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 J^[=beXWb
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Arthur Bernstein
Liverpool Institute for the Performing Arts, UK

Naoki Sekine
Epic Records Japan, Inc.

Dick Weissman
University of Colorado - Denver, Emeritus
Routledge Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bernstein, Arthur.
The global music industry : three perspectives / Arthur Bernstein, Naoki Sekine,
Richard Weissman.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-415-97579-7 -- ISBN 978-0-415-97580-3
1. Music trade. I. Sekine, Naoki. II. Weissman, Dick. III. Title.

ML3790.B39 2007
338.4’778--dc22 2006039004

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the Routledge Web site at

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 CONTENTS

About the Authors vii

1 Introduction 1

2 The Music Business in the United States 15

3 The Music Business in Canada 65

4 The Music Business in Latin America and the Caribbean 75

5 The Music Business in Africa 97

6 The Music Business in Europe 113

7 The Music Business in Asia 199

Conclusion: Loose Ends, Final Thoughts, and the Future 265

Index 271
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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Arthur Bernstein is American born but has lived in Europe since 1976.
A professional musician, he has worked as a guitarist and bassist in the
United States and Europe playing pop, rock, jazz, blues, folk, country,
and show music on guitar and bass. In 1978 he cofounded the “L’Aula de
Música” in Barcelona, Spain. This was the first private music school of its
type in Spain, with a curriculum focusing on contemporary pop music. In
1995 Bernstein was appointed head of music by the newly founded Liver-
pool Institute for Performing Arts (LIPA) in Liverpool, United Kingdom.
LIPA is an innovative, world-class, university-level arts institution, whose
lead patron is Sir Paul McCartney. An active international education con-
sultant, he has been an adviser to industry and government bodies such
as the European Music Offce and the European Commission on matters
relating to music, training youth, and the music industry. He is a found-
ing member and vice president of the Brussels-based European Modern
Music Education Network.
Naoki Sekine is Japanese but studied music business at New York
University. He works for Epic Records Japan, Inc., and is a company liai-
son to ten Asian countries, including China, India, and South Korea. In
this capacity, he is deeply involved with contemporary music styles in Asia
in a company that has a worldwide presence. He has written an extensive
paper on the Asian music industry for the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). He can be reached at
neokis@[Link].
Dick Weissman has an extensive background in studio work, record
production, songwriting, and music business education. He was a mem-
ber of the folk-pop group The Journeymen and has also recorded numer-
ous solo instrumental albums. He has worked in the industry in New York
and Los Angeles and is probably the most published American author
writing about the music industry. This is his twelfth book on music and
the music industry. His Web site is [Link].
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

It is a bit of a mystery to us why there is currently no book

available that deals with the music industry as a global phe-
nomenon. There are several dozen books about the American
music industry and a half dozen on the music business in
England, and a recent volume deals with the Australian music
business. The groundbreaking book Big Sounds from Little Peo-
ple: The Music Business in the Third World by Krister Malm and
Ralph Wallis deals with the music industry in the third world.
The book is now twenty years old, and no one has followed up
this work, other than the same authors, who published a much
less ambitious volume several years later. There are a dozen
or so generally academic books that discuss the relationship
between music and politics. Many of these books are fascinat-
ing, dealing with such matters as the underground transmis-
sion of rock and roll in communist countries, but they seldom
are very specific about the business aspects of the industry.
We included the subtitle “Three Perspectives” because we
not only cover different areas of the world but truly do have
three different perspectives. We have each written according
to our own style, with our own voice. It is interesting to note
that our writing styles depict something of the music industry.
The more informal tone in the chapters regarding the United
States is, in fact, indicative of the more casual business envi-
ronment, whereas the presentation of material in the chapters
regarding Asia and Europe properly suggests more formal
work relationships.
2 The Global Music Industry

At the time of publication we are in the middle of the first decade of

the twenty-first century. The record business really dates back to the early
twentieth century, so it is only a hundred years old. During this time
many profound changes have taken place. From a technological stand-
point we have moved from cylinders to 78-RPM records, the long-play-
ing record, eight-track tapes, cassettes, the aborted compact cassettes, the
compact disc, enhanced compact disc, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and two-sided
CDs that contain a CD side and a DVD side.
Along the way we have graduated from “direct to disk recording” to
the use of analog tape and various digital formats, such as A DAT tapes
and Pro Tools. Many early recordings were done on location, wherever
the artists were living, rather than in recording studios as such. These set-
tings ranged from folkloristic recordings done in prisons, at work sites, or
in people’s homes to rented hotel rooms and radio stations. By the 1930s
many record companies had built expensive and large studios and used
those facilities to record their artists. Although field recordings continued
to be done by folklorists, and still are, in most instances record companies
preferred to use their own stationary facilities. Prior to the introduction
of multitrack recording, all recording sessions were done live, with singers
and musicians working at the same time. The master recording was made
direct to disk, and a simple mistake, such as an incorrect bass note, could
require a large orchestra to record the same material over and over again.
Multitrack recording began during the 1950s, pioneered by guitarist
Les Paul and Mitch Miller. It was initially done by recording a piece over
and over on different machines in a process called overdubbing, and as the
number of available tracks proliferated, parts were recorded, often sepa-
rately, on a single multitrack machine. By the time sixteen and twenty-
four tracks had become available, artists were essentially compelled to
use expensive urban facilities that were either owned by the companies or
rented by them. Because of this high-level technology, most of these stu-
dios were located in such large cities as New York, London, Paris, Tokyo,
and Los Angeles.
When rock and roll became an important part of the record business,
musical accuracy was often sacrificed to powerful rhythms and perfor-
mances that focused on emotion rather than on technical musical excel-
Introduction 3

lence. Of course in popular music this had always been the case to some
extent, but it was accentuated in rock-and-roll records. In the early Elvis
Presley records, for example, the musical content of the recordings is gen-
erally simple, but the energy and emotion communicated are profound.
As a consequence the music began to be recorded in places such as Mem-
phis or New Orleans, cities large enough to have recording facilities but
far from the headquarters of the major record companies. Initially rock
and roll was primarily an American phenomenon, but the British bands,
notably the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and Led Zeppelin, quickly con-
verted what was a phenomenon based on a marriage of American roots
music styles into what by now is a worldwide vocabulary.
By the end of the 1960s the smaller early American music centers had
declined, and the American music business was headquartered in New
York and Los Angeles, with the relatively new country music center of
Nashville on the rise. Although many British rock-and-roll bands came
from such cities as Liverpool and Newcastle, in England the London stu-
dios prevailed. In India the music scene became, and to a large extent
remains, connected with the “Bollywood” movie industry, which centers
in Mumbai (Bombay).
Each country or area of the world has its own indigenous musical styles
and tastes. One of the many revolutionary aspects of the Beatles’ music
was that they brought Indian music to worldwide attention. The Rolling
Stones and Led Zeppelin also plowed this ground, integrating Middle
Eastern and North African music styles into their music. At the same time
some new pop music styles arose and spread far beyond their origins. Reg-
gae, born in Jamaica, was one example. One man, Chris Blackwell, was
largely responsible for the spread of the music, turning Jimmy Cliff and,
even more notable, Bob Marley into worldwide superstars. Many of the
sidebars of rock and roll, such as art rock and punk rock, owe their origins
to British rock bands. Salsa is a musical style that arose in New York and
resulted from the large Puerto Rican and Cuban exodus to New York
City and Miami. Heavy metal music developed in New York and Lon-
don, and Bhangra rock is a musical style that fused rock-and-roll music
with Indian musical idioms. It is particularly popular in London and has
been exported to India. Bhangra is also partly a function of the large-scale
4 The Global Music Industry

immigration from India and Pakistan to England. Dance music has been
particularly popular in Germany, and Europe in general has been active
in the electronic pop music, which is synthesizer driven.
African American musical styles became increasingly important not
only in the United States but also internationally. Among these styles were
rhythm and blues, which evolved out of a combination of folk-blues and
band styles, followed by soul music, which added gospel music vocal styl-
ings to the mix. During the 1980s rap music began to emerge as an impor-
tant musical style, which remains today. Rap music has developed in many
seemingly unlikely places. In North America there are American Indian
rap groups, Chicano rap groups, and even Chinese rappers. Of course
foreign-language rappers have appeared in various parts of the world.
Experiments in integrating the music of different cultures into pop
music were occurring as early as the Weavers’ folk-pop recordings of the
early 1950s, notably the South African song “Wimoweh,” a hit recording
not only in their version but also in a slightly rewritten American version
called “The Lion Sleeps Tonight.” Paul Simon’s Graceland album of 1986
integrated South African music into American pop, with worldwide suc-
cess and repercussions. Peter Gabriel and David Byrne each started record
labels devoted to world music styles, and world music assumed a place in
record bins and record-company advertising. It has never been entirely
clear what world music is; as publicized it appears to involve integrating
the music of various cultures into a pop framework, so that musicians
from different cultures play their musical styles together. Musical styles
that were once restricted to a particular area and culture, such as Hawai-
ian slack-key guitar, become combined with other musical styles in a way
that might have been regarded as unimaginable twenty years ago. Ameri-
can musicians such as Bob Brozman, Ry Cooder, Corey Harris, Henry
Kaiser, Taj Mahal, and David Lindley have played with musicians from
Africa, Norway, Hawaii, and India.
The emergence of musical hybrids is a never-ending process, and the
latest flavor is reggaeton, a Panama-originated fusion of reggae, Jamai-
can dancehall, American rap, and varied helpings of other Latin rhythm
patterns.
Introduction 5

Music and Censorship

In some instances the migration of musical styles had roots in political

situations. For example, the Algerian rai music scene grew and developed
in Paris, which has a large Algerian population. The music was heavily
discouraged by the Algerian government, because Algeria is a fundamen-
talist Muslim country that considered rai to be suspect and tinged with
immoral sentiments.
African music also frequently included political sentiments that dis-
pleased many of the local governments. The music and lifestyle of Afro-
pop artist Fela Kuti proved troublesome to the Nigerian government.
They invaded his communal compound, incensed at his open political
opposition to the government and his offbeat lifestyle of polygamy and
open drug use. South Africa had its own system of musical censorship,
and the government refused to play music that even suggested any opposi-
tion to apartheid, prior to the current political leadership of Nelson Man-
dela. Some musicians, such as Hugh Masakela, went into voluntary or
forced exile in the United States or England.
A similar situation prevailed in Chile, where singer–songwriter Victor
Jara was murdered by the fascist Pinochet regime, and the group Quilipa-
yun fled to Paris. Brazil also undertook musical censorship, and Gilberto
Gil and Caetano Veloso were exiled in England for several years in the
late 1960s.
At various times musicians in the United States have also had their
bouts with censorship. During the McCarthy period of the 1950s, musi-
cians suspected of connections to the Communist Party were banned from
television, through the efforts of a magazine called Red Channels. The
Weavers lost their recording contract with Decca, had their records taken
off the radio, and were picketed in live performances for their alleged
radical ties. Two members of the group were threatened with prison after
appearances before the House Un-American Activities Committee, and
the group’s career was effectively diminished if not demolished.
In more recent years American censorship has revolved around so-
called moral issues, the use of four-letter words, and misogynist records
advocating violence against women or the use of drugs. A women-led
6 The Global Music Industry

parental music group, the Parents’ Music Resource Center (PRMC),

advocated putting stickers on records that use sexually charged words.
Some of the early political rap artists were censored on political grounds,
notably artist Ice-T for his song “Cop Killer,” which created a storm of
protest among police officers and led to the artist’s losing his contract with
Warner Brothers.
In some other countries, notably Singapore, the government strongly
controls what sort of music is played on the radio. American readers need
to understand that in most countries of the world, radio is controlled by
the government, so this sort of control is much easier to exercise there than
it is in the United States, with its thousands of radio stations. Chinese
media are under tight government control, and music clips played on TV
must be approved for broadcasting. Korean media, because of the histori-
cal conflict between Korea and Japan, are still reluctant to play Japanese
music on radio and TV, although broadcasting J-pop is not prohibited in
the Korean market. Malaysia and other countries that have even a modest
number of Islamic people try to limit the broadcasting of video clips that
show men smoking cigarettes or women in bikini swimsuits.
Another example of censorship is the fines levied against a French
rap group for slandering the police. In Cuba the government controls the
music scene because it offers employment and even a comparative amount
of economic security to musicians by controlling where and under what
terms musicians can work.

Government Encouragement of Local Music

In a number of countries the government has taken steps to promote the

national music industry. There are two fundamental approaches that gov-
ernments have taken. One approach is to make some sort of investment
in the field of popular music, and the other approach is to exercise some
control over what is played on the radio. In England, for example, the
government uses music as a training tool for unemployed youth as a way
of combating unemployment. In Canada the government realized that
American records were flooding the Canadian airwaves, so they instituted
the Canadian Content Laws. These rules required radio stations to give
Introduction 7

35 percent of their airtime to Canadian records. These recordings were

defined as having two of three Canadian elements: songwriters, producers
of the record, and artists. France requires a certain percentage of program-
ming that is in the French language. This is an attempt to combat the
prevailing use of English as the language of pop music. New Zealand has
also taken steps to encourage local music on the radio.
Former South Korean president Kim Dae Jung announced in 2001
that Korean entertainment should be developed to compete in the world
market. The government then established a budget for developing and
exploiting Korean local music, as well as movie and drama. Thanks to this
fund, Korean music has been gaining in popularity in Asia, and thanks to
the increasing quality of the music, the Korean music industry sells more
locally produced repertoire than music imported from other countries.

Business Consolidation and Mergers

There have always been a few large record companies that dominated the
production and distribution of records. Independent companies have peri-
odically arisen in various countries that reflect cutting-edge musical styles
that originated in these countries. Starting in the 1980s many of these
independent labels were purchased or absorbed by the large multinational
record companies. By the 1990s these companies began to affiliate with
one another. At the present writing there are only four large companies
that are left. The 1990s and early 2000s saw the demise of such large
independent labels as A&M, Chrysalis, Virgin, and Zomba Records.
The ownership patterns of the companies also became transformed at the
same time. The bulk of the large companies—Columbia, Decca, and then
MCA, RCA, and Warner Brothers—were American owned. Only Capi-
tol, a subsidiary of British-owned EMI, was not an American-owned com-
pany. Columbia was subsequently bought by Sony of Japan, MCA was
acquired by Vivendi, and RCA was bought by the German Bertlesmann
Music Group. RCA and Sony are in effect one company, operating under
a joint ownership agreement. Universal, the successor of MCA, swallowed
up many companies. It is currently owned by what was originally a French
sewer and water exploration company, Vivendi. Warner Brothers is the
8 The Global Music Industry

only American-owned company left of the major labels. For several years
now it has been anticipated that Warner Brothers and EMI will merge,
and as we conclude this book in the summer of 2006, each company has
offered to buy the other one. So far neither one has accepted the other
one’s offer. Vivendi and Sony BMG are so much larger than the others
that this merger seems to be a natural outcome of all of this merger mania.
The future of BMG is also cloudy, and there have been numerous conflicts
between BMG and Sony over how the joint venture should be operated.
BMG is in the process of selling off its music publishing operation, and
it is conceivable that it will eventually divest itself of the record company
as well.
A Korean IT company recently purchased more than 50 percent of
a local Korean record company. The Korean music industry is by far the
world’s leading market in digital music distribution. In 2004 nonpack-
aged sales exceeded package sales by 60 percent. Given the growth of the
market, further Korean acquisitions appear likely.

Changes in Record-Company Operations

Record companies have been hard hit by two technological develop-

ments. One is outright piracy—the illegal duplication of recordings. In
certain parts of the world, notably China, there is virtually no legitimate
music business. The moment a new pop recording is issued, it is illegally
duplicated, down to the original album cover. There are several African
countries where the multinationals have closed offices because it is literally
impossible for them to do business in such an environment.
The other threat to record companies is the use of file sharing on com-
puters. Millions of music fans all over the world have become used to
getting their music from various file-sharing services that do not charge
the consumer for music. The American record manufacturers’ organiza-
tion, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), has sued
individuals and companies, such as Grokster, that make music available
without charge. The notion of going after individual users of these sys-
tems is obviously inefficient and time-consuming. A recent decision by
the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that the services are liable for the illegal
Introduction 9

transmission of music, and we can expect that the RIAA will be tak-
ing action against them. This in turn has led to many debates about the
future of copyright and the right to use the Internet freely. We will take
up some of these issues later in this book. The most recent data, revealed
by Big Champagne, a company that monitors file sharing on the Internet,
indicate that the RIAA’s various legal challenges have not in fact reduced
illegal downloading of recordings.
The consolidation that we have described is not limited to record com-
panies. The world’s two largest publishers, EMI and Warner Chappell,
control hundreds of thousands of copyrights. Over the years each com-
pany has acquired numerous publishing catalogs that originally belonged
to other companies. Even in the business of printing sheet music, there are
only a handful of companies that control most of the written music pub-
lished in the world. Alfred Music, an independent music print publishing
operation, recently acquired the print division of Warner Chappell, and
Hal Leonard and Music Sales have gobbled up various music publishing
companies over the past ten years. As is the case with record companies,
there are few independents of any consequence left. All of these compa-
nies sell sheet music around the world.

The Effects of Consolidation

When record companies consolidate their operations, many employees

lose their jobs. Record companies often combine the sales and promotion
departments of each label into one group. On the face of it this appears
to be an efficient and cost-effective move, but sometimes it has negative
effects on the operation of the new company. Because of cuts made in pro-
motion departments, the latest trend is for personal managers to assume
some of the traditional record-company functions of promoting records.
The market for music has become increasingly fragmented and driven by
niche marketing, so sometimes the larger companies are not effective in
promoting music styles. The multinationals have recognized this problem
in several ways. One is to operate independent record distribution net-
works that exist outside of the company’s regular distribution network (the
multinationals all own their own distribution). Often the large company
10 The Global Music Industry

simply buys into an existing distribution company and will even funnel
some of its own records through it. For example, Sony recognizes that
Caroline, which it partly owns, is better equipped to distribute alternative
rock music than the mother label is.
There are several other strategies that the majors have employed. One
is to become involved in the ownership of independent labels. Warner
Brothers bought a stake in Sub Pop, the label that was the pioneer in the
marketing of the Seattle sound. It then bought the rest of the company
but retained its Seattle headquarters. Another ploy is for record compa-
nies to go into business with an artist or producer and to give that person
their own imprint. In such instances the large company usually finances
the label and offers promotion, manufacturing, and distribution help.
Madonna’s Maverick Records was an example of such an alliance. Mav-
erick had great early success through the recordings of Alanis Morissette,
but eventually Warner Brothers bought her out of the label after a series of
disagreements. There are a number of instances where the labels discover
successful artists but do not always have the business acumen to operate a
label or make commercially valid choices of the artists that they sign.
The other method used by the majors is called upstreaming. In
upstream deals the major picks up recordings from an independent label,
either based on a specified sales figure or through some sort of option
deal. Upstream deals provide an independent label with better promotion
and financing. In return the major gets cut in on the profits. This follows
a fairly common attitude of the large labels. They often prefer to let the
independent stake a risk on new musical styles or controversial artists,
stepping in only when these artists become proven sellers.
An interesting change has been taking place in the way that major
labels operate their businesses. During the 1970s and 1980s record compa-
nies acquired more and more music-related businesses. Columbia Records
owned Steinway Pianos and Fender Guitars for a time, as well as the New
York Yankees baseball team. All of the major labels owned record-pressing
plants, and many of them, such as Polygram and RCA, were active in the
electronics business, and RCA was involved with the defense industry.
Record companies were also involved in the ownership of radio networks,
all of which have now been liquidated. A similar situation occurred with
Introduction 11

cable television. Some multinationals were also involved in the film busi-
ness, but Sony is the only company still active in this area. Bertlesmann
is the largest book publisher in Western Europe and also owns Random
House. Current unsubstantiated rumors indicate that the Random House
operation may be sold off from the rest of the operation.
The current trend is for the majors to sell off many of these assets.
They are doing this because they want to get cash for their assets and
because they are discovering that operating multiple businesses under the
same managerial umbrella is sometimes a distraction from focusing on
music. At present all of the majors still own their own music publishing
operations, although as we have already mentioned Warner Brothers has
retained its copyrights but sold its print division. Warner Brothers was the
only major record company that was active in the print business. Should
Warner Brothers and EMI reach an agreement to amalgamate, there is a
strong possibility that one or the other company will have to liquidate its
music publishing operation, because many industry observers believe that
the European commission that regulates monopoly would balk at seeing
the creation of a single music publishing operation that is several times the
size of the next largest company.
The most current development in terms of the industry-wide trend
to consolidate is that the European regulatory commission has decided
to look into the Sony BMG agreement. This agreement was approved by
the commission in 2004 but is being reviewed once again at the request
of European independent record labels. The prevailing industry senti-
ment is that the commission will not rescind its approval, but nevertheless
this development has put something of a damper on the EMI–Warner
Music negotiations. At the time of this writing, BMG had sold its music
publishing division to Universal. If the European Anti-Trust Commis-
sion approves the sale, Universal Music Publishing will become the largest
music publishing company in the world.

Role of Independent Labels

It is inaccurate to dismiss independent labels as a force in today’s record

business. A number of small labels have found a successful niche by
12 The Global Music Industry

marketing very specific genres of music, such as reggae, children’s music,

folk music, gospel music, and world music. Some other labels, especially
TVT, have recorded more mainstream music but have generally chosen
artists with a bit of an edge who major labels are not always comfortable
promoting. British-operated Sanctuary Records has a business model of its
own. It seeks out acts that it feels can comfortably sell 50,000 to 100,000
records. Many of these acts are established artists who have a definite fan
base, although they no longer can compete for superstar status. Sanctu-
ary limits the recording budget so that it can still obtain a profit with this
sort of sales plateau. It also follows the model used by Berry Gordy, the
founder of Motown Records. Like Gordy, Sanctuary seeks to manage the
acts and to control their music publishing and all other income streams,
such as tour merchandise. Sanctuary also operates a book publishing com-
pany that publishes books about pop music. After a seemingly successful
operation in the early twenty-first century, Sanctuary is currently under
reorganization, and its future is in doubt.
One remarkable success story is the rise of Naxos Records, a budget
classical label that operates out of Hong Kong. The classical record busi-
ness is currently in dreadful shape, and it represents only a small fraction
of record sales in the world. Naxos started in Hong Kong. Its recordings
sell for one-third to one-half of the normal price of CDs. No royalties
are paid to artists; they receive simply flat fees. At the same time, Naxos
has recorded everything from the standard classical warhorses to fresh
and new repertoire. It sometimes keeps its costs down by using orchestras
in Eastern European and Asian countries, where it has been able to pay
lower rates to the musicians. Naxos now sells more albums than any other
classical music label, and it has expanded its musical offerings to jazz and
world music.
Over the years various labels have enjoyed success with New Age music,
punk rock, jazz, and folk music. The unexpected success of such musical
phenomena as the Singing Nun, the soundtrack of O Brother, Where Art
Thou?, and the Buena Vista Social Club album are the sorts of things that
are essentially impossible to predict but fun to observe.
Introduction 13

Table 1.1
Comparison of Record Sales in Various Countries
Market Trade Value
Position Country in Millions of US$
1 United States 7,011.9
2 Japan 3,718.4
3 United Kingdom 2,162.2
4 Germany 1,457.5
5 France 1,248.3
6 Canada 544.3
7 Australia 440.0
8 Italy 428.5
9 Spain 368.9
10 Brazil 265.4
11 Mexico 262.7
12 The Netherlands 246.3
13 Switzerland 205.9
14 Russia 193.7
15 Belgium 161.8
16 South Africa 158.8
17 Sweden 148.2
18 Austria 138.7
19 Norway 133.1
20 Denmark 113.1
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Mitchell, Tony , ed. Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop Outside the USA. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001.
Moser, David J. Music Copyright for the New Millennium. Vallejo, CA: Pro Music Press, 2001.
Neale, Patrick . Where You’re At: Notes from the Frontline of a Hip-Hop Planet. New York: Riverhead Books, 2004.
Oliver, Richard , and Tim Leffel . Hip-Hop Inc.: Success Strategies of the Rap Moguls. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006.
Passman, Donald S. All You Need to Know about the Music Business. 6th ed. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007.
Poe, Randy . Music Publishing. Rev. ed. Cincinnati, OH: Writer’s Digest, 2005.
Rapaport, Diane Sward . How to Make and Sell Your Own Record. 5th ed. New York: Prentice Hall, 1999.
Robinson, Deanna Campbell , Elizabeth Buck , and Marlene Cuthbert . Music at the Margins: Popular Music and Global Cultural Diversity.
Berkeley, CA: Sage, 1991.
Shemel, Sidney , M. William Krasilovsky , and John Gross . This Business of Music. 9th ed. New York: Billboard Books, 2003.
Weissman, Dick . The Music Business: Career Opportunities and Self Defense. 3rd rev. ed. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003.
Weissman, Dick . Making a Living in Your Local Music Market: Realizing Your Market Potential. 3rd ed. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard, 2006.
Bayoumi, Moustafa . “Disco Inferno: Blasting Western Music at Detainees Is Widely Accepted ‘Torture Lite’ Technique. What Does That
Mean?” The Nation, December 26, 2005.
Christman , Ed. “Sound Wishes: Hallmark’s New Say It with Music Series Licenses Tracks for Greeting Cards.” Billboard, August 26, 2006.
Coleman, Jennifer . “43% of State Population in ’20 to Be Hispanic.” Associated Press, November 23, 2005.
Duffy, Thom . “Power Players, 2005.” Billboard, May 7, 2005.
Waddell, Ray . “Live Nation Billion Tunes.” Billboard, November 26, 2005.
Williams, Alex . “The Graying of the Record Store.” New York Times, July 16, 2006.
American Federation of Musicians , [Link]
American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers , [Link]
Broadcast Music Inc ., [Link]
National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences , [Link]
National Association of Music Merchants , [Link]
Recording Industry Association of America , [Link]

The Music Business in Canada

Chamberland, Roger . “Rap in Canada: Bilingual and Multicultural.” In Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop outside the USA, edited by Tony
Mitchell , 306–326. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001.
Coxson, Mona . Some Straight Talk about the Music Business. 2nd ed. Toronto: CM Books, 1989.
Music Directory Canada . Toronto: Norris Whitney Publications, 2001.
Carr, David . “Montreal’s Explosive Music Scene.” New York Times, February 20, 2006.
LeBlanc, Larry . “Winnipeg: Cold, Isolated and Happening.” Billboard, July 15, 2006.
Canadian office, America Federation of Musicians , [Link]/public/departments/canada
Canadian Academy of Recording Arts , [Link]
Society of Authors, Composers, and Publishers , [Link]

The Music Business in Latin America and the Caribbean

Best, Curwen . Culture @ the Cutting Edge: Tracking Caribbean Popular Music. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2004.
Boggs, Venon W. , ed. Salsiology: Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City. New York: Excelsior Music, 1992.
Bradley, Lloyd . Bass Culture: When Reggae Was King. London: Viking, 2000.
Clark, Walter Aaron , ed. From Tejano to Tango. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Farr, Jory . Rites of Rhythm: The Music of Cuba. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
Lechner, Ernesto . Rock en Español: The Latin Alternative Rock Explosion. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2005.
Livingston-Isenhour, Tamara Elena , and Thomas George Caracas Garcia . Choro: A Social History of a Brazilian Popular Music.
Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2005.
Loza, Steven . Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
Manuel, Peter , with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey . Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Rev. ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2006.
McCann, Bryan . Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
Moore, Robin D. Music and Revolution: Cultural Change in Socialist Cuba. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Morales, Ed . The Latin Beat: The Rhythm and Roots of Latin Music from Bossa Nova to Salsa and Beyond. New York: Da Capo Press,
2003.
Nadel, Richard . World Music: The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Olsen, Dal A. , and Daniel E. Sheehy . The Garland Handbook of Latin American Music. New York: Garland, 2000.
Pena, Manuel . Musica Tejana. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999.
San Miguel Jr. , Guadalupe . Tejano Proud: Tex-Mex Music in the Twentieth Century. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002.
Schechter, John M. Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999.
Schreiner, Claus . Musica Brasileira: A History of Popular Music and the People of Brazil. New York: Marion Boyars, 1993.
Simonett, Helena . Banda: Mexican Musical Life across Borders. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001.
Veloso, Caetano . Tropical Truth: A Story of Music and Revolution in Brazil. New York: Da Capo Books, 2002.
Wald, Elijah . Narcocorrido: A Journey into the Music of Drugs, Guns, and Guerrillas. New York: HarperCollins, 2001.
Waxer, Lise . The City of Musical Memory: Salsa, Record Grooves, and Popular Culture in Cali, Colombia. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan
University Press, 2002.
Billboard , October 20, 2005 (article on Mexican R&B influenced sound).
Kun, Josh . “We Are a Band and We Play One on TV.” New York Times, July 9, 2006.

The Music Business in Africa

Ansell, Gwen . Soweto Blues: Jazz, Popular Music and Politics in South Africa. New York: Continuum Press, 2004.
Barz, Gregory . Music in East Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Eyre, Banning . In Griot Time: An American Guitarist in Mali. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2000.
Meintjes, Louise . Sounds of Africa! Making Music Zulu in a South African Studio. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.
Morgan, Andy . “Guerrilla of Pop, Matoub Lounés and the Struggle for Berber Identity in Algeria.” In Shoot the Singer! Music Censorship
Today, edited by Marie Korpe . London: Zen Books, 2004.
Pelmfo, Andre Roch . Guide Pratique Aux Droits D’Auteur Et Droits Voisins dans les pays d’Afrique francophone [Practical Guide to
Author’s Rights and Neighboring Rights in French-Speaking African Countries]. Paris: Consell francophone de la chanson, 2005.
Robinson, Deanna Campbell , Elizabeth Buck , and Marlene Cuthbert . Music at the Margins: Popular Music and Global Cultural Diversity.
Berkeley, CA: Sage, 1991.
Tenaille, Frank . Music Is the Weapon of the Future: Fifty Years of African Popular Music. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2000.
Collins, John . “Ghana’s Music Industry Today.” West Africa, August 2002.
Agence Intergouvernmentale de la Francophone , [Link]

The Music Business in Asia

@maxWIRE . “‘NO! Copied CD, Illegal Site?’ in Korean Music Industry.” May 23, 2003. [Link]
[Link]/wire/2003/[Link].
Asian People Research Project by Hakuhodo . Let’s Start Asian Marketing. Japan: PHP Publishing, 2002.
Baranovitch, Nimrod . China’s New Voices. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
Chosunilbo . “Fans Protest against Cancellation for Live FA-ST 2004.” November 11, 2004.
[Link]
CIA World Factbook . The World Factbook. 2004. [Link]
E-Commerce Times . “E-Commerce Sending Shock Waves through Music Industry.” January 28,
2003.[Link]
Hiromichi Ugaya . What Is J-POP? Japan: Iwanami Bookstore, 2005.
International Federation of Phonographic Industries . The Recording Industry in Numbers. London: IFPI, 2003, 2005.
International Federation of Phonographic Industries . Commercial Piracy Report 2005. 2005. [Link]
content/library/[Link].
International Federation of Phonographic Industries . Digital Music Report 2005. 2005. [Link]
[Link].
International Telecommunication Union . “Mobile Cellular Subscribers per 100 People in 2004.” 2005. [Link]
D/ict/statistics/at_glance/[Link].
Internet World Stats . “Asia.” 2005. [Link]
IT Facts . “In Japan $122.1 Mln Worth of Music Is Sold through Cell Phones, $4.8 Mln through PCs.” September 20, 2005.
[Link]
Hot Wired Japan . “Leading Country of Broadband, South Korea: Report for Its Music Industry.”
2005.[Link]
JASRAC . Balance Sheet in 2005. 2005. [Link]
Koichi Iwabuchi . Transnational Japan. Japan: Iwanami Bookstore, 2001.
Latvian Academic Network . “Charts All over the World.” 2005. [Link]
Manuel, Peter . Popular Musics of the non-Western World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Manuel, Peter . Cassette Culture: Popular Music and Technology in North India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
mp3 Hollywood . “Korean File-Sharing Service Soribada Has Filed Lawsuit.” August 19, 2001. [Link]
[Link]/data/2001/[Link].
mp3 Hollywood . “Because of Service Stop for Soribada, Action against CD Purchase Is Happening in Korea.” 2003. [Link]
[Link]/data/2002/[Link].
Music Business International . The MBI Asian Report. London: Music Business International, 1997.
Music Business International . World Report. London: Music Business International, 2001, 2002.
ORICON . “Ranking.” 2005. [Link]
Photius Coutsoukis . “Country Ranks 2004.” 2005. [Link]
Record Industry Association of Japan . World Music Market Sales in 2004. 2005. [Link]
Searchina . “Searchina Marketing: Mobile Phone.” 2005. [Link]
Shigeru Onzo . Golden Age of Nippon Pop. Japan: KK Bestsellers, 2001.
Suiko Rin . All about Chinese Pops: Hong Kong, Taiwan, China. Japan: Ongakuno Tomosha Publishing, 1997.
Throsby, David . “The Music Industry in the New Millennium: Global and Local Perspectives.” Paper prepared for the Division of Arts and
Cultural Enterprise, UNESCO, Paris, 2002.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development . Development Strategies of Local Cultural Industries in Asia and Europe Trends
and Global Market Developments: Audio-Visual Sector in Asia. Geneva: UNCTAD, 2002.
Wikipedia . “C-pop.” 2005. [Link]
Wikipedia . “J-pop.” 2005. [Link]
Wikipedia . “K-pop.” 2005. [Link]
Wired News . “ITunes Japan: 1 Million Downloads.” August 8, 2005. [Link]

Conclusion
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Cassell, 1998.
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