-Boltzmann gas with N ( 1) particles, whose energy
spectrum is εp = aps , with s > 0 and a constants. The particles are confined to
a hypecubic box of volume V ≡ Ld , where L is its linear size, and d is the spatial
dimensionality of the box. The gas is at equilibrium at an absolute temperature T .
(a) Determine the dependence of the canonical partition function with (T, V, N ).
[Hint: there is no need to follow in detail all constants which appear, just the
most relevant ones.]
(b) Determine the dependence of the entropy with (T, V, N ). Sketch S(T )/N kB , and
comment on the limiting cases T → 0 and T → ∞.
(c) Determine the dependence of the internal energy with (N, T, V ). Sketch E(T )/N kB ,
and comment on the limiting cases T → 0 and T → ∞.
(d) Determine the dependence of the heat capacity with (N, T, V ). Sketch CV (T )/N kB ,
and comment on the limiting cases T → 0 and T → ∞.
(e) Obtain the chemical potential µ(N, T, V ). Sketch µ(T ), and comment on the
limiting cases T → 0 and T → ∞.
3.11. EXERCISES 77
(f) Obtain an expression for the pressure of this gas, and relate it with the internal
energy. Comment on your results.
9. An ideal monatomic gas occupies a box of volume V . For each of the N atoms of
mass m, the fine structure in the ground state gives rise to a doublet of states with
degeneracies g0 and g1 , separated in energy by ∆ ≡ ε1 − ε0 . Determine the specific
heat of this gas as a function of temperature; make a sketch of CV /N kB ×T indicating
the relevant quantities. Comment on the limitations of the results you obtained.
10. A classical magnetic moment of magnitude µ can point along any spatial direction.
Suppose that N identical moments like this are fixed in position on the sites of a
regular lattice, but the interaction between them can be neglected. This system is
in the presence of an external magnetic field H = Hẑ, and is at equilibrium at a
temperature T .
(a) Show that the ensemble average of the z component of the magnetic moment per
site is given by Langevin’s expression,
µH kB T
hµz i = µ coth − . (3.11.3)
kB T µH
(b) Now assume the system consists of spin-1/2 particles with the same magnitude,
µ, of the dipole moment, subject to the same temperature T and field H. Under
what conditions is the behaviour of hµz i similar to that for the classical particles
of (a)? Explain this physically, and show that the two expressions are the same,
apart from a numerical factor.
11. A system consists of N identical particles, fixed in position. Each one can be in
either of two energy levels: one, non-degenerate, with energy 0, and the other, g-fold
degenerate, with energy ε > 0. Let E be the total energy of the system.
12. On every one of the N ( 1) sites of a linear chain there is a spin-1/2. The interaction
energy of any pair of nearest neighbour spins (located at sites i and i + 1) may be
written as
εi,i+1 = −Jσi σi+1 , (3.11.4)
where J is a constant with dimension of energy, and σj = ±1 is a measure of the
orientation of the magnetic moment. Therefore, pairs of parallel (antiparallel) spins
contribute with −J (+J) to the total energy. Admit that the system is initially in
the ground state (T = 0), so that all spins are parallel (either all ‘up’ or all ‘down’)
(a) Which are the energy (E0 ), the entropy (S0 ), and the Helmholtz free energy
associated with this configuration?
(b) Consider now a possible lowest energy excited state, such that all spins to the
right of any site have been flipped (see Fig. 3.18). What are the energy (E 0 ), and
the entropy (S 0 ) associated with this new situation? [Hint: E 0 and S 0 can be
obtained as if the system were at T = 0.]
(c) We admit that this new configuration appeared as a result of thermally induced
fluctuations. At low temperatures, the Helmholtz free energy associated with this
new configuration may be given by
A0 = E 0 − T S 0 . (3.11.5)
4.1 Definition
When we discussed the Canonical Ensemble in $ 3.1, we considered a system, S, with
fixed number of particles in thermal contact with the external world, W. In the present
Section we admit that S is also allowed to exchange particles with W.
We may therefore extend the development of $ 3.1 by posing the following question:
given that the Universe has energy EU and NU particles, what is the probability of
finding S with N particles in a given state m, whose energy is EmN . A reasoning similar
to that leading to Eqs. (2.2.6) and (3.3.10) yields
ΩW (EU − EmN , NU − N ; ∆E)
pmN = . (4.1.1)
ΩU (EU , NU ; ∆E)
If S is small, i.e. EmN EU and N NU , we may expand
∂ ln ΩW
ln ΩW (EU − EmN , NU − N ) ≈ ln ΩW (EU , NU ) − EmN
∂E E=EU ,N =NU
∂ ln ΩW
− N, (4.1.2)
∂N E=EU ,N =NU
and identify
1 ∂ ln ΩW
β= = , (4.1.3)
kB T ∂E EU ,NU
and
1 ∂ ln ΩW
µ=− . (4.1.4)
β ∂N EU ,NU
Recall that the chemical potential, µ, is an intensive quantity with dimension of energy,
which controls the number of particles in the system.
Similarly to the canonical ensemble, we get
1 −β(EmN −µN )
pmN = e , (4.1.5)
Z
79
80 CHAPTER 4. THE GRAND-CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
Note that now we need to sum over all numbers of particles in S, and over the possible
states, which, in turn, depend on N . We then have,
∞ X
X
Z(T, V, µ) = e−β[EmN −µN ] . (4.1.7)
N =0 m
1 −β(Ĥ−µN̂ )
ρ̂ = e , (4.1.8)
Z
with the partition function being given as
Z = Tr e−β[Ĥ−µN̂ ] , (4.1.9)
where the operation Tr represents a sum over the eigenvalues of N̂ , as well as the usual
Tr in the subspace of fixed number of particles.
The classical case is also obtained by following the lines described in §3.3. The
classical distribution function is given by
1 1 −β[HN (q,p)−µN ]
ρN (q, p) = e , (4.1.10)
hsN
0 N! Z
where HN (q, p) is the Hamiltonian for a system with N particles, and the grand partition
function is
∞
1
X Z
Z= sN N !
eβµN
dq dp e−βHN (q,p) . (4.1.11)
h
N =0 0
In order to establish the connection of the grand-canonical ensemble with the ther-
modynamics, we first recall that the canonical thermodynamic potentials A, E, G, and
H represent the description of the system in termos the variables (T, V, hN i), (S, V, hN i),
(T, P, hN i), and (S, P, hN i), respectively, where hN i is to be regarded as the observed
4.1. DEFINITION 81
number of particles, which is different from the microscopic variable N̂ . In the grand-
canonical ensemble we want to replace hN i by the chemical potential, µ. To this end,
we must introduce a new potential, J(T, V, µ), through a Legendre transformation:
dA = −SdT − P dV + µdhN i
= −SdT − P dV + µdhN i − hN idµ + hN idµ, (4.1.12)
or
dJ = SdT + P dV + hN idµ, (4.1.13)
with
J(T, V, µ) = −A + µhN i. (4.1.14)
Therefore, once J is determined, we obtain the quantities,
∂J ∂J ∂J
S= , P = , and hN i = , (4.1.15)
∂T V,µ ∂V T,µ ∂µ T,V
where f is a function of T and µ only. Using the fact that P = (∂J/∂V )T, µ , we may
identify
J(T, V, µ) ≡ V P (T, µ). (4.1.18)
Similarly to the Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies, one can show that for reversible
processes with fixed T, V, and µ, the equilibrium state corresponds to a maximum of
J(T, V, µ).1
The other thermodynamic potentials are defined as
E = A + T S = µhN i − J + T S; (4.1.19)
G = A + P V = J + A = µhN i; (4.1.20)
1
Note that some texts define the grand potential as Ω = −J, so that the equilibrium state corresponds
to a minimum of Ω(T, V, µ).
82 CHAPTER 4. THE GRAND-CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
The thermal quantities are defined following lines similar to what we did in §3.2:
the equilibrium conditions between subsystems S1 and S2 again leads us to β1 = β2 and
µ1 = µ2 ; see also the discussion in §2.2. It can also be seen that ln Z is an extensive
quantity. Hence, by taking
∂ 1 XX
N e−β(EmN −µN ) = hN i,
kB T ln Z = (4.1.25)
∂µ Z m N
or, using the third of Eqs. (4.1.15) we can make yet another identification,
J(T, V, µ) ≡ kB T ln Z. (4.1.26)
This shows that once obtained the grand partition function, one automatically gains
access to the thermodynamc grandpotential, and to the product P V .
Finally, we mention that sometimes it is convenient to use a variable
z ≡ eβµ , (4.1.27)
that is, the grand partition function is the generating function for the canonical partition
function; that is, N !Z(T, V, N ) is the coefficient of z N in the expansion of Z in a Taylor
series expansion in z.
4.2. EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN EQUILIBRIUM ENSEMBLES 83
where
∂Z ∂ h i
= Tr e−β Ĥ = −Tr e−β Ĥ Ĥ = −ZhĤi. (4.2.2)
∂β ∂β
Therefore,
∂
hĤi = −hĤ2 i + hĤi2 . (4.2.3)
∂β
On the other hand, recalling that the derivatives are taken at constant volume, we have
∂hĤi ∂hĤi ∂T
= = −kB T 2 CV , (4.2.4)
∂β ∂T ∂β
which leads us to
hĤ2 i − hĤi2 ≡ h[Ĥ − hĤi]2 i = kB T 2 CV . (4.2.5)
This result is extremely important, since it relates the fluctuations in a microscopic
quantity with something readily measurable, such as the heat capacity. Moreover, since
CV is an extensive quantity (hence ∝ N ) and T is an intensive quantity, we have,
This result expresses the fact that the fluctuations around the average energy in the
canonical ensemble may be large in absolute value, but they are negligible in compar-
ison with the much larger values of the average energy itself. This means that the
84 CHAPTER 4. THE GRAND-CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
probability of finding a member of the ensemble with an energy E very different from
hĤi vanishes in the thermodynamic limit, thus establishing the correspondence between
the microcanonical and canonical ensembles.
Now we consider the grand canonical ensemble, and let us examine the fluctuations
in the number of particles. We start by evaluating
∂ ∂ 1 −β[Ĥ−µN̂ ]
hN i = Tr e N̂ =
∂µ ∂µ Z
1 1 ∂Z
= β Tr e−β[Ĥ−µN̂ ] N̂ 2 − 2 Tr e−β[Ĥ−µN̂ ] N̂ (4.2.8)
Z Z ∂µ
with
∂Z ∂ h i
= Tr e−β[Ĥ−µN̂ ] = β Tr e−β[Ĥ−µN̂ ] N̂ = βZhN i. (4.2.9)
∂µ ∂µ
Therefore,
∂ h i
hN i = β hN 2 i − hN i2 (4.2.10)
∂µ
In order to relate ∂hN i/∂µ with more familiar quantities, we note that
∂hN i
∂P
= . (4.2.12)
∂µ V,T ∂V µ,T
∂hN i hN i
= , (4.2.14)
∂V T, µ V
leading to
∂hN i hN i ∂hN i
= . (4.2.15)
∂µ V,T V ∂P V,T
hN i = V g(T, P ), (4.2.16)
4.3. EXERCISES 85
which means that hN i/V does not depend on hN i and V . On the other hand,
∂hN i
∂P ∂V
= −1, (4.2.17)
∂P V,T ∂V hN i,T ∂hN i P,T
∂hN i
= hN iKT . (4.2.18)
∂P V,T
4.3 Exercises
1. Consider a classical ideal gas of monatomic molecules.
Z = ezZ1 ,
where z is the fugacity, and Z1 = V /Λ3 is the partition function for a single
1/2
molecule, with Λ = h2 /2πmkB T .
86 CHAPTER 4. THE GRAND-CANONICAL ENSEMBLE
hN i = zZ1
Nu
N0
In the present example chemical equilibrium is reached by a transfer of particles. From Table 7.1
Suppose that a gas made up of weakly interacting particles of mass m fills up both
we see that if the two subsystems are initially not in equilibrium, for example, NA = 3, then
tubes, and
µA /TAare in(more
is less equilibrium at µan
negative) than B /Tabsolute temperature
B . Because the T . to maximize the total
system will change
entropy, we see that subsystem A will gain particles from subsystem B. Thus, particles will be
transfered from a subsystem with the larger (less negative) ratio µ/T to the subsystem with the
(a) Obtain
smalleravalue
relation
of µ/T .between the number of atoms in the top compartment, Nu , and
in the bottom one, N0 .
Problem 7.2. Numerical calculation of the chemical potential of the Einstein solid
(b) Discuss your result.
(a) Use Program EinsteinSolidChemicalPotential to consider an isolated Einstein solid con-
sisting of two subsystems. The program counts the number of states using the relation (4.3).
3. A fluid can Thecoexist in program
inputs to the the liquid are EAand
, EB , gas
and N(vapour)
= NA + NBphases.
. Imagine thatIn the
order to describe this
two subsystems
are initially separated by an insulating and impermeable
coexistence, we adopt a very simple model, in which we treat the liquid partition, with N A = 8, NBas=a 4, “gas” of
EA = 15, and EB = 30. What is the initial entropy of the system? The partition is then
independent molecules
replaced by one that such that
allows (i) the
particles but notinteraction
energy to be of each molecule
transferred between thewith the others
two sub-
is represented by a constant potential, −φ; (ii) each one of the N molecules of the
systems. Construct a table similar to Table 7.1 and show that the ratio µ/T is approximately
equal for the most probable macrostate (defined by specific values of NA and NB ). Is the
liquid moves entropyfreely
of thisin a totalhigher
macrostate volumethan theV`initial
= Nentropy?
` v0 , where
Then try v0other
is the (constant)
combinations of N , volume
per molecule in the
EA , and liquid
EB . In a morephase. The vapour
realistic problem particles of this
could not liquid (None
move from g molecules
system to in a volume
another
without transferring energy as well.
Vg ) is treated as an usual ideal gas.
(b) Why is µ expected to be negative for the Einstein solid?
(a) Treat
(c) Ifeach subsystem
the amount of energy(liquid and
is the same vapour)
in each in the
subsystem canonical
of a composite ensemble,
Einstein and show
solid, what
would be the equilibrium number of particles in each subsystem?
that the vapour pressure is given by
We next consider a model consisting of two ideal gases that are in containers at different
kB T −βφ
heights (see Fig. 7.1).1 Because we wish to characterize the containers only by their height, we
assume that each container has a very largeP cross-sectional
= e area and a very small thickness such (4.3.1)
v0
that the volume of each container is finite. For simplicity, we also assume that both gases are at
1 This model is discussed in Ralph Baierlein, Thermal Physics, Cambridge University Press (1999).
(b) Treat each subsystem (liquid and vapour) in the grand-canonical ensemble, and
recover the above result.
(c) Discuss physically the behaviour of P at low and high temperatures.
4.3. EXERCISES 87
4. A monatomic gas coexists in equilibrium with the solid phase. Assume the energy
per atom necessary to transform solid in gas is ϕ, and adopt the Einstein model for
solids, namely each atom vibrates around its equilibrium position with frequency ω,
being therefore represented by a three-dimensional harmonic oscillator. Determine
the vapour pressure, P , as a function of temperature, T , for this system, and sketch
P (T ). Discuss physically the low- and high-temperature limits.
5. An ideal gas consists of molecules of type A, of type B, and of type AB, in constant
process of dissociation: A + B AB. Derive the law of mass action,
3/2 0
(mA + mB )h2
nAB ZAB W0 /kB T
= 0 Z0 e , (4.3.2)
nA nB 2πmA mB kB T ZA B
each molecule (for which the origin of energies is taken as the ground state energy,
excluding zero-point vibrations). Thus, W0 ≡ ε0A + ε0B − ε0AB is the difference between
these zeroes of energy.
(a) Show that the partition function for this system can be written as
X X
Z= Ω(n) e−βnε ≡ ζ(n), (4.3.3)
n n
(c) Since Ω(n) increases rapidly with n, while exp(−βnε) decreases rapidly with n,
one expects a sharp maximum of ζ(n) at some n∗ . Show that
n∗
≈ e−βε/2 , (4.3.5)
N
and that the Helmholtz free energy becomes
(d) Alternatively, we can calculate the Helmholtz free energy by first calculating the
entropy, S, associated with displacing n atoms to interstitial positions, and using
A = E − T S. Show that imposing A to be a minimum yields the same n∗ as in
(c).
7. A surface with M sites can adsorb atoms of an ideal gas (single atoms with mass m)
at a temperature T and pressure P ; see Fig. 4.3. An adsorbed atom has energy −ε0 ,
relative to the free case.
(a) Obtain an expression for the surface coverage, θ, (i.e., the ratio of the number of
adsorbed atoms by M , the number of adsorbing sites) as a function of P , T , and
ε0 .
(b) Discuss physically the behaviour of θ in the limits P → 0 and P → ∞.
Chapter 5
5.1 Indistinguishability
We will now address the consequences of the fact that the particles are actually quantum-
mechanically indistinguishable. Let us then consider, for simplicity, a system with N
non-interacting indistinguishable particles. The Hamiltonian for this system is then
N
X
H= Hi0 , (5.1.1)
i =1
where Hi0 is a function solely of the operators acting on particle i. All Hi0 are there-
fore formally identical, each of which defining the so-called ‘single-particle problem’,
summarised by the time-independent Schrödinger equation,
The index i was omitted for being generic in this case, and we will assume the eigen-
functions of (5.1.2) span an N -dimensional state space; hence, N is also the number of
distinct choices of m.1
The N -particle time-independent Schrödinger equation in the coordinate represen-
tation may be written as
89
90 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
where E is the eigenvalue of H corresponding to the total energy of the system. Since
H is separable, one possible solution of (5.1.3) may be written as
N
Y
Ψ0E (r1 , r2 , . . . , rN ) = φmi (ri ), (5.1.4)
i=1
with
N
X
E= εm i . (5.1.5)
i=1
Clearly Ψ0E does not reflect the fact that the particles are indistinguishable: when
any two particles are exchanged, one obtains a different function. In order to comply
with indistinguishability, we must take a linear combination of the Ψ0E ,
XX X
ΨE (r1 , . . . rN ) = ··· C(m1 , m2 . . . mN ) φm1 (r1 ) φm2 (r2 ) · · · φmN (rN ), (5.1.6)
m1 m2 mN
with the coefficients, C, being subject to certain restrictions. Firstly, the C’s must vanish
whenever the set {m} ≡ {m1 , m2 , . . . , mN } does not coincide with what is prescribed
by Eqs. (5.1.3)-(5.1.5). Secondly, the C’s must reflect the indistinguishability: as any
two particles are exchanged, the physical properties of ΨE must be preserved. Hence it
follows that
since the physical properties follow from |Ψ|2 , not from Ψ. Therefore,
with θ = ±1; that is, the total wave function must be either symmetric, θ = +1, or
anti-symmetric, θ = −1, under the permutation of two particles.
All particles in Nature are then classified as bosons (symmetric wave functions)
or fermions (anti-symmetric wave functions). Bosons are particles with integer spins,
such as photons, phonons, gravitons, π-mesons, 4 He atoms, and so forth. Fermions are
particles with half-integer spin, such as electrons, protons, neutrons, muons, neutrinos,
3 He atoms, etc.
Let us consider an example with two particles, N = 2, assuming each one can be in
either of two single-particle states, N = 2, which we denote by φa and φb . We may then
form the symmetric and anti-symmetric combinations,
1
ψS = √ [φa (r1 ) φb (r2 ) + φb (r1 ) φa (r2 )] , (5.1.9)
2
and
1
ψA = √ [φa (r1 ) φb (r2 ) − φb (r1 ) φa (r2 )] (5.1.10)
2
5.1. INDISTINGUISHABILITY 91
From this simple example we learn that the condition (5.1.8) is carried over to the coef-
ficients. Indeed, the exchange ri ↔ rj is equivalent to the exchange of the corresponding
quantum numbers mi ↔ mj , that is,
In particular, we note that Pauli’s exclusion principle follows from (5.1.11), given that
for fermions,
C(m1 , . . . , m, . . . , m, . . . mN ) = 0. (5.1.12)
where the sum extends to all states with n1 particles in state m1 , n2 is state m2 , etc.
Using (5.1.11) and the same counting arguments which led to Eq. (3.7.5), we obtain
N! 2
|C(n1 , n2 , . . .)|2 = C(m01 , m02 , . . . , m0N ) , (5.1.14)
n1 !n2 ! . . .
since for a given distribution of particles through the states m01 , m02 , . . . , m0N all
|C(m01 , m02 , . . . , m0N )|2 are equal. This relation allows us to go from a representation
in terms of the m’s to the occupation number representation, also known as second
quantisation representation. In the latter, nm can be either 0 or 1 for fermions, while
nm = 0, 1, 2, . . . for bosons.
With this, total energy of the system can be written as
X0
E= n m εm , (5.1.15)
m
P0
where reminds us that the sum is subject to the condition
X
nm = N. (5.1.16)
m
It is also important to stress the difference between Eqs. (5.1.5)) and (5.1.15): in the
former one sums over particles, while in the latter one sums over states.
92 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
|{np,σ }i ≡ |np1 ↑ , np1 ↓ , np2 ↑ , np2 ↓ , . . .i ≡ |np1 ↑ i|np1 ↓ i|np2 ↑ i|np2 ↓ i . . . , (5.2.2)
where in this basis the operator n̂pσ simply counts how many particles, npσ , occupy
the state (p, σ). The possible outcomes are npσ = 0 or 1 for fermions, or npσ =
0, 1, 2, . . . , or ∞, for bosons.
For a non-interacting system, the Hamiltonian can then be written as [compare with
Eq. (5.1.15)] XX
H= εp n̂pσ , (5.2.4)
p σ
where n̂pσ is the operator counting the number of particles with momentum p and
spin-component σ~.
The canonical partition function is then
X0 P P
ZN = Tr e−βH = e−β p σ εp npσ (5.2.5)
{npσ }
where we replaced the operator n̂pσ by its eigenvalue npσ , since we assume the trace is
taken in the occupation number representation, in which H is diagonal. It is important
5.2. IDEAL SYSTEMS OF BOSONS OR FERMIONS 93
to note that the sum over {npσ } is over all possible configurations, with the prime
enforcing the restriction of constant total number of particles,
X
npσ = N. (5.2.6)
pσ
This restriction precludes the factorisation of the partition function into a product (over
p and σ) of exponentials, each of which with its own sum over possible occupations.
This is a manifestation of the correlation between the occupation of the energy levels, a
purely quantum phenomenon.
At this point it is instructive to assess the influence of indistinguishability by recov-
ering the partition function for the Boltzmann gas. To this end, we take S = 0, for
simplicity, and note that for distinguishable
Q particles (Boltzmann) each configuration
{np } may be obtained in N !/ p np ! distinct ways. In this case, Eq. (5.2.5) becomes
!N
X0 N! Y X
ZB = Q e−βεp np = e−βεp , (5.2.7)
p n p ! p p
{np }
where the last equality follows from the binomial theorem. Equation (5.2.7) is the known
classical result, apart from the 1/N ! factor, which takes into account, a posteriori, the
indistinguishability of particles.
The restriction of a constant number of particles, Eq. (5.2.6), may be lifted if we use
the grand-canonical ensemble. In this case, we have
∞ X
X 0 β P [µ−ε ] n
Z= e p,σ p pσ
. (5.2.8)
N =0 {npσ }
In order to understand how these sums are carried out, we assume there are only two
accessible states to each particle, with energies ε1 and ε2 , in terms of which we define
a = eβ(µ−ε1 ) and b = eβ(µ−ε2 ) . Let us also admit that each of these single-particle
states can be occupied by an arbitrary number of particles; the case of fermions can be
recovered in the end, as we will see below. The grand partition function in this case may
be written as
∞ XX ∞ XN
X 0 0 n X
Z= a 1 bn2 = aN −n bn . (5.2.9)
N =0 n1 n2 N =0 n=0
given that the sums in n1 and n2 are subject to the restriction n1 + n2 = N .
Therefore, for each N we sum from n = 0 to n = N ; then we sum the partial results
from N = 0 to ∞. In the table below, this amounts to summing all rows in sequence,
N =0 1
N =1 a+b
N = 2 a2 + ab + b2
N = 3 a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b3
... ...
94 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
Alternatively, for each fixed power of a we may sum over all powers of b, and then sum
over all powers of a, that is,
Z = (1 + b + b2 + b3 + · · · )+
+ a (1 + b + b2 + b3 + · · · )+
+ a2 (1 + b + b2 + b3 + · · · ) + . . . =
∞
! ∞ !
X X
= an1 bn2 . (5.2.10)
n1 =0 n2 =0
For fermions the occupation numbers, n, can be either 0 or 1, so the sum in (5.2.11)
only has two terms, leading to
YYh i
Z= 1 + eβ(µ−εp ) (F). (5.2.12)
p σ
For bosons, the occupation numbers, n, can be any non-negative integer, and the
sum in (5.2.11) trivially converges, as long as the exponent is negative for any εp . This
requires,
µ ≤ 0 , for bosons, (5.2.13)
where the equality is only valid in cases in which εp > 0, ∀p. Thus,
YYh i−1
Z= 1 − eβ(µ−εp ) (B). (5.2.14)
p σ
Using the parameter θ = ±1 [c.f., (5.1.8)], we can write an expression for Z which is
simultaneously valid for bosons and fermions,
YYh i−θ
Z= 1 − θ eβ(µ−εp ) . (5.2.15)
p σ
from which all remaining thermodynamic functions may be extracted from differentia-
tions, as follows:
hN i
∂P
particle density: n = = (5.2.17)
V ∂µ T
S ∂P
entropy density: s̃ = = (5.2.18)
V ∂T µ
1 ∂V 1 ∂n
compressibility: KT = − = 2 (5.2.19)
V ∂P T n ∂µ T
1 ∂
internal energy density: ẽ = − βJ (5.2.20)
V ∂β z,V
∂ẽ
specific heat (per volume): cV = . (5.2.21)
∂T µ,V
The reader should also notice (see Problem 5.1) that the derivative wih respect to β in
the calculation of the internal energy density is taken at constant fugacity, and not at
constant chemical potential. Further, the second equality in Eq. (5.2.19), obtained using
Eq. (4.2.18), also shows that the compressibility provides a measure of the energetic cost
to add particles to the system; thus, an insulator is incompressible, KT = 0, while a
metal is compressible, KT > 0.
Let us now develop Eq. (5.2.16) a bit further. First, we notePthat in the absence of an
external magnetic field, εp does not depend on σ, so that the σ yields a multiplicative
factor, g, which is the degeneracy of the level εp . Second, for a system with macroscopic
dimensions, the possible values of p are closely spaced; in Eq. (5.2.16) we may therefore
replace the sum over p by an integral.2
The replacement
L3
X Z
→ 3 d3 p, (5.2.22)
p
h
then yields
V
Z h i
2
P V = −θgkB T 3 d3 p ln 1 − θ eβ(µ−p /2m) . (5.2.23)
h
If we integrate in spherical coordinates, the angular part contributes with 4π. Defin-
ing η ≡ β(p2 /2m), and integrating (5.2.23) by parts yields
Z ∞
η 3/2
2 −3 2
P (T, µ) = kB T gΛ √ dη η−µ/k T , (5.2.24)
3 π 0 e B −θ
where we notice the reappearance of the thermal wavelength, Eq. (3.8.5), thus indicating
that another length scale becomes important, in addition to the linear size, L, of the
system; as we will see, if Λ is much smaller than the average interparticle spacing (whose
upper bound is L), quantum effects will not be dominant.
2
As we will see in §5.5, care must be taken when performing this replacement, due to the possibility
of occurrence of a macroscopic occupation of the single-particle ground state.
96 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
∞
η 3/2 eη−µ/kB T
∂P 2 2
Z
n= = g Λ−3 √ dη , (5.2.25)
∂µ T 3 π 0 [eη−µ/kB T − θ]2
Solving (5.2.26) for µ(n, T ), and taking into (5.2.24), we may in principle obtain
P (T, n). Some proposals to invert the relation between chemical potential and density,
Eq. (5.2.26), have been advanced [15, 16], but they resort to quite intricate integrals. For
the benefit of physical intuition it is therefore more advantageous to work simultaneously
with Eqs. (5.2.24) and (5.2.26), and perform the inversion in specific limiting cases.
Before examining the high- and low-temperature limits of Eqs. (5.2.24) and (5.2.26),
we note that the energy density may be obtained from (5.2.20) as
∞
2 η 3/2
Z
−3
ẽ(T, µ) = g kB T Λ √ dη , (5.2.27)
π 0 eη−µ/kB T − θ
which upon direct comparison with (5.2.24), yields the equation of state
2
P = ẽ. (5.2.28)
3
The reader should convince him(her)self that the 2/3 fraction in Eq. (5.2.28) actually
represents the ratio s/d, where s is the momentum exponent in the dispersion relation,
ε ∝ ps , and d is the spatial dimension. One should also stress the universal aspect of the
equation of state: since θ does not appear in (5.2.28), this relation is valid for any ideal
system, independent of the statistics, namely Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB), Bose-Einstein
(BE), and Fermi-Dirac (FD). For the MB case, the simple form
Pcl = n kB T (5.2.29)
Expanding the integrands in Eqs. (5.2.24) and (5.2.26), and integrating term by term,
we get
P = g kB T Λ−3 z(1 + θ 2−5/2 z + 3−5/2 z 2 + · · · ), (5.2.31)
n = g Λ−3 z(1 + θ 2−3/2 z + 3−3/2 z 2 + · · · ). (5.2.32)
Equation (5.2.32) may be inverted order by order, and taken into (5.2.31), which yields,
P = nkB T [1 − 0.1768 θ g −1 Λ3 n − 0.0033 g −2 Λ6 n2 + · · · ]. (5.2.33)
This result contains very interesting information. First, the pressure is expressed as a
power series of the so-called degeneracy parameter,
3/2
h2
−1 3 1
δ≡g Λ n= n, (5.2.34)
g 2πmkB T
which may be thought of as the fraction of the macroscopic volume occupied by the
wave packets (of length Λ), associated with the particles. Thus the Maxwell-Boltzmann
statistics corresponds to the non-degenerate limit,
δ1 (MB), (5.2.35)
of high temperatures (for a given density) or low densities (for a given temperature),
when effects of interference between the wave packets are very small. Further, the RHS
of Eq. (5.2.33) may also be seen as an expansion in powers of the density, n, which is
known as a virial expansion. Such expansions appear in the context of non-ideal gases
(i.e., ones in which the molecules interact with each other; see §7.2).
The second point is that this deviation from the result for the classical ideal gas
is due to the correlation between the particles, introduced when properly symmetrised
wave functions are adopted. Thus, despite the absence of actual interactions between
the particles, the motion of each particle depends on the motion of the other particles.
It is as if fermions were subject to a repulsive pseudo-force, which enhances the pressure
relative to the MB gas; similarly, bosons would be subject to an attractive pseudo-force
which decreases the pressure relative to the MB gas.
(i) Bose-Einstein,
1
hnpσ i = , and (5.3.2)
eβ(εp −µ) −1
(ii) Fermi-Dirac
1
hnpσ i = . (5.3.3)
eβ(εp −µ) +1
P P
Note that hN i = pσ hnpσ i, and that the magnetisation, given by pσ σhnpσ i,
vanishes in the absence of a magnetic field since hnpσ i does not depend on σ: the
equilibrium state is therefore unpolarised. And, finally, for fermions 1 − hnpσ i is the
average number of holes in the state (pσ).
Due to the different statistical properties of fermions and bosons, in what follows
we separately explore the behaviour of the corresponding gases in the highly degenerate
limit,
Λ3 n
δ≡ ≥ 1. (5.3.4)
g
At this point, we recall that the smallness of the particle masses also contributes towards
increasing Λ, hence driving the system deeper into the high degeneracy regime: this is
one of the features of He atoms allowing them to form a superfluid at low temperatures.
with (
0 x<0
Θ(x) = (5.4.2)
1 x > 0,
as shown in Fig. 5.1.
In order to make (5.4.1) compatible with the distribution (5.3.3), we must note that
(
0 if (ε − µ) < 0
lim eβ(ε−µ) = (5.4.3)
β→∞ ∞ if (ε − µ) > 0,
5.4. DEGENERATE FERMI GAS 99
np
1
F
p
or (
11 if ε < µ
hnpσ i = β(ε−µ) → (5.4.4)
e +1 0 if ε > µ,
which necessarily leads to
µ = εF at T = 0. (5.4.5)
The Fermi energy is obtained by first recalling that the density of particles as given
by Eq. (5.2.26), reduces in the limit T → 0, to
25/2 π m3/2 g ∞
Z
n= dε ε1/2 Θ(εF − ε), (5.4.6)
h3 0
Ch. 2. Typical electron densities in metals are on the order of 1021 -1022 electrons/cm3 ,
which leads to Fermi energies between 2 and 10 eV. Therefore, due to this large zero-
point energy the pressure of an ideal Fermi gas at T = 0 is considerable, being on the
order of 3 GPa ' 104 atm. This behaviour should be contrasted with that for the ideal
Bose gas (see §5.5), whose pressure vanishes as T → 0.
Let us now examine how the thermodynamic quantities behave at low, but non-zero
temperatures. We first recall that the pressure and density are given by
Z ∞
P g 4 η 3/2 g
= 3 √ dη −1 η ≡ 3 f5/2 (z) (5.4.11)
kB T Λ 3 π 0 z e +1 Λ
and
∞
g 2 η 1/2 g
Z
n= √ dη ≡ 3 f3/2 (z), (5.4.12)
Λ3 π 0 z −1 eη+1 Λ
where the last equality in Eqs. (5.4.11) and (5.4.12) introduces the Fermi integrals,
Z ∞
1 xn−1 dx
fn (z) ≡ , (5.4.13)
Γ(n) 0 z −1 ex + 1
with √
Γ(n) = (n − 1)! ⇒ Γ(n + 1) = n Γ(n); Γ(1/2) = π. (5.4.14)
Next we perform systematic expansions for the integrals appearing in fn (z), using a
method developed by Sommerfeld; an alternative approach, in terms of the density of
states, will be discussed in § 6.3. At low temperatures, T → 0, we have µ → εF , so that
z = e µ/kB T 1. Introducing the variable
ξ ≡ ln z (= µ/kB T ), (5.4.15)
We then focus on the factor (e x−ξ + 1)−1 : for x ξ 1, it is very close to 0, while
for x < ξ 1 it is very close to 1; see Fig. 5.2. It is only near x = ξ that this function
varies significantly between 0 and 1. As a first approximation, we may therefore take
Z ξ
Fn (ξ) ≈ dxxn−1 = ξ n /n. (5.4.17)
0
ξn π2 1 7π 4 1
fn (ξ) = 1 + n(n − 1) + n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) + ··· .
Γ(n + 1) 6 ξ2 360 ξ 4
(5.4.18)
5.4. DEGENERATE FERMI GAS 101
1
1.0
+ 1]
)
0.5
(x
[e
0.0
x
−1
Figure 5.2: Schematic plot of ex−ξ + 1 as a function of x: the temperature only causes appreciable changes
relative to T = 0 (Fig. 5.1) in the region x ' ξ.
which may be inverted with the aid of Eqs. (5.4.5) and (5.4.7) for T = 0, leading to
" #
π 2 kB T 2
µ = εF 1 − + ··· . (5.4.20)
12 εF
This equation relates the chemical potential with the temperature and the density
(through εF ). For metals at room temperatures (∼ 0.25 eV), the chemical potential
differs from εF by termos on the order of 10−3 εF , so that for temperatures of interest
(much lower than 300 K) one may always take µ = εF for these systems.
The internal energy density may be obtained in an analogous way as
" #
5π 2 kB T 2
3
ẽ(n, T ) = nεF 1 + + ··· (5.4.21)
5 12 εF
CV
Nk B
3/2
F kBT
Figure 5.3: The temperature dependence of the specific heat of the Fermi gas.
Once cV (T, n) = T [∂s̃(T, n)/∂T ]n is known, the entropy density may be obtained by
a simple integration,
2T
π 2 kB
Z T
cV
s̃ = dT = + ··· , (5.4.23)
0 T 2 εF
so that s̃ → 0 when T → 0. This behaviour satisfies the Third Law of Thermodynamics,
unlike what happens for the ideal MB gas,
" #
s̃ e5/2 L 3
= n ln −→ −∞. (5.4.24)
kB N Λ T →0
where the Gamma function, Γ(λ), was defined in Eq. (5.4.14), and z ≡ exp(βµ) is the
fugacity. That is, we may write
1
Pn = k B T g (z), (5.5.2)
Λ3 5/2
and
1
Nn = V
g (z), (5.5.3)
Λ3 3/2
where the subscript n in both equations stands for “normal”, for reasons which will
become apparent later.
5.5. DEGENERATE BOSE GAS 103
2.612
2.5
g 3/2(z)
g 5/2(z)
2.0
gn(z)
1.5
1.341
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
z
The functions gλ (z) have some simple properties. For z ≤ 1, the integrand in
Eq. (5.5.1) can be expanded in a power series in z, and then integrated term by term to
yield
∞
X z`
gλ (z) = , (5.5.4)
`λ
`=1
note also that ζ(∞) = 1. For λ ≤ 1, on the other hand, gλ (1) diverges.3 Figure 5.4
shows g3/2 (z) and g5/2 (z), calculated using Eq. (5.5.4): we see that for all values of z of
our concern here, the functions gλ (z) increase monotonically, that is,
Next, we take a closer look at the Bose-Einstein distribution, Eq. (5.3.2), which we
write in terms of z, as
z
n(ε) = βε , (5.5.8)
e −z
keeping in mind that µ ≤ 0 for bosons, so that z ∈ [0, 1]. When taking the zero
temperature limit, we have to distinguish between the occupation of the ground state
3
See, e.g. Appendix D of Refs. [3, 4] for a detailed discussion on the properties of gλ (z).
104 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
z ,
if ε = 0, (5.5.9a)
n(ε) → 1−z
−βε
ze , if ε 6= 0. (5.5.9b)
In the absence of a restriction (such as the Pauli principle for fermions), at zero temper-
ature all particles must be in the ground state, that is, the occupation with bosons of
the lowest-energy state, ε = 0, must be macroscopic: n(0) ∼ N → ∞. This can only be
achieved with
lim z = 1, or, equivalently, lim µ → 0− , (5.5.10)
β→∞ T →0
where in the second limit µ is to be regarded as a function of T and of the density N/V .
This establishes the zero temperature limits of µ and z as 0− and 1, respectively.
Now we recall that Eqs. (5.2.24) e (5.2.26) were obtained by replacing the sums by
integrals in p [c.f. Eq. (5.2.22)]; the integration variables were subsequently changed to
η = p2 /(2mkB T ). An equivalent way of expressing average values is in terms of integrals
in the single particle energy, ε, and of the density of states D(ε); see Chapter 2. For
instance, the average number of particles is obtained from
Z
hN i = dε D(ε) n(ε), (5.5.11)
which separates the information about the spectral properties [contained in D(ε)] from
the thermal properties [in n(ε)].
For the present case of quadratic dispersion, ε ∝ p2 , and for a three-dimensional
space, we have (see § 2.4 and Problem 2.2)
2π
D(ε) = (2m)3/2 V ε1/2 , (5.5.12)
h3
where we have taken g = 1 for simplicity. This density of states attributes zero weight to
states with ε = 0, so that the ground state occupation would not contribute to hN i.4 In
addition, since n ≈ exp(−βε) the excited states would also contribute with hN i → 0 at
low temperatures. This is certainly nonsensical, since particles cannot disappear as the
temperature is lowered. The inconsistency lies in the fact that the replacement of sums
over p by integrals in ε ignores the singular behaviour of n(ε) expressed in Eqs. (5.5.9a)
and (5.5.9b). We must therefore separate the contributions from the p = 0 states before
replacing the sums by integrals. Going back to Eq. (5.2.16), we write
X h i
P V = −kB T ln(1 − z) + ln 1 − z e−βεp , (5.5.13)
p6=0
4
Note that usually one considers N as large, but finite, and the limit N → ∞ is taken at the end of
the calculations.
5.5. DEGENERATE BOSE GAS 105
The sums in p can now be replaced by integrals, as before, since the p = 0 terms do not
contribute anyway; we then have
P 1 1
= − ln(1 − z) + 3 g5/2 (z), (5.5.15)
kB T V Λ
and
1
n = n0 + g (z), (5.5.16)
Λ3 3/2
where
hN0 i 1 z
n0 ≡ = (5.5.17)
V V 1−z
is the density of particles in the ground state, and the Bose integrals are given by
Eq. (5.5.1).
Let us examine the relative magnitude of the terms on the right-hand side (RHS) of
Eqs. (5.5.15) and (5.5.16), keeping in mind that for bosons we must have z ∈ [0, 1] since
µ ∈ (−∞, 0]. Given that P/kB T and n are intensive, we only need to keep terms of O(1)
on the RHS of these equations.
At high temperatures, z 1, so that ln(1 − z) ' −z and the new term in (5.5.15)
contributes with z/V . O(1/N ); in this classical limit, the second term must yield n,
in comparison with which the new term can be neglected. The first term in (5.5.16),
namely the density of particles in the ground state, is O(z/N ), so that, again, the second
term is the one providing the sought O(1) contribution. Thus, the new terms do not
contribute at high temperatures, and the Maxwell-Boltzmann limit is unaffected.
At very low temperatures, z → 1, the dominant contribution to the density in (5.5.16)
must come from the first term, since the accumulation of particles in the ground state is
allowed. Therefore, n0 = z(1 − z)−1 /V must be O(1), implying in z(1 − z)−1 ' N ; hence
z ∼ 1 − 1/N . By contrast, when we take this into the first term on the RHS of (5.5.15),
we see that its contribution to the pressure, −(1/V ) ln(1 − z), is, at most, O[(ln N )/N ].
In summary, the pressure is not significantly [i.e., not O(1)] altered by the contri-
butions from the ground state neither at high nor at low temperatures; therefore, the
new term will be neglected from now on. For the density, the new term accounts for the
‘missing’ particles at low temperatuers, so it must be kept. Accordingly, Eqs. (5.5.15)
and (5.5.16) become
P 1
= 3 g5/2 (z), (5.5.18)
kB T Λ
and
1
n = n0 + g (z), (5.5.19)
Λ3 3/2
which provide us with the equation of state.
106 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
ne,max
n
Tc T
Figure 5.5: Density of particles occupying the excited states, ne , as a function of temperature, with the total
density, n, being kept constant. (Schematic). The critical temperature corresponds to ne = n (see text).
We have therefore found two distinct regimes of ground state occupancy: one corre-
sponds to a macroscopic occupation, occurring for z ≈ 1, and the other to a microscopic
occupation, occurring for z 1.
The important question to answer now is whether this macroscopic occupation, or
condensed state, persists through a finite temperature interval, or it becomes microscopic
as soon as the temperature rises. To this end we examine the behaviour of the density of
particles accommodated in all excited states, i.e., those with p 6= 0; call it ne ≡ n − n0 .
The first thing to note is that, by virtue of gλ (1) being finite for λ = 3/2, ne is limited.
Indeed, using Eqs. (5.5.19), (5.5.6), and (5.5.7)), we may write, for a given temperature,
The dependence of ne,max with the temperature is illustrated in Fig. 5.5, which also
shows the total density, n, assumed fixed.
Figure 5.5 highlights two regimes. When ne,max < n, the number of particles which
can be accommodated in the excited states is limited, so the excess particles must neces-
sarily occupy the ground state, leading to a macroscopic density n0 ≡ n − ne,max .5 The
other regime is when ne,max > n, in which the excited states can be occupied without
any restriction; this is the situation closer to the ideal Boltzmann gas, in which excited
states are progressively occupied without restriction as the temperature is increased, so
that the ground state is depleted; its occupation becomes microscopic.
The picture emerging from this fixed-density analysis is that the macroscopic occu-
pation of the ground state, known as Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC),6 persists at
finite temperatures, up to some critical temperature, Tc , which is determined from the
5
One must always have in mind that the particles are indistinguishable, so we cannot say which
particles are in the state with εp = 0 and which are in the states with εp 6= 0. This fact is already
incorporated into the properly symmetrised wave function, Eq. (5.1.6).
6
The term condensation is usually associated with the phase transition which takes place when
vapour becomes liquid, a phenomenon occurring in a region of coordinate space. By contrast, BEC is a
condensation in the p = 0 ‘region’ of momentum-space.
5.5. DEGENERATE BOSE GAS 107
condition ne,max = n to be
h2 n n o2/3
Tc = . (5.5.21)
2πmkB 2.612
Alternatively, instead of keeping the density fixed and varying the temperature, one
can go across the two regimes the other way around: we keep the temperature fixed, while
the density can be varied. If n > ne,max (T ) for a given temperature, then the occupation
of the ground state is macroscopic; by contrast, if n < ne,max (T ) the occupation of the
ground state is microscopic. Therefore, for a given temperature ne,max (T ) is the critical
density separating these two regimes of ground state occupation,
Since nc ∝ T 3/2 , the higher the temperature, the larger is the critical density needed to
induce Bose-Einstein condensation; conversely, if one can work at very low temperatures,
then the critical density is not that high. At this point, one should note that BEC only
occurs when the occupation of excited states is bounded [see Eq. (5.5.20)].
We now compare the behaviour of the gas in the condensed phase with that in the
phase without a condensate. First, we recall that since the condensate survives at any
temperature below Tc one must have µ ≈ 0 or, equivalently, z ≈ 1 throughout the
condensed phase. Indeed, the occupation of the ground state at a given temperature is
given by Eq. (5.5.17), which can be solved for z, leading to
1
z '1− . (5.5.23)
hN0 i
That is, as long as there is a condensate, hN0 i ∼ N , and z differs from 1 by terms on the
order of 1/V ; see Fig. 5.6. Similarly, µ ∼ −(kB T /hN0 i) → 0− for hN0 i 1. Therefore,
in what follows it is legitimate to take µ = 0 or z = 1 in the calculations of the different
quantities for T < Tc .
The occupation of excited states for T < Tc , is then given by
2πmkB T 3/2
V
N − hN0 i = 3 g3/2 (1) = 2.612 V =
Λ h2
3/2
T
=N , (5.5.24)
Tc
which, upon rearranging terms leads to
hN0 i
= 1 − (T /Tc )3/2 , (5.5.25)
N
as shown in Fig. 5.7. We see that as the temperature decreases from Tc , the ground
state occupation grows monotonically, reaching the saturation value, N , at T = 0.
This behaviour is typical of the order parameter in a phase transition, such as the
magnetisation of a ferromagnet as a function of temperature; see Ch. 8.
108 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
z N0
N
o(1/ V)
1 v constante
1
3
0 1 1/n
2.612 Tc T
Figure 5.6: Fugacity as a function of 1/nΛ3 (schem- Figure 5.7: Ground state occupation as a function
atic). of temperature, at constant v ≡ 1/n.
P
linha das transicoes
kBT g (1)
3 5/2
T
vc (T) v
Figure 5.8: Isotherms for the equation of state P (v), where v = 1/n. The dashed curve locates the phase transition
points.
Interesting interpretations arise if we imagine a two-fluid model such that for T < Tc
the system is regarded as a mixture of two phases: one is a ‘condensate’ with density
n0 , corresponding to the particles in the state with p = 0, and a ‘gas’ with density
ne ≡ n − n0 corresponding to the particles in excited states; we refer to the latter as the
‘normal fluid’, for reasons which will become apparent soon.
We start with the equation of state, for fixed n. Taking z ' 1 for T < Tc , we have,
from Eq. (5.5.18),
kB T
P (T ) = 3 g5/2 (1) ∼ T 5/2 , for T < Tc , (5.5.26)
Λ
which is independent of v ≡ 1/n goes to zero when T → 0. For T > Tc we may neglect
hN0 i, and get
N 1
= 3 g3/2 (z), for T > Tc , (5.5.27)
V Λ
which may, in principle, be inverted to obtain z = z(T, n). Equation (5.5.18) then gives
us
kB T
P (T, n) = 3 g5/2 z(T, n) , for T > Tc . (5.5.28)
Λ
5.5. DEGENERATE BOSE GAS 109
Figure 5.8 displays two P (v) isotherms, with the top curve representing a higher tem-
perature than the bottom one, according to Eqs. (5.5.26) and (5.5.28). According to
Eq. (5.5.22), for each temperature there is a critical specific volume, vc = Λ3 /g3/2 (1),
such that for v < vc the system is in the condensed phase. The dashed line in Fig. 5.8
represents the locus of the transition points, obtained by setting z → 1 and T = Tc
in Eqs. (5.5.27) and (5.5.28). A comparison with the ideal MB gas reveals that while
for v > vc the isotherms should approach P = kB T /v, for v < vc the pressure does not
change as the density is increased. This provides a signature that particles in the ground
state do not contribute to the pressure. Still from Fig. 5.8, we note that the isothermal
compressibility [Eq. (3.4.3)] is infinite for v < vc ; as we will see in Ch. 8, this is consistent
with a coexistence of the condensate and the normal fluid.
We now turn to calculate the entropy through Eq. (4.1.19), with N = hN i, so that
E + P V − µN
S= , (5.5.29)
T
which, together with the equation of state, Eq. (5.2.28), yields the general result,
5 PV µN
S= − . (5.5.30)
2 T T
In the condensed phase, T < Tc , we use Eq. (5.5.18), with z ' 1, to replace P ; similarly,
we use Eq. (5.5.18), with ne ≡ n − n0 , to write Λ3 in terms of Ne = ne V and g3/2 (1).
We then have,
5 g5/2 (1)
S = kB Ne , T < Tc . (5.5.31)
2 g3/2 (1)
Above Tc , analogous replacements yield
g5/2 z(n, T )
P (T ) = n kB T , (5.5.32)
g3/2 z(n, T )
The proportionality between S and Ne in the condensed phase means that only particles
in excited states ‘carry’ entropy.7 With this, the interpretation of two fluids coexisting for
T < Tc acquires further consistency: the condensate neither carries entropy nor exerts
pressure, unlike the ‘normal fluid’ which carries entropy and exerts pressure. Above
Tc , there is no condensate, so that all particles contribute to the entropy, S ∝ N . A
similar two-fluid model is sometimes invoked to describe some aspects of superfluidity
and superconductivity.
7
Same comment in footnote 5 applies.
110 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
Finally, we focus on the heat capacity. Using the equation of state, Eq. (5.2.28), the
heat capacity is given by
CV 1 ∂E 3 ∂P
= = . (5.5.34)
N kB N kB ∂T N,V 2n ∂T N, V
| {z }
n
3 g5/2 (z)
CV ∂
= T . (5.5.36)
N kB ∂T 2 g3/2 (z) n
The calculation of the derivative above requires the knowledge of (∂z/∂T )n . To this
end, we first note that
∂g3/2 ∂g3/2 (z) ∂z
= . (5.5.37)
∂T n ∂z ∂T n
On the one hand Eq. (5.5.27) gives us
∂
z gn (z) = gn−1 (z). (5.5.39)
∂z
Taking these two results into Eq. (5.5.37), we get
3 z g3/2 (z)
∂z
=− . (5.5.40)
∂T n 2 T g1/2 (z)
CV
Nk B
3/2
3/2
~T
Tc
T
Figure 5.9: The specific heat of an ideal Bose gas (schematic).
5.6 Exercises
1. (a) Show that for ideal quantum gases, the energy density can be obtained from the
grand-potential, J, as
1 ∂
ẽ = − βJ .
V ∂β z,V
112 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
(b) Now suppose the single-particle levels depend on σ, εpσ , to show that
1 ∂
hnp0 σ0 i = − βJ .
β ∂εp0 σ0 z,T
2. Consider an ideal Fermi gas, with energy spectrum ε(p) = aps , contained in a hyper-
cubic box of ‘volume’ V = Ld , in a d-dimensional space.
4. Consider an ideal gas of N bosons, with energy spectrum εp = aps , s > 0, contained
in a d-dimensional box of linear size L and volume V = Ld .
5. N bosonic atoms of mass m move confined by a harmonic trap. In the dilute regime,
the interactions between the atoms can be neglected, so that the Hamiltonian becomes
d XN
" #
X p2i,` 1 2 2
H= + mω` xi,` , (5.6.1)
2m 2
`=1 i=1
written in a way that allows for d spatial dimensions, and we consider here an isotropic
trap ω` = ω, ∀` = 1, ..., d. The density of states for this system is found to be
approximately given by
D(ε) ∝ εd−1 . (5.6.2)
6. Consider an ideal Bose gas, made up of molecules with internal degrees of freedom.
Admit that, in addition to the ground state, ε0 = 0, one only needs to take into
account the first excited state of the internal spectrum, with energy ε1 . Show that
the critical temperature for Bose-Einstein condensation is given by
1/2
(0) 1
2/3 2 4/3 πε (0)
Tc 1 + 3ζ(3/2) 1
if ε1 kB Tc
2 k T
(0)
Tc ' h B
(0)
i c
Tc(0) 1 − 2
e−ε1 /kB Tc (0)
if ε1 kB Tc ,
3ζ(3/2)
(0)
where Tc is the usual critical temperature, and ζ(n) is Riemann’s ζ-function.
114 CHAPTER 5. QUANTUM EFFECTS: BOSE AND FERMI STATISTICS
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
In this Chapter we will study some simple applications of quantum ideal systems. We
start with a discussion on the calculation of ensemble averages through the use of single-
particle density of states; we will then see that this approach becomes especially useful
in the analyses of fermionic systems at low temperatures. Then will study the magnetic
behaviour of a Fermi gas, encompassing Pauli paramagnetism and Landau diamagnetism;
a brief discussion of the Quantum Hall Effect (QHE) will also be presented. And, finally,
we will also discuss the bosonic behaviour of some elemenary excitations, such as photons
and phonons.
and with single-particle levels which are arbitrary functions of p ≡ |p|, namely ε(p); see
Probs. 7 and 8 of Chapter 3. ForP the time being, we assume the energy levels do not
depend on the spin states, so the σ in Eq. (5.2.16) is simply g, the spin degeneracy of
each level. Thus, inverting ε(p) → p(ε), we have
Ld d Ld ∂p
g d
d p = g d
Sd [p(ε)]d−1 dε,
h h ∂ε
≡ D(ε) dε (6.2.2)
115
116 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
where [3, 4]
2π d/2
Sd = , (6.2.3)
Γ(d/2)
is the area of a d-dimensional sphere of unit radius, with the Gamma function being
given by
Z ∞
Γ(λ + 1) = λ! = dx xλ e−x , λ > −1, (6.2.4)
0
√
Γ(λ + 1) = λΓ(λ) ; Γ(1) = 1; Γ(1/2) = π; (6.2.5)
For instance, the average energy (assuming the energy levels do not depend on σ) be-
comes
X
hEi = n p εp
p,σ
Z
= dε D(ε)n(ε)ε, (6.2.9)
where n(ε) is given by Eqs. (5.3.2) or (5.3.3), with εp → ε, for bosons or fermions,
respectively. The average number of particles is similarly given by
Z
hN i = dε D(ε)n(ε), (6.2.10)
In the next Section we will explore the behaviour of some of these integrals caused
by the peculiarities of the Fermi distribution at low temperatures.
6.3. FERMIONIC SYSTEMS 117
where the first term on the RHS of (6.3.2)) vanishes since f (∞) = 0 and also because
one assumes that ψ(ε0 ) = 0.1
From Fig. 5.2 it is easy to see that, especially at low temperatures the function df /dε
takes on very small values, unless on an interval of the order of kB T around ε = µ. We
may therefore expand ψ(ε),
1
ψ(ε) = ψ(µ) + (ε − µ)ψ 0 (µ) + (ε − µ)2 ψ 00 (ε) + . . . , (6.3.3)
2
take into Eq. (6.3.2), and integrate each term.
We may extend the lower limit of integration to −∞, since this does not cause
any significant differences, given that the integrands vanish in these limits, and use the
following results,
Z ∞
df
dε = −1, (6.3.4)
−∞ dε
Z ∞
df
dε (ε − µ)n = 0 (n odd), (6.3.5)
dε
Z−∞
∞ ∞
df xn e x
Z
dε (ε − µ)n = − (kB T )n dx
−∞ dε −∞ (ex + 1)2
= −2 (kB T )n n! 1 − 21−n ζ(n) (n even),
(6.3.6)
to obtain
∞
2 1 − 21−2r ζ(2r) (kB T )2r ψ (2r) (µ).
X
I = ψ(µ) + (6.3.7)
r=1
1
For most cases of interest, with ε ∼ ps , we have D(ε) ∼ (ε − ε0 )(d−s)/s , and Q(ε) ∼ (ε − ε0 )λ ;
therefore, ψ(ε) ∼ (ε − ε0 )(d+sλ)/s , so that one must have λ > −d/s for the assumption to hold.
118 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
P∞ −n
In the above equations, ζ(n) ≡ l=1 l is Riemann’s ζ-function, whose relation to the
Bernoulli numbers, Br , is
π 2r
ζ(2r) = 22r−1 Br , (6.3.8)
(2r)!
with
1 1 1 1 5
B1 = , B 2 = , B 3 = , B 4 = , B 5 = . (6.3.9)
6 30 42 30 66
Replacing ψ 0 (ε) by G(ε) yields
Z ∞
π2 7π 4
Z µ
dε G(ε)f (ε) = dε G(ε) + (kB T )2 G0 (µ) + (kB T )4 G000 (µ) + . . . (6.3.10)
ε0 ε0 6 360
The integral on the RHS can be further simplified by recalling that at low temperatures
the difference between the chemical potential and the Fermi energy is very small, of the
order of (εF /kB T )2 , so we may write,
Z µ Z εF
dε G(ε) ≈ dε G(ε) + (µ − εF ) G(εF ). (6.3.11)
ε0 ε0
An important aspect of this expression is that the T = 0 contribution (the first term on
the RHS above) is separated from those related to T > 0 (the remaining terms).
From Eq. (6.3.12) the reader should be able to derive the following relations
∂I 1
= π 2 kB 2
T G0 (εF ) + O(T 3 ), (6.3.13)
∂T µ 3
∂I
= G(εF ) + O(T 2 ), (6.3.14)
∂µ T
∂I 1
= π 2 kB 2
T φ0 (εF )D(εF ) + O(T 3 ), (6.3.15)
∂T N 3
where φ = G/D.
In particular, in Problem 6.2 the reader is asked to show that the chemical potential
at low temperatures is given by
" #
π 2 d ln D(ε) kB T 2
µ ' εF 1 − . (6.3.16)
6 d ln ε ε=εF εF
In addition, one can also show that the heat capacity at constant volume and the entropy
approximately coincide,
π2 2
CV ' S ' D(εF ) kB T. (6.3.17)
3
6.4. MAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN IDEAL FERMI GAS 119
which leads to
2
CV ∼ D(εF )kB T, (6.3.20)
which should be compared with Eq. (6.3.17). This argument also explains why, in the
degenerate regime, the specific heat of a Fermi gas is linear with the temperature in any
dimension, d, and dispersion, ε ∼ ps , given that these features only influence D(ε).
p2
H= − µ · H, (6.4.1)
2m
where the first term is the kinetic energy, and the second represents the interaction of
the electron’s moment with the field. We consider here the case of spins-1/2, so that
the moment only has two possible orientations with respect to H: µ = ±µB , where µB
is the Bohr magneton.
This system may be imagined as two gases of different species, one with moments
parallel to the field, and the other with moments antiparallel to the field, coexisting
in equilibrium..2 Figure 6.1(a) shows the density of states (on the horizontal axis; the
energy appears on the vertical axis) for both species of particles, when H = 0. For
a non-zero field, all energy levels for spins parallel [antiparallel] to the field suffer the
same shift, −µB H [+µB H]. Therefore, as indicated in Fig. 6.1(b), the density of states
associated with the spin channel ‘up’ (σ =↑) is shifted towards lower energies, while the
opposite occurs for the density of states for ‘down’ spins (σ =↓), and we may write
1
Dσ (ε) = D(ε + σµB H), (6.4.2)
2
where, in the three-dimensional case, D(ε) is given by Eq. (6.2.7); the factor 1/2 comes
from the fact that the states contributing to Dσ are non-degenerate, or g = 1, while
Eq. (6.2.7) was obtained for g = 2.
2
From now on, we will use the expression ‘spin parallel (or antiparallel) to the field’ meaning ‘mag-
netic moment parallel (or antiparallel) to the field’, but always keeping in mind that for electrons
µ ∝ −S.
6.4. MAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN IDEAL FERMI GAS 121
(a) H = 0 (b) H =/ 0
F F
+µB H
D( ) D( ) D( ) µB H D( )
Figure 6.1: Schematic density of states for each spin channel, σ =↑, ↓, for the three-dimensional Fermi gas: (a)
zero field; (b) non-zero field.
The Fermi energy is the same for both species, and is determined by imposing that the
total area under the curves Dσ is the total number of particles. Accordingly, Fig. 6.1(b)
shows that the majority of particles have spin parallel to the field, giving rise to a
net magnetisation, which does not occur when H = 0. The magnetisation and the
susceptibility are obtained by calculating N↑ and N↓ , which can be done through small
changes in the results obtained in § 6.3. Thus,
∞ ∞
1
Z Z
Nσ = dε Dσ (ε) f (ε) = dε D(ε + σµB H) f (ε). (6.4.3)
−∞ −∞ 2
At this point we note that there are three energy scales at play, namely the Fermi
energy, εF , the magnetic energy, µB H, and the thermal energy, kB T . Even at very intense
fields in laboratories, ∼ 20 T, and with typical εF ∼ 10 eV, we have µB H/εF ∼ 10−3 , so
that in what follows we will always have in mind that µB H εF . Let us then start with
T = 0, for simplicity. The Fermi function, f (ε), restricts the upper limits in the above
integrals, and we may write,
εF εF +σµB H
1 1
Z Z
Nσ = dε D(ε + σµB H) = dε D(ε), (6.4.4)
−σµB H 2 0 2
where, following Fig. 6.1, one assumes the lowest possible energies for the fermions is
−σµB H.
For the density of states in Eq. (6.2.7), the integration in (6.4.4) is immediate, and
the magnetisation is given by
1 ∂M 3 µ2B
χ0 ≡ = . (6.4.7)
N ∂H 2 εF
The comparison of these results with the corresponding ones for the insulating case is
very illustrative. From (6.4.6), we may write the magnetisation per particle as
M 3 µB H
M≡ = µB . (6.4.8)
N 2 εF
This form stresses the fact that the typical magnetisation unit, µB , comes multiplied
by the small factor µB H/εF , while for localised spins any non-zero field produces a
saturated magnetisation, M = µB , in the ground state. The lack of saturation for
itinerant electrons is due to the appreciable zero-point energy of the Fermi gas; that is,
the alignment is strongly suppressed by quantum fluctuations. Further, since a small
field is unable to produce a considerable alignment, the ground state susceptibility is
finite; again, this is in marked contrast with the Curie divergence (∼ 1/T ) occurring in
insulators when T → 0, since any finite field produces maximum alignment.
At finite temperatures we proceed similarly. The magnetisation is given by
1
Z
M = µB (N↑ − N↓ ) = µB dε {D(ε + µB H) − D(ε − µB H)} f (ε). (6.4.9)
2
where the temperature enters solely on f (ε). Since µB H εF we may expand the D’s,
thus obtaining
M µ2B ∞
Z
χ= = dε D0 (ε)f (ε), (6.4.10)
H N 0
where D0 (ε) ≡ dD/dε.
At low temperatures, we use Eq. (6.3.15), with φ = µ2B D0 /D, to obtain
π2 2 2
2
d ln D
∂χ
= µ k T D(εF ) . (6.4.11)
∂T N 3N B B dε2 ε=εF
temperatures can provide information, e.g. whether D(εF ) is large or small, similarly to
the heat capacity [see Eqs. (6.3.17) and (6.3.20)].
For free electrons in three dimensions, with D(ε) given by (6.2.7), we have
" #
3 µ2B π 2 kB T 2
M≈ H 1− , (6.4.13)
2 εF 12 εF
and " #
3 µ2B π 2 kB T 2
χ' 1− . (6.4.14)
2 εF 12 εF
At high temperatures, kB T εF , we may take f (ε) ' e−β(ε−µ) into Eq. (6.4.10)
which, integrated by parts, yields
µ2
χ' B . (6.4.15)
kB T
As expected, the high temperature susceptibility does not depend on the density of
states, and displays the Curie’s law characteristic of insulators, see (3.10.15).
p2
1
ε= j+ ~ω + z , j = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (6.4.17)
2 2m
The oscillator energies in this context are known as the Landau levels. In a three dimen-
sional motion, one must add to each Landau level a continuum of levels due to the free
z motion, so that the spectrum is gapless. On the other hand, if the particles are kept
124 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
(a) H = 0 (b) H =/ 0
j= 3
h
j= 2
h
j= 1
h
h j= 0
Figure 6.2: Planar contribution to the single-particle energy levels (schematic): (a) H = 0, and (b) H 6= 0.
confined to the plane perpendicular to H, then the spectrum corresponds solely to the
Landau levels, which has gaps.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the effect of the magnetic field on the two-dimensional single-
particle spectrum. One can imagine that several continuum levels in the absence of the
field coalesce into a single level when H 6= 0; that is, every g free levels within an interval
~ω merge into the nearest discrete Landau level. The number of these free states is given
by (in the quasi-continuum approximation)
L2 L2
Z Z Z
g= dpx dpy = 2πp dp
h2 h2
p2 2
x +py p2
j~ω< <(j+1)~ω j~ω< 2m <(j+1)~ω
2m
L2 eH
= . (6.4.18)
hc
We note that the degeneracy of each Landau level increases with H. Further, g/L2
represents the number, per Landau level, of orbits that can be accommodated in each
cm2 ; it therefore provides a quantum measure of the uncertainty in the position of the
electron’s circular orbit.
For a system of non-interacting spinless fermions, the set of good quantum numbers
is therefore λ ≡ {pz , j, α}, with α = 1, 2, . . . , g. Similarly to the free case, it is more
convenient to work in the grand-canonical ensemble, which allows us to factorise the
partition function into a product over single-particle states,
Y
Z= 1 + ze−βελ . (6.4.19)
λ
6.4. MAGNETIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN IDEAL FERMI GAS 125
X g X
X ∞ X
−βελ
ln Z = ln 1 + ze = ln 1 + ze−βε(α,j,pz )
λ α=1 j=0 pz
1/3 ∞ ∞
gV
Z X
= dp ln 1 + ze−βελ , (6.4.20)
h −∞ j=0
we obtain
∞ ∞
gV 1/3 1
Z X
hN i = dp . (6.4.22)
h −∞ z −1 eβε + 1
j=0
so that
zV x
hN i ≈ ln Z ' , (6.4.24)
Λ3 sinh x
with
µ0 H
x≡ , (6.4.25)
kB T
where
eh
µ0 ≡ (6.4.26)
4πmc
is the induced magnetic moment.
The magnetisation is obtained in the usual way,
1 ∂ z 0 1 x cosh x
M = kB T ln Z = 3µ −
V ∂H z,V,T Λ sinh x sinh2 x
= −nµ0 L(x), (6.4.27)
indicating that it points opposite to the field, a signature of diamagnetism; (ii) the purely
quantum nature of this effect, which is evident by the fact that µ0 → 0 when h → 0, and
is in line with the more formal proof of van Leeuwen’s theorem (see Problem 6.3).
With the additional assumption that µ0 H kB T , we have
so that
nµ02 H
M≈− , (6.4.30)
3kB T
and
nµ02
χ≈− , (6.4.31)
3kB T
where the fact that both M and χ depend on µ02 indicates that the diamagnetic effect
does not depend on the sign of the particle’s charge.
Further, the total high-temperature susceptibility is obtained by adding the para-
magnetic and diamagnetic contributions, Eqs. (6.4.15) and (6.4.31), respectively. One
should also have in mind that the particle mass appearing in the definition of µ0 is to be
understood as the effective mass, such as, e.g. the one in a crystal. Thus,
n 2 1 02
χ≈ µB − µ , µ0 H kB T. (6.4.32)
kB T 3
If, in particular, µ0 = µB , the diamagnetic contribution for electrons is 1/3 of the para-
magnetic one, at high temperatures.
Let us now consider the opposite limit of low temperatures, kB T εF . Assuming the
magnetic energy scale is the smallest one, i.e. µ0 H kB T , we can use Euler’s formula
to calculate the sum in j in Eq. (6.4.20); we get
∞ Z ∞
X 1
f (j + 1/2) ≈ f (x) dx + f 0 (0), (6.4.33)
0 24
j=0
H V VH
I
w
t
Figure 6.3: Esquema de medida das tensões longitudinal, V , e transversa (Hall), VH , em uma amostra de largura
w e espessura t, percorrida por uma corrente I, em presença de um campo magnético perpendicular H.
Assuming now µ0 H ' kB T εF , one can show (see, e.g. Ref. [4], §8.2) that the
susceptibility contains oscillatory terms in H:
1/2
3nµ02 kB T εF sin(πεF /µ0 H − π/4)
χ≈π . (6.4.36)
2εF (µ0 H)3/2 sinh(π 2 /βµ0 H)
These oscillations with H are known as the de Haas-van Alphen effect and have a very
important consequence: by experimentally measuring the period of oscillation, one is
able to determine the Fermi energy.
Figure 6.4: Medidas tı́pricas de resistência como função do campo magnético. A curva com platôs corresponde à
resistência Hall, RH , em undidades do quantum de resistência, h/e2 ; as setas indicam o valor de ν na Eq. (6.4.40).
A resistência longitudinal exibe máximos entre os platôs de RH e se anula nos platôs. [Segundo HL Stormer,
Rev.Mod.Phys.71, 875 (1999)].
Figure 6.5: Densidade de estados para um gás de elétrons bi-dimensional em um campo magnético: (a) na
ausência de impurezas, e (b) na presença de impurezas. As impurezas causam um alargamento dos nı́veis de
Landau, que se tornam bandas de estados deslocalizados (regiões hachuradas), ao mesmo tempo em que introduz
estados localizados entre sucessivos nı́veis de Landau.
N ns hc 1
ν= = , (6.4.41)
g e H
Figure 6.6: FQHE: Resistência Hall (RH ) e Magnetorresistência (R) como funções do campo magnético aplicado,
agora no caso de heteroestruturas de GaAs/AlGaAs. Deve ser notado o aparecimento de mais platôs em RH e
de mais quedas em R do que na Fig. 6.4. [Segundo HL Stormer, Rev.Mod.Phys.71, 875 (1999)].
HL Stormer, op. cit.]. Isto, aliado à disponibilidade de campos magnéticos mais intensos,
permitiu estabelecer a presença de platôs também para valores racionais não-inteiros de
ν, dando origem ao Efeito Hall Quântico Fracionário (FQHE); veja a Fig. 6.6.
A origem do FQHE reside na interação entre os elétrons, sendo, portanto, um efeito
de muitos corpos. Todavia, a análise pode ser reduzida, de modo engenhoso, a um outro
problema de partı́culas não interagentes. Para ver isto, devemos notar inicialmente que
um campo magnético H, cujo fluxo é dado por Φ = HL2 (L2 é a área), aplicado a
uma distribuição uniforme de carga produz vórtices, cada um dos quais associado a
um quantum de fluxo magnético Φ0 = hc/e. A Eq. (6.4.18) nos permite escrever a
degenerescência de cada nı́vel em termos de uma razão entre fluxos como
Φ
g= , (6.4.42)
Φ0
N
Φ= Φ0 . (6.4.43)
ν
O efeito das interações entre os elétrons pode ser levada em conta, de modo efetivo,
ao ‘fixarmos’ quanta de fluxo nos elétrons, criando as chamadas partı́culas compostas
132 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
(PC’s). Isto leva a uma transmutação estatı́stica, pois ao trocarmos duas PC’s, a função
de onda fica multiplicada por um fator de fase (−1)1+Φ/Φ0 . Assim, elétrons com um
número par de quanta de fluxo são férmions compostos, enquanto que elétrons com
um número ı́mpar de fluxos se tornam bósons compostos. A partir destas idéias pode-se
compreender uma boa parte dos platôs e das correspondentes magnetorresistências nulas
[veja HL Stormer, op. cit., RB Laughlin, Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, 863 (1998), e referências
lá citadas].
ou seja, o potencial quı́mico do gás de fótons é zero. É importante notar que esta
condição ocorre sempre que as partı́culas em estudo corresponderem a excitações de
algum sistema como, por exemplo, fônons, mágnons, etc.
Os fótons se distribuem entre os diferentes modos normais, caracterizados por vetores
de onda k, com energias εk = ~ωk e relação de dispersão ω = c|k|; os valores possı́veis
de k dependem das condições de contorno impostas à cavidade. Consideraremos sempre
condições de contorno periódicas em uma caixa cúbica de volume V , que fornecem
2π
kα = nα , nα = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , (6.5.2)
V 1/3
onde α = x, y, z. O número médio de fótons com vetor de onda k é dado pela Eq. (5.3.2)
com µ = 0,
1
hnk i = β~ω , (6.5.3)
e k −1
6.5. THERMODYNAMICS OF BLACKBODY RADIATION 133
V
g(k) = 4πk 2 . (6.5.4)
(2π)3
Para relacionar g(k) com g(ω), usamos a relação de dispersão e notemos que o campo
eletromagnético tem apenas duas direções de polarização (denotadas por ê1 e ê2 , de
modo que a densidade de modos com frequência entre ω e ω + dω fica, finalmente,
V
g(ω) = 2 × ω2. (6.5.5)
2π 2 c2
O número de fótons com frequência neste intervalo é obtido multiplicando-se a
Eq. (6.5.3) por g(ω)dω:
V ω 2 dω
dNω = 2 3 β~ω . (6.5.6)
π c e −1
A energia irradiada nesta faixa do espectro é obtida como ~ω · dNω , ou
V ~ ω 3 dω
dEω = , (6.5.7)
π 2 c3 eβ~ω − 1
que é conhecida como a fórmula de Planck para a radiação de corpo negro; veja a Fig. 6.7.
A baixas frequências (~ω kB T ), recupera-se o resultado de Rayleigh-Jeans,
V ω2
dEω = kB T dω, (6.5.8)
π 2 c3
enquanto que a altas frequências obtemos a lei de Wien,
V ~ 3 −β~ω
dEω = ω e dω. (6.5.9)
π 2 c3
Para o cálculo de outras grandezas termodinâmicas necessitamos da função de par-
tição,
∞
X
−β
P YX Y 1
Z= e k,ê ~ωk nk,ê
= e−β~ωk n = , (6.5.10)
1 − e−β~ωk
{nk },ê k,ê n=0 k,ê
Figure 6.7: Distribuição espectral da energia [u0 ≡ dEω /dω, Eq. (6.5.7)] na radiação de corpo negro, mostrando
os resultados de Planck, Rayleigh-Jeans e Wien; x ≡ ~ω/kB T .
onde hnk i é dado pela Eq. (6.5.3) e não inclui a degenerescência devida aos dois modos
transversos de polarização. De modo análogo, a pressão fica
1 ∂ 1 X
P = ln Z = 2~ωk hnk i, (6.5.13)
β ∂V 3V
k
onde deve-se lembrar que a dependência em V vem através de ωk = ck, com k dado pela
Eq. (6.5.2). Comparando as Eqs. (6.5.12) e (6.5.13), obtemos a equação de estado,
1
PV = E, (6.5.14)
3
que é um resultado bastante conhecido para a pressão da radiação de corpo negro. Deve-
se notar que o fator 1/3 representa, na realidade, a razão entre o expoente s da relação
de dispersão (εp ∼ ps ) e a dimensão espacial d.
Tomando agora V → ∞, as somas em k podem ser substituı́das por integrais, e
Z ∞
V V~ ω3
Z
2 ~ck
E= 3
dk 4πk β~ck
= 2 3
dω β~ω , (6.5.15)
(2π) e −1 π c 0 e −1
ou
E π 2 (kB T )4
= . (6.5.16)
V 15 (~c)3
6.6. PHONONS 135
6.6 Phonons
O problema de modos vibracionais de um sólido pode ser estudado considerando o
sistema tanto como um conjunto de osciladores harmônicos, quanto como um gás de
quanta de som, os chamados fônons. Para ilustrar isto, consideremos a Hamiltoniana
de um sólido clássico de N átomos, cujas posições no espaço são especificadas pelas
coordenadas (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . x3N ). As vibrações dos átomos em torno de suas posições
de equilı́brio (x̄1 , x̄2 , x̄3 , . . . x̄3N ) são descritas pelos deslocamentos ξi = (xi − x̄i ), onde
i = 1, . . . 3N . A energia cinética do sistema na configuração {xi } é, então, dada por
3N
1 X 2 1 X ˙2
Ec = m ẋi = m ξi , (6.6.1)
2 2
i=1 i
onde
∂2Φ
1
αij = , (6.6.4)
2 ∂xi ∂xj
inclui também o acoplamento entre vibrações em torno de diferentes sı́tios.
136 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
CV (T ) = 3N kB E(x), (6.6.9)
x2 ex ~ωE ΘE
E(x) = , com x= ≡ ; (6.6.10)
(ex − 1)2 kB T T
onde g(ω)dω fornece o número de modos normais entre ω e ω + dω. Para g(ω) podemos
usar a expressão (6.5.5), desde que adaptada para levar em conta os seguintes aspectos:
(1) os modos de vibração podem ser longitudinais e transversais (estes últimos são du-
plamente degenerados); (2) as velocidades de propagação dos modos longitudinais (cL )
e transversais (cT ) podem ser diferentes. Assim,
V ω2 V ω2
g(ω) = + , (6.6.12)
2π 2 c3L π 2 c3T
Figure 6.8: Distribuição de frequências, g(ω), para o Al. A linha cheia é obtida por espalhamento de raios-X [C
B Walker, Phys. Rev. 103 547, (1956)] e a linha tracejada corresponde à aproximação de Debye.
alta frequência – fônons óticos – as discrepâncias são aparentes. Felizmente, para quanti-
dades médias como a energia interna e, por conseguinte, para o calor especı́fico, detalhes
finos do espectro não são muito importantes. Em segundo lugar, os modos longitudinais
e transversais têm suas próprias frequências de corte, ωD,L e ωD,T , ao invés de um valor
comum, ωD , simplesmente porque há 2N modos transversos e N longitudinais. Todavia,
ambas as frequências de corte correspondem a um mesmo comprimento de onda mı́nimo,
λmin = (4πV /3N )1/3 , que é da ordem da distância interatômica no sólido.
Retomando os cálculos na aproximação de Debye, e lembrando que na Eq. (6.6.8) a
passagem para o contı́nuo contribui com g(ω) ∝ ω 2 , obtemos
CV (T ) = 3N kB D(x0 ), (6.6.15)
onde D(x0 ) é a função de Debye,
3 x0
x4 e x
Z
D(x0 ) = 3 dx , (6.6.16)
x0 0 (ex − 1)2
com
~ωD ΘD
≡x0 = , (6.6.17)
kB T T
o que define a temperatura de Debye para o sólido. Fazendo a integral em (6.6.16) por
partes, obtemos
3x0 12 x0 x3
Z
D(x0 ) = − x0 + 3 dx x . (6.6.18)
e − 1 x0 0 e −1
Para T ΘD , a função D(x0 ) pode ser expressa em uma série de potências em x0 :
x20
D(x0 ) ' 1 − , (6.6.19)
20
6.7. EXERCISES 139
CV ' 3N kB , (6.6.20)
recaindo nas conhecidas integrais bosônicas, gn (z); veja Eq. (5.5.1). Logo,
3
4π 4
12 T
D(x0 ) ' 3 Γ(4)g4 (1) = , (6.6.22)
x0 5 ΘD
e, portanto,
3
12π 4
T
C V ' N kB , (6.6.23)
5 ΘD
reproduzindo o comportamento conhecido como a Lei-T 3 de Debye, indicando a ausência
de um gap, contrariamente ao previsto pelo modelo de Einstein. Deve-se notar que a
dependência de CV com T a baixas temperaturas pode ser extraı́da sem nos referirmos
às integrais bosônicas: com efeito, a integral em (6.6.21) contribui com um número,
enquanto que a dependência com T já está contida em x−3 0 que, por sua vez, resultou de
uma mudança de variável de integração.
Medidas experimentais do calor especı́fico de sólidos a baixas temperaturas servem de
teste para o modelo de Debye, através de estimativas para ΘD , que devem ser comparadas
com as obtidas a partir de constantes elásticas; o resultado favorece a teoria de Debye.
Valores tı́picos de ΘD cobrem o intervalo de 100 a 1000K.
Finalizando, esta análise indica que se o calor especı́fico a baixas temperaturas de
um dado sistema obedece à lei-T 3 , então suas excitações térmicas são explicadas apenas
por fônons.
6.7 Exercises
1. Obtenha os resultados (6.3.13), (6.3.14) e (6.3.15).
2. Mostre que, para um gás de férmions a baixas temperaturas temos, de uma maneira
geral,
" #
π 2 d ln g(ε) kB T 2 π2 2
µ ' εF 1 − e CV ' S ' k T g(εF ),
6 d ln ε ε=εF εF 3 B
onde g(ε) é a densidade de estados de uma partı́cula. Discuta estes resultados para
um gás com espectro de energia εp = apn em um espaço d-dimensional.
140 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
(a) Mostre que a energia de uma dada configuração de spins pode ser escrita como
X
E= Ep (np↑ , np↓ ),
p
Z = Z0 (µ + µB H) Z0 (µ − µB H),
onde Yh i
2
Z0 (ν) = 1 + eβ(ν−p /2m) .
p
(a) Qual a probabilidade de ocupação, p(n; ε), à temperatura T (ou sua inversa,
β ≡ 1/kB T ) de um estado arbitrário com energia ε, sendo n = 0, 1 a ocupação
do estado? Certifique-se de que esta probabilidade está normalizada.
(b) Mostre que a probabilidade do estado com energia µ+δ (δ é uma energia constante
arbitrária) estar ocupado é igual à probabilidade do estado com energia µ−δ estar
desocupado. Comente.
7. Ondas de spin são perturbações a baixas temperaturas sobre um estado com spins
(clássicos) totalmente alinhados [parte (a) da figura abaixo]. Elas correspondem,
essencialmente, a um desvio transversal sendo compartilhado por todos os spins; veja
a parte (b) da figura abaixo. Mágnons são os quanta destas excitações, que têm
relação de dispersão ω = Ak 2 , onde A é uma constante.
(a) Faça esboços das densidades de estados de mágnons, D(ε), como funções da
energia ε, para dimensões espaciais d = 1, 2 e 3. Coloque no mesmo gráfico o
número médio de mágnons com energia ε.
(b) Obtenha o número médio total de mágnons em um sistema de dimensão d.
(c) Discuta cuidadosamente seus resultados. Comente, em particular, as consequên-
cias para o alinhamento quando d ≤ 2.
142 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATIONS OF IDEAL QUANTUM SYSTEMS
(d) Suponha agora que limε→0 g(ε) = ∆, onde ∆ é uma constante positiva. Como
isto alteraria as conclusões do ı́tem anterior?
(a) Mostre que o número médio de ocupação hnp i de um estado com energia εp é
dado por
1
hnp i = β(ε −µ−v·p) ,
e p −1
onde µ é o potencial quı́mico.
(b) Mostre, a partir daı́, que a densidade de ‘massa inercial’ de um gás de fônons,
com relação de dispersão ω = ck, movendo-se em bloco com velocidade v é
16π 5 (kB T )4 1
ρ= .
45h c 3 5
(1 − v 2 /c2 )3
Chapter 7
Approximation Methods
Refs.: Landau & Lifshitz, Reichl e Koonin
7.1 Introduction
Nos Capı́tulos anteriores, as interações entre as partı́culas foram totalmente desprezadas.
Mesmo assim, pudemos ver exemplos em que esta descrição aproximada fornecia resul-
tados bastante satisfatórios. Por outro lado, há muitos fenômenos, tais como desvios do
gás ideal na dependência da pressão com a densidade de partı́culas, e transições de fase
em sistemas fluidos, magnéticos, supercondutores, etc., nas quais o papel das interações
é crucial para explicar o comportamento observado.
Neste Capı́tulo e no próximo, apresentaremos algumas maneiras aproximadas de se
tratar sistemas interagentes. Não poderı́amos, de forma alguma, fazer uma revisão de
todos os métodos disponı́veis, pois há muitos deles; cada um reflete as peculiaridades
de cada sistema e das diferentes situações fı́sicas. Podemos dividir as aproximações em,
basicamente, duas categorias: métodos perturbativos e não-perturbativos. Na primeira,
explora-se a presença de algum parâmetro que seja pequeno, em certo sentido. Por
exemplo, expansões na densidade de partı́culas (Seção 7.2) ou na parte atrativa do po-
tencial de interação (Seção 7.3); ou, ainda, expansões da suscetibilidade em altas e baixas
temperaturas, que são muito úteis no estudo de transições de fase, mas que não serão
abordadas neste curso. Entre os métodos não-perturbativos podemos incluir simulações
numéricas como Monte Carlo (Seção 7.4) e Dinâmica Molecular; no Capı́tulo 8 discutire-
mos outros, como teorias de Campo Médio e Grupo de Renormalização. Claramente, esta
divisão tem suas imprecisões, já que vários métodos são frequentemente combinados.
143
144 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
Façamos, inicialmente, a hipótese de que o gás seja tão rarefeito que colisões múltiplas
– isto é, colisões envolvendo mais do que dois corpos simultaneamente – possam ser
desprezadas. Também por simplicidade, consideraremos um gás monoatômico. O movi-
mento das partı́culas pode ser tratado classicamente, de modo que a energia tem a forma
N
X p2i
H= + U (r1 , r2 , . . . , rN ), (7.2.1)
2m
i=1
1
Z
ZN (T, V ) = d3N r d3N p e−βH . (7.2.2)
N !h3N
podemos escrever
1
ZN (T, V ) = QN (T, V ). (7.2.5)
N !Λ3N
Fazendo U = 0, a integral de configuração se reduz a V N , recuperando a já conhecida
função de partição para o gás ideal,
N
(0) 1 V
ZN = , (7.2.6)
N! Λ3
A(0) = −N kB T ln V /Λ3 + kB T ln N !.
(7.2.7)
(0) QN (T, V )
ZN (T, V ) = ZN (T, V ) , (7.2.8)
VN
para que a energia livre tome a forma
A = A(0) − kB T ln QN /V N .
(7.2.9)
7.2. THE VIRIAL EXPANSION 145
d3N r =
R
Somando e subtraindo 1 no integrando da Eq. (7.2.4), e usando o fato de que
V N , temos
1
Z
(0) 3N −βU
A = A − kB T ln d r e −1 +1 . (7.2.10)
VN
A interação entre um par de átomos é muito pequena, a não ser quando eles estão
muito próximos; isto é, prestes a colidir. Façamos agora mais uma hipótese simplifi-
cadora:1 além de rarefeito, há tão poucos átomos que, dificilmente, mais de um par
deles esteja colidindo a cada instante. Assim, para N átomos este par pode ser escolhido
de 12 N (N − 1) maneiras, e podemos fazer a seguinte aproximação para a integral em
(7.2.10):
Z h i 1 Z h i
3N −βU N −2
d r e − 1 ' N (N − 1)V d3 r1 d3 r2 e−βu(r12 ) − 1 , (7.2.11)
2
onde u(r12 ) é a energia de interação entre dois átomos quaisquer, e depende apenas de
suas coordenadas; isto nos permitiu fazer a integração nas outras 3(N − 2) coordenadas,
dando o fator V N −2 . Expandindo o logaritmo e tomando N (N − 1) ∼ N 2 , temos
1 N2
Z h i
(0) 3 3 −βu(r12 )
A = A − kB T ln 1 + d r1 d r2 e −1 '
2 V2
1 N2
Z h i
' A(0) − kB T 2 d3 r1 d3 r2 e−βu(r12 ) − 1 (7.2.12)
2 V
Lembrando que u é função apenas das coordenadas relativas, r, a integral dupla pode
ser expressa em termos das coordenadas do centro de massa, R, e de r, o que nos permite
fazer a integral em d3 R dando origem a mais um fator V . Assim,
1 N2
Z h i
(0) 3 −βu(r)
A ' A − kB T d r e −1 , (7.2.13)
2 V
que pode ser escrita como
N2
A ' A(0) + kB T B2 (T ), (7.2.14)
V
onde
1
Z
B2 (T ) ≡ d3 r 1 − e−βu(r) (7.2.15)
2
tem dimensão de volume. The reader should note that the factor N multiplying n ≡ N/V
in (7.2.14) is in line with the extensive character of A(T, V, N ).
A pressão é dada em termos do coeficiente B2 (T ),
∂A N kB T N
P =− = 1+ B2 (T ) ; (7.2.16)
∂V T,N V V
1
Esta hipótese será dispensada na próxima sub-seção, onde a expansão do virial será deduzida de
modo mais formal.
146 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
r
2r0
u0
Figure 7.1: Energia potencial de interação em função da distância interatômica; r0 é o ‘raio atômico’ e −u0 é o
mı́nimo de energia.
eµ/kB T z
Z
2 /2m
ξ≡ d3 p e−βp = , (7.2.28)
h3 Λ3
ξ2 ξ3
P V = kB T ln 1 + ξV + I2 + I3 + · · · , (7.2.29)
2! 3!
com Z
I2 = d3 r1 d3 r2 e−βu(r12 ) , (7.2.30)
e Z P
I3 = d3 r1 d3 r2 d3 r3 e−β 1≤i<j≤3 u(rij )
. (7.2.31)
J1 =1, (7.2.33)
1
I2 − V 2 , e
J2 = (7.2.34)
V
1
I3 − 3V I2 + 2V 3 .
J3 = (7.2.35)
V
As integrais I2 e I3 podem ser simplificadas introduzindo as coordenadas relativas
r = r2 − r1 , r0 = r3 − r2 , r31 = r − r0 , e as coordenadas do centro de massa do sistema,
R = (r1 + r2 + r3 )/3; note que r31 não é independente. Assim,
Z Z
I2 = d3 R d3 r e−βu(r) , (7.2.36)
e Z Z
3 0 0
I3 = d R d3 r d3 r0 e−βu(r) e−βu(r ) e−βu(|r−r |) . (7.2.37)
e Z
0 0
J3 = d3 r d3 r0 e−βu(r) e−βu(r ) e−βu(|r−r |) − 3e−βu(r) + 2 . (7.2.39)
7.2. THE VIRIAL EXPANSION 149
ou
∞
X Jn
N =V ξn. (7.2.41)
(n − 1)!
n=1
N kB T
1a aprox.: P = kB T ξ, N = V ξ ⇒ P = = P (0) (7.2.42)
V
a 1 N kB T 1N
2 aprox.: P = kB T ξ 1 + J2 ξ , N = V ξ(1 + J2 ξ) ⇒ P = 1− J2 ,
2 V 2V
(7.2.43)
1 a
Z
B2 (T ) = d3 r (1 − e−βu(r) ) ≡ b − , (7.2.44)
2 kB T
com Z 2r0
b = 2π r2 dr 1 − e−βu(r) , (7.2.45)
0
150 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
e ∞
a
Z
− = 2π r2 dr (1 − e−βu(r) ). (7.2.46)
kB T 2r0
Note that b and a have dimensions of volume and [energy · volume], respectively. In
the hard core region the exponential is much smaller than 1, and the integral does not
depend on the interaction potential; we therefore obtain,
16 3
b' πr0 = 4v0 , (7.2.47)
3
where v0 is the atomic volume. In the attractive region, the argument in the exponencial
is −βu(r) = β|u(r)| 1, o que fornece 1 − exp β|u(r)| ' β|u(r)|], e
Z ∞
a |u(r)|
− ' 2π dr r2 . (7.2.48)
kB T 2r0 kB T
Taking the definition of B2 (T ) in terms of a and b [(7.2.44)], into (7.2.16), the pressure
can be written as
N N2 N2
P = kB T + 2 kB T b − 2 a, (7.2.49)
V V V
or, rearranging terms, as
−1
N2
N N
P+ 2a 1+ b = kB T. (7.2.50)
V V V
Assuming the gas to be sufficiently rarefied, such that we can neglect triple (and higher
order) collisions, the molecules are very far apart, and we may take V N b; this implies
−1
N N
1+ b ' 1− b , (7.2.51)
V V
and we arrive at the usual form of the van der Waals equation of state,
N 2a
P + 2 (V − N b) = N kB T, (7.2.52)
V
We see that for rarefied gases, N 2 a/V 2 P and N b V , we recover the ideal gas
result. Most importantly, we see that as result of the interactions, the gas cannot be
compressed indefinitely, since the second term in brackets would become negative, while
both other terms are positive. There is therefore a minimum volume for the gas, namely
Vmin ≡ N b; this can be interpreted as an indication that below this volume threshold
the gas becomes a liquid, as discussed in Sec. 8.3.1.
Uma outra grandeza que ilustra a diferença com relação ao gás ideal é a entropia,
dada por
N 2 kB b
∂A (0) Nb
S=− = S − N kB ln 1 − ' S (0) + ; (7.2.53)
∂T V V V
7.3. DENSE FLUIDS: PERTURBATION THEORY 151
ou seja, a entropia do gás de van der Waals é maior que a do gás ideal. A energia interna
fica, então,
N 2a
E = A + T S = E (0) − , (7.2.54)
V
e o calor especı́fico a volume constante,
!
∂E (0)
∂E (0) 3
CV = = = CV = N kB , (7.2.55)
∂T V ∂T 2
é igual ao do gás ideal. Já o calor especı́fico a pressão constante pode ser calculado
usando os resultados do Exercı́cio 2.7, fornecendo
∂P
2 −1
N a(V − N b)2
∂T V
CP − CV = −T = N kB 1 − 2 (7.2.56)
∂P kB T V 3
∂V T
e−βV0
ρN
0 (r1 , r2 , . . . rN ) ≡ (0)
. (7.3.4)
QN
isto, suponha que cada um dos 3N ‘eixos coordenados’ seja particionado em 10 divisões
– o que, convenhamos, não é muito! –, de modo que o integrando deve ser calculado
em 103N pontos. Tomando N = 20 em um computador rápido – capaz de calcular o
integrando da ordem de 107 vezes por segundo – obterı́amos uma estimativa para QN
em 1053 s, que é da ordem de 1034 vezes a idade do Universo! Evidentemente, devemos
procurar outros métodos para calcular estas integrais.
O Método de Monte Carlo (MC) que discutiremos aqui é um dos modos mais efi-
cientes para calcular integrais multi-dimensionais, ou, principalmente, somas discretas
sobre configurações. O nome ‘Monte Carlo’ vem do caráter aleatório do método e sua
semelhança com o famoso cassino em Mônaco.
A idéia essencial não é calcular o integrando em cada um de um grande número de
pontos da quadratura, mas, ao contrário, apenas numa amostragem representativa das
abscissas. Veremos aqui como selecionar esta amostragem, e suas consequências.
In order to illustrate the power of MC simulations, we will focus on spin models,
since the interactions are usually short-ranged, and the number of states is finite and
discrete: 2N , since there are 2 states for each of the N spins (sites). To this end, in the
next section we discuss some aspects of the basic interaction between spins.
(1) Each spin only interacts with its nearest neighbours. This can be justified since the
dominant coupling is due to the exchange interaction, which involves the overlap
between wave functions centred at the lattice sites, and they decay exponentially
with the distance. With i and j being nearest neighbour (nn) sites, this effective
exchange coupling usually takes the form2
(
−J/4, if Si + Sj add to a triplet state
Eij = −J Si · Sj = (7.4.1)
+3J/4, if Si + Sj add to a singlet state,
where Si and Sj are spin-1/2 operators, and J is the exchange constant. This
rotationally invariant coupling involving the three spin components is known as the
Heisenberg interaction. It should be noted that if J < 0 the ground state of these
two coupled spins is the singlet, Stotal = 0.
(2) The interaction only involves the z-component of the spin operator. While this in
fact occurs in crystals with strong uniaxial anisotropy, it may also be used as defining
the simplest non-trivial instance of an interacting system whose partition function
can be calculated exactly in one- (see Sec. 8.4) and two spatial dimensions. Equation
2
We set ~ = 1, which is equivalent to incorporating ~2 into J, which then acquires dimension of
energy.
154 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
where σi = ±1 are the eigenvalues of the Pauli spin operator σiz , and hiji stands for
nearest neighbour sites on a lattice. Also, we have incorporated all the physical constants
(such as those relating the magnetic moment to the spin, and the ~/2 relating Siz to σiz )
into J and B, both of which now acquire dimension of energy. A ferromagnetically
ordered state then corresponds to having σi = σ, ∀i .
2 N
X
hAi = w(Sn ) A(Sn ), (7.4.4)
n=1
where
1 −βH(Sn )
w(Sn ) =
e (7.4.5)
Z
is the Boltzmann weight for the spin configuration, with H(Sn ) being the energy eigen-
value for the configuration.
3
The available exact solutions to the two-dimensional case resort to very specialised mathematical
tools, and so far no exact solutions have been proposed in three dimensions.
4
Note that the use of a single site label in S ≡ {σ1 , σ2 , . . . , σN } implies, for simplicity, that the
lattice has been ‘rectified’: for instance, on a square lattice of L × L sites, the site coordinate (1, 1) → 1,
(1, 2) → 2, . . . , (1, L) → L, (2, 1) → L + 1, . . . , (L, L) → N = L2 .
7.4. MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS 155
Given that the number of configurations is very large, one would like to sample over
a smaller set of configurations, M 2N . However, not all configurations are equally
probable, so we should sample through the most probable ones, for a given choice of
external parameters such as temperature and magnetic field. This importance sampling
is the basic Monte Carlo strategy. In order to implement this strategy, we imagine our
aim is to generate a sequence of configurations, S1 , S2 , S3 , . . . , SM .
Let us then assume for definiteness that S1 corresponds to a completely random
configuration, say S1 = | ↑, ↓, ↓, ↑, ↓, ↓, ↑, . . . , ↑i. Then we generate another configuration,
St (t stands for trial, or temporary), by, say flipping one spin (e.g., the first spin) relative
to S1 ,
St = | ↓, ↓, ↓, ↑, ↓, ↓, ↑, . . . , ↑i. (7.4.6)
One of the most widely used implementations of the importance sampling is the so-
called Metropolis algorithm, which proceeds as follows: one calculates the ratio between
the probabilities of occurrence of St and S1 , as given by the corresponding Boltzmann
factors,
w(St )
r= = e−β[H(St )−H(S1 )] . (7.4.7)
w(S1 )
Note that if St has an energy smaller than that of S1 , then r > 1, so the new configuration
is more probable than the previous one; St is therefore accepted as the second member of
the sequence, St → S2 . On the other hand, if r < 1 one cannot discard St outright, since
the system must be able to visit less probable configurations as a result of fluctuations,
especially if the difference in energies is small; therefore, if r < 1, St is accepted (St → S2 )
with probability r. One then tries to flip the second spin in S2 , to obtain a new St , from
which we calculate a new r, and so forth. When reaching the last site, one can return
to the first site, and continue attempting to flip spins. By the end of the process, a
sequence of M configurations will have been generated which, as shown in Sec. 7.4.4, is
distributed according to w(S).5
este passo para Xt é aceito se r > 1; se r < 1 ele é aceito com probabilidade r.
Em aplicações numéricas esta última condição é reproduzida comparando-se r com um
número aleatório ζ distribuı́do uniformemente no intervalo [0,1]: o passo é aceito (re-
jeitado) se ζ < r (ζ > r). Assim Xn+1 = Xt se o passo foi aceito, ou Xn+1 = Xn , se o
passo foi rejeitado. Este procedimento é, então, repetido um número grande de vezes. É
importante frisar que a possibilidade do passo ser aceito, mesmo quando representa uma
configuração menos provável, simula o papel de flutuações térmicas, que torna acessı́veis
estados com energias livres diferentes de um mı́nimo global. Deve-se notar também que
qualquer ponto inicial, X0 , pode, em princı́pio, ser escolhido mas, como veremos abaixo,
uma escolha conveniente em geral acelera o processo de convergência.
Para mostrar que este algoritmo efetivamente gera uma sequência de pontos dis-
tribuı́dos de acordo com w, considere um grande número de andarilhos partindo de
diferentes pontos iniciais, e se movendo independentemente no espaço-X. Seja Nn (X) a
densidade de andarilhos no ponto X após n passos; o número resultante de andarilhos
que se movem de X para Y no próximo passo é
∆N (X) = Nn (X) P (X → Y) − Nn (Y) P (Y → X) = (7.4.9)
Nn (X) P (Y → X)
= Nn (Y) P (X → Y) − , (7.4.10)
Nn (Y) P (X → Y)
onde P (X → Y) é a probabilidade do andarilho transicionar para Y se ele estiver em
X. A condição de equilı́brio, correspondente a não haver alteração na população de X,
∆N (X) = 0, é
Neq (X) Nn (X) P (Y → X)
≡ = . (7.4.11)
Neq (Y) Nn (Y) P (X → Y)
Quando o sistema não está em equilı́brio, as mudanças em N (X) ocorrem no sen-
tido de levá-lo a esta condição. Por exemplo, se houver excesso de andarilhos em X,
Nn (X)/Nn (Y) é maior que o valor de equilı́brio, e ∆N (X) > 0; ou seja, há uma ‘fuga’
de X para Y. É, portanto, plausı́vel que, após um grande número de passos, a população
de andarilhos se estabilize no valor de equilı́brio Neq (X).
Por outro lado, a probabilidade de efetuar a transição de X para Y pode ser escrita
como
P (X → Y) = T (X → Y) A(X → Y), (7.4.12)
onde T é a probabilidade de dar um passo de X para Y e A a probabilidade do passo
ser aceito. Se X e Y estão separados por apenas um passo, então
T (X → Y) = T (Y → X), (7.4.13)
e a distribuição de equilı́brio para andarilhos de Metropolis satisfaz
Neq (X) A(Y → X)
= . (7.4.14)
Neq (Y) A(X → Y)
Se w(X) > w(Y), o passo de Y para X é aceito (A(Y → X) = 1) e
w(Y)
A(X → Y) = , (7.4.15)
w(X)
7.4. MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS 157
w(X)
A(Y → X) = , (7.4.16)
w(Y)
e
M −k
1 X
hfi fi+k i = f (Xi ) f (Xi+k ). (7.4.21)
M −k
i=1
158 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
1 ∂ X 1
hM i = − [−kB T ln Z] = w(S)M = hMi, (7.4.25)
N ∂B N
S
onde X
M≡ σi , (7.4.26)
i
a suscetibilidade magnética,
∂M β
χ= = hM2 i − hMi2 , (7.4.27)
∂B N
a energia interna
∂ X
E = hHi = − ln Z = w(S) H(S), (7.4.28)
∂β
S
7.4. MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS 159
e a capacidade calorı́fica
( )
X
2 2 2
CB = kB β w(S) H (S) − E (7.4.29)
S
Logo, como σ = ±1, f só pode assumir 5 valores distintos, f = 0, ±2, ±4, dando
origem a apenas 10 valores distintos de r. Numa simulação longa é conveniente calcular
estes valores e armazená-los, evitando chamadas frequentes da função exponencial que
ralentariam a execução.
Now we present some results of MC simulations on a square lattice, extracted from
a review by Jacques Kotze,
https://arxiv.org/pdf/0803.0217.pdf
to which the reader is referred for technical details.
We start with the internal energy, as given by Eq. (7.4.28). The ground state cor-
responds to all spins being parallel, so the total ground energy can be easily seen to
be
1
E0 = − zN J = −2N J, (7.4.33)
2
since there are z = 4 neighbouring spins to each spin, and the factor 1/2 corrects for
double counting. The ground state energy per spin is therefore −2J. Figure 7.2 shows
the energy per spin for finite temperatures, which illustrates the importance of displaying
intensive quantities: data for different system sizes can be compared on the same scale,
thus highlighting the influence of the finiteness of the lattices. Indeed, the figure suggests
that the data for L = 8 and 16 appear to be closer to some convergence than those for
L = 2 and L = 4; as we will see below, this is only qualitatively apparent.
The specific heat, as calculated through Eq. (7.4.29), is shown in Fig. 7.3. Since
CH = (∂E/∂T )H , the figure reflects the increasing slope in E × T near Tc = 2.3 as the
system size increases: a pronounced peak evolves around this temperature.
This realization is only significant for the initial configuration and the problem is
avoided by the program in the future by using small temperature steps and the
configuration of the lattice at the previous temperature. A very small number
of mcs are thus required for the system to stabilize its configuration to the new
temperature.
2 Results
2 RESULTS 12
2.1 Energy Results
160 CHAPTER 7. APPROXIMATION METHODS
Energy per spin (E/N) vs Temperature (T) Specific Heat Capacity per spin (C/N) vs Temperature (T)
-0.4 1.6
L=2 L=2
L=4 L=4
-0.6 1.4 L=8
L=8
-1 1
-1.2 0.8
-1.4 0.6
-1.6 0.4
-1.8 0.2
-2 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Temperature (T) Temperature (T)
Figure 7: This plot shows the differing results of the Energy for varying lattice
Figure 8: This plot shows the differing results of Specific Heat Capacity for
sizes, LFigure
× L. 7.2: Average energy × temperature (in units varyingFigure 7.3: Specific
lattice sizes, L × L. heat × temperature (in units of
of J/kB ) for the Ising model on a square lattice. The J/kB ) for the Ising model on a square lattice. The
plots are
In Figure 7 thefor L × per
energy L lattices,
spin as awith L =of2,temperature
function 4, 8, and 16.
can beIn seen.
plots are
Figure 8 thefor L × heat
specific L lattices,
capacitywith L=
per spin is 2, 4, 8,asand
shown 16. of tem-
a function
The curve of the graph becomes more pronounced as the lattice sizeperature.increasesWe concluded previously that a divergence would occur at a phase
but there isn’t a marked difference between the L = 8 and L = 16 lattices. The
transition and thus should be looking for such a divergence on the graph. It is
steep gradient in the larger lattices points towards a possible phasehowever
transition
clear that there is no such divergence but merely a progressive steep-
In order
but isn’t clearly to acquire
illustrated. The energyaper physical intuition
spin for higher ofof what
temperatures
ening the peakisashappening,
is we calculate
the lattice size increases. The point the (ab-
at which the plot is
relatively high which is in keeping with our expectation 6 of having a random
solutewhile
value of the) peaked should be noted as a possible point of divergence. The reason for not
configuration it stabilizes to amagnetisation,
E/N = −2J = −2 at low temperatures.
explicitly finding a divergence will be discussed in Section 2.4.
This indicates that the spins are all aligned in parallel.
X
h|M |i = 2.2 w(S)|M|,
Magnetization Results (7.4.34)
SFigure 9 of the magnetization results shows very beautifully that the shape
of the gradient becomes more distinct as the lattice size is increased. Fur-
thermore, as opposed to Figure 7, there is a far more apparent difference that
and a modified susceptibility, the larger lattices produce in the curves and this illustrates a more apparent
continuous phase transition. The behaviour of the magnetization at high and
0 hMlow2 itemperature
− h|M |iare 2 as the theory prescribes (random to stable parallel aligned
χ ≡ configuration). , (7.4.35)
kBthis
At T juncture it is prudent to point out that the susceptibility cannot be
calculated using the ordinary technique in equation (20) given in the discussion
plotted in Figs. 7.4 and 7.5, respectively. on the calculation of observables. The reason is focused around a subtle fact
that has drastic implications. To comprehend the problem at work we have to
From a mental extrapolation of the consider
magnetisation data towards
one of the constraints → ∞,
of our model,Lnamely we nature
the finite see of our
lattice. This manifests in the fact that spontaneous magnetization can occur
that two physically distinct regimes become apparent: at low temperatures the system
for a finite sized lattice. In this instance the effect is of particular interest below
displays a finite magnetisation, while at high temperatures
the critical temperature. the magnetisation vanishes.
This can be illustrated by considering the following example of collected
Indeed, a careful extrapolation of the magnetisation
data in Figure 10. This datawould
data is taken also show that
at a temperature that is hM i
considerably
less
drops to zero continuously at Tc ≈ 2.3. nature than
Further, the Curie temperature and we
also close to Tc = 2.3thatthewould thus expect
(modified) a stable
it to have
and yet it clearly displays a fluctuation is uncharacteristic, resulting
susceptibility develops a pronounced peak; note that this is the same Tc as for the
specific heat. Therefore, a phase transition does indeed take place at Tc , separating
an ordered low-temperature phase from a disordered high-temperature phase. Further,
several quantities display a non-analytic behaviour at Tc , which will be explored in the
next chapter.
In conclusion, Monte Carlo simulations can indeed provide a deep insight into the
behaviour of interacting systems. But one should be warned that this is not a simple
brute force method: data mining and analyses require very careful considerations. In
particular, extrapolations from finite-sized systems to the thermodynamic limit are based
6
Due to large fluctuations on finite-sized lattices, regions of opposite magnetisations are formed so the
actual magnetisation is underestimated; therefore the absolute magnetisation is plotted here. Further,
since the magnetisation fluctuations are used in the calculation of the susceptibility, one calculates a
modified susceptibility, χ0 [Eq. (7.4.35)]. As discussed in Kotze’s review, h|M |i and χ0 approach hM i and
χ for sufficiently large lattices.
2 RESULTS 17
2 RESULTS 13
7.5. EXERCISES 161
Absolute Magnetisation per spin (<|M|>/N) vs Temperature (T) Magnetic Susceptability per spin (X/N) vs Temperature (T)
1 7
L=2 L=2
L=8 6 L=8
0.8 L=16 L=16
0.7 5
0.6
4
0.5
3
0.4
0.3 2
0.2
1
0.1
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Temperature (T) Temperature (T)
Figure 9: This plot shows the differing results of the MagnetizationFigure 14: This plot shows the differing results
for varying 0 of the susceptibility for varying
lattice Figure 7.4:
sizes, L × L. Absolute magnetisation × temperature lattice Figure 7.5:
sizes, L × L. ‘Susceptibility’ χ (see footnote) × tem-
(in units of J/kB ) for the Ising model on a square perature (in units of J/kB ) for the Ising model on a
lattice. The plots are for L × L lattices, with L = square lattice. The plots are for L × L lattices, with
in a complete flip of16.
2, 4, 8, and the magnetization. It has already been highlightedLthat
= 2, 4, 8, and 16.
because we are dealing with a limited lattice size there is finite probability for
this kind of behaviour to take place. This probability is directly proportional
to the number of mcs used and inversely proportional to the lattice size, this is
on thebycompetition
compounded the preiodic boundarybetween
conditionstwo
used.length scales, namely the linear size of the system, L,
Figure 11 schematically depicts this fact. The valley shown linking the two Magnetic Susceptability per spin (X/N) vs Temperature (T)
and the spatial range of correlations, ξ [25]. Proper
peaks of the probability will thus be dropped for lower temperatures and bigger 100 consideration of quantum effects in
L=2
MC simulations adds extra difficulties, starting mayfrom the fact that the density L=4 operator
Magnetic Susceptability per spin (X/N)
Determine p̄, V̄ , T̄ e interprete seus resultados. Explique o que são “estados corre-
spondentes”.
4. Mostre que a curva de pressão de vapor para um gás em equilibrio com um liquido é
dada aproximadamente [explicite suas aproximações] por:
p = p0 e−`/RT
5. Calcule a integral
1
dx
Z
I= ,
0 1 + x2
usando simulações de Monte Carlo. Utilize os seguintes pesos: (a) w1 (x) = 1 e
(b) w2 (x) = (4 − 2x)/3. Faça uma tabela que contenha as estimativas de I e do
desvio padrão σI nos dois casos (a) e (b), para amostragens cada vez maiores. O
valor exato de I é 0.78540.
Chapter 8
Phase Transitions
Refs.: Landau & Lifshitz, Reichl e Stanley
8.1 Introduction
Neste Capı́tulo continuaremos estudando sistemas interagentes em equilı́brio, mas enfa-
tizando um aspecto muito importante, que são as transições de fase.
A matéria existe em muitas fases, que podem ser classificadas, por exemplo, em
função de sua estrutura – isto é, do grau de ordenamento atômico – como sólidas,
lı́quidas ou gasosas. Cada uma destas, por sua vez, admite sub-divisões; por exemplo,
um sólido pode sofrer transições de fase estruturais, passando de um arranjo tetragonal
para ortorrômbico. Superposto a isto, outras propriedades macroscópicas podem se
manifestar. Um sistema pode transicionar de paramagnético para ferromagnético, ou de
um metal normal para um supercondutor; 4 He e 3 He se tornam superfluidos a baixas
temperaturas. Novamente, é possı́vel subdividir muitas destas fases, ilustrando a riqueza
deste assunto.
Os exemplos acima sugerem que a noção de ordem desempenha um papel funda-
mental. Assim, as fases gasosa, lı́quida, paramagnética, metal normal e fluido nor-
mal são consideradas desordenadas, em contraposição, respectivamente, às fases lı́quida,
sólida, ferromagnética, supercondutora e superfluida, ditas ordenadas. Note que, em
alguns casos, a classificação em fases ordenada e desordenada é relativa: a fase lı́quida
é mais ordenada que a gasosa, porém mais desordenada que a sólida. Cada uma destas
transições de fase pode ocorrer pela mudança da temperatura e dos parâmetros externos
relevantes em cada caso, como a pressão ou campo magnético. Além destes, muitos
outros parâmetros, como a concentração de impurezas, anisotropias, etc., podem oca-
sionar mudanças de fase. Para fixar idéias, pensaremos, na maioria dos casos, que a
temperatura é o parâmetro que varia, mantendo os demais fixos. É bastante intuitivo
o fato de que quanto mais baixa fôr a temperatura, mais ordenado fica o sistema. Isto
porque as interações entre os constituintes do sistema determinam a natureza do estado
ordenado, que sempre é perturbado pela agitação térmica.
Deve-se notar que a fase ordenada é menos simétrica que a fase desordenada. Por
exemplo, na fase ferromagnética existe uma magnetização macroscópica privilegiando
uma direção espacial, enquanto que na fase paramagnética o sistema é isotrópico. Diz-
163
164 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
se, portanto, que uma transição de fase vem acompanhada de uma quebra espontânea de
simetria.
Apesar de muitos sistemas sofrerem diferentes transições de fase, verificou-se experi-
mentalmente ao longo dos anos que diversas grandezas macroscópicas – como as funções-
resposta – apresentavam essencialmente os mesmos comportamentos singulares perto da
transição de fase. Por exemplo, o calor especı́fico perto da transição superfluida em 4 He
é quantitativamente semelhante ao de alguns sistemas magnéticos. (Isto será colocado
de modo mais preciso no decorrer deste Capı́tulo). Este aspecto de universalidade em
transições de fase só foi compreendido em toda sua profundidade com as idéias de scaling
desenvolvidas a partir de 1965 por Widom, Kadanoff, Wilson e Fisher.
Para chegarmos a estas idéias, discutiremos na Seção 8.2 a termodinâmica de tran-
sições de fase. Na Seção 8.3 apresentaremos três versões de teorias de campo médio: de
van der Waals, de Weiss e de Landau. Como ilustração das limitações de teorias deste
tipo, a solução exata do modelo de Ising em uma dimensão será apresentada na Seção
8.4 e confrontada com as previsões da teoria de Weiss na Seção 8.5, que faz então uma
crı́tica às assim chamadas teorias de um corpo (one-body physics). Uma introdução às
teorias de escala (scaling) é feita na Seção 8.6, e o Grupo de Renormalização é discutido
nas Seções 8.7 a 8.9.
Critical Liquid
point
Solid f
uid
T Critical
Liq
m point
Vapor q
l Li
P
k
O vapquid
Liquid So or Gas
a g R lid
E Solid -Va
Critical po
Solid-Liquid
S f r
O S d point
U L
b c i
R va quid e
E a j por
Tri Ga V
ple h s
p line Va
So po
lid r
-Va g
po T4
r o
VO
LU n T3Tc
M T2 RE
E T1 A TU
R
PE
E M
T
Figure 8.1: Diagrama de fases tı́pico para um fluido puro, expresso em termos da pressão, P , do volume, V , e da
temperatura, T . As fases sólida, lı́quida e gasosa estão assinaladas, bem como as regiões de coexistência de cada
par destas fases. Note a presença de um ponto crı́tico e de uma linha tripla, na qual as três fases coexistem em
equilı́brio. Estão também assinaladas as projeções do diagrama nos planos P T (esquerda) e P V (direita). (Figure
taken from Ref. [26].)
A Eq. (8.2.1) pode ser resolvida para P , fornecendo a curva de coexistência num diagrama
PT,
P = Pcoex. (T ). (8.2.2)
Se o sistema puro tem 3 fases, então
e a coexistência entre elas só é possı́vel em apenas um ponto: o ponto triplo (o ponto
de interseção entre as duas curvas no diagrama projetado PT da Fig. 8.1). Para uma
mistura de ` tipos diferentes de partı́culas, há ` + 1 variáveis independentes para cada
fase, a saber, (P, T, x1 , . . . , x`−1 ), onde xi é a fração molar de partı́culas do tipo i. Uma
argumentação análoga à anterior pode ser usada para mostrar que, neste caso, ` + 2 fases
diferentes podem coexistir para T e P dados.
Logo,
dP ∆S ∆H
= = , (8.2.8)
dT coex ∆V T ∆V
que é a conhecida equação de Clausius-Clapeyron, onde
∆H
é o calor
absorvido para ir
∂GI ∂GII
da fase I para a fase II. Da Fig. 8.2(d) , vemos que ∂T > ∂T , de modo que
e o sistema absorve calor para ir da fase de baixa temperatura para a fase de alta
temperatura.
A Fig. 8.3(a) mostra a energia livre de Gibbs como função da temperatura na vizi-
nhança de uma transição de segunda ordem. Mesmo sendo contı́nua na transição, isto
é,
∂G ∂G
SI = − = SII = − , (8.2.10)
∂T I ∂T II
sua derivada com relação à temperatura muda rapidamente, dando origem a um pico
acentuado no calor especı́fico [Fig. 8.3(b) e (c)]. Neste caso não há calor latente.
A situação é análoga para as derivadas com relação à pressão. O volume não é
descontı́nuo,
∂G ∂G
VI = = VII = , (8.2.11)
∂P I ∂P II
mas a compressibilidade diverge em Tc , sinalizando a transição de fase.
Na próxima sub-seção analisaremos sistemas fluidos com mais detalhes.
Figure 8.6: Critical opalescence. A laser beam shining through a test tube becomes more and more scattered and
the fluid becomes more and more opaque, as the critical point is approached from higher temperatures. From
https://inspirehep.net/record/838172/plots. Or from clique aqui
As transições G-L, L-S e G-S são todas de 1a. ordem, e são acompanhadas de calor
latente e mudança de volume. A Fig. 8.5 mostra o diagrama de fases no plano P -V .
Note que os coeficientes angulares das isotermas (linhas tracejadas) são negativos, de
acordo com a condição de estabilidade KT > 0 [c.f. Eq. (3.5.11)]. As linhas cheias
delimitam regiões de coexistência de fases, nas quais as isotermas são sempre horizontais
(KT = ∞) indicando que há mudança de volume para P e T constantes. A divergência
na compressibilidade está associada a flutuações de densidade, fazendo com que luz
visı́vel sofra um forte espalhamento ao passar por um fluido na temperatura crı́tica da
transição G-L; este fenômeno é conhecido como opalescência crı́tica (veja a Figura 8.6
e Stanley, Seções 1.1, 7.2 e 7.3).
Analisemos agora a transição lı́quido-gás com mais detalhes. Ao contrário das dis-
cussões anteriores, usaremos a densidade ρ que, por ser intensiva, é mais apropriada
do que o volume V ∼ ρ−1 . Note, primeiramente, que lı́quido e gás são indistinguı́veis
no ponto crı́tico, caracterizado por Tc e pela densidade crı́tica, ρc . Podemos expressar
este fato dizendo que as respectivas densidades se igualam neste ponto: ρL = ρG = ρc .
Como os valores de Tc e de ρc dependem da substância em estudo, é mais conveniente
introduzirmos as grandezas reduzidas T /Tc e ρ/ρc , que medem a distância do ponto
8.2. THERMODYNAMICS OF PHASE TRANSITIONS 169
crı́tico para cada substância. A Fig. 8.7 mostra os resultados experimentais das curvas
de coexistência obtidos por E. A. Guggenheim (J. Chem. Phys. 13, 253 (1945)) para
diversas substâncias; veja também a Tabela 3.5 do livro do Stanley para os valores dos
parâmetros crı́ticos. Os dados colapsam em uma única curva, satisfazendo a lei dos
estados correspondentes, segundo a qual todos os fluidos clássicos puros satisfazem a
mesma equação de estado, quando expressa em termos de quantidades reduzidas. Em
particular, temos
T β
7
ρL − ρG = ρc 1 − , (8.2.12)
2 Tc
onde
β = 1/3 (8.2.13)
é um expoente crı́tico; outros destes expoentes serão introduzidos ao longo da Seção 8.3.
Eles desempenham um papel fundamental no estudo de transições de fase, pois definem
as chamadas classes de universalidade: as transições de fase podem ser agrupadas de
acordo com os valores destes expoentes. A diferença ∆ρ ≡ ρL −ρG , por ser nula acima da
transição e crescer até um valor de saturação à medida em que a temperatura diminui, é
chamada de parâmetro de ordem da transição. Como ∆ρ cresce continuamente de zero,
a transição no ponto C é de segunda ordem.
Outras grandezas, como, por exemplo, o calor especı́fico a volume constante dentro
da região de coexistência, podem ser obtidas através da equação de Clausius-Clapeyron;
170 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Figure 8.8: Projeções do diagrama de fases para um sistema magnético nos planos H-T (a), H-M (b), e M -T . A
seta tracejada em (a) representa o caminho termodinâmico que leva continuamente uma fase na outra.
onde os J representam as integrais de exchange, hiji indica que as somas são sobre sı́tios
primeiros vizinhos em uma rede d-dimensional, e os S são os operadores usuais de spin-S.
Se J > 0, o estado fundamental dos modelos acima é ferromagnético, correspondendo a
spins alinhados paralelamente entre si.
Deve-se notar aqui que o modelo de Ising é invariante por uma rotação de π em
todos os spins; isto é, através da transformação discreta Siz ↔ −Siz , ∀i, a Hamiltoniana
não se altera. Já os modelos de Heisenberg e XY, por conterem produtos escalares, são
invariantes por rotações contı́nuas, ou por qualquer ângulo. Como veremos no decorrer
do capı́tulo, esta diferença se manifesta em diversas propriedades dos modelos.
A partir de uma Hamiltoniana microscópica, diversas aproximações podem ser feitas
de modo sistemático. No caso de fluidos, as interações são mais difı́ceis de serem incor-
poradas, o que explica o fato dos avanços conseguidos no estudo de transições de fase
nos últimos anos ter sido baseado, em grande parte, em sistemas magnéticos.
8.2.5 Percolation
Let us now discuss a purely geometrical problem: consider a d-dimensional (d > 1)
lattice of linear size L, in which only a fraction, p, of the sites are randomly occupied;
that is, p = Nocc /Ntotal , where Nocc is the number of occupied sites, and Ntotal is the
total number of sites. If p 1, there is no way the lattice can be spanned from one
edge to another1 by a path made up of occupied nearest-neighbour sites. In the opposite
limit, p ≈ 1, one can certainly go from one edge to another, and one says the occupied
sites percolate.2 Therefore, there must exist a critical concentration, pc , separating two
regimes: one, for p < pc , in which an arbitrary number of finite clusters of nearest
neighbour occupied sites are formed; and another, for p > pc , in which there is at least
one ‘infinite cluster’, by which one means a cluster of typical size ∼ L a, where a
is the nearest-neighbour distance. Figure 8.9 illustrates these two regimes on a square
lattice.
We can then devise several cluster properties which bear the signature of pc . One
important quantity is P (p), the probability that an occupied site belongs to the infinite
spanning cluster [27]: it is zero for p < pc , since there is no spanning cluster, and it grows
from 0 to 1, as p grows from pc to 1; see Fig. 8.10. The similarity with the temperature
behaviour of both the magnetisation in magnetic systems, and the density difference in
the case of fluids should be evident: P (p) therefore plays the role of an order parameter
for this phase transition. The lack of a discontinuity in P (p) indicates that the transition
is of second order, or continuous.
In order to complete the analogy with thermal phase transitions, we may introduce
in percolation problems the analogue of the magnetic field and of the pressure. Imagine
a ‘ghost site’, lying outside the lattice, so that each lattice site has a probability h of
being connected to it, and 1 − h of not being connected to it; see Fig. 8.11. Then, if
1
This applies to a lattice with free boundaries; for a lattice with periodic boundary conditions, this
is understood as the completion of one ‘turn’ around the lattice.
2
When water is poured onto a heap of ground coffee it wets the grains in such way that holes of
dried regions are hardly formed; the liquid thus obtained is percolated coffee.
172 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Figure 8.9: Site percolation. Computer-generated square lattice with 60 × 50 sites, for two different concentrations
of occupied sites (denoted by ∗; unoccupied sites are not shown): p = 0.5 on the left panel, and p = 0.6 on the right
panel. Some clusters of occupied sites are highlighted by lines joining nearest-neighbour sites. The percolation
threshold is pc = 0.5928, and we see that for p < pc the two largest clusters are highlighted, none of which spans
the whole lattice. By contrast, for p > pc a single cluster (the highlighted one) spans the whole lattice. (Figures
taken from Ref. [27].)
Figure 8.10: Schematic plot of P (p), the probability Figure 8.11: The ‘ghost-site’ is a site outside the lat-
that a site taken at random belongs to the percolating tice, which has a probability h of being connected to
cluster. P (p) plays the role of an order parameter for a given site.
the percolation phase transition.
h 6= 0, the connectivity of the lattice is enhanced since even sites far apart from each
other may become connected; for h ≈ 1 all occupied sites are connected, thus forming
a spanning cluster. This is similar to the effect a magnetic field has on an interacting
spin system: it helps to order the spins. By the same token, applying pressure to a gas
brings the molecules together, favouring the formation of a liquid state. The analogy
between fluids, magnets and percolation can then be read as
− P → H → h, V → M → P, T → T → (1 − p). (8.2.18)
resistor network as a function of p; see, e.g. Ref. [27]. One may also consider the situation
in which each site is occupied either by a magnetic atom (that is, an atom with a total
angular momentum S 6= 0) or by a non-magnetic atom (S = 0). In this situation, if all
neighbouring magnetic atoms are exchange-coupled, the percolating cluster for p > pc
will be magnetically ordered at temperatures T ≤ Tc (p), such that Tc (1) is the critical
temperature for the clean magnetic system; for reviews, see, e.g. Refs. [28, 29].
onde Ū < 0 é uma grandeza a ser determinada; deve-se notar que, neste caso, trata-
se de um potencial de alcance infinito. Para estimar Ū notemos, primeiramente, que a
energia potencial total do sistema é N Ū , resultante da interação entre 21 N (N −1) ' 21 N 2
pares, cada um dos quais contribuindo com ū0 . Esta pode ser tomada como uma média
(esférica) da parte atrativa do potencial intermolecular, u(r), sobre o volume do sistema,
1 R 2a
Z
ū0 = 4πr2 dr u(r) ≡ − , (8.3.2)
V 2r0 V
o que define a constante a, e onde supusemos que u(r) decaia a zero rapidamente quando
r → R ∼ V 1/3 . Dado que N Ū = (1/2)N 2 ū0 , devemos ter, portanto,
1 N
Ū = N ū0 = −a , (8.3.3)
2 V
mostrando que Ū é intensiva.
A função de partição fica, então,
1 V − V0 βaN/V N
1 N
ZN = Z = e , (8.3.4)
N! 1 N! Λ3
174 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
onde V0 é o volume excluı́do, por molécula, devido ao carôço duro. Como o volume
excluı́do por par é 43 π(2r0 )3 ≡ 2b [veja Eq. (7.2.47)], devemos ter
V0 = bN. (8.3.5)
de modo que a diferença em energias livres de dois pontos quaisquer 1 e 2 é dada pela
área da curva ṽ(P ) entre eles, ou
Z P2
g̃2 − g̃1 = ṽ(P ) dP. (8.3.10)
P1
Com isto, a energia livre molar ao longo do trecho AI da Fig. 8.12 é apresentada
na Fig. 8.13. Entre D e F os estados são instáveis porque a energia livre aparece como
uma função convexa de P e não é mı́nima; nos outros trechos a concavidade garante a
estabilidade. Todavia, para garantir que a evolução de A até I na Fig. 8.12 se faça por
estados de energia livre mı́nima, devemos descartar os estados que vão de C a G. Isto
é feito impondo que a energia livre permaneça constante entre C e G, o que equivale a
traçar uma reta vertical na Fig. 8.12 unindo C a G. Assim, a variação de energia livre
entre estes dois pontos é nula, de modo que
Z PG
0= dP ṽ(P ) =
PC
ZPD Z PE Z PF Z PG
= dP ṽ(P ) + dP ṽ(P ) + dP ṽ(P ) + dP ṽ(P ), (8.3.11)
PC PD PE PF
Cada lado da equação corresponde a uma das áreas hachuradas na Fig. 8.12, indicando
que a reta vertical é traçada de modo a fazer com que aquelas áreas sejam iguais.
Os estados descartados, para os quais a energia livre ainda é côncava, são ditos
metaestáveis. Note que o trecho vertical corresponde a uma compressibilidade infinita,
o que está de acordo com o comportamento na região de coexistência. A construção
de Maxwell é utilizada em outros contextos, quando alguma aproximação dá origem a
energias livres com convexidade insatisfatória.
Examinemos agora o comportamento da equação de van der Waals perto do ponto
crı́tico, o qual é localizado como sendo o ponto onde o coeficiente angular da isoterma
crı́tica é infinito, e por ser também um ponto de inflexão. Ou seja,
2
∂P ∂ P
=0 e = 0. (8.3.13)
∂ṽ Tc ∂ṽ 2 Tc
176 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
CV / NkB
3/2
T
Figure 8.14: Calor especı́fico a volume constante como função da temperatura (esquemático), conforme previsão
da teoria de van der Waals. Note que, para T > Tc , o calor especı́fico é igual ao do gás ideal.
Assim,
a 8a
Pc =2
, ṽc = 3b e Tc = . (8.3.14)
27b 27bR
Introduzindo as variáveis P̄ ≡ P/Pc , T̄ ≡ T /Tc e V̄ ≡ ṽ/ṽc , a equação de van der Waals
satisfaz uma lei de estados correspondentes,
3
P̄ + 2 (3V̄ − 1) = 8T̄ (8.3.15)
V̄
cujo significado fı́sico foi discutido em detalhes na Sub-seção 8.2.3.
Na vizinhança do ponto crı́tico de segunda ordem, diversas grandezas apresentam
comportamentos singulares, caracterizados pelos chamados expoentes crı́ticos. Por e-
xemplo, introduzindo as notações ∆ρ ≡ ρL −ρG , de acordo com a discussão da Sub-seção
8.2.3, e ε ≡ (T /Tc ) − 1, temos
∆ρ ∼ (−ε)β . (8.3.16)
A partir da equação de van der Waals, obtém-se (veja o Exercı́cio 2) β = 1/2, que é
diferente do resultado experimental, β ' 1/3, para fluidos reais.
A compressibilidade isotérmica, na vizinhança do ponto crı́tico é dada por
( 0
(−ε)−γ , se T < Tc
KT ∼ (8.3.17)
ε−γ , se T > Tc ,
com γ = γ 0 = 1 pela teoria de van der Waals, enquanto que experimentalmente tem-se
γ ' γ 0 ∼ 1.2.
Experimentalmente, o calor especı́fico também apresenta um comportamento singu-
lar, ( 0
(−ε)−α se T < Tc
CV ∼ (8.3.18)
ε−α se T > Tc ,
8.3. MEAN-FIELD THEORIES 177
com α ' α0 ∼ 0.1 − 0.3. No entanto, a teoria de van der Waals fornece uma descon-
tinuidade (Fig. 8.14), e não uma divergência. Em termos de expoentes, a descontinuidade
é representada por α0 = α = 0(desc.). O comportamento do calor especı́fico a pressão
constante é semelhante ao da compressibilidade.
O expoente δ descreve a variação da pressão com a densidade ao longo da isoterma
crı́tica:
δ
P − Pc ρ
∼± −1 , (8.3.19)
Pc ρc
onde o sinal ± indica ρ maior ou menor que ρc . Pela equação de van der Waals, δ = 3,
enquanto que, experimentalmente, δ ∼ 4.
Podemos definir outros expoentes associados à função de correlação densidade-densi-
dade, Γ(r). Como a discussão é muito extensa (veja Stanley, Cap. 7), só mencionaremos
aqui que, perto de Tc , as correlações decaem exponencialmente com a distância,
1
Γ(r) ∼ , (8.3.22)
rd−2+η
1.5
T > Tc
T = Tc
< >
T < Tc
tanh [< >Tc /T]
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
< >
Figure 8.15: Solução gráfica da Eq. (8.3.29). O lado direito da equação é mostrado para diversas temperaturas.
Tc é obtida quando as derivadas de ambos os lados da equação se igualam.
G = −N kB T ln Z1 . (8.3.28)
e para a suscetibilidade,
χ ∼ |T − Tc |−γ γ=1 (8.3.36)
Há outra grandeza que não decorre da energia livre diretamente, mas que é muito
importante: a função de correlação entre as flutuações do parâmetro de ordem,
Γ(r) ≡ h[σ0 − hσ0 i][σr − hσr i]i = hσ0 σr i − hσ0 ihσr i, (8.3.37)
que mede o grau de influência entre spins afastados de uma distância r, e desempenha um
papel análogo à função de correlação densidade-densidade nos sistemas fluidos. Assim,
seu comportamento assintótico (isto é, para distâncias muito maiores que o parâmetro
de rede e perto da temperatura crı́tica) é
onde
ξ ∼ |T − Tc |−ν (8.3.39)
é o comprimento de correlação, que mede o alcance das correlações e ν é um outro
expoente crı́tico.
Na transição, o decaimento de Γ(r) é mais lento:
1
Γ(r) ∼ , T = Tc , (8.3.40)
rd−2+η
onde d é a dimensão da rede e η é mais um expoente crı́tico.
Como no limr→∞ Γ(r) = 0, o parâmetro de ordem pode ser calculado como
de modo que se hσi2 6= 0 dizemos que o sistema apresenta ordem de longo alcance.
Por corresponder, essencialmente, a um sistema de spins não-interagentes, a aproxi-
mação de campo médio despreza as correlações; isto é,
de modo que não há flutuações entre correlações. Nisto reside uma das falhas da Teoria
de Weiss, cujas conseqüências serão exploradas na Seção 8.5.
Mesmo assim, usando-se o fato de que a teoria de Weiss fornece os mesmos expoentes
que a de van der Waals, podemos invocar a aproximação de Ornstein-Zernicke (veja
Stanley, Cap. 7), para citar os valores de ν e de η:
ν = 1/2 η = 0. (8.3.43)
Figure 8.16: Energia livre de Helmholtz (ou de Gibbs) como função do parâmetro de ordem: (a) acima de Tc ; (b)
abaixo de Tc .
where K e is the complement of K, namely the probability that none of the z branches
is part of the percolating cluster. With Q being the probability that a branch is not
8.3. MEAN-FIELD THEORIES 185
e = Qz .
K (8.3.57)
Q = (1 − p) + p Qz−1 , (8.3.58)
T = (1 − p) · 0 + p · [1 + (z − 1)T ]
= p + p(z − 1)T. (8.3.62)
1+p
S(p) =
1 − p(z − 1)
pc (1 + p)
= (8.3.63)
pc − p
∼ (pc − p)−γ , with γ = 1 (8.3.64)
where we have used Eq. (8.3.55). The introduction of the exponent γ to characterise this
singular behaviour stresses that S(p) is the analogue of the magnetic susceptibility (and
the compressibility) in percolation problems. Indeed, this quantity reflects how prone
the system is to develop a percolating cluster when a small ghost field is switched on.
186 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
In closing, we mention that many quantities may be defined in close analogy with
magnetic and fluid systems, while several other quantities characterising cluster prop-
erties and statistics are characterised by critical exponents with no magnetic (or fluid)
counterparts; see Ref. [27] for detailed discussions.
In the next Section we will obtain the exact solution for a one-dimensional interacting
spin system, which is very illustrative in itself and clearly pinpoints some of the difficulties
mean-field theories meet in describing low-dimensional systems; these shortcomings are
discussed in detail in Sec. 8.5.
1 N N 1 N 2
2
3 . .
.
4
.
. .
onde
1
f (σi , σi+1 ) ≡ eKσi σi+1 + 2 B(σi +σi+1 ) , (8.4.4)
devendo-se notar que o mesmo sı́tio i contribui com 12 B em f (σi−1 , σi ) e em f (σi , σi+1 ),
totalizando B, como na Hamiltoniana, Eq. (8.4.1); o objetivo disto é tornar f (σi , σj )
simétrico na troca σi ↔ σj .
Note que podemos identificar f (σi , σi+1 ) como elementos de uma matriz
e−K
K+B
e
T= , (8.4.5)
e−K eK−B
Como o traço independe da base, podemos usar aquela que diagonaliza T para obter
" N #
λ<
Z = λN> 1+ , (8.4.7)
λ>
onde
λ > = eK cosh B ± (e2K sinh2 B + e−2K )1/2 , (8.4.8)
<
são os dois autovalores de T. Note that (i) when B = 0, one has λ> = 2 cosh K, e
λ< = 2 sinh K, and (ii) λ> /λ< ≤ 1, where the equality only applies asymptotically, for
B = 0 and K → ∞.
Para N grande, podemos desprezar (λ< /λ> )N em (8.4.7), o que nos dá
ZN ' λN
>. (8.4.9)
Figure 8.20: Função de correlação hσ0 σr i, como função de r, para uma temperatura fixa e campo nulo, nos casos
ferromagnético (J > 0) e antiferromagnético (J < 0). A linha cheia corresponde ao envelope exponencial.
de modo que não existe magnetização espontânea em uma dimensão para T 6= 0. Assim,
não há transição de fase a temperatura finita para o modelo de Ising em d = 1, ao
contrário da previsão da teoria de Weiss, Eq. (8.3.30) com z = 2,
Figure 8.21: Exact solution for the one-dimensional Ising model: (a) Entropy, (b) Specific heat, and (c) Inverse
susceptibility as functions of temperature in the absence of an external field. For comparison with non-interacting
spins, the Curie law is shown in (c) as a dashed line.
A Eq. (8.4.16) nos mostra que ξ → ∞ quando λ> → λ< , o que ocorre apenas em
T = Tc = 0, H = Hc = 0. Therefore, expanding λ> and λ< for H = 0 and kB T J
yields
ξ ∼ e2J/kB T , (8.4.17)
que, ao contrário da divergência algébrica (i.e., como lei de potência em |T − Tc |) que
ocorre para d > 1, verifica-se aqui uma singularidade essencial; mais sobre isto na Seção
8.5.
É importante enfatizar que a Eq. (8.4.16) é válida para d > 1, desde que λ> e λ<
sejam interpretados como os dois maiores autovalores da matriz de transferência; veja
C. Domb, Adv. Phys. 9, 149 (1960).
Outras grandezas termodinâmicas podem ser calculadas, como a entropia por spin,
∂g
s=− = kB (ln 2 + ln cosh K − K tanh K)
∂T
' 2kB Ke−2K , T → 0, (8.4.18)
mostrado na Fig. 8.21(b); neste último deve-se notar que a presença do máximo não está
relacionada a alguma transição de fase, mas ao fato de que a cadeia linear se comporta,
efetivamente, como um conjunto de ligações (entre os sı́tios i e i + 1) independentes.
A suscetibilidade é obtida da maneira usual, e é interessante ressaltar que também
apresenta um comportamento exponencial a baixas temperaturas,
1 2J/kB T
χT ∼ e , (8.4.20)
T
mostrado na Fig. 8.21(c). Note que a singularidade é bem mais acentuada do que no
caso de spins não-interagentes, como indicado na Fig. 8.21(c).
Em resumo, o modelo de Ising foi resolvido exatamente numa rede linear. A presença
de condições de contorno periódicas nos permitiu usar a matriz de transferência, que
190 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
tem aplicações mais gerais do que esta.5 Vimos que a transição ocorre a T = 0, com as
diversas grandezas termodinâmicas apresentando singularidades essenciais, ao invés de
singularidades algébricas.
1 ∂2G
β X
χT = − = h[σi − hσi i][σj − hσj i]i =
N ∂H 2 N
i,j
X
=β Γ(rij ) = β Γ̃(k = 0) (8.5.1)
j
já que as correlações são desprezadas porque a Hamiltoniana efetiva é do tipo não-
interagente, apesar de efeitos cooperativos estarem incluı́dos via o campo autoconsis-
tente. Assim, temos
Γ(rij ) = δij Γ(0) = δij [hσi2 i − hσi i2 ], (8.5.3)
e a inconsistência está no fato de que o alcance da função de correlação é nulo, não sendo
possı́vel obter-se o comportamento singular para χT ,
χT ∼ |T − Tc |−γ , (8.5.4)
4
Fig. 1
Fig. 6
Cm
R 2 3 ME 3 M.F.
Cm
R HEISENBERG
4: 41 47
ISING d=1,2,3
d=1,2,3 S=1/2
S=1/2
7
2
7:
I I I I 0 2
0 r T/O
~- It@
Specific heats of the S = ½ Heisenberg model in 1, 2 and 3 dimensions. The
Theoretical magnetic specific heats Cdo
m of theespecı́co
S = ½ Ising1-d model for
the aresult
1, dimensões
2for
and
702 2
quadratic lattice. The 3-d curve has been calculated from the high-temperature
by B16te and series expansion (T/O>I), and from the
ttuiskamp (1969) and B15te (1972) for the simplediscussedexperimental
cubic lattice data on approximants
from of this model (0"1 < T/O < 1), to be
the curve follows
Voltando à Eq. (8.5.1), vemos, pelo below. que
contrário, The o3-d from series expansions
de χT for the
high and low-temperature series expansions of Cb.c.c, m given by Bakergiven
ferromagnet et al.by Baker et al. (1967singular
comportamento
b). Also included is the
(1963) está
and associado
Sykes et al.ao(1972).
longo alcance da função
For comparison, demolecular
the
molecular correlação: os termos h[σi − hσi i][σj − hσj i]i,
field
field prediction.
prediction (MF) has been included. R denotes the gas constant and
sendo finitos, só poderão acarretar um comportamento singular caso se mantenham
is the Curie-Weiss temperature (O=~zS(S+ 1)J/k), which is the transi-
finitos, mesmo
tion temperature a longas
according to the distâncias,
MF theory. rij .
Assim, as flutuações no parâmetro de ordem são
The enhancement muito
of the importantes
importance of the na região crı́tica.effects
short-range-order
also follows from the fact t h a t in the
Em primeiro lugar, porque são elas que destróem a fase ordenada, e desprezá-las, case of the Heisenbergcomo model a
lowering of the dimensionality to 2 is already sufficient to prevent the
nas teorias de campo médio, significa superestimar
onset of long-range o avalor
order at non-zerode temperature
Tc . Isto é (Mermin
ilustrado andna Wagner
Fig. 8.22, que mostra o calor especı́fico
1966). Thepara os modelosof de
thermodynamics the Ising (painel esquerdo)
2-d Heisenberg e
model will therefore
Heisenberg (painel direito) em todiversas
a certaindimensões
extent resemble the behaviour
espaciais: Tc é semprefound in the chain
menor que models
a ;
to a certain extent because there is a possible difference following from
estimativa de campo médio (Curie-Weiss), θ, e decresce à medida em que d diminui.
the analysis of series expansions of the susceptibility (Stanley and Kaplan
A solução exata para o modelo1966),
de Ising em dindications
in which = 1 mostra wereque estafordiscrepância
found the existenceem of Tnon-zero
c
pode ser drástica a ponto de eliminar a existência
transition points at de fasethe
which ordenada a qualquer
ferromagnetic T > 0. diverges.
susceptibility O
Thus, although the chain models as well as the 2-d Heisenberg model
painel esquerdo da Fig. 8.22 ilustra isto para o modelo de Ising, através da ausência de
cannot sustain a spontaneous magnetization at any finite temperature,
singularidade no calor especı́ficotheem d =would
latter 1; o distinguish
painel direitoitself também
by possessing mostra a ausência
a transition to a phase
de singularidade a temperaturas withfinitas parasusceptibility.
an infinite o modelo deWeHeisenberg will return toem thisdintriguing
= 1 e 2. problem
Portanto, devemos esperar de um modo geral que exista sempre uma dimensão crı́ticamodels
later. At this point we merely remark t h a t since the 2-d XY
have been found to possess similar properties as the 2-d Heisenberg model,
d≤
inferior, di , tal que Tc = 0 parathe di .
anisotropy evidently must be of the Ising form to enable a transition
Para sistemas com simetriatodiscreta,
long-range doorder
tipotoIsing,
occur in um argumento
a 2-d lattice. devido a Peierls
ilustra muito bem que di = 1. A idéia é calcular a diferença em energia livre entre uma
configuração com todos os spins alinhados e uma com todos os spins virados a partir
de um ponto qualquer da rede, ou com um kink; veja a Fig. 8.23. Como o kink pode
ser formado em qualquer um dos N sı́tios da rede, há N modos de fazê-lo; isto dá uma
contribuição ∆S = kB ln N para a variação de entropia. A baixas temperaturas, temos,
portanto,
∆G = ∆E − T ∆S = 2J − kB T ln N, (8.5.5)
de modo que, para qualquer T > 0 o termo de entropia domina por ser macroscópico, e
192 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
(a)
(b) L
Figure 8.23: Configurações de uma cadeia de
Figure 8.24: Uma excitação para spins de Ising em uma
Ising com N spins: (a) estado fundamental,
rede quadrada: os spins na região de tamanho linear L
com todos os spins alinhados; (b) um estado
estão opostos aos demais.
excitado (kink) de mais baixa energia, cuja
degenerescência é ∼ N .
teremos sempre ∆G < 0. Isto é, o estado ordenado é instável pela formação de kinks.
Acima de d = 1, excitações tı́picas correspondem a virar os spins dentro de uma
região de dimensão linear L, como ilustra a Fig. 8.24. A diferença de energia é então
proporcional ao número de spins na fronteira ou, equivalentemente, ao perı́metro da
região: ∆E ∼ 2J Ld−1 . A contribuição da entropia não é tão simples de ser calculada
como em uma dimensão, mas é claramente macroscópica. Portanto, o sistema consegue
manter a ordem (isto é, ter a maioria dos spins apontando num dado sentido), ∆G > 0,
pagando o preço de formar ilhas muito grandes com spins opostos, o que só é favorável
até uma temperatura Tc > 0.
Já para sistemas magnéticos com simetria contı́nua, as excitações de baixa energia
correspondem a ondas de spin que, para d ≤ 2, ocorrem em grande número, também
destruindo a fase ordenada. É o que acontece, por exemplo, nos modelos de Heisenberg
e XY (veja o Exercı́cio 5.6); assim, di = 2 para modelos com simetria contı́nua.
É interessante notar também que na dimensão crı́tica inferior as divergências das
diversas grandezas são exponenciais: isto ocorre para o modelo de Ising unidimensional
(Seção 8.4) e para os modelos de Heisenberg e XY em d = 2. Já para d < di , as
divergências quando T → 0 voltam a ser algébricas, p.ex., ξ ∼ T −ν , como no caso do
modelo de Heisenberg unidimensional.6
Uma segunda conseqüência da ausência de flutuações de longo alcance nas teorias
de campo médio é a previsão de expoentes crı́ticos diferentes dos observados experimen-
talmente ou calculados por outros métodos. Neste sentido, as TCM’s fornecem muito
poucas classes de universalidade.
Por outro lado, para dimensões espaciais suficientemente altas, devemos esperar que
as flutuações desempenhem um papel cada vez menos importante. Deve haver, portanto,
6
Para os valores dos expoentes, veja, p.ex., JW Lyklema, Phys Rev B 27, 3108 (1983).
8.6. UNIVERSALITY AND SCALING 193
uma dimensão crı́tica superior, ds , tal que os expoentes de campo médio sejam exatos
para d ≥ ds . Veremos na próxima seção que, para os modelos de Ising, Heisenberg e
XY , temos ds = 4, while for the percolation problem (Section 8.2.5) one has ds = 6.
Visto que identificamos a ausência de flutuações de longo alcance como a falha prin-
cipal das TCM’s, veremos agora como incorporá-las de modo fundamental, explorando
as transformações do sistema sob mudanças de escala.
1 X
SI = Si , (8.6.1)
Λ
i ∈ bloco
onde o parâmetro de rede agora é ba, e Λ pode ser pensado como um fator de normali-
zação que faz SI ter as mesmas propriedades de Si . Por exemplo, se Si = ±1 devemos
ter SI ± 1; assim, Λ ∼ bd . É claro que esta definição de SI é um pouco vaga, mas será
feita de modo mais preciso na próxima seção. A Fig.8.25 mostra um exemplo para a rede
quadrada, em que b = 2.
194 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
a 2a
(a) (b)
Figure 8.25: Exemplo da construção dos blocos de Kadanoff: a cada 4 (= bd , com b = d = 2) spins do sistema
original em (a), associamos 1 spin no sistema escalado (b). O parâmetro de rede passa de a para ba.
suponhamos que a Hamiltoniana escalada também seja da mesma forma, isto é,
X X
HS 0 = −J 0 SI SJ − H 0 SI , (8.6.3)
hI,Ji I
With these, the critical point is located at (ε = 0, B = 0), and, going back to the
Kadanoff blocks, we may think that the change in scale corresponds to a transformation
in the coupling constants as
(ε, B) → (ε0 , B 0 ). (8.6.6)
Por serem extensivas, as energias livres dos sistemas original e escalado devem ser as
mesmas; daı́ segue que as energias livres por partı́cula devem estar relacionadas por7
ε0 = λt ε, (8.6.9)
N N/bd
X XX X
B Si = B Si = BΛ SI , (8.6.11)
i=1 I=1 i∈I I
com
2yh − d
γ= . (8.6.26)
yt
0
Se tomássemos b = (−ε)−1/yt , e definindo χ ∼ (Tc − T )−γ , T < Tc , obterı́amos γ = γ 0 .
Tomando agora a segunda derivada de g com relação a T , temos o calor especı́fico,
onde
α = 2 − d/yt . (8.6.29)
Da mesma forma, obtém-se que α = α0 .
Voltando agora à função de correlação [Eq. (8.6.18)], façamos b = ε−1/yt ; assim
2(yh −d)
Γ(r, ε) = ε yt Γ(r/ε−1/yt , 1). (8.6.30)
Chamando
f (r/ξ) ≡ Γ(r/ε−1/yt , 1), (8.6.31)
vemos que a dependência de Γ com r aparece apenas na variável r/ξ, com
ou
ν = 1/yt . (8.6.33)
Tomando b = r e ε = 0 em (8.6.18), temos
ou
η = d + 2(1 − yh ). (8.6.35)
As equações (8.6.21), (8.6.23), (8.6.26), (8.6.29), (8.6.33), e (8.6.35) indicam que
apenas dois expoentes são independentes, e, também, que estas relações independem do
sistema fı́sico em particular. Mais ainda, uma vez que yt e yh são determinados pelas
propriedades de transformação de H sob mudança de escala, seus valores não dependem
de K ou de B.
198 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
onde hi, ji e [i, j] denotam, respectivamente, pares de sı́tios primeiros e segundos vizinhos,
seria representada num espaço tri-dimensional pelo ponto u ≡ (K, L, H). Sob uma mu-
dança de escala, espera-se que o sistema passe a ser descrito pelo ponto u0 ≡ (K 0 , L0 , H 0 ),
8.7. THE POSITION-SPACE RENORMALIZATION GROUP 199
1.0
0.8 (a)
(b)
0.6
t’
0.4 FM PM
0 Tc oo T
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t
Figure 8.26: (a) Um exemplo de transformação do grupo de renormalização (TGR): as interseções das linhas cheia
[representando a Eq. (8.7.7)] e tracejada (t0 = t) definem os pontos fixos; os atratores aparecem como quadrados
e o ponto fixo crı́tico como ∗. (b) Diagrama de fluxos da TGR: com exceção do ponto fixo, os pontos são levados
aos atratores ferromagnético (FM) ou paramagnético (PM) por sucessivas mudanças de escala.
onde, em princı́pio,
Na Seção 8.8 discutiremos como gerar uma TGR mas, para fixar idéias, utilizemos a
seguinte transformação aproximada para a rede quadrada, a ser obtida no Exercı́cio 13,
2t2 (1 + t)
t0 = , (8.7.7)
1 + 2t3 + t4
onde t ≡ tanh K e t0 ≡ tanh K 0 ; veja a Fig. 8.26(a). A interseção de (8.7.7) com a reta
t0 = t fornece os pontos fixos da transformação:
√
(i) t∗ = 0; (ii) t∗ = 1; (iii) t∗ = tc ≡ (1 + 2)−1 ' 0.414. (8.7.8)
1
(K 0 − K ∗ )−ν = (K − K ∗ )−ν , (8.7.9)
b
ou
K 0 = K ∗ + b1/ν (K − K ∗ ), (8.7.10)
que pode ser interpretada como uma expansão de K 0 (K) em torno de K ∗ , com
dK 0
= λb = b1/ν . (8.7.11)
dK K∗
ln b
ν= . (8.7.12)
ln λb
Usando novamente a TGR (8.7.7) como exemplo, e lembrando que (dt0 /dt)t=t∗ ≡
(dK 0 /dK)K=K ∗ , obtemos (b = 2)
ν ' 1.15, (8.7.13)
valor que deve ser comparado com o resultado exato, ν = 1. Aumentando-se o tamanho
do cluster de modo a sempre preservar a auto-dualidade, a estimativa de ν se aproxima
8
Esta aproximação reproduz o resultado exato para Kc porque o cluster utilizado compartilha, com
o modelo de Ising na rede quadrada infinita, uma propriedade de simetria topológica, a auto-dualidade;
veja, por exemplo, R Savit, Rev. Mod. Phys. 52, 453 (1980).
8.7. THE POSITION-SPACE RENORMALIZATION GROUP 201
de modo que o espaço dos parâmetros é descrito por pontos (K, ∆). A TGR deve ser,
então, da forma
K 0 = K 0 (K, ∆) (8.7.15a)
0 0
∆ = ∆ (K, ∆). (8.7.15b)
que estão assinalados com ∗ na Fig. 8.27. Os atratores das fases ordenadas devem ser
Ising : ∆∗ = 1, K∗ = ∞ (8.7.17a)
∗ ∗
XY : ∆ = −1, K =∞ (8.7.17b)
∗ ∗
Heisenberg : ∆ = 0, K = ∞, (8.7.17c)
que, juntamente com os análogos para as fases desordenadas, também estão assinalados
na Fig. 8.27.
Na Fig. 8.27, as setas correspondem às trajetórias dos pontos, obtidas após sucessivas
iterações das TGR. Após um número muito grande destas iterações, um ponto qualquer
deve convergir para um ponto fixo, indicando que certos detalhes da Hamiltoniana vão se
tornando cada vez menos importantes. Por exemplo, começando no ponto A da Fig. 8.27,
um sistema pouco anisotrópico se comporta, em última análise, como um ferromagneto
XY isotrópico em sua fase ordenada, pois é para o atrator (K ∗ = ∞, ∆∗ = −1) que as
trajetórias convergem.
Quando há mais de um parâmetro, o cálculo de expoentes crı́ticos envolve a lin-
earização das TGR perto dos pontos fixos não-triviais. Não discutiremos com detalhes
este ponto, mas mencionaremos apenas os aspectos mais importantes. Primeiro, vemos
que, neste formalismo, expoentes crı́ticos estão associados a pontos fixos. Por exemplo,
a curva HI separa as fases paramagnética e ferromagnética, sendo, portanto, uma curva
crı́tica; isto é, as grandezas termodinâmicas (ξ, CH , χ, etc.) são singulares nesta curva.
9
veja, p.ex., C Tsallis and ACN de Magalhães, Phys Rep 268, 305 (1996), e referências lá contidas.
202 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
T
PM PM
XY I
H
A
FM FM
1 0 1
Figure 8.27: Diagrama de fluxos de GR (esquemático) para o modelo de Heisenberg anisotrópico a três dimensões
no espaço temperatura (∼ 1/K) – anisotropia (∆). Os pontos fixos crı́ticos estão assinalados por (∗) e os atratores
das fases ordenadas por (). As curvas H-XY e H-I, que conectam os pontos fixos não-triviais, são as curvas
crı́ticas.
Apesar disto, os expoentes são aqueles determinados pela linearização em torno de I, já
que é para este ponto fixo que as trajetórias na curva crı́tica convergem. É neste fato
que a noção de classes da universalidade se manifesta. Podemos pensar que cada ponto
das trajetórias do GR representa um sistema fı́sico real, com valores bem definidos de
J e ∆, a uma dada temperatura. Fica claro, então, que eles têm os mesmos expoentes
porque compartilham essencialmente as mesmas trajetórias no espaço de parâmetros;
lembre-se que o parâmetro que importa é K ≡ J/kB T . Por exemplo, todos os sis-
temas anisotrópicos com ∆ > 0 têm o mesmo comportamento do sistema totalmente
anisotrópico (∆ = 1).
Em segundo lugar, o cálculo do expoente η é feito introduzindo um campo magnético
externo. Em geral, tem-se que o ponto crı́tico ocorre em (K = Kc , H = 0) de modo que
a relação de recorrência para H é da forma
∂H 0
H 0 = λh H, com λh = = byh . (8.7.18)
∂H H=0
de onde extraı́mos yh ,
ln b
yh = . (8.7.19)
ln λh
o qual, por sua vez, é inserido na Eq. (8.6.35), para obtermos η. Assim, a partir dos dois
expoentes ν e η [no caso mais simples do espaço de parâmetros (K, H)] podemos obter
todos os outros expoentes.
8.8. EXAMPLES OF PSRG 203
Podemos então usar este fato para definir a transformação de grupo de renormalização
a partir de
0
eH ≡ Tr{σ} P[{σ 0 }|{σ}] eH , (8.8.2)
• Regra da maioria. O spin de um bloco é definido pelo sinal da maioria dos spins.
K K K K K b=3 K’
Figure 8.28: The majority rule applied to the one-dimensional Ising model; see text.
We start with the majority rule applied to the one-dimensional Ising model, within
an approximation that only examines two clusters of spins coupled as shown in the left
panel of Fig. 8.28. There are 23 spin states for each cluster, half of which are mapped
onto a renormalised spin σi = sign(σi1 + σi2 + σi3 ) = +1, and half onto σi = −1. For
book-keeping purposes, it is convenient to write the total energy (actually, −β× the
energy) of the six-site system as
where
H0 = K 0 σ1 σ2 + K00 . (8.8.8)
It is worth noticing that the coefficients in each of Eqs. (8.8.10) add to 16, which is the
number of configurations leading to σ1 = σ2 = 1 or to σ1 = 1, σ2 = −1.
10
Para outras prescrições, veja os artigos de revisão no livro Real Space Renormalization, editado por
TW Burkhardt e JMJ van Leeuwen (1982).
8.8. EXAMPLES OF PSRG 205
1.2
0.8
u'
0.6
u
0.4 u_tri
0.2
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
Figure 8.29: Examples of RG recursion relations, u0 (u), for the Ising model, using the majority rule: in one- (blue
curve) and two dimensions (triangular lattice, green curve). The intersection of the red straight line, f (u) = u,
with each curve marks the fixed points in each case; see text.
0
Eliminating K00 in Eqs. (8.8.9), and introducing u ≡ e−2K and u0 ≡ e−2K leads to
3 + 4u + 6u2 + 2u3 + u4
u0 = u , (8.8.11)
1 + 2u + 7u2 + 3u3 + 3u4
which is plotted (blue curve) in Fig. 8.29. The fixed points are located at the intersection
of this curve with the straight line f (u) = u:
The derivatives, λu ≡ du0 /du, calculated at these fixed points describe their stability:
du0
λu = = 3 >1 ⇒ u∗ = 0 is an unstable fixed point, (8.8.14)
du u∗ =0
du0 5
λu = = <1 ⇒ u∗ = 1 is a stable fixed point. (8.8.15)
du u∗ =1 16
Therefore the (ground state) ferromagnetic fixed point is unstable against thermal ex-
citations: the aligned state does not survive at finite temperatures, that is, Tc = 0, as
already seen from the exact solution.
The application of the majority rule to two clusters on a triangular lattice is left as
an exercise; see Problem 7.12. The recursion relation one obtains in this case is
1 t 2
t’
t t
4 t 3
(a) (b)
Figure 8.30: (a) Trecho de uma rede quadrada utilizada para obter uma transformação do grupo de renormalização.
Toma-se o traço√ nos spins dos sı́tios ×, de modo que os spins remanescentes, ◦, também formam uma rede
quadrada; b = 2. As linhas cheias representam as interações originais entre os spins, enquanto que as linhas
tracejadas representam as interações renormalizadas. (b) Um cluster com 4 sı́tios é ‘extraı́do’ de (a) [linhas cheias
mais grossas], para ser renormalizado: as 4 ligações originais de intensidade t ≡ tanh K dão origem a uma ligação
de intensidade t0 ≡ tanh K 0 ; veja o texto.
and u∗ = 1 (PM). Another important difference with respect to the 1D case is that the
derivative of u0 (u) at the FM fixed point, u∗ = 0, now vanishes, indicating that this
becomes an attractor for the ordered phase; recall the discussion related to Fig. 8.26(b).
Vamos agora deduzir uma transformação do GR por meio de dizimação para o modelo
de Ising com spins-1/2 na rede quadrada. A Fig. 8.30(a) mostra um pedaço de uma rede
quadrada, onde imaginamos que haja um spin em cada vértice. De cada dois spins, um
é mantido na rede renormalizada, e o outro é eliminado tomando-se o traço sobre ele
– no espı́rito da Eq. (8.8.2) – de modo a ficarmos com uma rede isomorfa à original.
Este objetivo é atingido eliminando-se todos os spins da sub-rede assinalados com ×,
mantendo os spins na outra sub-rede, assinalados com ◦. Mesmo assim, isto ainda é
difı́cil de ser implementado, levando-nos a fazer alguma aproximação. A mais imediata
consiste em obter uma transformação para um cluster, e supor que a transformação
resultante seja válida para toda a rede. A Fig. 8.30(b) mostra o cluster mais simples que
se pode extrair de uma rede quadrada, e a transformação é gerada tomando-se o traço
sobre os spins σ2 e σ4 . Lembrando que
0
eKσσ = cosh K + σσ 0 sinh K = cosh K(1 + σσ 0 t), (8.8.17)
Figure 8.31: Funções-peso usadas na passagem para o contı́nuo: (a) Duplo-delta, que recupera o caso discreto;
(b) Distribuição Gaussiana; (c) Distribuição-S 4 .
cálculos de forma mais simples. Lembremos inicialmente que a primeira zona de Brillouin
num espaço d-dimensional corresponde a componentes dos vetores de onda no intervalo
−π π
≤ kµ < , µ = 1, 2, . . . d (redes hipercúbicas), (8.9.1)
a a
onde a é o parâmetro de rede.
Vamos considerar o modelo de Ising nesta rede hipercúbica, para o qual a função de
partição se escreve
!
X XX X
Z(K) = exp K Sn Sn+e ≡ exp(−H[S]), (8.9.2)
{Sn } n e {Sn }
onde os n denotam sı́tios da rede e os e, vetores conectando metade dos sı́tios primeiros
vizinhos; H[S] deve, portanto, ser entendido como função de todos os Sn .
It is convenient to work with continuum variables, both in the sense that the spin
degree of freedom ranges continuously from −∞ to ∞ instead of simply Sm = ±1, and
in the sense that it is a function of a continuous spatial variable, x. The extended range
is accomplished by introducing weight functions, W (Sm ), in the partition function,
" Z #
Y ∞
Z(K) = dSm W (Sm ) exp(−H[S]). (8.9.3)
m −∞
com
π/a π/a π/a π/a
dk1 dk2 dkd
Z Z Z Z
−
dk ≡ ··· . (8.9.13)
0 −π/a 2π −π/a 2π −π/a 2π
Deve-se notar que, deste modo, o ‘campo’ de spins S(x) [Eq. (8.9.12)] reproduz o spin
S(xn ) nos pontos da rede, mas assume valores não-nulos também entre os sı́tios.
We may then write
Z π/a
Sn = d−k S(k) eik·x , (8.9.14)
0
Z π/a
Sn+e = d−k S(k) eik·(x+e) , (8.9.15)
0
so that Z π/a h i
Sn+e − Sn = d−k S(k) eik·x eik·e − 1 . (8.9.16)
0
Taking the square and summing yields
X X Z π/aZ π/a 0 0
(Sn+e − Sn )2 =
X
d−kd−k0 S(k) S(k0 ) ei(k+k )·x (eik·e − 1)(eik ·e − 1)
n,e n e 0 0
Z π/a X 2
= d−k S(k) S(−k) eik·e − 1) , (8.9.17)
0 e
nos leva a
π/a
1
Z
HG [S] = Ka2−d d−k k 2 + r S(k)S(−k),
(8.9.21)
2 0
com
R c 2d
r= = − 2. (8.9.22)
a2 Ka2 a
8.9. THE MOMENTUM-SPACE RENORMALIZATION GROUP 211
Figure 8.32: As componentes de Fourier das variáveis de spin referentes aos comprimentos de onda curtos, i.e.,
π/ba < k ≤ π/a (região sombreada na figura), são eliminadas por integração.
We note that Sb0 (x) is a slowly varying function over a length scale ba, while σb (x) is a
rapidly fluctuating function within this scale. Therefore, if we take a spatial average of
212 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
S(x) over the volume V = (ba)d , the contribution from σb (x) averages out to zero, while
Sb0 (x) may be regarded as a constant; we then get
1
Z
0
Sb (x) ' hS(x)iV = d d y S(y). (8.9.27)
V V
A Eq. (8.9.24) mostra que a Hamiltoniana é diagonal quando expressa em termos das
componentes de Fourier; temos então
com
Λ/b
1
Z
HG [Sb0 ] d−k k 2 + r Sb0 (k) Sb0 (−k)
= (8.9.29)
2 0
e
Λ
1
Z
d−k k 2 + r σb (k) σb (−k).
HG [σb ] = (8.9.30)
2 Λ/b
kb = b k, (8.9.34)
que deve ser acompanhada pela introdução de um campo de spin renormalizado por um
parâmetro C, a ser determinado:
Isto fornece
Λ
kb2
1
Z Z
Z(r) = DSb (kb ) exp − C 2 b−d −
d kb +r Sb (kb ) Sb (−kb ) . (8.9.36)
2 0 b2
O fator C deve ser ajustado de maneira que o coeficiente de kb2 que aparece na Hamilto-
niana transformada, Eq. (8.9.36), seja o mesmo que na Hamiltoniana original (8.9.24):
C 2 b−d b−2 = 1 ⇒ C = b1+d/2 . (8.9.37)
Finalmente, Z
Z(rb ) = DSb e−HG [Sb ] , (8.9.38)
com
1 Λ−
Z
d kb kb2 + rb Sb (kb ) Sb (−kb ),
HG [Sb ] = (8.9.39)
2 0
onde a constante de acoplamento renormalizada é
rb = b2 r, (8.9.40)
que mostra que um ponto fixo é r = 0. O autovalor desta transformação é, portanto,
λt = b2 ⇒ yt = 2 (8.9.41)
Para obter o autovalor magnético, precisamos aplicar um campo B, o que contribui
com um termo adicional na Hamiltoniana,
X
HB [S] = B Sn = a−d BS(k = 0). (8.9.42)
n
d − yh d−2
β= = , (8.9.45a)
yt 4
yh d+2
δ= = , (8.9.45b)
d − yh d−2
2yh − d
γ= = 1, (8.9.45c)
yt
d d
α=2− =2− , (8.9.45d)
yt 2
1 1
ν= = , (8.9.45e)
yt 2
η = d + 2 (1 − yh ) = 0. (8.9.45f)
214 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Vemos que alguns expoentes apresentam uma dependência explı́cita com a dimensiona-
lidade do espaço, algo ausente das formulações do GR aqui discutidas anteriormente.
No entanto, o fato de que ν = 1/2, η = 0 e γ = 1 para todo d, sendo estes os valores
previstos pelas TCM’s, indica que as leis de escala [Eqs. (8.6.36)] só não serão violadas
se tomarmos d = 4, que é a dimensionalidade crı́tica superior, ds . Conclui-se, portanto,
que o modelo Gaussiano corresponde a efetuar uma aproximação de campo médio no
modelo inicial. Na realidade, isto não é surpreendente, já que na aproximação Gaussiana
cada modo flutua independentemente em torno da distribuição mais provável, e isto é a
essência das TCM’s.
Veremos, em seguida, que ds desempenha um importante papel no GR no espaço dos
momentos, ao discutir o modelo S 4 .
with XX Xc
H[S] = −K Sn Sn+e + Sn2 + ũSn4 , (8.9.47)
n e n
2
onde, por conveniência, usamos ũ ao invés de u, como aparece na Eq. (8.9.6). Intro-
duzindo as componentes de Fourier do campo de spins, e fazendo a renormalização tal
como para o modelo Gaussiano, temos :
1 Λ−
Z
H[S] = d k (k 2 + r) S(k) S(−k)
2 0
Z Λ Z Λ Z Λ Z Λ
+u d−k1 d−k2 d−k3 d−k4 S(k1 ) S(k2 ) S(k3 ) S(k4 ) δ(k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 )
0 0 0 0
(8.9.48)
= H0 [S] + V[S], (8.9.49)
ũ
u= . (8.9.50)
K 2 a 4−d
em que as ‘células’ são consideradas desacopladas, só que agora as médias são sobre os
graus de liberdade de curto alcance, com o fator de Boltzmann exp(−H0 [σb ]):
0
Dσb e−H0 [σb ] e−V[Sb ,σb ]
R
−V[Sb0 ]
he i0 = . (8.9.51)
Dσb e−H0 [σb ]
R
teremos Z
0 1 2 i −hVi2 ]+...
Z(r, u) = DSb0 e−H0 [Sb ]−hVi0 − 2 [hV 0 0 . (8.9.54)
sendo que agora precisamos também de uma expressão para ub , o transformado do termo
u em S 4 .
A partir daı́, desenvolvendo e mantendo os termos de ordem mais baixa possı́vel, e
que ainda assim dão resultado não-trivial, temos:
C = b1+d/2 , (8.9.56)
ub = C 4 b−3d u + O(u2 )
(8.9.57)
onde deve-se notar que a 4a. potência em C aparece porque este termo envolve 4 spins, e
o fator b−3d surge porque há 4 integrais em d−kb , mas a função δ elimina uma destas.12
Substituindo C dado por (8.9.56), obtemos:
ub = b4−d u + O(u2 ) .
(8.9.58)
Definindo ε ≡ 4−d, vemos que para ε < 0 (d > 4), o acoplamento de 4 spins é irrelevante,
i.e., u renormaliza para zero, de modo que o comportamento deve ser o mesmo do modelo
Gaussiano. Por outro lado, se ε > 0 (d < 4), o comportamento deve diferir do modelo
Gaussiano.
12
Lembre-se que para o acoplamento de 2 spins tı́nhamos 2 integrais, e 1 função-δ, e, ao final, ficamos
com 1 integral, e a condição dada pela δ aparecia no fato de que os 2 termos de spin correspondiam,
respectivamente, a k e −k.
216 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
* u * u
*
Figure 8.33: Flow diagrams. The fixed points are denoted by ∗.
até ordem mais baixa em ε. A estabilidade relativa dos pontos fixos é determinada pelos
autovalores da TGR,
λ1 = 2 − d0 u∗ (8.9.65a)
∗
λ2 = ε − 6d0 u , (8.9.65b)
Assim, v1R aponta na direção de r, enquanto que v2R aponta numa direção inclinada com
relação a r e u; veja a Fig. 8.33.
Quando d > 4 (ε < 0), só há um ponto fixo, a saber (r∗ , u∗ ) = (0, 0), e o comporta-
mento crı́tico é regido por este ponto fixo (Gaussiano), com λ1 desempenhando o papel
de autovalor térmico,
λ1 = λt = 2 (8.9.67a)
λ2 = ε < 0, (8.9.67b)
Dizemos então que v1R é uma perturbação relevante, por afastar as trajetórias do ponto
fixo (0, 0) (para longe da criticalidade), daı́ que λ1 faz o papel do autovalor térmico,
associado aos expoentes crı́ticos. Por outro lado, v2R é dita uma perturbação irrelevante,
por ‘sugar’ as trajetórias em direção ao ponto fixo (0, 0), i.e., não consegue afastar da
criticalidade. Este comportamento das trajetórias do GR estão ilustrados na Fig. 8.33(a).
Quando d < 4 (ε > 0), as Eqs. (8.9.65) fornecem dois conjuntos de autovalores:
(
λG
1 =2
Gaussiano: (8.9.68)
λG
2 = ε > 0,
e (
λ1 = 2 − 3ε
Não-trivial: (8.9.69)
λ2 = −ε < 0.
Note as seguintes diferenças com relação ao caso d > 4: (1) com a troca de sinal de
λ2 no ponto fixo gaussiano, a direção v2R passa a ser relevante, por levar o comporta-
mento crı́tico para o ponto fixo não-trivial, enquanto que a auto-direção v1R no ponto fixo
Gaussiano não sofreu qualquer mudança. (2) há um segundo ponto fixo, cujo compor-
tamento crı́tico também está associado com a direção v1R , porém com autovalor distinto
do correspondente Gaussiano, em torno do qual a direção v2R é irrelevante (λ2 < 0).
Os diagramas de fluxo resultantes são, portanto, aqueles mostrados na Fig. 8.33. Para
d = 4, a análise é mais complexa, já que aparecem correções logaritmicas.
218 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
Table 8.1: Comparação entre diferentes previsões de valores dos expoentes crı́ticos.
mean- ε-
exponent d=3 experiments
field expansion
α 0 ε/2 1/2 0.12
β 1/2 1/2 − ε/6 1/3 0.31
δ 3 3+ε 4 5.2
γ 1 1 + ε/6 7/6 1.25
ν 1/2 1/2 + ε/12 7/12 0.64
η 0 0 0 0.1
Embora toda esta análise seja correta, em princı́pio, apenas para ε 1, é ilustrativo
examinar o que ocorre se fizermos ε = 1, ou d = 3. Usando os valores apropriados da
expansão-ε para d < 4, lançamos na Tabela 8.1 os valores correspondentes; a tabela
então compara os expoentes, até ordem ε, com os de campo médio (mean-field), bem
como com resultados experimentais para d = 3 (magnetos de Ising, i.e, com anisotropia
uniaxial, ou sistemas P V T próximos ao ponto crı́tico). Note que, com exceção de η,
todos os resultados da expansão-ε representam correções às previsões de campo médio,
e, importante, apontam nas direções corretas de aumento ou diminuição dos valores à
medida em que a dimensionalidade diminui de 4.
8.10 Exercises
1. A Fig. 8.4 mostra curvas de coexistência para um fluido tı́pico. Ao longo do trecho
AC, denominado de curva de pressão de vapor, as fases gasosa e lı́quida coexistem.
Suponha que, ao longo desta curva, as mudanças de volume do lı́quido sejam de-
sprezı́veis em comparação com as mudanças no volume do gás, e que este último
possa ser tratado como um gás ideal. Suponha também que o calor latente de vapo-
rização por mol, `, seja aproximadamente constante no intervalo de temperaturas de
interesse.
P = P0 e−`/RT ,
onde os σ são as matrizes de Pauli e a primeira soma se estende aos pares de sı́tios
primeiros vizinhos de uma rede d-dimensional com número de coordenação z. Pode-
mos definir uma Hamiltoniana efetiva (Weiss) como
X
HW = − γ · σ i,
i
z’
zJ < z >
2
R
< z>
< x> x
Figure 8.34: Problema 4 – Teoria de Weiss para o modelo de Ising com campo transverso.
A(T, φ) = A0 (T ) + α2 (T ) φ2 − α4 (T ) φ4 + α6 (T ) φ6 ,
9. Mostre que a função de correlação para o modelo de Ising em uma rede unidimensional
com condições de contorno periódicas é dada por
r
λ<
hσ0 σr i = hσ0 ihσr i + a ,
λ>
onde a é uma constante e os λ’s são os autovalores da matriz de transferência.
10. No chamado modelo de Potts associa-se a cada sı́tio uma variável clássica, σi =
1, 2 . . . q, representando os estados possı́veis de um vetor. Para q = 2, o vetor pode
apontar em um dos dois sentidos de uma direção arbitrária; é o caso análogo ao da
componente z do operador de spin-1/2. Para q = 3 (q = 4), o vetor pode apontar
para um dos vértices de um triângulo equilátero (tetraedro). A energia de interação
entre dois destes vetores, localizados em sı́tios vizinhos i e j pode ser tomada como
Hij = −qJδσi σj ,
onde J é uma constante e δσi σj é a função delta de Kronecker. Considere uma rede
linear (uni-dimensional) cujos N (N 1) sı́tios estejam ocupados por variáveis deste
tipo, nos casos particulares de q = 3 e 4. Calcule o comprimento de correlação destes
sistemas a baixas temperaturas e interprete fisicamente seu resultado. Comparando
os resultados para q = 2, 3 e 4, intua o comportamento de ξ(T ) para um q genérico.
222 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
11. O modelo de Ising com spin−1 num anel é definido pela Hamiltoniana
X
H = −J Si Si+1 ,
i
onde Si = 0, ±1.
(a) Escreva a matriz de transferência para este modelo, numa base de autovetores do
operador Π, que tem a seguinte propriedade: Π|Si = | − Si.
(b) Obtenha o comprimento de correlação a baixas temperaturas.
(c) Qual a temperatura crı́tica deste sistema?
12. The left panel in Fig. 8.35 shows part of a triangular lattice, in which we highlight a
cluster of sites labelled 11, 12, 13, 21, 22, and 23. We assume each site is occupied by
a spin-1/2 (σij = ±1) which interacts only with its nearest-neighbours, through an
Ising coupling, K ≡ J/kB T . A Renormalisation Group transformation (RGT) may
be obtained by ascribing a new spin to each triangle, according to the majority rule,
1"
11"
K K
12" 13"
K
K K
K0
p
b= 3
21"
K K
22" 23" 2"
K
Figure 8.35: Problem 12: Cluster for a majority-rule RGT for the triangular lattice.
v 6 + 3v 4 + 2v 3 + 3v 2 + 6v + 1
v0 = , (8.10.2)
2v 4 + 2v 3 + 4v 2 + 6v + 2
where v 0 ≡ exp(2K 0 ), and v ≡ exp(2K). [Suggestion: As usual, the use of
symmetry considerations simplifies the calculations considerably.]
(b) Verify that v ∗ = 1 and v ∗ = ∞ are fixed points. Interpret the physical content of
each of these.
(c) Solve Eq. (8.10.2) for the critical fixed point, and compare your estimate for K ∗
with the exact result, Kcexact = 0.27465.
(d) Obtain an estimate for the correlation length exponent, ν, and compare with the
exact result, ν exact = 1.
8.10. EXERCISES 223
13. Considere o cluster representado na Fig. 8.36(a) como um pedaço de uma rede qua-
drada, que tem spins de Ising em cada sı́tio. Impondo como condições de contorno
que os sı́tios 1 e 1’ (2 e 2’) estejam no mesmo estado de spin, o cluster fica equivalente
ao da Fig. 8.36(b), no qual as ligações horizontais externas foram descartadas porque
estamos interessados na propagação de correlações na direção vertical. Cada par de
spins interage com constante de acoplamento K ≡ J/kB T . Uma transformação do
grupo de renormalização pode ser obtida eliminando-se as variáveis de spin nos sı́tios
3 e 4 do cluster da Fig. 8.36(b), obtendo-se um acoplamento efetivo K 0 entre os spins
nos sı́tios 1 e 2, como na Fig. 8.36(c).
2=2’" 2"
2" 2’"
K K K K
≈"
K K
3" 4" K’
3" 4" b=2
K K K K
K
1=1’" 1"
1" 1’"
(a)" (b)" (c)"
2t2 (1 + t)
t0 = ,
1 + 2t3 + t4
14. Suponha que as ligações entre os sı́tios de uma rede não estejam necessariamente todas
presentes, mas apenas uma fração delas, distribuı́das aleatóriamente; a concentração
de ligações é p ∈ [0, 1].
(a) Discuta qualitativamente a existência (ou não) de uma ilha infinita composta de
sı́tios conectados por ligações nos limites p 1 e p ∼ 1. Faça analogia desta
transição geométrica (de percolação) com uma transição de fase térmica.
(b) Considere três sı́tios dispostos ‘em série’ como na Fig. 8.37(a). Qual a probabil-
idade ps do sı́tio 1 estar conectado ao 3? Qual o valor da concentração crı́tica
para a transição de percolação em uma dimensão? Justifique cuidadosamente
suas argumentações.
224 CHAPTER 8. PHASE TRANSITIONS
p
1$ p 2$ p 3$
1$ 2$
p
(a)$ (b)$
Figure 8.37: Problema 14 – Combinações em série (a) e em paralelo (b) de ligações de uma rede. Cada ligação
está presente com probabilidade p.
(c) Considere dois sı́tios dispostos ‘em paralelo’ como na Fig. 8.37(b). Qual a prob-
abilidade pp do sı́tio 1 estar conectado ao 2? Justifique cuidadosamente suas
argumentações.
(d) Use o cluster da dizimação na rede quadrada [Fig. 8.30(b)] e as associações em
‘série’ e ‘paralelo’ para obter uma aproximação para pc e ν para o problema
da percolação por ligações na rede quadrada. Justifique cuidadosamente suas
argumentações. Compare com os resultados exatos pc = 1/2 e ν = 4/3.
15. Considere o problema de percolação por sı́tios, no qual cada sı́tio possa estar ativo
com probabilidade p e inativo com probabilidade 1−p. Semelhantemente ao problema
de percolação por ligações, existem dois regimes distintos: o de altas concentrações,
no qual pode-se atravessar a rede (infinita) de um extremo a outro, por caminhos
formados pela conexão de sı́tios ativos primeiros vizinhos; e o de baixas concentrações,
no qual não há um caminho conectando um extremo a outro da rede.
5 6
p p
3 4
p p
1 2
Figure 8.38: Problema 15
(a) Considere o cluster da Fig. 8.38, como uma aproximação da rede quadrada. Cal-
cule a probabilidade, p0 , de que os sı́tios 1 ou 2 estejam ligados aos sı́tios 5 ou 6
por meio de um caminho formado de sı́tios ativos primeiros vizinhos.
8.10. EXERCISES 225
t t t b t’
1 2 3 b b+1 1 b+1
Introduction to Nonequilibrium
Statistical Mechanics
Refs.: Reichl e Pathria; Sergio Queiroz, Notas de Aula
9.1 Introduction
Até aqui vimos trabalhando com sistemas em equilı́brio no limite termodinâmico
(N, V → ∞). Nestes casos, médias termodinâmicas são calculadas, e correspondem
aos resultados esperados das medidas das diversas grandezas. No entanto, já vimos
que flutuações em torno das médias existem, mas que são geralmente pequenas. Não
obstante, o estudo destas flutuações é particularmente importante por diversas razões.
Primeiramente, porque elas desempenham um papel crucial na vizinhança de pontos
crı́ticos de 2a. ordem: o comportamento estático (i.e., sem dependência temporal) das
funções de correlação serviu de base para as teorias de scaling no Cap. 8. Em segundo
lugar, porque as flutuações nos permitem compreender, de forma abrangente, uma classe
de fenômenos, genericamente chamados de “movimentos Brownianos”, em homenagem
ao botânico Robert Brown, que, em 1827, observou que grãos de pólen imersos em água
executam um movimento errático de agitação. Trata-se de um movimento no qual al-
guns poucos graus de liberdade do sistema (os grãos de pólen) evoluem em uma escala
de tempo muito mais lenta que os demais (as moléculas da água). No contexto de nosso
curso, a descrição deste movimento ilustra como um sistema simples se aproxima do
equilı́brio, e como as flutuações podem ser tratadas de modo quantitativo. Antes, porém,
discutiremos como trabalhar com funções de distribuição de probabilidades dependentes
do tempo, em casos simples de memória restrita a eventos recentes, os chamados pro-
cessos markovianos.
227
228 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
where the first equality follows from Eq. (9.2.2). Therefore, the conditional probability
is also normalised: Z
dy2 P1|1 (y1 , t1 | y2 , t2 ) = 1. (9.2.15)
Figure 9.1: Forma tı́pica da probabilidade de transição. O passo da transição é ξ = y − y 0 . [Figura cedida por
SLA de Queiroz]
∂P1 (y, t)
Z
= dy 0 Wt (y 0 , y) P1 (y 0 , t) − Wt (y, y 0 ) P1 (y, t) ,
(9.3.1)
∂t
é a equação mestra. Ela reflete o fato de que a probabilidade de ocorrência de y aumenta
devido às transições de y 0 para y num dado intervalo de tempo, mas diminui devido às
transições de y para y 0 .
Admitindo que as mudanças em y só ocorrem em pequenas quantidades, e intro-
duzindo o passo
ξ = y − y0, (9.3.2)
temos,
W (y 0 , y) = W (y 0 , y − y 0 ) ≡ W (y 0 , ξ), (9.3.3)
9.3. THE MASTER EQUATION AND THE FOKKER-PLANCK EQUATION 231
de modo que
1 ∂2 2
∂P1 ∂
Z
=− dξ [ξ W (y, ξ) P1 (y, t)] − ξ W (y, ξ) P1 (y, t) . (9.3.9)
∂t ∂y 2 ∂y 2
Definindo o momento de n–ésima ordem da distribuição de saltos,
Z
αn (y) ≡ dξ ξ n W (y, ξ), (9.3.10)
obtemos, finalmente,
∂P1 (y, t) ∂ 1 ∂2
= − [α1 (y) P1 (y, t)] + [α2 (y) P1 (y, t)] , (9.3.11)
∂t ∂y 2 ∂y 2
que é a equação de Fokker-Planck; é a equação diferencial obtida a partir da equação
mestra, que é integro-diferencial.
232 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
cuja inversa é
+∞
1
Z
P1 (x, t) = dk P̃1 (k, t) e−ikx . (9.4.7)
2π −∞
Assim,
∂2
Z Z
∂ −ikx −ikx
dk P̃1 (k, t) e =D 2 dk P̃1 (k, t) e , (9.4.8)
∂t ∂x
que fornece " #
∂ P̃1 (k, t)
Z
dk + k 2 D P̃1 (k, t) e−ikx = 0, (9.4.9)
∂t
de modo que o termo entre colchetes deve ser satisfeito para todo k. Logo,
∂ P̃1 (k, t)
= −k 2 D P̃1 (k, t), (9.4.10)
∂t
cuja solução é
2
P̃1 (k, t) = A e−Dk t , (9.4.11)
com A a ser determinado pelas condições iniciais. A transformada inversa é dada por
Z +∞
1 2
P1 (x, t) = dk A e−Dk t e−ikx . (9.4.12)
2π −∞
x2 x2
kx kx
Dk 2 t + ikx = Dt k 2 + i = Dt k 2 + i − + =
Dt Dt 4D2 t2 4D2 t2
x2
x 2 x
= Dt k + i + 2 2
, k0 = k + i , (9.4.13)
2Dt 4D t 2Dt
obtemos
+∞
1 1
Z
02t 2 /4Dt 2
P1 (x, t) = dk 0 A e−Dk e−x =√ A e−x /4Dt . (9.4.14)
2π −∞ 4πDt
Para determinar A, notemos que (9.4.11) fornece P̃1 (k, t = 0) = A, que, levado em
(9.4.7), e lembrando que
1
Z
δ(x) = dk e−ikx , (9.4.15)
2π
leva, finalmente, a
1 2
P1 (x, t) = √ e−x /4Dt . (9.4.16)
4πDt
2 2
hx(t)i = 0, e a dispersão é lida diretamente da gaussiana,
Por simetria,
exp −x /2hx i :
hx2 (t)i = 2Dt. (9.4.17)
234 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
Figure 9.2: Partı́cula Browniana sofre colisões aleatórias com as moléculas do fluido. [Figura cedida por SLA de
Queiroz]
da partı́cula), e o de uma força que flutua rapidamente, cuja média temporal, tomada
em intervalos de tempo longos comparados com uma escala caracterı́stica, τ ∗ , se anula.
Tomando a média no ensemble na Eq. (9.5.1), e usando que hF(t)i = 0 também neste
caso, temos
d 1
M hvi = − hvi (9.5.2)
dt B
⇒ hv(t)i = hv(0)i e−t/τ , (9.5.3)
onde τ ≡ M B é o tempo de relaxação. Deve-se notar que hvi → 0 para tempos muito
longos, dada a natureza dissipativa (donde irreversı́vel) deste fenômeno. Voltando à
Eq. (9.5.1), e dividindo-a por M vem
dv v F(t)
= − + A(t), A(t) = = 0. (9.5.4)
dt τ M
Tomando o produto escalar com r, usemos
1d 2
r·v = r , (9.5.5a)
2 dt
1 d2 r2
dv
r· = − v2, (9.5.5b)
dt 2 dt2
hA · ri = 0, (9.5.5c)
hF · vi =
6 0, (9.5.5d)
onde as duas últimas equações expressam o fato de que o caráter aleatório de F não
causa correlação posicional entre r e F, mas sim entre v e F. Com isto, a média no
ensemble fornece
d2 2 1 d 2
hr i + hr i = 2hv 2 i. (9.5.6)
dt2 τ dt
236 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
3kB T 2
hr2 i ' t = hv 2 i t2 , (9.5.9)
M
consistente com as equações de Newton (reversı́veis), já que ainda não houve tempo dos
fenômenos dissipativos agirem, o que acontece na escala de tempo τ .
Por outro lado, se t τ , obtemos
6kB T τ
hr2 i ' t = (6BkB T ) t. (9.5.10)
M
Este comportamento linear com t de hr2 i sugere, por analogia com o caminho aleatório
unidimensional [Eq. (9.4.17)], que possamos definir o coeficiente de difusão a partir de
hr2 i ≡ 6 D t, (9.5.11)
0
obtida multiplicando-se (9.5.4) por et /τ e integrando em t0 de 0 a t. Esta expressão
enfatiza que a velocidade de arrasto da partı́cula Browniana também flutua ao longo do
tempo, e, ao tomarmos a média no ensemble, recuperamos a Eq. (9.5.3).
9.5. MOVIMENTO BROWNIANO 237
K (∆t) K (∆t)
−τ * + τ * ∆t −τ * + τ * ∆t
Figure 9.3: Typical forms of autocorrelation functions. Note that the functions vanish for time intervals longer
than τ ∗ . [Figures courtesy of SLA de Queiroz.]
de modo que K(∆t) não pode ficar fora do intervalo entre −K(0) e K(0); daı́ segue
a Eq. (9.5.18). CQD.]
[Demonstração:
∆t τ ∗
K(∆t) ≡ hA(t) · A(t + ∆t)i −−−−−→ hA(t)i · hA(t + ∆t)i (9.5.20)
Vejamos agora como avançar no cálculo da integral dupla que aparece na Eq. (9.5.14),
Z t Z t
0 0 00 )/τ
I≡ dt dt00 e(t +t hA(t0 ) · A(t00 )i
0 0
Z t Z t
0 0 00 )/τ
= dt dt00 e(t +t K(t00 − t0 ), (9.5.21)
0 0
1
T ≡ (t0 + t00 ) (9.5.22)
2
s ≡ t00 − t0 (9.5.23)
∂T /∂t0 ∂T /∂t00
dt0 dt00 = det dT ds = dT ds. (9.5.24)
∂s/∂t0 ∂s/∂t00
We first note that for a fixed T , we may express s in terms either of t00 and T , or of t0
and T :
s = 2(t00 − T ) = 2(T − t0 ). (9.5.25)
Figure 9.4 shows the region of integration in terms of the variables t0 and t00 , as well as
some special lines of fixed T : T = 0, t/4, t/2, 3t/4, and t. We see that two regimes of
integration should be distinguished: for 0 ≤ T ≤ t/2 the constant-T lines cut the axes at
t0 = 0 and t00 = 0, while for t/2 < T ≤ t the constant-T lines do not cut the axes within
the square. Accordingly, for a given T < t/2, s varies from smin = −2T (for t00 = 0) to
smax = 2T (for t0 = 0); as T increases up to t/2, the corresponding s-integration interval
also increases. On the other hand, for T > t/2, smin and smax respectively correspond to
9.5. MOVIMENTO BROWNIANO 239
s =+2(t−T)
t’’ max
t
smin=−2T
t t’
: | s | < τ∗
Figure 9.4: Integration limits. The integral in T is split in two: one from 0 to t/2, and the other from t/2 to t.
For a fixed T in the first [second] interval, T < t/2 [T > t/2], s runs from −2T to 2T [−2(t − T ) to 2(t − T )]. Note,
however, that the only non-zero contributions to the integral in s come from the narrow region around s = 0,
represented by the shaded area.
t0 = t and t00 = t, namely smin = −2(t − T ) and smax = 2(t − T ); now, the corresponding
s-integration interval decreases as T increases. We may therefore write the integral as
Z t/2 Z 2T Z t Z +2(t−T )
I= dT e2T /τ K(s) ds + dT e2T /τ K(s) ds (9.5.26)
0 −2T t/2 −2(t−T )
temos
t
τ 2t/τ
Z
I'C e2T /τ dT = C e −1 , (9.5.28)
0 2
sendo que a informação sobre a dinâmica molecular fica na constante C.
Equation (9.5.14) then becomes
τ
hv 2 (t)i = v 2 (0) e−2t/τ + C 1 − e−2t/τ , (9.5.29)
2
and the condition
3kB T
hv 2 (t)i → for t → ∞, (9.5.30)
M
yields
6kB T
. C= (9.5.31)
Mτ
Given that the constant C involves to the ‘microscopic’ time scale τ ∗ , Eq. (9.5.31) indi-
cates a connection between τ ∗ and the macroscopic time scale τ .
240 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
0 1 2 t/ τ
Figure 9.5: Time dependence of hv 2 i, for two distinct initial conditions.
Figure 9.6: The traces of the thermal oscillations of a suspended mirror system (see text) at different pressures:
upper trace corresponds to atmospheric pressure, while the lower one to 10−4 mm of Hg. [Figure taken from
Pathria (1996).]
with
2 T
Z
an = y(t0 ) cos(2πnf0 t0 ) dt0 (9.6.4)
T 0
2 T
Z
bn = y(t0 ) sin(2πnf0 t0 ) dt0 , (9.6.5)
T 0
as in standard Fourier analyses. However, some adaptations are needed in order to take
into account the stochastic nature of the phenomenon:
(1) There is no real period, after which everything repeats exactly. However, we may
consider T much longer than other relevant time scales, or, equivalently, f0 = 1/T
much smaller than other relevant frequencies. In so doing, we may be reasonably
sure that our Fourier analysis does not miss out on any important aspect of the
problem.
(2) Given that y(t) is a random variable, so are the coefficients an and bn ; we must
therefore take ensemble averages for these quantities,
and
X1
hy 2 (t)i = ha2n i + hb2n i = const. (9.6.7)
n
2
9.6. SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF FLUCTUATIONS 243
Since the phases of the Fourier components are random, we may write ha2n i = hb2n i
for all n, and Z ∞
X
2 2
hy i = han i ' df w(f ), (9.6.8)
n 0
where
ha2n i = w(nf0 ) ∆(nf0 ), (9.6.9)
or
1 2
w(nf0 ) = ha i. (9.6.10)
f0 n
The function w(f ) defines the power spectrum of the variable y(t).
Let us now show that the power spectrum, w(f ), of the random variable y(t) is
completely determined by the corresponding auto-correlation function, K(s). To
this end, Eq. (9.6.4) yields
Z 1/f0 Z 1/f0
ha2n i = 4f02 hy(t1 ) y(t2 )i cos(2πnf0 t1 ) cos(2πnf0 t2 ) dt1 dt2 . (9.6.11)
0 0
The second term vanishes upon integration over S, and we are left with
Z ∞
ha2n i = 4f0 ds K(s) cos(2πnf0 s), (9.6.13)
0
so that Z ∞
w(f ) = 4 ds K(s) cos(2πf s). (9.6.14)
0
Taking the inverse Fourier transform yields
Z ∞
K(s) = df w(f ) cos(2πf s). (9.6.15)
0
Figure 9.7: (a) The auto-correlation function K(s) and (b) its power spectrum; the parameter a appears in terms
of an arbitrary unit of (time)−1 .
1. Suppose the variable y(t) is extremely irregular, hence unpredictable. Then the mem-
ory function should only extend over a negligibly small time interval, s. This is the
case, for instance, of the rapid fluctuating force F (t) experienced by a Brownian
particle due to the molecular collisions. If one assumes
sin(as)
K(s) = K(0) , a > 0, (9.6.19)
as
which, in the limit a → ∞, K(s) → (π/a) K(0) δ(s). The Wiener–Khintchine theorem
yields
2π K(0) f < a/2π
w(f ) = a (9.6.20)
0 f > a/2π.
We see that the central peak in K(s) extends up to ∆t = |s| = π/a, and its width
provides an estimate for the time extent of correlations. Consequently, the resulting
power spectrum [Fig. 9.7(b)] corresponds to a white noise [i.e., flat w(f )] for 0 < f ≤
1/∆t.
2. Consider now the opposite case, namely that of an extremely regular variable y(t),
thus completely predictable; this in turn implies a correlation function extending over
s
!2 !1 0 1 2
f∗ f∗ f∗ f∗
K(s)
w (f )
s
!2 !1 0 1 2
f∗ f∗ f∗ f∗
0 f∗
f
FIGURE
Figure 9.8: (a) The auto-correlation 15.8 The
function K(s)autocorrelation function
and (b) its power K (s) and
spectrum forthe
thepower distribution
special function w( f ) of a monochromatic
case of a monochro-
matic variable with frequency f ∗variable y(t),
. [Figure with characteristic
extracted from Pathriafrequency f ⇤ . (2011).]
& Beale
see equation
large vales of s. The power (15.6.10).
spectrum The power
must then spectrum
display peaks atw(specific
f ) is then given by the expression
frequencies.
w (f )
15.5 246
Spectral analysis of fluctuations:
CHAPTERthe9.Wiener–Khintchine
NONEQUILIBRIUM theoremSTATISTICAL
615 MECHANICS s
"2! "! 0 ! 2!
K(s)
w (f )
"2! "! 0 ! 2!
0 f∗ 1
2!
f
FIGURE 15.9 The autocorrelation function K (s) and the power distribution function w( f ) of a variable that has
Figure 9.9: (a) The auto-correlation function and (b)
K(s) through
been filtered its power
a lightly spectrum
damped forwith
tuned circuit, themean
special case of
frequency a filtered
f ⇤ and width 1f ⇠ (1/ ).
variable with mean frequency f ∗ and width ∆f ∼ 1/σ. [Figure extracted from Pathria & Beale (2011).]
We can then write for the velocity fluctuations in the frequency range ( f , f + 1f ), with
f ⌧ ⌧ 1 , theorem.
w (f )
1/τ0
2kB T 2kB T τ
Z
1/τ0
hvx2 iobs = w(f ) df = tan−1 (2πf τ ) 0
= tan−1
2π .
0 πM πM τ0
Exemplo (dados ∼ correspondentes às medidas de Pospisil (1927) em particulas de
fuligem, ver problema 14.9 do Pathria): M ' 10−12 g, diametro 2a ' 10−4 cm,
2
For the many ‘noise colours’ see, e.g. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colors of noise
9.7. BOLTZMANN EQUATION 247
η ' 10−2 poise (⇒ τ = M B = M/6πηa ' 10−7 s). Para observação visual,
τ0 ' 10−1 s. Portanto,
4kB T τ kB T
hvx2 iobs ' ' 4 × 10−6 .
M τ0 M
4kB T 4kB T
w(f ) ' ⇒ h∆I 2 i(f,f +∆f ) ' ∆f ⇒ h∆V 2 i(f,f +∆f ) ' 4RkB T ∆f .
R R
Portanto, para f 1/τ 0 a densidade espectral V 2 (f ) = 4RkB T (teorema de Nyquist).
Lembrando que τ 0 ' 10−14 s, (ordem de grandeza do tempo entre colisões sucessivas
de um eletron), a densidade espectral das flutuações de voltagem tem um espectro
plano (white noise) até frequencias da ordem de microondas (∼ 1014 Hz).
Figure 9.10: (a) Projection of the 6-dimensional infinitesimal ‘volume’ element onto the two-dimensional one,
(x, vx ). (b) Variation in the number of particles due to flow through faces with constant x: in through the left
(x), out through the right (x + dx).
onde
∂
f (r, v, t) ẋ ≈ f (r, v, t) ẋ + (f ẋ) dx. (9.7.6)
x+dx x ∂x x
5
Alternativamente, pode-se acompanhar a evolução temporal de um elemento de volume; veja Reif
Seção 13.2.
9.7. BOLTZMANN EQUATION 249
Logo, a contribuição total para ∂f /∂t das faces x e x + dx para a taxa de variação
do número de partı́culas no entorno de (r, v) num intervalo dt é
∂ ∂
f ẋ − f ẋ + (f ẋ) dx dy dz d3 v dt = − (f ẋ) dγ dt. (9.7.7)
∂x ∂x
∂f X ∂f ∂f
X
∂ ẋα ∂ v̇α
+ ẋα + v̇α + f + = 0. (9.7.9)
∂t α=x,y,z ∂xα ∂vα α=x,y,z
∂xα ∂vα
(1) admitiremos colisões de dois corpos (binárias) apenas, o que é o esperado no regime
de gás diluı́do;
250 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
db
g dt
Figure 9.11: Elemento de volume ocupado pelas partı́culas que, num intervalo dt e com velocidade relativa g,
colidirão com a partı́cula na origem através de um parâmetro de impacto entre b e b + db. [Figura cedida por SLA
de Queiroz]
(4) v e r de cada partı́cula não têm correlação entre si; esta é conhecida como a hipótese
do caos molecular.
De acordo com (4), podemos escrever que o número de pares de partı́culas num
volume d3 r em torno de r (o qual virá a ser o ponto de colisão) com velocidades em
intervalos d3 v1 e d3 v2 em torno de v1 e v2 , respectivamente, é
f (r, v2 , t) d3 r d3 v2
I= , (9.7.14)
área · tempo
sendo que o elemento de volume relevante é o da casca cilı́ndrica mostrada na Fig. 9.11,
a saber, d3 r = g dt 2π b db. Com isto,
I = f (r, v2 , t) g d3 v2 (9.7.15)
Lembrando que (v10 , v20 ) e (v1 , v2 ) se referem a colisões elásticas que são as respectivas
inversas, temos que σ 0 (Ω) = σ(Ω). Além disso, as propriedades de colisões elásticas de
mesma massa [veja, p.ex., Reif, Seção 14.2 ou Huang, Seção 3.2.]
|v20 − v10 | = |v2 − v1 |, (9.7.20)
e
d3 v10 d3 v20 = d3 v1 d3 v2 , (9.7.21)
nos permitem escrever
Z Z
R̄ d3 v1 = d3 v2 d3 v1 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 |f (r, v10 , t)f (r, v20 , t), (9.7.22)
a Eq.(9.7.34) fica
eE ∂g eE ∂f (1) f (1)
+ =− , (9.7.36)
m ∂vz m ∂v τ
| {z z }
O(f (1) E)≈0
cuja solução é
dg
f (r, v, t) = g(ε) − eEτ vz . (9.7.37)
dε
A densidade de corrente ao longo de uma direção n̂ é o fluxo de carga através de um
elemento de área nesta direção,
Z
jn = e d3 vf vn . (9.7.38)
Note que na ausência de campo elétrico, tanto τ quanto g dependem apenas de |v|, de
modo que o integrando é uma função ı́mpar de vn , levando a jn = 0, um resultado já
esperado para a situação de equilı́brio. Em presença de E = E zv,
ˆ todavia, devemos ter
jz 6= 0, e, dado que
dg
= −βg, (9.7.39)
dε
obtemos uma expressão para a condutividade elétrica
jz
Z
σel ≡ = βe2 d3 v g τ vz2 . (9.7.40)
E
ne2
σel = τ. (9.7.42)
m
Note que se a distribuição de Fermi-Dirac, g(ε) ∝ [eβ(ε−µ) + 1]−1 , tivesse sido utilizada,
então apenas os elétrons com energias próximas à energia de Fermi contribuiriam para
a condutividade, de modo que τ é substituı́da por um valor τF , sem necessidade da
aproximação que levou à média.
254 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
O primeiro termo pode ser transformado em uma integral de superfı́cie, a qual dá
contribuição nula se admitirmos que f → 0 quando r e p → ∞. Ficamos, então, com
dH
Z Z Z Z
= d3 r1 d3 v1 d3 v2 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 | (f10 f20 − f1 f2 ) [ln f1 + 1] , (9.7.46)
dt
que, intercambiando p1 com p2 , fornece
dH
Z Z Z Z
= d3 r1 d3 v1 d3 v2 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 | (f10 f20 − f1 f2 ) [ln f2 + 1] . (9.7.47)
dt
Somando e dividindo por 2 as Eqs. (9.7.46) e (9.7.47), vem
dH 1
Z Z Z Z
= d3 r1 d3 v1 d3 v2 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 | (f10 f20 − f1 f2 ) [ln f1 + ln f2 + 2] .
dt 2
(9.7.48)
0 0
De modo análogo, intercambiando v1 com v1 , e v2 com v2 , obtemos
dH 1
Z Z Z Z
d3 r1 d3 v10 d3 v20 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 | (f1 f2 − f10 f20 ) ln f10 + ln f20 + 2 .
=
dt 2
(9.7.49)
3 0 3 0 3 3
Lembrando que d v1 d v2 = d v1 d v2 , e, somando (9.7.48) com (9.7.49), chegamos a
dH 1 f1 f2
Z Z Z Z
3 3 3 0 0
= d r1 d v1 d v2 dΩ σ(Ω)|v2 − v1 | (f1 f2 − f1 f2 ) ln 0 0 . (9.7.50)
dt 4 f1 f2
O termo entre colchetes em (9.7.50) é da forma [(y − x) ln(x/y)] que é sempre ≤ 0.
Com isto, estabelecemos, finalmente, o Teorema H de Boltzmann: Se f satisfaz a
equação de transporte de Boltzmann, então
dH
≤ 0. (9.7.51)
dt
Figura
esolva2 abaixo. Uma campainha
esta ultima toca a inter- de Fourier.
por transformada
m a vida do rato). Cada vez que a campainha
deAquarto, ele tem
função de aautocorrelação
mesma probabilidade
K(s) de de uma variavel estatisticamente
em que está.9.8.Aproximadamente
EXERCISES −αque
2 2fração de
s ∗ 255
da por: K(s) = K(0) e cos(2πf s). Calcule o espectro de poten
u comportamento nos
Consequentemente, limites:
dH/dt (i) α
= 0 se, e somente se, f→
0 0
1 f2 =0;f1f(ii) f ∗ que
2 , de modo →sob0,condições
e (iii) ambos α e
da a outrainiciais
caixaarbitrárias,
de volume devemosinfinito
ter f (v, t)por
→t→∞um f0 (v), onde f0 é a distribuição de equilı́brio.
Assim, a função H(t) decresce no tempo até atingir o equilı́brio.
ita que a probabilidade
Como −H(t) p de uma
cresce no tempo,particula se a entropia de não-equilı́brio como
pode-se definir
3
3
t, onde n ≡ numero de particulas X 4em A, e aZ 3 3
S(t) = −kB H(t) = −kB d r d v f ln f, (9.7.52)
para A no intervalo ∆t é ρ∆t (ρ = constante).
de modo que quando f tende à distribuição de equilı́brio de Maxwell-Boltzmann, S não
probabilidade de particulas em Ape resolva-a,
mais p
depende do tempo: o sistema
p’
atingiu o estado de equilı́brio.
mero medio de particulas em A, e a variancia,
ação mestra9.8
paraExercises
a equação de Fokker-Planck,
ier. 1 Quar
2 X 1
1. Um rato treinado vive na casa mostrada na Fig. 9.12. Uma campainha toca a inter-
valos regulares p
(muito pequenos comparados com a vida do rato). Cada vez que a
variavel estatisticamente
campainha toca, o estacionaria
rato muda de quarto.y(t)Quando
é muda de quarto, ele tem a mesma
alcule o espectro de potencia w(f ), e discuta
probabilidade de passar por qualquer uma das portas do quarto em que está. Aprox-
imadamente que fração de Figura
sua vida o 1
rato passa em cada quarto?
f ∗ → 0, e (iii) ambos α e f ∗ → 0.
B
Quarto A
A
1 Quarto B Quarto C
n,Ω
ρ
Figura 2
Figure 9.12: Problema 1.
Figura 3
Figure 9.13: Prob. 2.
B
2. Considere uma caixa de volume Ω conectada a outra caixa de volume infinito por um
pequeno buraco (vide Fig. 9.13). Admita que a probabilidade de uma partÃcula se
mover de A para B no intervalo ∆t é (n/Ω)∆t, onde n ≡ número de partÃculas em
A, e a probabilidade de uma partÃcula se mover de B para A no intervalo ∆t é ρ∆t
(ρ = constante).
ρ (a) Escreva a equação mestra para a distribuição de probabilidade de partÃculas em
A.
ra 3 (b) Calcule o número médio de partÃculas em A, e a variância, como função do
tempo. Suponha que em t = 0, n = n0 . [Sugestão: passe da equação mestra para
a equação de Fokker-Planck, e resolva esta última por transformada de Fourier.]
256 CHAPTER 9. NONEQUILIBRIUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS
(a) Escreva uma equação mestra para P (σ, t), desprezando a possibilidade de não
haver transições.
(b) Calcule a magnetização média como função do tempo, sabendo que σ=+1 em
t=0. Discuta fisicamente seus resultados.
(c) Comente sobre como a temperatura e o campo magnético (nulo, no presente caso)
entram implicitamente no problema. Em particular, discuta como um campo
não-nulo afetaria o resultado do item (b).
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258 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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