DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND NONLIVING Reasons why living things move.

THINGS.
− To find shelter
Biodiversity is the variety of plants and animal life in − To search for food and water
a particular habitat. − To escape the enemy/ predators/ danger
Living things − To find mating partner for reproduction
− To avoid unfavourable conditions
Living things are organisms that undergo life
− To disperse/reduce competition/ reduce
processes.
overcrowding by moving to new locations.
Non-living things
Respiration.
Nonliving things are things that do not undergo life
processes. Respiration is the breakdown of food substance in
living cells to release energy with or without the use
LIFE PROCESSES. of oxygen.
There are seven life processes that all living Sensitivity (irritability).
organisms undergo (characteristics of living things).
Sensitivity (irritability) is the process by which living
They are
thing respond to stimuli.
− Movement.
Growth.
− Respiration.
− Sensitivity/ irritability. Growth is the irreversible increase in size or mass and
− Growth. complexity of an organism.
− Reproduction.
Reproduction.
− Excretion.
− Nutrition. Reproduction is the ability of living thing to produce
offspring of their own kind.
Movement.
Excretion.
Movement is the change in position of the body or
part of the body of living things. Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products
from the body of living organisms.
Locomotion: is the process in which living things
move their whole body. Nutrition.
Nutrition is the process by which living things obtain
and use their food.

Differences between living and non-living things.

Living things. Non-living things.

− Living things move on their own. − Non- livings things cannot move on their own.
− Living things respire. − Non-living things do not respire.
− Living things excrete). − Non- livings do not excrete.
− Living things respond to stimuli. − Non- livings do not respond to stimuli.
− Living things require nourishment to exist. − Non- livings do not require nourishment to exist.
− Living things undergo reproduction. − Non- livings do not undergo reproduction.
− Living things grow by addition of new − Non- livings may increase in size by addition of
materials produced by the organism. new substance from the environment.
− Living things consist of cells − Non-living things do not consist of cells
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Plants Animals

Plants do not locomote. Animals locomote.

Plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen Animals take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide
during daytime but at night plants take in oxygen all the time.
and give out carbon dioxide.
Plants respond slowly to stimuli. Animals respond quickly to stimuli
Plants exhibit unlimited (indefinite) growth. Animals exhibit limited (definite) growth
Growth is limited to specific regions OR Growth occurs uniformly.
growth occur at the extremes (root and shoot tips).
No fixed number of organs. Fixed number of organs
Plants exhibit both sexual and asexual Animals exhibit sexual reproduction.
reproduction.
Plants do not have special organs for excretion. Animals have special organs for excretion.
Plants prepare their own food (Plants are Animals depend on other organisms for food
autotrophic). (Animals are heterotrophic)
Plants store excess glucose as starch. Animals store excess glucose as glycogen.
Plants store lipids as oil. Animals store lipids as fat.

CLASSIFICATION − He classified animals on the basis of the way

they move, their habitat and on the basis of
Classification is the sorting out (grouping) of things
whether they have red blood cells or not,
into groups based on common characteristics or
− He classified plants based on appearance and
features.
size into trees, shrubs and herbs.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
2) Carolus Linnaeus (Swedish naturalist)
(CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS).
− He developed the system of classification
Biological classification is the sorting out (grouping)
(natural system).
of living things into groups based on common
− He classified organisms based on their body
characteristics or features.
structure (common structures).
Taxonomy: is a branch of science that deals with − He developed the binomial system of naming
grouping and naming of organisms. organisms.
− According to Carolus, living organisms belong to
Importance (reasons) of classification.
seven ranks, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
− It helps in easier identification of organisms. family, genus and species.
− For easy studies and research. − He classified living things into five kingdoms.
− It enhances communication between biologists. Order (hierarchy) of classification by carolus
− It shows similarities and differences between linneus / organizational plan for classification
organisms
− It brings about potential uses of living things. There are seven major ranks (taxa) into which
− It brings order in naming of organisms. taxonomist classify living things. They are:
− It enables trend of evolution to be seen. Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family
Some scientists that contributed to biological → Genus → Species
classification or taxonomy.
NB: Taxon is the unit of biological classification.
1) Aristotle (Greek philosopher and biologist).

− He classified organisms based on similarities and

differences.
− He classified organisms into plants and animals.
 KINGDOMS. KINGDOM FUNGI.
There are five kingdoms, namely; Characteristics of Kingdom Fungi.

− Kingdom animalia. − Their cells have true nucleus (They are

− Kingdom plantae. eukaryotic).
− Kingdom fungi. − Their calls have membrane bound organelles.
− Kingdom protoctista or protista. − Their cells have cell wall made of chitin.
− Kingdom Prokaryotae or monera. − Their cells lack chloroplast.
− They are multicellular organisms.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA.
− They exhibit both sexual and asexual
Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia. reproduction.
− They cannot locomote/ they are non-mobile/ they
− Their cells have true nucleus (they are lack locomotory structures.
eukaryotic). − They are heterotrophic/ they are saprophytic.
− Their calls have membrane bound organelles. − Their vegetative body is called mycelium.
− Their cells lack cell wall. − No roots, stem or leaf
− Their cells lack chloroplast.
− They are multicellular organisms. Examples of organisms in kingdom fungi.
− They exhibit sexual reproduction. Mushroom, Yeast, Mould, Rhizopus (Black bread
− They locomote (they have locomotory mould), Mucor, Penicillium, Bracket fungi
structures).
− They are heterotrophic (they depend on other KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA.
organisms for food).
Characteristics of Kingdom Protoctista.
− They store excess glucose as glycogen.
− Animals store lipids as fat. − Their cells have true nucleus (they are
eukaryotic).
Examples of organisms in kingdom animalia.
− Their calls have membrane bound organelles.
Human, cow, mouse, birds, cat, toad, snail etc. − They are mostly unicellular with few simple
multicellular forms.
KINGDOM PLANTAE. − They mostly exhibit asexual reproduction with
Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae. few sexual forms.
− They lack tissues and organs.
− Their cells have true nucleus (they are − They mostly live in wet places.
eukaryotic). − They undergo both heterotrophic and autotrophic
− Their calls have membrane bound organelles. nutrition.
− Their cells have cell wall made of cellulose. − They may be plant like or animal like.
− Their cells have chloroplast. − They are mostly microscopic.
− They are multicellular organisms. − They are mostly parasitic.
− They exhibit both sexual and asexual − They live in wet damp places.
reproduction.
− They cannot locomote (they lack locomotory Examples of organisms in kingdom Protoctista.
structures). Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Spirogyra, Algae,
− They are autotrophic (they synthesis their own Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Slime mould
food).
− They store excess glucose as starch. KINGDOM PROKARYOTAE.
− Plants store lipids as oil. Characteristics of kingdom Prokaryotae.
Examples of organisms in kingdom plantae − They lack true nucleus (they are prokaryotic).
Pawpaw, mango, palm, maize, moss, fern, liverworts − They lack membrane bound organelles.
− They are unicellular.
− They are microscopic.
− They have cell wall made up of peptidoglycan. − They can exist as crystals (they can crystallise).
− They have flagella for movement. − They are particles.
− They are heterotrophs with few autotrophs. − They do not undergo cell division.
− Most are parasitic. − They cannot do metabolic process on their own.
− Most are pathogens.
BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE
− They exhibit mainly asexual reproduction.
(BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NAMING).
Examples of organisms in kingdom Prokaryotae.
Binomial system of nomenclature is a system of
Bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue green algae). naming living organisms with two Latin names,
indicating the genus and species of the organism.
SPECIES.
NOTE: Binomial system of nomenclature was
Species are group of organisms that can interbreed to developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
produce fertile off springs.
AKARYOTES.
Akaryotes are cell that lack nucleus. E.g. Virus.
VIRUS.
A virus is an akaryote made up of a protein coat and
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and lacks nucleus.
CLASSIFICATION IN CHEMISTRY
Characteristics of an akaryotes or virus. (PERIODIC SYSTEM)

− They lack nucleus. In chemistry, elements are grouped based on

− They lack organelles. common characteristics into groups and periods in
− They are particles and nonliving when outside the periodic table.
the host.
The periodic table was developed by Dimitri
− They can grow and reproduce only in a host cell. Mendeleev.
− They are non-cellular.
− They consist of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA) Contribution of Dimitri Mendeleev
bounded by a protein coat.
✓ He devised the periodic classification of
− They exist as crystals when outside the host.
elements (He developed the periodic table).
Reasons why virus is considered as a living thing. ✓ He grouped elements into groups and
(Characteristics of virus as a living thing). periods.
✓ He formulated the periodic law.
− They reproduce (multiply) when they are in a
host.
− They have nucleic acid DNA or RNA.
− They feed and derive benefit from the host cell.
Reasons why virus is considered as a non-
living thing. (Characteristics of virus as a non-
living thing).

− They lack nucleus.

− They lack organelles.
− They cannot move.
− They cannot reproduce on their own.
− They cannot grow.
− They cannot respire.
− They cannot excrete.
− They are non-cellular.
 CELLS.
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life (living organisms).
Examples of cells.
Plant cell , Animal cell, Fungal cell , Protoctists, Bacteria

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL.

PARTS OF A CELL.

Parts of the plant cell. Parts of the animal cell.

− Cell membrane (plasma membrane) − Cell membrane (plasma membrane)

− Cytoplasm − Cytoplasm
− Nucleus − Nucleus
− Vacuole − Vacuole
− Mitochondria − Mitochondria
− Ribosomes − Ribosomes
− Endoplasmic reticulum − Endoplasmic reticulum
− Golgi body (Golgi apparatus) − Golgi body (Golgi apparatus)
− Chloroplast − Centriole (centrosome)
− Cell wall − Lysosomes
− Plastids
NB: The cytoplasm and nucleus constitute the protoplasm.
PAETS OF THE CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS.

PARTS OF THE CELL. FUNCTION.

Cell membrane − It protects the cell from injury.
− It controls movement of materials into and out of the cell
− It contains proteins for active transport.
− It keeps it semi fluid content of the cell in place.

Cell wall − It supports and protects the cell.

− It forms the frame work of the cell.
− It gives the cell a definite shape (maintains the shape the cell).
− It is permeable to substances like gases, water and other materials.

Cytoplasm − It is the site for chemical reactions in the cell

− It helps in intracellular distribution of substances.
− It is the site for organelles.
− It helps in exchange of materials between organelles.

Nucleus: It is a dense spherical structure. In − It controls the life activities (processes) of the cell.
animal cell, the nucleus is centric (at the − It controls cell division.
center), in plant cells, it is acentric. − It stores hereditary material (chromatin) of the cell.
− It contains nucleolus which manufactures ribosome.

Mitochondrion: It is sausage shaped. It is − It produces energy (ATP) in the cell.

referred to as the power house of the cell. − It helps in heat production (thermogenesis).

Vacuole: Vacuoles are fluid filled sacs − Vacuole stores dissolved materials.
bounded by a single membrane called − Contractile vacuole helps in osmoregulation and excretion.
tonoplast. Vacuole contain a fluid called cell − The fluid in the vacuole creates pressure on the cell wall which makes the
sap cell rigid.

Golgi body (golgi apparatus) − It produces the cell membrane.

− It is involved in the secretion and packaging of protein and
carbohydrates.
− It helps in the formation of cell plates during plant cell divisions.
− It helps in storage of secretary products.

Ribosomes − It is the site for protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum − Rough endoplasmic reticulum serves as a supporting platform for

ribosomes.
Types of endoplasmic reticulum
− Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with protein synthesis.
− Rough endoplasmic reticulum − Transport of proteins and other materials within the cell.
− Smooth endoplasmic reticulum − It divides the cytoplasm into small compartments.
− It gives rigidity to the cell

Centriole − it responsible for spindle fibers formation during cell division.

− It helps in the formation of cilia and flagella.

Lysosome: They are very small spherical − It is involved in self-destruction of a cell.

fluid filled bodies. They contain enzymes − It defends the cell against foreign particles.
called lysozymes which are involved in − It contains enzyme for digestion of food materials.
breakdown.
− It is involved in destruction of worn-out tissues.

Chloroplast: it is egg shaped (disc shaped). − Chloroplast absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis OR
It contains a green pigment called − it is the site for photosynthesis.
chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight used in
photosynthesis.
 ORGANELLES Similarities between plant and animal cells.
Organelles are membrane bound structures within a − They both have nucleus.
cell that perform a specific function in the cell. − They both have mitochondria.
− They both have cytoplasm.
Examples of organelles.
− They both have cell membrane.
− Nucleus − They both have vacuole
− Vacuole − They both have ribosomes.
− Mitochondria − They both have Golgi bodies.
− Ribosomes − They both have endoplasmic reticulum.
− Endoplasmic reticulum
Question 1
− Golgi body (Golgi apparatus)
− Centriole (centrosome) Name three structures found in plant cell only.
− Lysosomes
Answer.
− Chloroplast
− Plastids − Chloroplast or plastid
− Cellulose cell wall
Differences between plant and animal cells.
− Starch
Animal cell. Plant cell − Large and permanent vacuole.
− Oil
− Animal cell has an − Plant cell has a
irregular regular (defined) Question.
(indefinite) shape. shape.
− Animal cell lacks − Plant cell as Name two organelles found in plant cell only.
chloroplast. chloroplast.
Answer.
− Animal cell lacks − Plant cell has cell
cell wall. wall. − Chloroplast or plastid
− Animal cell has − Plant cell has large − Large and permanent vacuole.
small temporal permanent
vacuoles. vacuole. Question.
− Animal cell has − Plant cell lacks
Name three structures found in animal cell only.
centrioles centrioles
− Animal cell may − Cilia is very rare in Answer.
have cilia. plant cells.
− Animal cell has − Plant cell lacks − Centriole (centrosome)
lysosomes. lysosomes. − Lysosomes
Animal cell stores Plant cell stores excess − Glycogen
excess sugar as sugar as starch − Fat
glycogen OR OR
Contains starch Question
contains glycogen granules in its
granules in it cytoplasm cytoplasm Name two organelles found in animal cell only.
Answer.
− Animal cell stores − Plant cell stores
lipids as fat. lipids as oil. − Centriole (centrosome)
− Lysosomes

SPECIALIZED CELLS.
A specialized cell is a cell structurally modified (adapted) to perform a specific function.
In plant.

Specialized plant cells Functions

Parenchyma cells.
Collenchyma cells.
Sclerenchyma cells.
Xylem cells/ Water Conducts water and mineral salts from the roots through the stem to
conducting cells. the leaves.
Phloem cells It is responsible for the movement of food from the leaves to other
parts of the plants (translocation).
Root hair cells/ Root tip cells. For absorption of water and mineral salts.
Palisade mesophyll cells. Contains large numbers of chloroplast for photosynthesis.
Spongy mesophyll cells. It creates a lot of intercellular spaces for good circulation of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the leaf.
Epidermal cells. Cover the surface of plants.
Guard cells They control the opening and closing of the stomata.
In animal.

Specialized animal Functions

cells

Red blood cells. − They transport oxygen to body tissues.

− Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
− Helps to regulate blood pH.
White blood cells. − Lymphocytes produce antibodies that fight diseases in the body.
− Phagocytes engulf and ingest pathogens.
Nerve cell (neuron). − Conducts and coordinates nerve impulses.
Epithelia cells. − Covers and protect body tissues.
Sperm cells. − Fertilizes the egg to form a zygote.
− It carries chromosomes (genetic information) from parents to offspring.
Egg cell (ovum) − It is fertilized by the sperm to form a zygote.
− It carries chromosomes (genetic information from parents to offspring.
Muscle cell. − Contract to enhance movement.
− Protects delicate organs of the body
Connective tissue cells. − It binds and holds tissues and organs together.
Bone cells. − Provide mechanical support.

ORGANIZATION OF CELLS IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS.

Multicellular organisms have 5 levels of organization:
Cell → Tissue → Organ →Organ system → Organis
TISSUE.
A tissue is a group of similar cells specialized to perform a common (same) function.
Examples of tissues.
In animal.

Tissue Function
Nerve tissue − Conducts and coordinate impulses.
Muscle tissue − Contract to enhance movement.
Blood − Carries oxygen, food and other substance around the body.
Skeletal tissue − Provide mechanical support.
Epithelial tissue − Covers and protect body tissues.
Adipose tissue − It stores fat which protect the body against heat loss.
Connective tissue − It binds and holds other tissues and organs together.
In plants.

Tissue Function
Vascular tissue (xylem tissue and phloem tissue) Transport water and food substances to different
parts of the plant.
Photosynthetic tissue Responsible for the production of plant food.
Strengthening tissue Provide support.
Epidermal tissue Cover the surface of plants.

ORGAN.
An organ is a group of tissues usually with a definite structure to perform a common (same) function.
Examples of organs.
In animal.

Organ Function

Kidney − For excretion

− For regulation of water and pH..
− The kidney produces hormones like erythropoietin for blood production.
Heart − Pump blood around the body.
Stomach − It stores food temporarily.
− Churns of food
− Secrets of enzymes
− It also produces HCl to sterilize food
− Digestion of protein
− Coagulates milk protein.
Pancreas − It produces pancreatic juice which contains enzymes.
− It also produces hormones (like insulin and glucagon).
Eye − For sight (vision).
Ear − Hearing and balance.
Skin − It protects the body tissues against pathogens and mechanical injury.
− It prevents excessive water loss.
− For excretion
− For detection of stimulus (touch, pain, heat, cold, pressure and chemicals).
− It helps in regulation of body temperature
− Production of vitamin D
− Protects the body against harmful ultraviolet rays.
Nose − Smell.
Tongue − It tastes food
− It mixes food with saliva
− It helps to roll food into bolus for swallowing (swallowing of food)
− Articulation of speech.
− It has lingual tonsils for defense.
Liver − It processes end products of digestion.
− It produces bile
− It helps in deamination of excess amino acid (breaks down excess amino acids
into urea).
 − It stores certain fat-soluble vitamins.
− It helps in detoxification
− It helps in the regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation)
− Regulates blood sugar level (by converting and storing excess glucose as
glycogen and converting it back to glucose when needed).
− Produces plasma proteins.
− It helps in fat metabolism.
− It helps in the destruction of hormones.
− Excretion.
− It helps to destroy old red blood cells.
− It stores blood.
− It stores iron.
− In embryos, liver helps in blood production.

In Plant.
Organ Function
Stem − Stems conduct water and mineral salts from the root to the leaf.
− Stem supports the fruit in position.
− Stem supports the leaf in position to receive sunlight for photosynthesis.
− Stem supports the flowers in position for pollination.
− Stems of some plants store food and water.
− Green stems carry out photosynthesis.
Leaf − Site for photosynthesis
− For gaseous exchange
− For transpiration
− For excretion
− Leaf of some plants store food.
Root − Root absorbs water and mineral salts.
− Root fixes the plant to the soil.
− Root of some plants store food.
− Root of some plants serve as breathing roots.
− Root of some plants are used for climbing.
Flower − Flower is the sexual reproductive part of a flowering plant.

ORGAN SYSTEM.
An organ system is made up of several organs which work together for an important life function (to perform a
specific function).

Examples of organ systems.

In animal
Organ system Example of its organs. Function.
Sensory system Eye, nose, skin, ear, − Detects stimuli.
tongue.
Digestive system Pancreas, stomach, − Digestion and absorption of food.
liver, intestines
Circulatory system Arteries, veins, − It transports oxygen from the lungs to other
capillaries, heart. tissues.
− It carries carbon dioxide from body tissues to
the lungs to be expelled.
− It transport of dissolved food substances
(nutrients) and minerals to parts of the body.
− It carries antibodies around the body.
− It carries waste products to excretory organs for
 removal.
− It carries hormones to target organs
− Blood help to regulate body temperature
(thermoregulation) / Blood distributes heat to
all parts of the body.
− It helps to maintain fluid and chemical balance
within the body.
− It protects the body against diseases and
excessive blood loss.
Respiratory system Nose, trachea, lungs. − Facilitates gaseous exchange.
Reproductive system Testes, ovaries, uterus − Produce offspring.

In plants.

Organ system Examples of its organs Function

Shoot system Leaves, fruits, stem, flowers, − Prepares food.
branches, buds. − Transports food, water and
mineral salts.

Root system. Roots, root hairs and their branches. − Gives support to the plant.
− Absorbs water and mineral salts.

ORGANISM.
Oraganisms can be classified based on the number of cells make up the organism into:
Unicellular organism: are organism made of one cell. Examples: Amoeba, paramecium, euglena, bacterium
Multicellular organism: are organism made of more than one cells. Examples: animals and plants.

CELL DIVISION. − Division of cytoplasm

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell Process of mitosis/ how mitosis take place.
divides into two or more cells.
Stage of Process that occur
Types of cell division. mitosis.
− Mitosis. Interphase − Each chromosome makes copy of
− Meiosis. itself and the centriole divides.
Prophase. − Nuclear membrane dissociates,
MITOSIS. centrioles move to opposite poles
Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to and chromosomes condense.
produce two daughter cells which are identical to the Metaphase. − Spindle fibers are formed and
parent cell. chromosomes arrange on the
equator of the cell attached to the
In mitosis, the daughter cells have the same number spindle fibers at the centromeres.
of chromosomes as the parent cell. Anaphase − Chromatids separate and move
towards the opposite ends of the
Stages of mitosis. cell.
Telophase − Nuclear membrane reassembles,
− Interphase.
chromosomes decondense and
− Prophase. spindle fibers dissociates.
− Metaphase. Division of − Cytoplasm divides.
− Anaphase cytoplasm
− Telophase.
Importance of mitosis. pulled to opposite ends of the
cell.
− It helps in growth. Telophase I − Nuclear membrane reassembles,
− It helps in repair of tissues (wound healing) chromosomes decondense and
− It helps in replacement of dead body cells. spindle fibers dissociates.
− Mitosis keeps the number of chromosome Division of − Cytoplasm divides.
constant. cytoplasm I
− Mitosis helps the cells maintain their proper
size.
Interphase II − The cells enter interphase II
where it accumulates materials
− Mitosis is the method of asexual reproduction in for the next stage but there is no
unicellular organisms (like amoeba). DNA replication.
MEIOSIS. Prophase II − The nuclear envelope
disintegrates, chromosomes
Meiosis is a cell division taking place in sex cell to condense and spindle fibers are
produce daughter cells each having half the formed.
chromosome number of the parent cell. Metaphase II − Chromosomes arrange at the
equator of the cell.
Stages of meiosis. Anaphase II − Sister chromatids separate and
Meiosis I are pulled to the opposite ends
of the cell.
− Interphase. Telophase II − Nuclear membrane reassembles,
− Prophase I. chromosomes decondense and
− Metaphase I. spindle fibers dissociates.
− Anaphase I. Division of − Cytoplasm divides.
cytoplasM II
− Telophase I.
− Division of cytoplasm I Importance of meiosis.
Meiosis II − Meiosis leads to genetic variation.
− Interphase II. − Meiosis results in the formation of gamete.
− Prophase II. − Meiosis ensures stability of species.
− Metaphase II. − Meiosis ensures that the chromosome number of
the species is kept constant.
− Anaphase II.
− Telophase II Differences between mitosis and meiosis.
− Division of cytoplasm II
Mitosis Meiosis
Process of meiosis/ how meiosis take place.
− It occurs in somatic − It occurs in
Stage of Process that occurs cells reproductive (sex or
meiosis. germ) cells.
− Chromosome − Chromosome number
Interphase I − Each chromosome makes copy number is is reduced by half.
of itself (replicate or duplicates maintained.
itself) and the centriole divides. − No crossing over − Crossing over occurs
Prophase I − Nuclear membrane dissociates, − No pairing up of − Pairing up of
chromosomes condense. chromosomes chromosomes occur
− Homologous chromosomes pair − Cell division occurs − Cell division occurs
up and come very close to each ones. twice.
other.
− Two daughter cells − Four daughter cells
− Crossing over takes place. are formed. are formed.
Metaphase I − The pair arrange on the equator − Daughter cells − Daughter cells
of the cell attached to the spindle produced have produced have
fibers genetic makeup genetic makeup
Anaphase I − Homologous chromosomes are identical to parent different from parent
 cell. cell. Mode of formation igneous rocks.
− It has short duration − It is of a long
duration. Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and
solidification of molten magma or larva erupting
from the center of the earth.
ROCKS. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
A rock is large mass of stone or mineral material Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed from sticking
found in the earth's crust. together of sediments of other weathered rocks in
Rocks are made up of minerals such as, gold, layers.
diamond, aluminium, iron etc. Sedimentary rocks are generally composed of
Importance of rocks. secondary minerals such as dolomite, gypsum,
calcite and clay minerals.
− Formation of soil.
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
− Source of minerals.
− Raw materials for industries. − They are stratified (occur in layers)
− Source of plant nutrients. − They contain fossil.
− It helps control soil erosion. − They are generally not resistant to weathering.
− Construction purpose. − They are non-crystalline.
− Source of metals. − They have line of weakness between layers.
− Domestic use as an ornament. − Are relatively soft.
− Source of fuel. − Composed of secondary minerals.
− They are formed from already existing rocks.
TYPES OF ROCKS.
Mode of formation of sedimentary rocks.
− Igneous rocks.
− Sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the deposition of
− Metamorphic rocks. sediments of other weathered rocks in layers. They
become hardened or cemented by compression to
IGNEOUS ROCKS form sedimentary rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and Types of sedimentary rocks.
solidification of hot molten rock (magma or larva)
erupting from the center of the earth. − Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks. E.g.,
Sandstone, clay, breccia, limestone,
E.g., Granite, gabbro, diorite, Basalt, quartz. conglomerate, limestone, shale
NB: Igneous rocks are composed mainly of primary
− Organically formed sedimentary rocks. E.g.,
minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and hornblende.
Coal, lignite, peat etc.
Characteristics of igneous rocks.
− Chemically formed sedimentary rocks. E.g.,
− They are crystalline in structure Sodium chloride, potash, gypsum, dolomite.
− They are not stratified (do not occur in layers).
− They are shiny, heavy and hard. METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
− They contain no fossil (fossil free). Metamorphic rocks are formed as result from
− They are generally resistant to erosion and other changes in the form of sedimentary or igneous rocks.
weather conditions.
Examples: Marble, slate, schist, gneiss, serpentine.
− Composed of primary minerals.
Original rock (type) Metamorphic rock
formed.
Shale (sedimentary rock) Slate
Sandstone (sedimentary Quartzite in rocks, freeze and expand causing a bigger
rock) crack and breakdown of rocks.
Limestone (sedimentary Marble
rock) − Wind: moving wind usually carry particles
Conglomerate Schist which has abrasive action on the surface of
(sedimentary rock) exposed rocks causing them to break.
Granite (igneous rock) Gneiss
Gabbro (igneous rock) Serpentine − Pressure: pressure created by humans and other
animals through walking or quarrying results in
breakdown of rocks.
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks.

− They are generally dull and tough in appearance. − Geological processes: geological processes like
− Are non-crystalline. earthquake, tremors sometimes cause rocks to
− They are massive and harder than sedimentary breakdown.
rocks. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING.
− They are very dense.
− Some are foliated. Biological weathering is the breakdown of rocks into
smaller particles due to the activities of organisms
− Many contain fossil
(plants, animals and other microorganisms).
− Exist in different colours and textures.
These involves,
Mode of formation of metamorphic rocks.
− Green plants. algae and fungi grow on rock
Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks have surface putting pressure on the rock causing
been subjected to tremendous heat and pressure them to crack or break down.
which cause them to change in form. This process is
− Penetration of rocks by roots of plants through
called rock metamorphosis.
cracks cause breakdown of rocks.
WEATHERING OF ROCKS. − Burrowing action and feeding habits of animals
Weathering of rocks is the gradual breakdown of like earthworms, termites, and rats can cause
rocks into smaller particles. biological weathering of rocks.
− Human activities like farming and road
Types of weathering of rocks. construction and building can cause weathering.
− Physical weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING.
− Chemical weathering.
− Biological weathering. Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into
smaller particles where there is change in its
PHYSICAL (MECHANICAL) WEATHERING chemical composition.
Physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into These reactions include:
smaller particles without change in its chemical
composition. − Oxidation: chemical reaction between oxygen
and minerals in rocks make them to break easily.
Agents or causes of physical weathering.
− Carbonation: carbon dioxide reacts with soil
− Temperature change: there is expansion water to form carbonic acid which dissolves
during high temperature and contraction at low certain rocks.
temperature. Continues uneven expansion and
contraction can cause rocks to break. − Hydrolysis: certain minerals in rocks reacts with
water to form acids that dissolves the rocks.
− Water: moving water bodies can carry
sediments (particles) that hit against each other − Reduction: removal of oxygen from rock
causing them to break. Water may enter cracks minerals can cause the rocks to break.
− Hydration: water molecules attach themselves − They convert the nitrogen into nitrate for
to rock minerals changing them into new absorption by plants.
minerals by forming water of crystallization. − Again, when they die and decay, nitrogen is
Solution, water on rick surfaces and in cracks released into the soil for plant use.
dissolves soluble rock minerals.
Examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria.
NITROGEN CYCLE. − Rhizobium species
− Azotobacter and clostridium species
Nitrogen cycle describes how living things obtain
nitrogen from the environment and how it is released NB: when the plant animals die, nitrogen gets back
back for reuse. into the soil by ammonification and nitrification.
Stages of nitrogen cycle. Ammonification
The main processes of nitrogen cycle are: When plants and animals die, their dead tissues are
decomposed into ammonium (NH4+).
− Nitrogen fixation
− Assimilation by plants and animals This process is called ammonification. This occurs
− Ammonification or putrifiction of dead tissues with the help of putrefying bacteria and fungi.
− Nitrification Nitrification
− Denitrification.
Nitrification is the conversion of ammonium (NH4+)
NITROGEN FIXATION. to nitrate (NO-3).

Nitrogen fixation is the ways by which atmospheric Nitrification occurs in two stages:
nitrogen get into the soil.
− Nitrosomonas converts ammonium (NH4+) to
Nitrogen can be fixed into the soil by: nitrite (NO-2).
− Nitrobacter converts nitrite (NO-2) into nitrate
− Chemical nitrogen fixation
(NO-3)
− Biological nitrogen fixation.
Denitrification
Chemical nitrogen fixation.
Denitrification is s the process by which nitrate ions
Chemical nitrogen fixation occurs as a result of
(NO-3) is converted into gaseous nitrogen which
lightening or thunderstorm in the atmosphere.
escape from the soil.
How chemical fixation occur.
Denitrification is done by denitrifying bacteria.
− The electrical charges released from lightening Example: planococcus species.
are used to combine nitrogen and oxygen Importance of nitrogen cycle.
chemically to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
− The nitrogen dioxide reacts or dissolves in rain − It improves soil fertility
water to form nitric acid (HNO3) which is − It releases locked up nitrogen in living tissues
washed into the soil. − Source of nitrate for plant use
− In the soil the nitric acid (HNO3) is oxidized into − It improves nutrients balance in the ecosystem
nitrate (NO-3). − It avoids accumulation of foul smelling plant
− Nitrate (NO-3) is then absorbed by the plant. and animal tissues in soil.

Biological nitrogen fixation Organisms involved in nitrogen cycle.

− It involves activities of nitrogen fixing bacteria. Nitrogen fixing bacteria

− These bacteria take in atmospheric nitrogen − Rhizobium
through soil air. − Azotobacter
− Clostridium

Nitrifying bacteria

− Nitrosomonas
− Nitrobacter Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in gas.
Denitrifying bacteria
− Obtain a bottle of highly scented perfume.
− Planococcus − Spray the perfume at one corner of an enclosed
room.
Putrifying bacteria − After some few minutes, the scent of the
Forms plants obtain nitrogen from the soil perfume can be detected at the other corners of
the room.
− Nitrate (NO-3).
− Ammonium (NH4+) Examples of diffusion.

TRANSPORT OF In animals.

MOLECULES. − Absorption of end products of digestion from the

small intestines into the blood.
OSMOSIS, DIFFUSION AND − Exchange of gases in the alveoli of the lungs of
mammals
ACTIVE TRANSPORT.
− Exchange of gases between blood and animal
DIFFUSION. tissues
− Diffusion of hormones from the endocrine
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a glands into the blood.
region of higher concentration to a region of lower − Gaseous exchange in unicellular organisms
concentration until the molecules are evenly − Gaseous exchange in the gills of certain
distributed. organisms like fish.
Factors that affect diffusion. − Exchange of substances between the mother's
blood and foetal blood.
− Concentration gradient In plants.
− Temperature / Heating
✓ Absorption of mineral salt from the soil by root
− Stirring
hair cells.
− Surface area
✓ Diffusion of carbon dioxide from the
− Size of molecules
atmosphere into the leaves for photosynthesis.
− Nature of molecules (substance): Gaseous ✓ Diffusion of oxygen as by-product of
substance diffuses faster than liquids and solids. photosynthesis out from the plant into the
Diffusion in Gas> liquid> solid atmosphere.
− Distance over which diffusion take place. OSMOSIS

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids. Osmosis is the movement of water (solvent)

molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated
− Half fill a beaker with water. solution through a semi-permeable membrane.
− Put a grain of potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) into the beaker. Osmosis is the movement of water (solvent)
− After some time (about 5 minutes), it is observed molecules from hypotonic solution to a hypertonic
that the potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution through a semi-permeable membrane.
spread to all parts of the water.
Factors that affect the rate of osmosis. Hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solution.

− Concentration gradient A hypotonic solution: is a solution whose

− Temperature concentration is lower than the one it is being
− Surface area of semi-permeable membrane compare with.

An isotonic solution: is a solution whose

Examples of osmosis .
concentration is the same as the one it is being
In animals. compare with.

− Reabsorption of water in the kidney (nephron). A hypertonic solution: is a solution whose

− Osmoregulation in unicellular organisms (E.g., concentration is higher than the one it is being
amoeba). compare with.
− Absorption of water in the large intestines. TERMS.
In plants.
Flaccidity
− Absorption of water by root hair cells.
− Movement of water from cell to cell in the Flaccidity is the condition where a cell shrinks when
leaves. it is place d in a hypertonic solution.
− Movement of water from the root hairs into the
Plasmolysis
xylem.
− The movement of water from one cortical cell to Plasmolysis is the shrinkage of the protoplasm of a
another. plant cell when placed in a hypertonic solution.
− Absorption of water by seed during germination.
Differences between osmosis and diffusion. Turgidity

Diffusion Osmosis Turgidity is a condition where a cell swells as a

result of movement of water into the cell when
− Diffusion is the − Osmosis is the placed in hypotonic solution.
movement of movement of
molecules from a water (solvent)
region of higher molecules from a
concentration to a region of lower
region of lower concentration to a
concentration region of higher
concentration
− It does not require − It requires semi-
semi-permeable permeable
membrane membrane
− It takes place in − It takes place in
liquids, gases and liquids and gases.
solids.
− It involves − It involves
movement of all movement of only
molecules solvent molecules.

TONICITY.

It is the concentration of a solution when compared

to that of another solution.
OSMOSIS IN ANIMAL CELL.

OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELL.

 ACTIVE TRANSPORT. Experiment to show that manufactured food is
transported in the phloem. (The ring experiment
Active transport is the movement of molecules from a or stem ringing).
region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration across a living cell membrane using Method.
energy from the cell.
− Remove the bark of a stem with its associated
Factors that affect active transport. phloem in the form of a ring.
− Prepare a control experiment by ringing a stem
✓ Temperature.
but leave some of the phloem.
✓ Oxygen concentration.
− Allow the plant to grow for few weeks.
✓ Amount of ATP present in the cell.
− Observe the difference in growth and sugar
✓ Presence or absence of respiratory poisons (like
concentration between the portions of the stem
cyanide)
just above and below the ring.
Examples of active transport
Observation
In animals.
− There is swelling or increase in growth above the
− Absorption of glucose, amino acids and mineral ring of the test experiment.
salt by the small intestine. − No swelling or increase in growth above the ring
− Selective reabsorption (of glucose, amino acids of the control experiment
and mineral salt) by the kidney (nephrons) Conclusion. .
In plants.
Sugar does not pass through the xylem but rather the
− Movement of glucose into the phloem cells of phloem.
plants.
− Absorption of mineral salt from the soil by root
hair cells.
Differences between diffusion and active
transport.

Active Transport. D i f f u s i o n .

It requires energy It does not require energy

It is selective. It is non-selective.

TRANSPIRATION.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS. Transpiration is the process of losing water vapour
from the aerial surface of a plant.
There are two tissues responsible for transport in
plants Parts of the plants through which transpiration occur:
− Xylem: Transports water and mineral salts. − Stomata
− Phloem: transports dissolved food. − Lenticels of stem
− Cuticles of leaves.
TRANSLOCATION. Note: Guttation is the loss of water droplets from
the surface of plants.
Translocation is the movement of dissolved food in
the phloem tissues of plants.
 FOOD AND NUTRITION. They protect the body from diseases and are
responsible for general well-being. Lack of these
NUTRITION. foods may lead to deficiency disease.

Nutrition is the process by which living things obtain They are vitamins and minerals.
(make) or use their food.
Components of food.
Types of nutrition.
− Carbohydrates
The two main types of nutrition are: − Proteins
Autotrophic nutrition: is the process by which an − Lipids (fat and oil)
organism uses energy from sunlight or chemicals to − Vitamins
synthesize its own food from simple inorganic − Minerals
substances. − Roughage (fibre)
− Water
Heterotrophic nutrition: nutrition is a type of
nutrition in which organisms depend on autotrophs or
other organisms for food since they cannot synthesize FOOD NUTRIENTS
their own food. Nutrients are the substances in food that provide
FOOD energy and materials needed for life processes.

Food is any substance (organic compound) required They are:

by living organisms for their life processes. − Carbohydrates
Uses of food. − Proteins
− Lipids (fat and oil)
− To promote growth.
− Vitamins
− Source of energy for the body.
− Minerals
− For building and repair of worn-out body tissues.
− Roughage (fibre)
− To maintain a healthy body (protects the body CARBOHYDRATES.
against diseases).
− It helps in producing new cells. Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen
− To produce heat to keep the body warm. and oxygen where hydrogen and oxygen are in the
ratio 2:1.
NB: Food is generally divided into energy giving
food, body building food and maintenance food. General formular: CX (H2O) Y OR n(CH2O)
Energy giving food. Sources: wheat, rice, yam, cassava, bread, grains,
beans, plantain, banana
Energy giving foods are foods that provide energy in
cells. Functions of carbohydrates.
The main energy giving foods are carbohydrates and − Provides energy in cells (Eg. Glucose).
fats. Protein is used to produce energy in the absence − It forms structural components in plant and
of carbohydrates and fats (when the organism is
animal tissues (Eg. Cellulose).
starved).
− Serve as source of food storage structures (Eg.
Body building foods. Glycogen and starch).
− For synthesis of amino acids.
Body building foods are needed for growth and repair
of worn-out tissues. − For synthesis of fatty acids.
− For synthesis of nucleic acids.
They are proteins. Types of carbohydrates.
Maintenance foods (Protective or welfare food). − Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Maintenance foods are needed in small amount to − Disaccharides (complex sugars)
control the metabolism of the body. − Polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides. Characteristics of polysaccharides
Monosaccharides are carbohydrates made up of one − Polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water.
sugar unit. − Polysaccharides are non-reducing sugars.
Characteristics of monosaccharides. − Polysaccharides are not sweet.
− Polysaccharides are larger molecules.
− They are soluble in water. − Polysaccharides are non-crystalline solids.
− They are reducing sugars. − Polysaccharides are less reactive
− They are white crystalline solids. PROTEINS.
− They are sweet.
− They can diffuse very quickly. Proteins are food substances made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur and
− They are small molecules.
phosphorus can be found in some proteins.
Examples of monosaccharides,
The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.
− Glucose
− Fructose Sources of proteins: milk, egg, meat, fish, soya
− Galactose. bens, cheese, cowpea, sunflower seed, groundnut,
snail, cashew nut.
Disaccharides
Characteristics of proteins.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two
monosaccharide units. − Proteins are denatured by heat, strong acid or
strong base.
Disaccharides and their composition.
− Proteins form colloidal suspension in water.
Disaccharides Constituent monosaccharide units − Proteins are large molecules
Maltose Glucose and Glucose − Proteins are amphoteric (behave like both acid
Sucrose Glucose and Fructose and base).
Lactose Glucose and Galactose − Proteins are hydrophilic (soluble in water).
Functions of proteins.
Characteristics of disaccharides − Proteins are used to form enzyme.
− They are more soluble in water . − Proteins are used to form hormone.
− They have very sweet taste. − Proteins are used to form antibodies.
− They are colourless crystalline solids. − Proteins are used to form haemoglobin.
− They have slower diffusion rate than − Proteins serve as structural materials (like bone,
monosaccharides. nails, cartilage).
− Disaccharides are reducing sugars except − Proteins help in growth and repair of worn-out
sucrose body tissues.
− They are small molecules but larger than − Formation of muscles and tendons.
monosacharides − Produces energy in the absence of carbohydrate
Polysaccharides and fat.
LIPIDS (FATS AND OIL).
Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made up of more
than two monosaccharide units. Lipids (fats and oils) consist of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
Examples of polysaccharides.
Lipids (fats and oils) are organic compounds made up
− Starch of three molecules of fatty acid and one molecule of
− Cellulose glycerol
− Glycogen
Sources of lipids: Margarine, fish, cocoa, sunflower
seed, soya beans, palm oil, palm kernel oil, groundnut
oil, coconut, fatty meat
Characteristics of lipids (Fat and oil). VITAMINS

− Lipids are insoluble in water (hydrophobic). Vitamins are organic compounds needed in minute
− Lipids are less dense than water. quantities for normal functioning of the body.
− Lipids are soluble in organic solvents like ethanol Note: the body cannot store all vitamins so too much
(alcohol), benzene etc. becomes toxic to the body.

Functions of lipids (fats and oils). There are two groups of vitamins:

− It insulates the body. Water soluble vitamins.

− It holds and protects many vital internal organs. − Vitamin B complex.
− They are used in the formation of cell membrane − Vitamin C.
− They store energy. Fat soluble vitamins
− They provide energy in the absence of
− Vitamin A.
carbohydrate.
− Vitamin D.
− They are source of fat-soluble vitamins.
− Vitamin E.
− Increases buoyancy in aquatic organisms.
− Vitamin K.
− Production of sex hormones.
General functions of vitamins.
− Used in dissolving fat-soluble vitamins
− Used to form synovial fluid that lubricates the − Vitamins maintain metabolic activities of the
joints body.
− The maintain good health of the body.
Question. − Most vitamins are used to form coenzymes.
What is essential nutrient?
MINERALS.
Answer
Minerals are inorganic substances needed for normal
Essential nutrients are nutrients required by the body functioning of the body.
but cannot be synthesized by the body.
Groups of minerals.
Question.
✓ Major element (macronutrient)
State three reasons why good nutrition is important to ✓ Minor element or trace element or
a pregnant woman. (micronutrient)
Answer Major element or macronutrient

− Protein obtained from nutrition helps in growth of Major elements are required by the body in relatively
large amount for normal growth.
foetus.
− Protein obtained from nutrition is used for Examples: Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium,
building of the body systems of foetus. magnesium, iron, Sulphur, sodium, chlorine, fluorine
− Carbohydrate obtain from nutrition provides
Minor element or micronutrient
energy for the mother.
− Fat from food helps in development of nervous Minor elements are required by the body in tiny
system of foetus. amount for normal growth.
− Protein in food is used in the formation of Examples: Zinc, manganese, copper, chlorine, boron,
placenta, umbilical cord, and other embryonic molybdenum
membranes.
ROUGHAGE (FIBRE)
− Food is needed for formation of foetal blood.
Roughage is the indigestible fibrous material made up
of cellulose and other materials.
Importance of roughage BALANCED DIET

− It helps prevent constipation Balanced diet is a diet which contains all the
− It helps in peristalsis necessary nutrients (food components) in their right
− It reduces risk of bowel or colon cancer. proportion (amount) for healthy growth
− It aids digestion. Examples of balanced diet
− Source of vitamin K (some bacteria in the large
intestines acts on the fibre to release vitamin K.) − Kenkey + fish + pepper + orange juice as desert
− Helps to maintain healthy cholesterol and sugar − Beans + gari + plantain + palm oil + orange juice
level. as desert
WATER. Importance of balanced diet.

Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the − It helps in proper growth.

ratio 2:1. − To prevent illness
− To prevent constipation
Water does not provide nutrient but it is very
− To prevent nutritional based diseases (deficiency
important to the body.
diseases).
Functions of water − Helps in weight control
Note: Diet is the type of food an organism takes.
To the body (animals):
Factors that determine the diet of a person.
− Water aids in digestion
− Water helps in regulation of body temperature by − Health condition
sweating. − Age
− Water helps to transport of various substances or − Gender or sex
nutrients. − Occupation
− Water helps to maintain osmotic balance. − Climate
− Water is used in hydrolysis reaction MALNUTRITION
− Water is used as a medium for reactions occur.
Malnutrition is a long-term imbalance of some food
− Water helps to transport of excretory substances nutrients in an organism.
for removal.
− Water is used to make digestive juice and Malnutrition can be grouped into:
lubricating fluids. ✓ Undernutrition
− Hydrostatic skeleton in earthworm. ✓ Overnutrition
− Component of cytoplasm. NB: Most clinical studies use the term
− Prevents constipation. malnutrition to refer to undernutrition.
Undernutrition.
To plants:
Undernutrition is a condition where an organism is
− Water is used in photosynthesis in plants
deficient in some nutrients over a long period of time
− It provides turgidity in plants.
− Water helps in germination of seeds. Effects of malnutrition/ under nutrition.
− Water is used in translocation − It leads to stunted and slow growth.
− Water helps in regulation of temperature by − It leads to fluid imbalance.
transpiration. − Deficiency disease
− Hydrolysis of food (Water is used in hydrolysis − Reduced resistance to disease (It makes organism
reaction) susceptible to diseases.)
− Water is used as a medium for reactions occur. − Malfunction of body parts
− It can lead to death
− It leads to malformation of tissues.
 Overnutrition. − Hypertension
Over nutrition is a situation where an organism − Diabetes
receives excess of some nutrients over a long period − Heart disease
of time − Obesity
v) Effects of eating late at night.
Effects of over nutrition.
− Indigestion
− High blood pressure
− Weight gain
− Heat diseases
− Obesity
− Stroke
− Hypertension
− It leads to obesity. vi) Effects of lack of vegetables in diet.
− Diabetes
− Reduced life expectancy − Constipation due to lack of fiber
− Poor bone and teeth formation
Question. − Delay wound healing due to lack of vitamin c
Give three effects of the folowing − Reduced resistance to disease
i) Effect of excessive intake of sugar CONSTIPATION.
ii) Effect of excessive intake of salt Constipation is the irregular and difficulty passage of
feaces.
iii) Effect of excessive intake of fat
Causes of constipation.
iv) Overeating
− Lack of enough roughage (fibre) in food
v) Eating late at night. − Lack of muscular exercise.
vi) Effects of lack of vegetables in diet. − Not drinking enough water.
− Absence of fruits and vegetable in diet.
Answers. − Poor eating habit or wrong posture.
i) Effect of excessive intake of sugar − Intake of too much dry foods
− Postponing defecation when one feels the urge to.
− Tooth decay How to prevent constipation.
− High blood pressure (Hypertension)
− Taking balanced diet with enough fibre
− Overweight or weight gain
− Having regular exercise
− Obesity
− Drinking enough water
− Diabetes mellitus − Reduce the intake of too much dry foods.
ii) Effect of excessive intake of salt − By eating more fruits and vegetables
− High blood pressure (Hypertension) − Visit the toilet regularly.
− Heart disease FOOD TEST.
− Oedema CARBOHYDRATE TEST.
iii) Effect of excessive intake of fat
Test for starch.
− Indigestion
Method.
− Hypertension
− Heart disease or attack ✓ Put a little food sample into a test tube.
− Stroke ✓ Few drops of iodine solution are added.
− Obesity Observation.
− Over weight There formation of blue-black colour
iv) Effects of overeating
Conclusion.
− Indigestion
The formation of blue-black colour indicates the
− Constipation
presence of starch.
Test for reducing sugars − The white precipitate then turns deep red on
heating.
Method.
Conclusion.
− Put a little food sample into a test tube.
This indicates the presence of protein.
− Few drops of Benedict's solution or Fehling's
solution is added and then heated in a boiling TEST FOR LIPIDS.
water bath for some minutes (5 minutes).
Spot test (translucent test).
Observation.
Method.
There is formation of brick red precipitate.
Place a spot of food sample on a filter (white) paper
Conclusion. and allow to dry.
Formation of brick red precipitate indicates the Observation.
presence of reducing sugars.
A translucent spot remains on the paper
What happens when a non-reducing sugar is
heated in HCl. Conclusion.

− When a non-reducing sugar is heated in HCl it The translucent spot indicates the presence of lipid in
splits into its constituent monosaccharides. So, it food sample.
can turn Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution Emulsion test.
into brick red. Sucrose may give a yellow and
brown precipitate. Method
TEST FOR PROTEINS.
− Two milliliters (2ml) of ethanol is poured into a
Biuret test. test tube.
− Two milliliters (2ml) of food substance is added
Method.
and shaked.
− Put a small quantity of food sample into a test − The mixture is transferred into another test tube
tube. containing 2ml of water.
− Add few drops of water to make a solution. Observation.
− Add few drops of sodium hydroxide and shake. White milky emulsion (white suspension) is formed.
− Add few drops of copper (II) sulphate and shake.
Observation. Conclusion.

There is formation of purple (violet) colour. This indicates the presence of lipid (fat and oil).

Conclusion. Sudan (iii) solution test.

Formation of purple colour indicates the presence of Method.

protein.
− Put a little food sample into a test tube.
Millon's test. − Few drops of Sudan III solution is added.
Observation.
Method.
Red stained layer separates on the surface.
− Put a small quantity of food sample into a test
tube and add small amount of water. Conclusion.
− Add few drops of Millon’s reagent and heat for This indicates the presence of lipid (fat and oil)
about one minute
Observation. BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)

− White precipitate is formed when Millon's Body mass index (BMI) of a body is the mass of the
body in kg divided by the square of the body height
reagent is added.
in meters.
 ENZYMES. Conditions necessary for photosynthesis to occur.
Enzymes are biological catalysts, protein in nature − Carbon dioxide (CO2).
that speeds up the rate of biochemical reactions in the − Water (H2O).
body. − Sunlight: source of energy
Characteristics or properties of enzymes. − Chlorophyll; traps sunlight
Factors that affect photosynthesis.
− Enzymes are proteins.
− Many enzymes need cofactors in order to − Sunlight intensity.
function effectively. − Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration.
− Enzymes remain unchanged at end of the − Water supply.
reaction. − Chlorophyll.
− Enzyme activity varies with change in pH and − Temperature.
temperature. − Enzymes.
− Enzymes are specific in action. − Mineral salt.
− Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction by Site for photosynthesis.
lowering the activation energy.
It occurs in the chloroplast.
Factors that affects the rate of enzyme activities.
Importance of photosynthesis.
− pH
− Temperature − It provides food for living things.
− Enzyme concentration − Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used by
− Substrate concentration animals for respiration.
− Cofactors or coenzymes. − It removes carbon dioxide content in the
− Nature of substrate atmosphere and therefore prevents greenhouse
− Inhibitors effect.
− Activators. − It helps to maintain carbon dioxide, oxygen,
water cycle in nature.
− It produces materials for protein and fat
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. formation.
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants − It forms the base of food chain.
prepare their own food from carbon dioxide and − It helps in the conversion of solar energy to
water with the aid of sunlight and chlorophyll. chemical energy.
Fate of the product of photosynthesis (What
Word equation for photosynthesis: happens to the product of photosynthesis)
Fate of oxygen (What happens to oxygen)

− Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used

Balanced equation for photosynthesis: by plants for respiration
− Excess oxygen is released by diffusion through
the stomata.
Fate of glucose (What happens to glucose)/ how do
plants use the glucose they produce
Raw materials for photosynthesis.
− It is transported to other parts.
− Carbon dioxide (CO2).
− Plants respire some of the glucose to produce
− Water (H2O).
energy.
Products of photosynthesis.
− Excess glucose is converted to starch and stored.
− Glucose (C6H12O6), (Main product). − Some of the glucose is converted to cellulose.
− Oxygen (O2), (By product). − For growth and development.
− Some of the glucose is used to synthesize protein EXPERIMENT TO TEST FOR THE PRESENCE
for growth OF STARCH IN A LEAF.
− Some of the glucose is used to synthesize lipids. Method.
Differences between photosynthesis and
respiration. − A green leaf of a plant is taken.
− The leaf is placed in boiling water for 2 - 3
Photosynthesis Respiration
minutes to kill the cells of the leaf.
− Occurs only in the − Occurs all the − The leaf is then boiled in alcohol (ethanol) to
day. time (day and decolourize it.
night). − The decolourized leaf is then washed in cold
− Occurs in organism − Occurs in all water to make it soft.
containing organisms.
− The leaf is then placed in a white porcelain plate
chlorophyll.
− Occur in chloroplast. − Occur in (Petri dish or white tile) and few drops of iodine
mitochondrion. solution is added.
− Carbon dioxide and − Glucose and Observation
water are reactants. oxygen are
reactants. − Within few seconds the decolourized leaf turns
− Produces glucose − Produces carbon blue black.
and oxygen. dioxide and Conclusion.
water.
− Starch is present in the leaf and therefore
− Store energy from − Releases energy
the sun. during the photosynthesis has taken place in the leaf,
process.
− Depends on light − Does not depend EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SUNLIGHT
on light (LIGHT) IS NECESSARY FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESISTO OCCUR.

STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION OF THE LEAF Setup 1 (experiment 1)

FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

− It is broad and flat to provide a large surface area

for maximum absorption of sunlight and carbon
dioxide.
− It has stomata for gaseous exchange.
− It is thin to ensure maximum penetration of
sunlight and easy diffusion of carbon dioxide.
− The leaf has network of veins to transport water
and mineral salt to leaf and also conduct away
photosynthetic products.
− Palisade mesophyll cells have numerous Method
chloroplasts and situated on the upper surface for
− A potted plant is selected and de-starch by
maximum absorption of sunlight.
keeping it in the dark for few days.
− Leaves are arranged in regular pattern along the
− A fresh leaf attached to a parent plant is selected.
stem to minimize overlapping and
− Both upper and lower surfaces of the middle of
overshadowing.
the leaf are covered with black paper (carbon
− Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed with
paper).
large air spaces among them to allow easy
− The plant is exposed to sunlight for few hours.
diffusion of gases to the palisade cells.
− The area without the black paper is left for
sunlight,
− After few hours, the leaf is plucked, black paper EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CARBON
is removed and the leaf is tested for starch. DIOXIDE IS NECESSARY FOR
Observation. PHOTOSYNTHESIS TO OCCUR.

− The uncovered part turn blue-black indicating the Setup 1 (experiment 1)

presence of starch.
− The part covered with black paper (carbon paper)
does not turn blue black indicating the absence of
starch.
Conclusion.

− Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis to occur.

Setup 2 (experiment 2)
Method.

− Two similar potted plants are selected and de-

starch by keeping them in the dark for few days.
− One of the plants is placed in the light while the
other is left in the dark. Method.
− After a few hours, a leaf is taken from each plant
and tested for starch. − Two similar potted plants are selected and de-
Observation. starch by keeping them in the dark for few days.
− Cover the soil of the two plants with polythene
− The leaf which has been in the light turns blue- bag to prevent carbon dioxide from activities of
black. soil organisms from leaving the pot.
− The leaf which was left in the dark does not turn − Each plant is enclosed with a bell jar.
blue-black. − Place Soda lime/ caustic soda/ sodium hydroxide
Conclusion. (NaOH) in the tube through which air enters the
− Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis to occur. bell jar of one of the plants (plant A) to absorb
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT carbon dioxide in the air entering the jar.
CHLOROPYLL IS NECESSARY FOR − Soda lime/ caustic soda/ sodium hydroxide
PHOTOSYNTHESISTO OCCUR. (NaOH) is placed inside the bell jar of one of the
plants (plant A) to absorb any carbon dioxide in
Method.
the jar.
− A variegated plant is exposed to sunlight for − Plant B is set up the same way with no soda lime.
some time. − Each plant is placed in the sunlight for several
− A variegated leaf is (leaf which green and white hours.
patches) is taken from the plant and tested for − A leaf from each plant is taken and tested for
starch. starch.
Observation. Observation.
− The part of the leaf which is green turns blue- − The leaf from plant A does not turn blue-black
black indicating the presence of starch. indicating the absence of starch.
− The yellow or white part does not turn blue-black − Leaf from plant B turn blue-black indicating the
because there is absence of chlorophyll. presence of starch.
Conclusion. Conclusion.
− Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to − Carbon dioxide (CO2) is needed or necessary for
occur. photosynthesis to occur.
Setup 2 (experiment 2) − A water plant (such as elodea or hydrilla) is
placed in water.
Method.
− The plant in the beaker is covered with an
inverted glass funnel.
− Funnel is raised to allow free movement of water.
− A test tube is then filled with water and inverted
over the opened end of the funnel.
− The setup is placed in the sunlight for some time.
− After few days, enough oxygen gas is collected in
the test tube.
− The gas collected in the test tube is tested with a
glowing splint.

− A potted plant is selected and de-starched by

putting it in the dark for few days.
− A particular leaf (leaf A) is placed in a glass flask
containing Soda lime.
− The mouth or neck of flask the is covered with a
split cork smeared with Vaseline to make it
airtight.
− The flask is held in place by a retort stand.
− A second leaf (leaf B) is enclosed in a similar
flask without soda lime to serve as control
Observation.
experiment.
− The plant is placed in sunlight for some hours. − The glowing splint burns into flames indication
− Leaf A and leaf B are removed from the flask and the presence of oxygen.
removed from the plant and tested for starch. Conclusion.
Observation.
− Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
− Leaf A does not turn blue-black indicating the Note:
absence of starch.
1) Reasons why sodium hydrogen carbonate
− Leaf B turns blue-black indicating the absence of (NaHCO3) is placed in the water:
starch.
Conclusion. − To release carbon dioxide/ to enrich the water
with carbon dioxide/ to provide sufficient carbon
− Carbon dioxide is needed or necessary for dioxide.
photosynthesis to occur. 2) Rain water or pond is used. Tap water is not used
because it contains chemical like chlorine with may
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT OXYGEN IS be harmful to the water plant. If tap water is to be
RELEASED DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS. used it should be exposed to air for about 6 hours to
Method. expel chlorine.

− A beaker if filled with water.

− Small amount of sodium hydrogen carbonate is
placed in the water to release carbon dioxide
 NOTE:
DENTITION
Carnassial teeth
Dentition refers to the number, type and arrangement
of teeth in the buccal cavity of an animal. Carnassial teeth are the last premolar of upper jaw
and first molar of lower jaw.
Dentition is the characteristic arrangement of teeth in
the buccal cavity of an animal. Function.

TYPES OF DENTITION. Carnassial teeth are used for shearing flesh from
bones.
− Homodont dentition
− Heterodont dentition HERBIVORE DENTITION.

Homodont dentition.
Homodont dentition is a type of dentition where the
organism has identical teeth.
Examples of organisms with homodont dentition:
fishes, amphibians, and reptiles (lizard, crocodile
etc.).
Heterodont dentition
Heterodont dentition is a type of dentition where the
teeth vary in shape and sizes.
Examples of organisms with heterodont dentition:
mammals (humans, goats, cows, dogs, lion etc) Adaptive features of herbivore dentition
(Adaptation for herbivore dentition).
FEATURES OF DENTITION IN VARIOUS
ORGANISMS. − They have no incisors in the upper jaw instead,
there is a thick horny pad against in which the
CARNIVORE DENTITION. lower incisors and canines can bite.
− Elongated, curved incisors in the lower jaw for
cutting vegetation.
− Canines are absent (No canine in the upper jaw,
those in the lower jaw are poorly developed)
− Cheek teeth (Premolars and molars) have ridges
on the top surfaces for chewing and grinding
grass.
− Diastema which enables the tongue to roll the
cropped grass
Adaptive features of carnivore dentition − Premolars and molars have broad surfaces for
(Adaptation for carnivore dentition). grinding or chewing or masticating.

− Carnivores have dagger-like canines for piercing Difference between herbivore dentition and
prey and tearing meat. carnivore dentition.
− Carnivores have huge carnassials for shearing Herbivore dentition Carnivore dentition
flesh from bone.
− Premolars and molars are cusped for cracking Canine absent on upper Canine present on upper
bones into smaller pieces. jaw jaw
Incisors absent on upper Incisors present on upper
− Carnivores have small close-fitting incisors for
jaw jaw
cutting of meat. Horney pad present Horny pad absent.
Diastema present Diastema absent have broad cusps. have pointed cusps.
Carnassial teeth absent Carnassials teeth present. THE HUMAN TOOTH.
There are few number of There are larger number
teeth of teeth The tooth has three major divisions:
Difference between human dentition and − Crown (Part above the gum)
carnivore dentition. − Neck.
Human dentition Carnivore dentition − Root (Part inside the socket)

Canines are less Canines are long and

pointed pointed
Carnassial teeth Carnassial teeth present.
absent
Molars and premolars Molars and premolars

PARTS OF THE TOOTH AND THEIR FUNCTIONS.

Parts. Composition Function.

Enamel It is the white hard nonliving layer − The enamel protects the dentine.
made of calcium salts (calcium − The enamel forms a hard biting surface.
phosphate).
Dentine. It is a soft bone like layer. − The dentine acts as shock absorber.
− It encloses the pulp cavity.
Pulp cavity The blood vessels (capillary). − The blood vessels (capillary) supply the
tooth or cells with blood.
− The blood vessels (capillary) supply food
and oxygen to cells.
Nerves, − Nerves detect stimuli (sensitivity).

Tooth forming cells. − Tooth forming cells divide to form dentine.

Cement. It is a thin layer of bone-like − The cement holds the root in the socket
material. (jaws).
It covers the root of the tooth.
Periodontal It is made up of fibers. − Periodontal membrane connects the tooth
membrane. to the jaw bone.
− Periodontal allows slight movement of
membrane roots in the socket.
Jawbone and Bone structure, − The tooth fits into the socket of the
socket. jawbone.

TYPES OF TEETH IN MAMMALS (HUMANS).

There are for types of teeth in humans:

− Incisors.
− Canines.
− Premolars.
− Molars.

Types of teeth, their features and functions.

Type of teeth Structure (adaptation) Function.

Incisors. ✓ Flat and chisel shaped crown for cutting food. ✓ For cutting and biting and
✓ Have a single root. holding food.
Canines. ✓ Conical and bluntlyor sharply pointed crown for ✓ For tearing food.
tearing and piercing.
✓ Have a single root.
Premolars. ✓ Large surface area (broad tops) with cusps for ✓ For crushing and grinding
grinding and crushing. foods.
✓ Have one or two roots for firmer attachment to
jawbone.
Molars. ✓ Larger surface area (broad tops) with cusps for ✓ For, chewing, crushing
grinding and crushing. and grinding foods.
✓ Have two or three roots for firmer attachment to
jawbone.
 DENTAL DISEASES. Dental care.
Dental diseases are diseases that affect the teeth and ✓ Avoid opening bottle tops and cracking nut with
gum. the teeth.
✓ Regular dental checkups.
Periodontal disease: It is caused by plaque, a
combination of saliva and bacteria. It can be caused ✓ Clean teeth regularly to remove food particles
by lack of massage to the gum, lack of vitamins A from teeth.
and C, improper cleaning of the teeth. ✓ Take food rich in calcium, phosphorus and
vitamin D to form strong teeth.
Dental caries: It is caused when bacteria in plaque ✓ Take food rich in vitamin A and C for healthy
ferments food producing acid which slowly wears of gum.
the enamel resulting in the development of small
✓ Avoid too cold or too hot foods.
holes or cavities
✓ Avoid taking in too much sweet or sugary foods.
General causes of dental diseases. ✓ Use tooth paste containing fluoride.
✓ Chew hard fibrous food like sugar cane from
✓ General ill health/ Bacteria (pathogens)
time to time to strengthen teeth and gum and to
✓ Lack of massage to the gum to stimulate blood
stimulate blood flow.
flow.
✓ Remove all aching tooth.
✓ Lack of vitamins A and C and D.
✓ Ensure regular removal of tar and scales on
✓ Taking in too much sweet or sugary food.
enamel or in between roots and crown.
✓ Taking very cold or very hot food.
✓ Use antibacterial mouth wash.
✓ Lack of calcium and phosphorus in diet.
✓ Daily flossing to remove food lodged in between
✓ Lack of hard and fibrous food.
teeth..
✓ Not cleaning of teeth or improper cleaning of
teeth.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A DIAGRAM OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A RABBIT

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM − The tongue is the floor of the buccal cavity

Function of the mouth
Digestive system is a system made up of the
alimentary canal (gut) and its associated organs that − For ingestion
help in digestion. − Digestion of starch (carbohydrate)
The digestive system is made up of: − Chewing (mastication)
Note: Carbohydrate (starch) digestion starts in the
1) Alimentary canal (gut or gastrointestinal tract): is mouth
the path along which food moves.
Mastication (chewing).
This includes:
It is the process by which food is crushed and
− Mouth ground by teeth.
− Pharynx or throat
Importance of chewing
− Oesophagus or gullet
− Stomach − It provides large surface area
− Small intestine − It swallowing easily.
− Caecum − It breaks cell wall of plants.
− Large intestine
− rectum SALIVARY GLANDS
− anus
There are three pair of salivary glands in the buccal
2) Associated organs of the digestive system
cavity.
− Tongue
Function of salivary glands.
− Salivary gland
− Teeth − It produces salivary amylase (ptyalin) which
− Liver digests starch.
− Gall bladder − It produces saliva which provides basic
− Pancreas (suitable) pH for action of salivary amylase
(ptyalin).
MOUTH (BUCCAL CAVITY) − It produces mucus which lubricates food making
it easy to swallow.
− It is the anterior opening of the alimentary canal.
− It produces saliva which softens food. PYLORIC SPHINCTER
− It produces saliva containing water which act as
It is a ring of muscle between stomach and
solvent for food
duodenum.
PHARYNX (THROAT). Function of the pyloric sphincter
It is the junction of mouth and nasal cavity. − It regulates the entry of bolus food into the
duodenum.
Function of the pharynx.
SMALL INTESTINES.
− It connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus
The walls of the small intestine have glands called
− for swallowing.
intestinal glands.
OESOPHAGUS (GULLET). Intestinal glands produce a juice called intestinal
juice (succus intericus).
It is a food pipe
It is made up of 3 parts
Function of the oesophagus (gullet)
− Duodenum:
− Connects the pharynx to stomach
− Jejunum
− It moves food into the stomach (Passage of food
− Ileum:
to stomach)
Functions of the small intestines.
CARDIAC SPHINCTER. Function of the duodenum:
It is a ring of muscle between the oesophagus and − Digestion of fat, starch and proteins
stomach. − Emulsification of fat (Bile is released into the
duodenum which emulsifies fat)
Function of the cardiac sphincter.
− It secretes of enzymes
It regulates the entry of bolus food into the stomach. Function of the ileum:
STOMACH. − It completes the digestion of food.
− It also absorbs end products od digestion.
It is muscular sac.
− It secretes intestinal juice which contains
The walls of the stomach have glands called gastric enzymes for digestion.
glands.
LARGE INTESTINE (COLON).
Gastric glands produce a juice called gastric juice.
It is divided into:
Function of the stomach
− Caecum
− It stores food temporarily.
− Colon
− Churns of food
− Rectum
− Secrets of enzymes
Function of the colon.
− It also produces HCl to sterilize food
− Digestion of protein It helps in absorption of water, some minerals and
Why the stomach wall lined with mucus vitamin K.

− Mucus forms a protective inner lining to the CAECUM

stomach wall.
It is a small pouch at the junction of the small and
− It prevents pepsin from attacking and digesting
large intestines.
the walls of the stomach (it prevents self-
digestion) Function of the caecum.
− It prevents HCl from attacking the walls of the
− It is responsible cellulose digestion in
stomach
herbivores.
RECTUM. 2) Detoxification is conversion of harmful poisonous
substances into harmless substances.
It leads to the anus.
GALL BLADDER.
Function of the rectum.
It is a sac attached to the liver.
It stores undigested food (feaces) temporarily.
Function of the gall bladder.
ANUS.
It stores bile and releases it into the small intestine.
It is the posterior opening of the alimentary canal.
DIGESTIVE JUICES.
Function of the anus.
Some organs of the digestive system produce some
For egestion.
secretions called digestive juice.
PANCREAS.
The digestive juice includes:
Function of the pancreas.
Digestive Organ or gland pH
− It produces pancreatic juice which contains juice. that produce
enzymes. them
Saliva Salivary glands Basic
− It also produces hormones (like insulin and
in the mouth. (alkaline)
glucagon).
Gastric juice Gastric glands in Acidic
NB: The pancreatic juice is released into the small the stomach
intestines. Intestinal juice Intestinal glands Basic
LIVER (succus in the small (alkaline)
intericus) intestine
− Liver is the largest internal organ. Pancreatic pancreas Basic
Note: Bile is produced by the liver but stored in the juice. (alkaline)
gall bladder. Bile liver Basic
(alkaline)
Function of the liver.

− It processes end products of digestion. Saliva.

− It produces (secrets) bile
− It is the secretion of all salivary glands.
− It helps in deamination of excess amino acid
− It is produced (secreted) into the mouth.
− It stores certain fat-soluble vitamins. (E.g.,
vitamin A, D E and K.) Composition of saliva.
− It helps in detoxification − Enzyme (salivary amylase or ptyalin)
− It helps in the regulation of body temperature. − Water
− Regulates blood sugar level (by converting and − Mucin (mucus)
storing excess glucose as glycogen and − Salt
converting it back to glucose when needed).
− Produces plasma proteins. Function of saliva.
− It helps in fat metabolism.
− It helps in the destruction of hormones. − Salivary amylase catalyzes the conversion of
− Excretion. starch to maltose.
− It helps to destroy old red blood cells. − Mucus in saliva lubricates food and easy to
− It stores blood. swallow.
− It stores iron. − Saliva softens food.
− In embryos, liver helps in blood production. − Water in saliva act as solvent for food
NOTE: − The saliva Provides basic (suitable) pH for
action of salivary amylase (ptyalin).
1) Deamination is breaks down excess amino acids
into urea by the liver.
Gastric juice. Maltase. − Converts maltose to
glucose.
Gastric juice is the secretion of the gastric glands in Sucrase. − Converts sucrose to
the stomach glucose and fructose.
Gastric juice is produced (secreted) into the stomach Aminopeptidase. − Converts peptides to
amino acids.
Function of gastric juice. Dipeptidase. − Converts dipeptides to
amino acids.
Composition Function
of gastric
Enterokinase. − It activates trypsin.
juice Pancreatic juice.
Pepsin Converts protein to peptides. It is produced by the pancreas.
Renin It converts (coagulates or
clots) liquid protein into solid It is released into the duodenum.
protein. Functions of pancreatic juice.
Hydrochloric − Kills germs in food (It Composition of Functions
acid (HCl) sterilize food). pancreatic juice.
− Activates pepsinogen into Pancreatic amylase. Converts starch to
pepsin. maltose.
− It neutralizes the alkaline Trypsin. Converts Protein to
nature of food from the polypeptides.
mouth. Chymotrypsin. Converts protein to
− Provide suitable pH for the polypeptides
action of pepsin. Carboxypeptidase. Converts peptides to
− Inactivates (stops the amino acids.
action of) salivary Pancreatic lipase. Converts fats and oil to
amylase. fatty acids and glycerol.
− Hydrolysis protein to
polypeptide
Mucus − Mucus forms a protective BILE.
inner lining to the stomach
It is produced by the liver but stored in the gall
wall.
bladder.
− It prevents pepsin from It is alkaline (basic) in nature.
attacking and digesting the
walls of the stomach (it It does not contain any digestive enzyme.
prevents self-digestion)
Composition of bile.
− It prevents HCl from
attacking the walls of the − Bile salts
stomach − Bile pigments
− It lubricates food − Bile acids
− Water
Function of bile.
Intestinal juice (succus intericus).
− Emulsifies fat.
It is the secretion of the intestinal glands in the small
− The bile salts neutralize the acidic nature of food
intestine.
from the stomach.
Function of intestinal juice. − Provides basic (suitable) pH for action of
enzymes.
Composition of Functions
intestinal juice
(succus intericus)
Lactase. − Converts lactose to
glucose and galactose.
 THE PROCESSES (STAGES) INVOLVE IN In the stomach,
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION OR HUMAN
NUTRITION. − There is no carbohydrate digestion.
− The stomach churns of food.
− Ingestion. − Food moves into the duodenum .
− Digestion. In the small intestines (duodenum and ileum)
− Absorption of digested food.
− Pancreatic amylase Converts starch into maltose.
− Assimilation of digested food.
− Maltase Converts maltose into glucose.
− Egestion
INGESTION. − Sucrase Converts sucrose into glucose and
fructose.
Ingestion is the process of taking in food. − Lactase Converts lactose into glucose and
galactose.
NOTE: Food passes through the alimentary canal by
− The digested food it the absorbed.
peristalsis.
Fat Digestion.
Peristalsis: is the alternate contraction and
In the mouth,
relaxation of the muscles of the alimentary canal.
DIGESTION. − There is no fat digestion.
− Food is chewed
Digestion is the breaking down of complex food − Saliva softens and lubricates food.
substances into simple absorbable units that can be − The food is swallowed.
absorbed into the blood stream. In the stomach,
Physical (mechanical) and chemical digestion − There is no fat digestion.
Digestion involves two distinct set of processes: − The stomach churns of food.
− Food moves into the duodenum.
1) Physical (mechanical) digestion: is physical In the small intestines (duodenum and ileum)
breakdown of food into smaller pieces for enzymes
to act on it. − Bile emulsifies fat.
− Pancreatic lipase Converts emulsified fat into
It includes:
fatty acids and glycerol.
− chewing in the mouth and − The digested food it the absorbed.
− churning in the stomach. Protein Digestion.
In the mouth,
2) Chemical digestion: is breaking down of the
chemicals in the food into smaller molecules by − There is no protein digestion.
digestive enzymes so that it can be absorbed into the − Food is chewed (masticated)
blood stream. − Saliva softens and lubricates food.
NOTE: − The food is swallowed.
− Food is swallowed and moves into the stomach.
1) Food mixed with gastric juice (Partially digested In the stomach,
acidic food) is called chyme.
− Pepsinogen is activated into pepsin by HCl
2) Food mixed with secretions in the duodenum − Rennin coagulates liquid milk protein) into solid
(Partially digested basic food) is called chyle protein.
Carbohydrate Digestion. − Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides and
polypeptides.
In the mouth, In the small intestines,
− Food is chewed − Trypsin and chymotrypsin convert protein into
− Saliva softens and lubricates food. peptides and polypeptides.
− Salivary amylase Converts starch into maltose. − Erepsin converts peptides and polypeptides into
− The food is swallowed. amino acids
END PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION. − Cirrhosis (occurs when liver is damaged,
hardens and becomes fibrous).
Food substance End products of digestion.
− Hepatitis (inflammation of the liver).
Carbohydrate Glucose
Fructose − Liver cancer or hepatoma
Galactose − Gall stones.
Protein Amino acids INDIGESTION..
Fat and oil Fatty acids and ghlycerol.
Indigestion is when ingested food fails to be
digested.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD.
Causes of indigestion.
It is the uptake of simple food molecules into living
− Taking in too much acidic food.
cells
− Taking too much alcohol.
How food is absorbed. − Not chewing food properly before it is
swallowed (Improper chewing of food).
− All the simple sugar (monosaccharides), amino
− Eating at irregular intervals or times.
acids, vitamins and minerals are absorbed by
− Eating not well cooked (Improper cooking of
diffusion or active transport into the blood
food).
capillaries.
− Going to sleep immediately after eating.
− All blood capillaries join to form the hepatic
portal vein. − Overeating or eating too much.
− The hepatic portal vein transport absorbed food − Eating food that contains too much fats or oils.
to the liver. − Excess dilute HCl in the stomach
− Fatty acid and glycerol are not absorbed directly − Emotional upset
into the blood. − Excessive smoking
− They are absorbed by into the villi by diffusion. − Stomach ulcer
− They are reconverted or combine to form fat, How to prevent indigestion.
which are transported through the lacteal before − Eat well cooked food (Cook food well)
joining the blood circulation. − Food should be properly chewed.
− Avoid oily and fatty food.
ASSIMILATION.
− Avoid overeating
This is the process whereby soluble food substances − Avoid going to sleep immediately after eating.
are used by the body cells for energy, growth and − Avoid the intake of too much acidic foods.
repair of worn-out cells. − Eat at regular intervals
− Avoid eating late at night
EGESTION (DEFECATION).
− Be emotionally free during and just after eating.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the − Taking antacids like liver salts and milk of
organism through the anus. magnesia
Effects of indigestion.
DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. − Abdominal pains.
Associated with the alimentary canal: − Nausea
− Discomfort
− Stomach ulcer (small erosion or hole in the − A sense of fullnes
stomach).
− Indigestion.
Associated with the liver:

− Jaundice (excess bile pigment in the blood).

 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF RUMINANTS.
Ruminants are grass eating mammals that chew cud and have four chambered stomachs.

Stomach chamber Function.

RUMEN − Storage of ingested food.
First and largest chamber. − Fermentation of feed by bacterial.
− Cellulose digestion by bacteria (microorganisms)
− Synthesis of vitamin K and B complex by microbes.
− Contracts to push food into reticulum.
Reticulum. − Absorption of fatty acids, ammonia and some vitamins.
Second stomach. − It filters (sieves) food smaller food particles from larger ones.
Note: Food from rumen enters the − Pushes smaller food particles into the omasum.
reticulum and is regurgitated and chewed − Undigested food (larger food) is returns back to the mouth
again. Food here called cud. The chewed (regurgitated) by antiperistalsis for it to be rechewed
curd is swallowed into the reticulum and − Provision of additional storage space.
then into the omasum.

Omasum. (manyplies) − It grinds food

Third stomach. − Absorbs water
− Food is pushed into the abomasum.
Abomasum. (True stomach) − Secretes gastric juice on the food to form chyme.
− Breaks down food bio-chemically in simpler forms.
− Acid in juice kill bacteria (microbes)
− The food is passes into the small intestine for further digestion
and absorption.
Structural differences between digestive system − Beak
of ruminants and humans. − Oesophagus (gullet)
− crop
Digestive system of Digestive system of
ruminants humans − proventriculus (true stomach)
Four chambered stomach One chamber stomach − Gizzard (Ventriculus)
Large caecum Reduced caecum − Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
There are few number of There are larger number − Colorectum
teeth of teeth − Caecum
Horney pad present horny pad absent. − Cloaca
Similarities in the digestive system of ruminants 2) Associated organs of the digestive system
and humans.
− Salivary gland
− They both have mouth − Liver
− They both have oesophagus (gullet). − Gall bladder
− They both have stomach. − Pancreas
− They both have duodenum. Parts of the digestive system of birds and their
− They both have small intestine. functions.
− They both have large intestine.
− They both have caecum. Parts Function.
− They both have rectum.
Beak − It is used to pick food
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF BIRDS. Oesophagus − It moves food into the
(gullet) crop.
Crop − It stores food temporarily.
− In the crop, food
moistened and fermented
by some bacteria.
Proventriculus − It secrets digestive
(True stomach) enzyme (pepsin).
− It secretes HCl on the
food.
Gizzard − It contains small stones
(Ventriculus) (grits) which grinds the
NOTE: Gizzard food.
does not produce
any digestive
juices.
Small intestines − Digestion.
(Duodenum,
jejunum and ileum)
Colorectum (Colon − Absorption of water.
and rectum) − Stores feaces temporarily.
Caecum ✓ The caecum houses
microorganisms which
synthesize some vitamin
B and K
Note: some of the vitamins is
lost in excretion when the
caecum contracts.
Cloaca ✓ Egestion of feaces
Digestive system of birds. ✓ Excretion of waste.
1) Alimentary canal (gut or gastrointestinal tract): is
the path along which food moves.
This includes:
Digestion in birds. Structural differences between the alimentary
canal of a bird and human
✓ The food is picked up by the beak.
✓ This food then passes through the oesophagus Bird Human
into the crop. − Beak present (mouth − Beak is absent
✓ In the crop, food is stored temporarily, modified to beak). (presence of mouth).
moistened and fermented by some bacteria. − Teeth absent − Teeth present
✓ The food is passed onto the proventriculus − Crop present − Crop absent
where digestive enzyme (pepsin) and HCl are − Gizzard present − Gizzard absent
secreted on the food. − Anal pore modified − Anal pore modified
✓ Pepsin digests protein into peptides. to cloaca to anus
✓ The food moves into the gizzard where grinding − Shorter alimentary − Longer alimentary
takes place. canal canal
✓ The food now moves to small intestine where − Appendix absent − Appendix present
further digesting and absorption take place.
✓ The pancreas secretes enzymes into the
Similarities in the alimentary canal of a bird and
duodenum to continue digestion.
human.
✓ The large intestine stores the feaces
✓ Feaces are egested (removed) through the ✓ They both have mouth
cloaca. ✓ They both have oesophagus (gullet).
✓ Waste products are also excreted through the ✓ They both have stomach.
cloaca. ✓ They both have duodenum.
✓ They both have small intestine.
✓ They both have large intestine.
✓ They both have caecum.
✓ They both have rectum.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

Path of air.
Nostrils → Nasalcavity → Pharynx → Glottis → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchus → Bronchiole → Aveolus
 Parts of the human respiratory system, their adaptaions and functions.
Structure (organs) of Adaptation to function. Functions.
the respiratory system.
Nostril − It has hairs to trap particles and pathogens. − It is a passage way for air.
Nasal cavity (chamber) − It has hairs to trap particles and pathogens. − It is a passage way for air.
− It has mucus membrane that secretes mucus − It warms air.
which helps to trap particles and pathogens. − It filters air.
− It has sensory cells. − It moistens air
− Responsible for smelling.
Pharynx throat − It has mucus and cilia to trap particles and − It is a passage way for air
pathogens. and food.
Larynx (Voice box) − It has mucus and cilia to trap particles and − It produces sound.
pathogens. − It is a passage way for air.
Trachea (Wide pipe) − It has mucus and cilia to trap particles and − It is a passage way for air.
pathogens.
− It is strengthened by rings of cartilage to
prevent it from collapsing.
Bronchus and − It has mucus and cilia to trap particles and − It is a passage way for air.
Bronchioles. pathogens.
Alveoli − It has thin wall to facilitate gaseous − For gaseous exchange.
exchange.
− It is vascular
− It has large surface area to increase the rate
of diffusion.
− It is moist (moist surface).
− Well-ventilated surface
− Permeable surface
Diaphragm − It is muscular in nature − It contracts and relaxes to
(it is found at the bottom alter the volume of
of the rib cage between thoracic cavity.
the thoracic cavity and − It separates thoracic cavity
abdominal cavity) from abdominal cavity.
Lungs − Presence of alveoli − It is the main organ for
− It is vascular gaseous exchange.
− Excretion of carbon
dioxide and water vapour.
Epiglottis: Prevent food particles from entering the respiratory system.
Ways the respiratory system purify air. Disorders of the respiratory system.
− The hairs in the nasal chamber trap particles and − Lung cancer.
pathogens. − Asthma
− It has sticky mucus which traps particles and − Tuberculosis.
pathogens. − Pneumonia.
− It has cilia in the trachea and bronchi that trap − Bronchitis.
particles and pathogens. − Whooping cough (Pertussis).
− It has sensory cells in the nostrils that ensure − Hay fever.
sneezing to bring out foreign particles. − Catarrh (Common cold).
− Choking and coughing is a reflux action that − Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
remove any particle that accidentally entered the − Influenza or flu
respiratory system. − Diphtheria
− Epiglottis closes the larynx (glottis) during
swallowing to prevent large particles from
entering the respiratory tract.
Question. − Internal respiration (cellular respiration/tissue
respiration)
Explain briefly the function of the mucous lining the
respiratory tract of humans.
Answer.
− It helps to trap particles and pathogens.
− It contains some antibodies to protect the body
against germs.

RESPIRATION.
INTERNAL RESPIRATION / TISSUE
Respiration is the process by which living organisms RESPIRATION / CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
obtain energy from food with or without the use of
oxygen. It is the chemical break down of food substance in
living cells to release energy with or without the use
Importance of respiration. of oxygen.
− It helps in heat production. NB: The energy is released in the form of adenosine
− It produces energy for muscular contraction. Or triphosphate (ATP) and heat.
movement
− It produces energy for the transmission of nerve Types of tissue/cellular respiration.
impulse.
− Aerobic respiration
− It helps to produce energy for cell division.
− Anaerobic respiration (fermentation).
− It produces energy for active transport.
− It helps in the synthesis of chemical substances AEROBIC RESPIRATION
in the cells.
− It helps to break down of chemical substances in Aerobic respiration is the chemical breakdown of
cells. food substance in living cells to release energy with
− Anaerobic respiration is used in the preparation the use of oxygen.
of bread and other food stuffs. Word equation:
− Anaerobic respiration is use in the preparation of
alcoholic beverages. Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water +
− Anaerobic respiration is use in the production Energy (38ATP)
antibiotics.
Balanced equation:
− Anaerobic respiration is use in the preservation
of food. C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (38ATP)
How organisms use the energy produced from Raw materials of aerobic respiration:
respiration.
− Glucose (C6H12O6)
− For heat production (for thermoregulation). − Oxygen (O2)
− For muscular contraction (movement).
− For the transmission of nerve impulse. Product of aerobic respiration:
− For active transport. − Energy (ATP)
− For metabolism or synthesis of substances − Carbon dioxide (CO2)
(biosynthesis) − Water (H2O)
− For growth and repair.
− For cell division. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
− For reproduction (movement of sperm cell)
Anaerobic respiration is the chemical breakdown of
− For photosynthesis
food substances in living cells to release energy
PROCESSES (STAGES) OF RESPIRATION without the use of oxygen.

Respiration involves two processes: Types of anaerobic respiration.

− External respiration (Breathing and gaseous − Alcohol (ethanol) fermentation

exchange). − Lactic acid fermentation
Alcohol fermentation Differences between aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
In alcohol fermentation, the food substance
(glucose) is broken down without oxygen to produce Aerobic respiration Anaerobic
ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide releasing respiration
energy. − Oxygen required. − No oxygen
required.
Word equation:
− A lot of energy − Less energy
Glucose → ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy produced. produced.
(2ATP) − Carbon dioxide − Alcohol and
and water is carbon dioxide
Balanced equation: produced as by- or lactic acid
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy (2ATP) products. produced as by-
product.
Raw materials of alcohol fermentation: − Occurs in − Occurs in
cytoplasm and cytoplasm.
− Glucose (C6H12O6)
mitochondria.
Product of alcohol fermentation: − There is complete − There is partial
chemical chemical
− Energy (ATP) breakdown of breakdown of
− Carbon dioxide (CO2) glucose glucose
− Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Lactic acid fermentation Similarities between aerobic and anaerobic

respiration
In lactic acid fermentation, the food substance
(glucose) is broken down to produce lactic acid − Both produce energy.
releasing energy. − Both produce carbon dioxide.
Word equation: BREATHING
Glucose →Lactic acid + Energy (2ATP) Breathing is the process by which oxygen is taken in
and carbon dioxide is given out.
Balanced equation:
Breathing involves two actions (processes):
C6H12O6→ 2C3H6O3 + Energy (2ATP)
Raw materials of lactic acid fermentation: − Inhalation/ inspiration (breathing in)
− Exhalation/ expiration (breathing out)
− Glucose (C6H12O6)
Inspiration (breathing in).
Product of lactic acid fermentation:
It is the process of taking in oxygen to the lungs
− Energy (ATP) through the nose or mouth.
− Lactic acid (C3H6O3)
Exhalation (breathing out).
Importance of anaerobic respiration. It is the process of giving out (releasing) carbon
− Anaerobic respiration helps in the production of dioxide and water from the lungs through the nose or
bread. mouth.
− Anaerobic respiration helps in the production of Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation.
alcoholic beverages.
− Anaerobic respiration helps in the production Mechanism of Mechanism of
antibiotics. inhalation. exhalation.
− Anaerobic respiration is use in the preservation ✓ External intercostal ✓ External intercostal
of food. muscles contract. muscles relax.
− Anaerobic respiration helps in the production of ✓ Internal intercostal ✓ Internal intercostal
foods like yoghurt and cheese. muscles relax. muscles contract.
✓ Ribs move up and ✓ Ribs move down
out. and inward.
✓ Sternum move up ✓ Sternum move NB: Total lungs capacity = vital capacity + residual
and out downward and air.
inwards
Differences between breathing and respiration.
✓ Diaphragm ✓ Diaphragm relaxes.
contracts. Breathing Respiration
✓ Diaphragm flattens. ✓ Diaphragm returns
to its original dome − Breathing is a − Respiration is a
shape. mechanical chemical process.
✓ Volume of thoracic ✓ Volume of thoracic (physical) process.
cavity increases. cavity decreases. − Breathing does not − Respiration involves
✓ Air pressure in ✓ Air pressure in the involve enzymes. enzymes.
thoracic cavity and thoracic cavity and − Breathing involves − Respiration involves
lungs decreases. lungs increases. the exchange of the breakdown of
✓ Air moves into the ✓ Air is forced out of oxygen and carbon food substance
lungs. the lungs. dioxide. (glucose) to release
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS energy,
− No energy is − Energy is released in
− Tidal air: is the volume of air entering and
released. the form of ATP.
leaving the lungs during normal breathing.
− Breathing takes − Respiration takes
− Vital capacity: is the maximum volume of the
place outside the place inside the cell.
air which enters and leaves during forced
cell.
breathing.
Similarities between respiration and burning
− Residual air/volume: is the volume of air
(combustion).
which remains in the lungs no matter how hard
one breathes out. − They all require oxygen.
− Total lung capacity: is the total volume of air − They produce energy (heat).
that the lungs can accommodate. − They produce carbon dioxide.
− They produce water.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS OF INHALED AIR AND EXHALED AIR.

Component Inhaled air Exhaled air
Oxygen (O2) Inhaled air contains more oxygen. Exhaled air contains less oxygen.
OR OR
Inhaled air contains 20.9% (21%) oxygen. Exhaled air contains16.9% (17%) oxygen.
Carbon dioxide Inhaled air contains less carbon dioxide Exhaled air contains relatively more carbon
(CO2) OR dioxide
Inhaled air contains 0.03% carbon dioxide OR
Exhaled air contains3.5% carbon dioxide
Water vapour Water vapour in inhaled air varies Water vapour in exhaled air is saturated
OR OR
Inhaled air contains less water vapour. Exhaled air contains more water vapour.
Temperature Temperature of inhaled air is the same as Temperature of exhaled air about 37C or
the surrounding temperature. 38C.
OR OR
Inhaled air is less warm. Exhaled air is warmer.
Nitrogen Inhaled air contains 78% Exhaled air contains 78%
OR OR
Inhaled air contains same amount of Exhaled air contains same amount of
nitrogen. nitrogen.
Inert gas Inhaled air contains 0.9% Exhaled air contains 0.9%
OR OR
Inhaled air contains same amount of inert Exhaled air contains same amount of inert
gas. gas.
Experiment To Show That Expired Air Contains − The air is passed over the organism (mouse) in
Carbon Dioxide the bell jar after which it is made to pass through
another bottle containing limewater.

− Pour some lime water into a test tube.

− Two straws A and B are inserted through the
cork.
− Using straw B breath out gently through the lime Observation.
water.
− The lime water will turn milky indicating the − The limewater in the second bottle turns milky
indicating the presence of carbon dioxide in the
presence of carbon dioxide.
air.
Experiment To Show That Expired Air Contains
Water Conclusion.

Using cobalt (II) chloride paper (CoCl2). − Lime water A did not turn milky (remained
clear) this indicates that all of the carbon dioxide
− Expired air is passed onto blue cobalt (II) in the original incoming air had been removed
chloride paper. by the sodium hydroxide.
− It turns pink. − Since limewater after the organism (lime water
− This confirms the presence of water in expired B) turned milky, shows that carbon dioxide was
air. produced by the organism during aerobic
respiration.
OR
RESPIRATION IN PLANT
Using white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
Plants undergo aerobic respiration.
✓ Expired air is passed onto white anhydrous
copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4). Structures for gaseous exchange in plants.
✓ It turns blue.
✓ This confirms the presence of water in expired − Stomata.
− Mesophyll tissues in leaves.
air.
− Lenticels in wooden stems.
Experiment To Show That Carbon Dioxide Is
How gaseous exchange in plant occur.
Produced During Aerobic Respiration.
✓ During the day carbon dioxide from the
Method.
atmosphere diffuses into the plant for
− A small organism (mouse) is placed in a bell jar photosynthesis. Oxygen produced from
(pot). photosynthesis diffuses out through the stomata
− Air from a filter pump is made to pass through into the atmosphere.
caustic soda (soda lime) in order to remove ✓ During the night, oxygen form the atmosphere
carbon dioxide from the air and then through diffuses into the plant for respiration through the
lime water in order to ensure that there is no stomata. Carbon dioxide produced from
carbon dioxide in the air.
 respiration diffuses out through the stomata into Experiment To Show That Heat Is Produced
the atmosphere. During Aerobic Respiration By Germinating
Seed
Experiment To Determine Whether A Green
Plant Produce Carbon Dioxide During
Respiration

Methods.

− Seeds are soaked in water for 24 hours and then

washed with sodium hypochlorite to sterilize
them.
Method − The seeds are divided into two halves.
− One half is boiled in order to kill the tissues and
✓ A Small potted plant is enclosed in a pot and treated with formalin in order to prevent decay
enclosed in a polythene bag − The two sets of seeds are put in two flasks, one
✓ Air from filter pump is made to pass through with living seeds and the other with dead seeds.
caustic soda (soda lime), in order to remove − A thermometer is inserted in each set of seeds
CO2 and then through lime water in order to and the mouth of the flask is covered with cotton
wool to prevent heat loss.
ensure that there is no CO2 in the air
− The temperature of each flask is taken at
✓ The air is passed over the potted plant in a bell interval.
jar, after which is made to pass through another
bottle containing lime water Observation.

Observation The temperature of the living seeds rises but that of

the dead seeds remain the same.
✓ The lime water in the second bottle turns most
milky, indicating the presence of carbon dioxide Conclusion.
in the air Germinating seeds respire to release energy hence
temperature increases.
Conclusion.

− Lime water A did not turn milky (remained

TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN
clear) this indicates that all of the carbon dioxide HUMANS.
in the original incoming air had been removed
by the sodium hydroxide. There are two main transport systems in humans:
− Since limewater after the organism (lime water
− The blood circulatory system (Cardiovascular
B) turned milky, shows that carbon dioxide was system).
produced by the green plant during aerobic − Lymphatic system.
respiration. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

NB: Bell jar is covered with black polythene or kept The circulatory system is an organ system that
in the dark to prevent photosynthesis (to prevent circulates blood in the body. It is made up of the:
carbon dioxide from been used up)
− Heart
− Blood vessels
− Blood.
 HEART.

The heart is the main organ which controls the blood circulation in mammals.

Description of structure of the mammalian (human) heart

− The human heart is a pear-shaped organ found in the thoracic cavity (chest region) between the lungs.
− The heart is made up of cardiac muscle.
− It is contained in a thin envelop called pericardium (pericardial membrane).
− The pericardium produces pericardial fluid
− It has four chambers, namely;
• Right auricle (right atrium).
• Right ventricle.
• left auricle (left atrium).
• left ventricle.
− The left and right side of the heart is separated by septum

Structure of the mammalian (human) heart

Parts of the heart and their function.

Parts of the heart. Their function.

Main artery (Aorta). − It transports oxygenated blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
Main vein (Vena − It transports deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the heart.
cava).
Pulmonary artery. − It transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Pulmonary vein. − It transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Right auricle (right − It receives deoxygenated blood from the main vein (vena cava).
atrium). − It pumps deoxygenated blood into the right ventricle.
Right ventricle. − It receives deoxygenated blood from the right auricle (right atrium).
− It pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
Left auricle (left − It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary vein.
atrium). − It pumps oxygenated blood into the left ventricle.
Left ventricle. − It receives oxygenated blood from the left auricle (left atrium).
− It pumps oxygenated blood through the main artery (aorta) to all parts of
the body.
Tricuspid valve. − It prevents the backflow of blood from the right ventricle into the right
auricle (right atrium).
Bicuspid valve − It prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left auricle
(mitral valve) (left atrium).
Septum. − It prevents deoxygenated blood from mixing with oxygenated blood.
Semi lunar valves. − It prevents the back flow of blood into the ventricle.
Chordae tendineae. − It prevents the valves from flapping back into the atrium under pressure.

Functions of the heart.

− It pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for

oxygenation.
− It pumps oxygenated blood to other parts of the
body for oxygen to be used.
− It is maintaining blood pressure.

FLOW OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART

(BLOOD CIRCULATION).

Blood circulation in mammals (humans) is referred

to as double circulation because blood flow through
the heart twice in one complete cycle. Blood flows
from the heart to the lungs and this is called
pulmonary circulation. Blood flow occurs between
the heart and the body tissues or cells and this is
called systemic circulation. BLOOD VESSELS.
How blood circulation take place. Blood vessels are channels through which blood
flows around the body.
− Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body Function of blood vessels
enters the right auricle (atrium) through the vena
cava. Blood vessels transport blood throughout the body.
− The right auricle pumps blood into the right Types of blood vessels.
ventricle through the tricuspid valve.
− The right ventricle pumps the deoxygenated − Arteries.
blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs − Veins.
for oxygenation. − Capillaries.
− The oxygenated blood is then transported by the
pulmonary vein into the left auricle.
− The left auricle pumps blood into the left
ventricle through the bicuspid valve.
− The left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood
into the main artery (aorta) to all parts of the
body.
Systole and diastole.

− Systole means contraction of the heart to provide ARTERIES.

pressure to pump blood out.
− Diastole means relaxation of the heart to reduce They are blood vessels that transport blood under
pressure in the heart to receive blood. pressure away from the heart.

Function.

Arteries transport blood away from the heart to other

parts of the body. OR

Arteries transport oxygenated blood away from the

heart to other parts of the body except pulmonary
artery.
Adaptations of the artery to its function. Differences between arteries and veins.

− It has thick (muscular) wall to withstand high Arteries Veins.

blood pressure.
− It has elastic walls to withstand pressure. − Carry blood away − Carry blood to the
− They have smaller lumen to maintain the from the heart. heart.
pressure. − Have no valves. − Have valves.
− Absence of valves to allow easy flow of blood. − Carry blood under − Carry blood under
− They are deeply situated in muscles to protect high pressure. low pressure.
against fatal injuries. − Have thick walls. − Have thinner walls.
− Have narrow lumen. − Have wider lumen.
VEINS. − Carry oxygenated − Carry deoxygenated
blood except blood except
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood under low pulmonary artery. pulmonary vein.
pressure to the heart. − Have elastic walls. − Have less elastic
Function. walls.
− Blood flow through in − Blood flow through
Veins transport blood to the heart. OR pulse. smoothly,
− They are deeply − They are
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from all parts of the situated in muscles. superficially situated
body to the heart except pulmonary vein. under skin.
Note:
Adaptations of the vein to its function.
1) The hepatic portal vein: transport blood
− It has thin (less muscular) to allow smooth flow containing digested food from the small intestines to
of blood. the liver.
− They have valves to prevent the back flow of
blood. 2) Coronary artery: supplies the walls of the heart
− They have large lumen to allow large volume of with oxygenated blood
blood and reduce resistance to blood flow.
− Presence of less elastic wall to compensate for BLOOD.
low blood pressure.
Blood is a fluid tissue containing blood cells and
− They are superficially situated under the skin to
plasma.
facilitate easy removal of heat and some
excretory products like sweat. Components of the blood.
CAPILLARIES.
The blood is made up of
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels present in all
tissues of the body. 1) Blood plasma
Function. 2) Blood cells (corpuscles)
The capillaries are responsible for exchange of − Red blood cells (Erythrocytes).
materials between blood and body tissues. − White blood cells (Leukocytes).
− Platelets (thrombocytes)
Adaptations of the capillaries to its function.

− They are tiny in order to penetrate internal

tissues.
− They have thin walls for easy diffusion.
 BLOOD PLASMA. − It transports dissolved food substances
(nutrients) and minerals to parts of the body.
Blood plasma is the straw coloured (yellow) fluid − It is responsible for the transport of dissolved
part of the blood. gases.
The plasma contains 90% water. − Transport antibodies and white blood cells to
site of infection.
Components of the blood plasma. − It is responsible for the transport of blood cells.
− It distributes heat to all parts of the body.
− Water. − It carries waste (excretory) products to excretory
− Dissolved foods substances (like glucose, amino organs for removal.
acids, fat droplets,). − It carries hormones to target organs
− Dissolved gases (like oxygen and carbon − It helps in regulation of fluid balance.
dioxide).
− Blood proteins (like fibrinogen, antibodies,
albumin, prothrombin etc.) BLOOD CELLS (CORPUSCLES).
− Dissolved mineral salts (like Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+,
CO32-). The three (3) types of blood cells are:
− Hormones (like adrenalin, insulin). − Red blood cells (Erythrocytes).
− Enzymes − White blood cells (Leukocytes).
− Waste products (like carbon dioxide, urea). − Platelets (thrombocytes)
− Vitamins Note: Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.
Function.

Characteristics of the blood cells.

Red blood cells (Erythrocytes). White blood cells Platelets

(Leucocytes). (thrombocytes)

− It is biconcave in shape (disc shape). − Irregular in shape. − They are oval.

− Matured red blood cells lacks nucleus. − Have nucleus. − They lack nucleus.
− Lack organelles. − Have organelles. − Lack organelles.
− Contains haemoglobin. − Lack haemoglobin. − Lack haemoglobin.
− Smaller than the white blood cells. − Large in size. − They are tiny
− They are numerous (they are most − They are smaller in fragments of cells.
numerous of all blood cells). number. − Produced in the
− They have a life span of 120 days. − Produced in the bone bone marrow.
− Produced in the bone marrow. marrow. − Has cytoplasm
− Has cytoplasm − Has cytoplasm
Function. Function.
Function.
− They transport oxygen to body tissues. − Lymphocytes produce
− Platelets help in
− Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to antibodies that fight
diseases in the body. blood clotting.
the lungs.
− Helps to regulate blood pH. − Phagocytes engulf and
ingest pathogens.
 Functions of blood. − It facilitates (helps in) the process of wound
healing.
Transport. Serum.
− Blood transport oxygen from the lungs to other It is the blood plasma without fibrinogen.
tissues.
− Blood carries carbon dioxide from body tissues LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
to the lungs to be expelled.
− Blood transport of dissolved food substances Lymphatic system is made up of lymph and lymph
(nutrients) and minerals to parts of the body. vessels.
− Blood carry antibodies to site of infection. Lymph
− Blood carries waste products to excretory organs
for removal. Lymph is the excess body fluid (tissue fluid) that
− Blood carries hormones to target organs flows in the lymph vessels.
Protection and defense.
Functions Of The Lymph.
− White blood cells protect the body against
diseases. − It carries white blood cells to body tissues.
− Lymphocytes produce antibodies that fight − It helps in the absorption and transport of fat.
diseases in the body − It takes excess tissue fluid back into the blood.
− Phagocytes engulf and ingest pathogens − It removes and transport excretory products
− Platelets help in blood clotting. from tissues to blood.
Regulation. − It is a medium of exchange of materials between
the blood and body tissues.
− Blood help to regulate body temperature
(thermoregulation) / Blood distributes heat to all Blood pressure.
parts of the body.
− Blood helps to maintain fluid and chemical Blood pressure is the force or pressure with which
balance within the body. the heart pumps blood through the arteries to all
Reproduction. parts of the body.

− Blood help to make the penis erect for sexual Blood pressure is measured using
intercourse to take place. sphygmomanometer.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES.
BLOOD CLOTTING.
Disorders of the blood.
Blood clotting is the formation of mesh to prevent
excessive bleeding. − Haemophilia.
How Blood Clotting Occur. − Anaemia.
− Sickle cell anaemia.
− When the blood vessel is cut, blood is exposed − Leukaemia (Blood cancer).
to air. Circulatory disorders.
− Platelets exposed to air rapture and releases
thromboplastin. − Hypertension (High blood pressure).
− Thromboplastin catalyzes the conversion of − Heart attack (myocardial infraction)
prothrombin to thrombin in the presence of − coronary thrombosis
calcium ion. − Arteriosclerosis.
− Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen − Cancer of the heart.
into fibrin. Causes of cardiovascular diseases.
− Fibrin forms a network of mesh that traps blood
cells to form clot. − Emotional and psychological stress.
Importance Of Blood Clotting. − Excessive smoking.
− Age.
− It prevents excessive bleeding after injury. − Hereditary
− It prevent infection − Psychological stress or emotional
− Diet rich in fat or cholesterol and sugar
Prevention of cardiovascular diseases. water, CO2, urea,
mineral salt and bile
− Regular exercise of the body. pigment.
− Low intake of salts. − Metabolic wastes − Undigested food is
− Reduce intake of fat or cholesterol. are removed removed through the
− Reduce body weight (obesity). through lungs, anus.
− Avoid smoking. kidney, skin and
− Avoid excessive intake of alcohol. liver.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM Importance of excretion.

− It removes toxic waste from the body.

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste
− It regulates water content of body fluid.
products from the body or cells of living organisms.
− It regulates ions content of body fluid.
Egestion (defecation) is the removal of undigested − It maintains a suitable environment for normal
food from an organism. functioning of the body.
− Sweating regulates body temperature
Differences between excretion and egestion.
− It regulates the pH of body fluid.
Excretion Egestion

− Excretion is the − Egestion is the

removal of removal of
metabolic waste. undigested food.
− Metabolic wastes − Undigested food is
are removed from removed from the
cells and tissues. alimentary canal.
− Excretion products − Egestion products are
include excess feaces and water.

Organs of the excretory system.

Organs of Waste products they Functions or organs.

excretory excrete.
system.

Kidney − Water − For excretion

− Urea − For homeostasis (osmoregulation and pH regulation).
− Excess mineral salt − The kidney produces hormones like erythropoietin for blood
− Uric acid production.
− Other nitrogenous
waste.
Skin − Excess mineral salt − It protects the body tissues against pathogens and
− Water mechanical injury.
− Traces of urea − It prevents excessive water loss.
− For excretion
− For detection of stimulus (touch, pain, heat, cold, pressure
NOTE: Mineral salts, and chemicals).
water and traces of urea − It helps in homeostasis (regulation of body temperature)
form sweat. − Production of vitamin D
− Protects the body against harmful ultraviolet rays.
Lungs − Carbon dioxide − The lung is the main organ for gaseous exchange.
− Water vapour − For excretion of carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Liver − Bile pigment − It processes end products of digestion.
− Urea − It produces (secrets) bile
− Excess Cholesterol − It helps in deamination of excess amino acid (breaks down
− Harmful substances excess amino acids into urea).
entering the body. − It stores certain fat-soluble vitamins. (E.g., vitamin A, D E
and K.)
− It helps in detoxification (conversion of harmful poisonous
substances into harmless substances).
− It helps in the regulation of body temperature
(thermoregulation)
− Regulates blood sugar level (by converting and storing
excess glucose as glycogen and converting it back to glucose
when needed).
− Produces plasma proteins (like fibrinogen, heparin and
prothrombin).
− It helps in fat metabolism.
− It helps in the destruction of hormones.
− Excretion.
− It helps to destroy old red blood cells.
− It stores blood.
− It stores iron.
− In embryos, liver helps in blood production.

POINTS TO NOTE: • Medulla (lighter inner region)

• Cortex (darker outer region)
1) Deamination is breaks down excess amino acids
into urea by the liver. − The ureter is enlarged at its base to form the
renal pelvis.
2) Detoxification is conversion of harmful poisonous
− The inner border of the medullar is called the
substances into harmless substances.
pyramid.
KIDNEY − The functional unit of the kidney is the
nephrons.
It is a bean shaped organ that forms urine. − The renal artery brings blood to the kidney.
− Renal vein takes blood away from the kidney

Functions of the parts.

− Renal artery: brings oxygenated blood to the

kidney
− Renal vein: returns deoxygenated blood to the
vena cava.
− Ureter: transport urine to the bladder
− Urethra: transport urine from the bladder to the
outside.
STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY − Urinary bladder: stores urine temporarily

− It is bean shaped. Note: In males the urethra is a passage for both urine
− It is covered by tough layer called capsule. and semen so it is referred to as urino-genital in
− The kidney is made up of two main regions: function.
 − The efferent arteriole is narrowed as compared
to the afferent arteriole creating pressure in the
glomerulus.
− This pressure causes certain substances (like
water, mineral salt, urea, vitamins hormones
glucose, uric acid) to filter into the cavity of the
bowman's capsule.
− This filtrate is called the glomerular filtrate.
Selective reabsorption.

Selective reabsorption is the absorption of useful

substances from the glomerular filtrate into the
THE KIDNEY NEPHRON blood.

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. − Selective reabsorption occurs at the proximal
convoluted tubule, Distal convoluted tubule,
loop of Henle and collecting duct.
− After selective reabsorption the remaining
filtrate (water, urea and mineral salt) form the
urine in the collecting duct.
− It moves into the pelvis.
− The urine passes through the ureter into the
bladder where it is temporarily stored and
eliminated through the urethra.
Note:

1) Blood cells and protein are not filtered because

they are too large to pass through the capillaries
Structure of the kidney nephron (glomerulus).

− Each nephron consists of Bowman's capsule. 2) Glomerular filtrate is the filtered fluid in the
− The bowman's capsule contains a network of Bowman's capsule.
capillary called glomerulus.
− Bowman's capsule leads into proximal
convoluted tubule which is coiled.
− Thee proximal tubule leads to loop of Henle and
then into the distal convoluted tubule.
− This then joins a collecting duct which opens
into the renal pelvis through the pyramid
FORMATION OF URINE.

It takes place in two major process

− Ultrafiltration (first process)

− Selective reabsorption (second process)
Ultra-filtration.

It is the filtration of fluid from the blood in the

bowman's capsule under pressure.
 URINARY SYSTEM DISORDERS.

Disorders Causes Remedy

Kidney stones − Low intake of water. − Kidney stones are removed by surgery.
− Drinking a lot of water.
Urine retention: is − Kidney stones. − Surgery operation.
the inability to − Enlarged prostate gland.
pass stored urine.

Bed wetting: it is − Laziness to get out of bed to − Avoid eating and drinking it much in the
the unintentional go and urinate. night.
passage of urine − Eating and drinking too − Urinate before going to bed.
during sleeping. much late in the evening. − Doing a lot of exercise.
− Malfunction of the urinary − Use of drugs (antibiotics) to treat urinary
sphincters. infection.
− A small bladder
− Urinary tract infection
− stress
Nephritis − Infection − Filtering of drinking water.
Kidney failure − Infection. − Dialysis.
− Controlled diet.
− Kidney transplant.

SKIN.

Skin in the largest organ.

Functions of the skin.

− It protects the body tissues against pathogens and mechanical injury.

− It prevents excessive water loss.
− For excretion
− For detection of stimulus (touch, pain, heat, cold, pressure and chemicals).
− It helps in homeostasis (regulation of body temperature)
− Production of vitamin D
− Protects the body against harmful ultraviolet rays.
 Structure of the skin.

The mammalian skin is made up of two main layers:

✓ Epidermis (outer layer)

✓ Dermis (inner layer)
Epidermis (Epidermal layer).

It consists of three regions:

✓ Cornified (horny) layer: It is the upper thin region made up of dead cells.
✓ Granular layer: It is below the cornfield layer. It is made up of living cells produced by the malpighian
layer.
✓ Malpighian (germinative) layer: It is below the granular layer. It is made up of one or two cells thick.
The cells divide continuously to produce new epidermis. It contains melanin and keratin.
The Dermis (Dermal layer).

It is a layer of connective tissue with a lot of fibres and few cells making the skin elastic.

It contains blood capillaries, nerves, blood vessels (capillaries), sweat glands, hair follicles, hair erector muscles,
adipose cells (fat cells), sebaceous gland.

Parts of the skin and their function.

Parts of the skin Function

Epidermis − Protection (prevents entry of pathogens).
Cornified layer − Protection (prevents entry of pathogens and mechanical injury).
− It is a water proof layer.
Granular layer − Produces cells to replaces worn of cornified layer.
Malpighian layer − Contains melanin responsible for skin colour.
− Produces epidermal cells.
Dermis − It contains hair, follies, blood vessels, nerves.
Hair follicle − It contains hair papilla for growth of hair.
− Produces hair.
Hair papilla. − Growth of hair
Erector muscles − Regulates the erection of hair (moves hairs).
Sebaceous gland − provides sebum which makes the skin water proof.
Blood vessel − Supply the skin with nutrient.
(capillaries)
Nerve fibre − For sensitivity (makes the skin sensitive to touch, heat and pressure).
Adipose cells (fat − stores fat.
cells). − Insulates the body.
− Cushions inner organs
Subcutaneous fat − stores fat.
− Insulates the body.
− Cushions inner organs
Sweat gland − For excretion sweat.
Stimuli to which the mammalian skin is sensitive ✓ Vasodilation (Blood vessels dilate and heat is
to. lost through radiation)
✓ Erector muscles in the skin relaxes and hair lies
✓ Touch flat which speed up the rate of evapouration.
✓ Pressure During cold weather:
✓ Heat
✓ Cold ✓ Rate of metabolism increase.
✓ Pain ✓ Vasoconstriction (Blood vessels constrict to
✓ Chemicals prevent heat loss by radiation)
Question. ✓ Erector muscles of the skin contracts making the
hairs to stand (this traps air to insulate the body).
Name one structure of the skin which is associated ✓ Shivering occurs to generate heat in the body
with the following function
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Function Structure
Excretion
Plants do not have special excretory organs.
Protection
Response to stimulus Reasons why plants do not have special excretory
(sensitivity)
organs.
Thermoregulation
Answers. ✓ The rate is metabolism is low (less active) in
plants hence less metabolic wastes are produced
Function Structure
Excretion Sweat gland, sweat pores at a slower rate.
Protection Horny layer, melanin ✓ Plants use some of their waste products to form
Response to stimulus Nerve fibres other useful materials.
(sensitivity) ✓ The waste products of plants are not as toxic as
Thermoregulation Sweat gland, sweat pore, in animals.
erector muscle, hairs, ✓ Plants synthesis their own food and therefore do
blood capillaries. not take in food for metabolism that will be
broken down to release waste.
Question.
Excretory products in plants.
(ii) List three layers of the epidermis in the skin of
humans. Examples of excretory products of plants are:

Answers. ✓ Carbon dioxide

✓ Oxygen
− Cornified (horny) layer ✓ Excess water
− Granular layer ✓ Tannins
− Malpighian layers ✓ Alkaloids
✓ Latex
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE ✓ Lignins
BY THE SKIN ✓ Anthocyanins
✓ Gum
During hot weather:
SKELETAL SYSTEM.
✓ Rate of metabolism reduces and less heat is
Skeleton is the supportive structural framework of
produced. an organism.
✓ Rate of sweat production increases.
✓ As sweat evapourates, latent heat of Note: The systems that bring about movement are
vapourization is taken from the body. skeletal system and muscular system controlled by
nervous system.
 Types of skeleton. − Joints.
1)Exoskeleton. − Larynx
− Trachea
It is the supportive structural framework of an − Epiglottis
organism found outside the body. It is found outside − Soft palate
the soft tissues of the body.
E.g. Shell in snails, crabs, octopus, Chitin in Difference between bone and cartilage
arthropods (insects) Bone Cartilage
2) Endoskeleton.
− Bone is harder, rigid − Cartilage is softer,
It is the supportive structural framework of an and non-elastic. flexible and elastic
organism found inside the body. It is found inside − Bone contains − Cartilage does not
the soft tissues of the body. minerals like calcium contain minerals
and phosphorus. like calcium and
E.g. Skeleton of mammals like cow, humans, rats, phosphorus
snakes etc. − Bone is porous. − Cartilage is non
porous.
3) Hydrostatic skeleton.
− Bone has both − Cartilage has a
In this type of skeleton, a fluid (liquid) provides organic and purely organic
framework. inorganic matrix matrix.
− Bone has blood − Cartilage do not
E.g., Hydra. vessels and nerves have blood vessels
and nerves
MAMMALIAN (HUMAN) SKELETON.
− Bone has less − Cartilage has more
The mammalian (human) skeleton is made up two collagen fibres collagen fibres.
tissues;
1)Bone: It is a firm rigid tissue that contains Function of the mammalian (human skeleton).
minerals like calcium and phosphorus. − It gives the body shape.
Cells of the bone are osteocytes and osteoblast. − It forms the framework of the body
− It supports the body.
2) Cartilage: It is a soft connective tissue which
does not contain minerals like calcium and − The ribs aids in breathing.
phosphorus. Cells of the cartilage are chondrocytes − It produces levers for movement (makes
movement possible).
Parts of the human body where cartilage can be − Bone marrow produces blood cells.
found
− It provides surface for attachment of muscle.
− Earlobe (pinna) − It protects delicate organs.
− Tip of nose − It stores the body’s minerals like calcium
− Parts of ribs − The jaw bone supports the teeth.
− Between vertebrae (intervertebral disc)

DIVISION OF THE HUMAN SKELETON.

The mammalian (human) skeleton is divided into two parts

− Axial skeleton
− Appendicular skeleton
 AXIAL SKELETON.
Axial skeleton consists of;
− Skull: consist of the cranium, upper jaw
(maxilla), lower jaw (mandible), Bones of the
face, Hyoid bone, auditory bones (in the middle
ear).
− Ribs.
− Vertebrae column (back bone).
− Sternum (breast bone). The five main group of vertebrae.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN. − Cervical vertebrae

− Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebrae column is made up of small bones called − Lumber vertebrae
vertebrae − Sacral vertebrae
Between the vertebrae is a cartilage pad called − Caudal vertebrae
intervertebral disc which serve as shock absorber
and reduces friction. The vertebral column encloses
the spinal cord.

Location and number of the various vertebrae in some organism.

Type of vertebrae. Region of occurrence in the body Number occurring in
(location)
Man Cow Rat Rabbit Cat
Cervical vertebrae Neck 7 7 7 7 7

Thoracic vertebrae Chest (Thorax) 12 13 13 12/13 13

Lumber vertebrae Abdomen (Upper abdomen or loin) 5 6 6 6/7 7

Sacral vertebrae Hip (lower abdomen) 5 5 4 4 3

Caudal vertebrae Tail (coccyx) 4 18-20 30 16 18-25
A Mammalian Vertebra (Generalized Vertebra) Lumber vertebra

Sacral vertebra.
In humans they are fused to from a strong bone called
Parts of the vertebra and their functions sacrum.

✓ Centrum: it encloses and protect the spinal cord Caudal vertebrae

✓ Neural arch: It encloses and protect the spinal
In humans it is fused to form a coccyx.
cord
✓ Neural canal: it carries spinal cord APPENDICULAR SKELETON
✓ Neutral spin: attachment of muscle Consists of;
✓ Transverse process: attachment of muscle
✓ Facets (Zygapophyses): all articulation with ✓ Pectoral girdle
adjacent vertebrae ✓ Pelvic girdle
✓ Forelimb
Cervical vertebra ✓ Hind limb

It is the vertebra at neck region

Characteristics
✓ Shorter neural spine
✓ Small centrum

Thoracic vertebra

LIMBS.
Limbs of humans can be grouped into,
− Forelimb
− Hind limb

Note: The limbs are called pentadactyl because they

terminate in five digits
Forelimb
Consist of
− upper arm
− Forearm (middle arm)
− Hand
 Pectoral girdle.
It is made up of bones which attach the forelimbs to
the axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle is divided into two halves.
Each half consist of:
− Scapula (shoulder blade): it is flat and triangular.
It has a glenoid cavity which articulates with the
head of humerus. Close to the glenoid cavity are
projections acromion process (articulate with
clavicle) and metacromion process.
− Clavicle (collar bone)
− Coracoid: a small bone fused with the scapula at
the apex.

Hind limb.

It is made up of the
✓ Thigh bone (femur)
✓ Shank (lower leg)
✓ Foot

LIMB GIRDLES.
They are bones which attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
Consists of
− Pectoral girdle
− Pelvic girdle
 Pelvic girdle.
Pelvic girdle made up of bones which attach the hind
limb to the axial skeleton.

Components (structures) of a typical joint.

1) Ligament: hold bones to prevent dislocation.
2) Cartilage: it is a shock absorber. It also prevents
bone surface from been worn out
3) Synovial membrane: secrets synovial fluid into
the synovial cavity
4) Synovial fluid: lubricate the joint. It reduces
friction
5) Bone
TYPES OF JOINTS.
It is made up of two halves 1) Ball and socket joint: Allows movement in more
than one plane.
The two halves are fused ventrally and the line of
fusion is called pubic symphysis. E.g., Hip joint, shoulder joint
Each half contains fused three bones, 2) Hinge joint: Allow movement in one plane.
− ilium E.g., Elbow joint, Knee joint, finger joint and toe
− ischium and joint
− pubis (pubic bone)
3) Gliding joint: Bones glide over each other,
It has a hole called obturator foramen for passage of E.g., Wrist joint, Ankle joint
nerves and blood vessels.
4) Pivot or rotating joint.
It also has a cavity called acetabulum articulate with
the head of the femur. E.g., joint between atlas and axis vertebrae.
JOINTS. 5) Immovable or fixed joint: Allows no movement.
Joints are structural points of contact between two or E.g., Sutures of the skull (cranium), pubic symphysis.
more bones.
6) Slightly movable joint.
Joint is a point where two or more bones meet.
E.g., Joint between vertebrae
It may be movable or immovable
 MOVEMENT OF THE FORELIMB (ARM). Terminologies.
− The muscles that aid in moving the arm are the Pest: are living organisms usually an insect or animal
biceps and the triceps. that cause damage to plants.
− During bending of the arm, the biceps contract
Parasite: is an organism living in or on another
and the triceps relax
organism (host) of a different species from which it
− During straitening (extending) of the arm the
obtains food and protection. E.g, dodder, louse, tick.
triceps contract and the biceps relax.
Host: is an organism that houses a parasite.
Vector: is an organism that transmits a pathogen
from an infected person to an unaffected person.
Symptoms of a disease: are abnormal changes or
sings in the body which help the doctor to identify the
disease. Eg. High temperature, loss of appetite,
vomiting, headache, blood in urine, sugar in urine.
Incubation: is the time elapsed between exposure to
a diseases and when the first symptom appears.
Epidemic: is an outbreak of a fast spreading disease
they spread among a group of people within an area.
Eg. Cholera typhoid fever
NOTE: For biceps and triceps, when one contract,
Pandemic: wide spread disease that affects people in
the other relaxes and vice versa. Therefore, they are
many countries. HIV AIDS, Ebola, COVID 19.
said to act antagonistically.
Endemic: is a disease occurring within a particular
Question.
area and stable over the years. Eg. Sickle cell malaria
Describe the process involved as the human arm is
PATHOGENS.
being raised.
Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms.
Answer.
How the body protects itself against pathogens
During raising of the arm, with nervous stimulation,
(Defensive mechanism against pathogens).
the biceps contract and the triceps relax
Note: Imagine raising the hand to answer a question, − The skin prevents pathogens from entering the
it actually involves bending of the arm. body
− Hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills bacteria in
DISEASE AND INFECTIONS. the food.
− Cilia and mucus in the respiratory system traps
HEALTH.
pathogens and particles in inhaled air.
According to World Health Organization (WHO), − The white blood cells (phagocytes) engulf
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and pathogens that invade the body.
social well-being and not merely (just) the absence of − The white blood cells (lymphocytes) produce
disease or infirmity. antibodies to destroy pathogens and neutralize
Based on this definition, good health has the their toxins.
following characteristics: − Sebum produced by sebaceous gland on the in the
skin protects the body and kills germs.
− Absence of disease in the body.
− Tears contains lysozymes that kill bacteria.
− Proper working of all internal and external
body organs. DISEASE.
− Absence of any mental disease.
− Absence of social and psychological tension. Disease is any disorder which interferes with the
normal functioning of the body of an organism.
Methods of infection of disease. Disease Cause
− Contamination of food Kwashiorkor Lack of proteins
− Contamination of drink(water) Rickets Lack of vitamin D, calcium or
− Contamination of air or droplet infection. phosphate.
− Contact with infected person Scurvy Lack of vitamin C
− Insect vector. Goiter Lack of iodine
− Though wound or du or any opening in the Beriberi Lack of vitamin B1
body Pellagra Lack of vitamin B3
− Shearing of infected materials Night blindness Lack of vitamin A
Anemia Lack of vitamin B2 or iron
TYPES OF DISEASES. Prolong bleeding Lack of vitamin K
− Pathogenic disease. Infertility Lack of vitamin E
− Nonpathogenic disease.
MENTAL DISEASE.
PATHOGENIC DISEASES.
Mental diseases are diseases associated with the
Pathogenic disease are diseases caused by pathogens. improper functioning of the brain as a result of some
Classification of pathogenic diseases. disorder. E.g. depression, over anxiety

Communicable or infectious diseases: are diseases HUMAN INDUCED DISORDERS.

which can easily be transmitted from one organism to Human induced disorders are diseases which one
another through a vector or through a medium like acquires because of one’s own way of life
water, food and air. E.g. measles, tuberculosis,
syphilis, whooping cough, AIDS. GENETIC AND CONGENITAL DISEASES.
Contagious diseases: are diseases transmitted Genetic or congenital diseases are diseases inherited
through contact with an infected organism or person. from parents as a result of a deficiency or particular
E.g. measles, rubella, mumps, chicken pox, cold, characteristics of the parent’s genes. E.g.
influenza, swine fever. haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia, baldness, albinism.
Zoonotic diseases: are diseases that affect both AGEING/ DEGENERATION OF BODY TISSUE
humans and other animals. E.g. rabies, anthrax and DISEASES.
bird flu.
Ageing or Degeneration Of Body Tissue Diseases are
Epizootic diseases: are diseases that are prevalent diseases which one acquires as a result of one
only temporarily. E.g. red water, heart water becoming older or as a result of degeneration of body
tissues. E.g: short sightedness, cataract, some types of
Endemic diseases: is a disease occurring within a cancer, arthritis.
particular area and stable over the years..
CANCER.
NON-PATHOGENIC DISEASES/
NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES. Cancer is the abnormal and uncontrolled division of
body cells.
Non pathogenic diseases are diseases not caused by
pathogens. Causes of cancer includes, radiations, cigarette smoke
etc.
Examples of non-pathogenic diseases/
noninfectious diseases. SEXUIALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
(STIs).
− Deficiency diseases,
− Mental disease. Sexually transmitted infection is an illness caused by
− Human induced disorders, pathogen that is transmitted by sexual contact
− Ageing/ degeneration of body tissue diseases. Practices that can boost our immune systems to
− cancer.
prevent diseases.
DEFICIENCY DISEASES. − Eating balanced diet regularly
Deficiency diseases are diseases caused by absence or − Exercise regularly
inadequate supply or intake of a particular nutrient or − Having enough rest
food substance.
− Avoid stress − Loneliness
− Avoid eating contaminated food
Effects of drug abuse.
− Emptying of bowels frequently
− It affects the health of users.
FIRST AID
− It can lead to drug addiction.
First Aid is the immediate treatment given to a victim − It can lead to premature death.
of accident or sudden illness. − It can lead to social vices like robbery,
Reason of first aid prostitution etc.
− It can lead to weight loss.
− To save life. − There is a risk of HIV infection.
− To receive pain and discomfort − Neglect of family
− To make recovery easier − Wastes money
− To prevent worsening of the condition. − Fights
− To prevent excessive bleeding. − Accidents
Items needed in a first aid box DRUG ADDICTION.
− Cotton wool Drug addiction is a situation where a person becomes
− Plasters so used to a drug such that he or she finds it difficult
− Cotton bandages to stop using it because he cannot live a normal life
− Safety pins without the drug.
− Gentian violet Drug addiction is the dependence and intense craving
− Antiseptic for a drug from which the person is unable to quit on
− Pair of scissors his own.
− Gauze
Symptoms of drug addiction
− Liniment
− Building up drug tolerance
DRUG AND DRUG ABUSE − Taking drugs to avoid symptoms
Drug. − Loss of control over drug abuse (wishing to stop
but unable to do so)
Drug is any chemical substance which when
− Abandoning activities
introduced into the body affects the body
physiologically. − One’s life revolves around drug use.
− Depression
Drug abuse. − Abnormal behavior or madness
Drug abuse is the deliberate use of drug not for the − Excessive use of drug in spite of the knowledge
purpose intended for but rather to influence behavior that it hurts.
or endanger life.
Causes of drug abuse. ANIMAL FARMING
− Bad peer influence Animal farming involves the keeping, management
− Lack of parental control and husbandry practices of farm animals.
− Curiosity Farm animals.
− Wrong information.
Farm animals are animals that have been
− Broken home
domesticated and reared for their products for man
− Search for happiness.
use.
− Advertisement
− To escape the realities of life Importance of animal farming or animal
− Easy access to drugs production or farm animals.
− Frustration − Source of revenue or income
− Source of food − It requires little or no capital investment in
− For clothing and leather works feeding and housing structures
− Source of farmyard manure. − Cost of feeding is minimal.
− Source of transportation.
Disadvantages of extensive system.
− Source of employment
− Source of farm power − The animals may easily be stolen
− Source of various products like hide, milk and − They become destructive
leather goods − They are exposed to diseases and pest
− Provision of raw materials for industries − They are exposed to humans and predators that
may kill them
Problem of rearing farm animals (causes of low
− It would be difficult to keep proper records of
animal production in west Africa).
animals
− Scarcity and high cost of feed. − They are exposed to harsh environmental
− Low quality of fed. conditions (rain, cold, heat)
− Poor health of animals/ poor medication − It may lead to Overgrazing resulting in soil
− Disease and pest problem (Pest and disease erosion
infestation) − It is difficult to obtain manure for farm crop
− Management problem/ poor husbandry practices. production
− Unreliable source of breeding stock − High death rate
− Poverty and poor funding − Provides low income to farmers.
− Poor record keeping − Poor production.
− Poor housing facilities. − There is indiscriminate mating.
− Poor marketing system.
SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM
− Use of poor breeds.
In this system animals are provided with some form
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM of housing facilities as well as freedom of movement
There are three management systems. since the land for rearing is limited by fence.

− Extensive systems This system is a balance between extensive and

intensive systems.
− Semi-intensive systems
− Intensive system Advantages of semi-intensive system

EXTENSIVE SYSTEM − Requires less labour as compared to intensive

system
It is the traditional system where farm animals are − Animals are better protected by harsh
allowed to move in and out freely to look for their
environmental conditions than that of the
own food and water over a large area. There is no
extensive system
proper housing, care and feeding of animals.
− Less capital investment as compared to intensive
Advantages of extensive system system
− Provides farm yard manure for crop farming
− Animals obtain enough fresh green materials
(forage feed) and sunshine. − Animals have space to exercise
− It requires little attention or time − It enhances regular husbandry practices like
− Overcrowding is eliminated since there is large vaccination and giving supplementary
extent of land − Requires less managerial practices than intensive
− Less money is spent in maintaining the animals system.
(it is cheap) − Animals obtain green forage (natural vegetation)
feed and sunshine.
− It requires less labour
− Requires minimal management practices
− Animals have space to exercise
Disadvantages of semi-intensive system − Culling
− Dipping
− Efficiency of husbandry is not high.
− Deworming / drenching
− It may lead to over grazing relating in soil
− Vaccination
erosion.
− It requires labour − Identification (marking)
− Decombing
INTENSIVE SYSTEM − Debeaking
− Castration
This is the management system where there is total
confinement of livestock. − Docking
− Dehorning
Advantages of intensive system − Flushing
− Animals are protected from pests and diseases. − Steaming up
− Animals are protected from Predators that may − Dispurring
kill them. − Weaning
− Animals are protected from harsh environmental
CULLING
conditions.
− Farm yard manure is easily obtained. It is the removal (isolation) of unhealthy (sick) or
− Husbandry practices like vaccination, deworming undesirable (unproductive) animals from the flock or
is easily done and regulated. stock.
− Proper record keeping can be done. Importance (advantages) of culling
− There is no problem of animals becoming
destructive. − Helps to reduce the spread of diseases.
− There is high yield of livestock and quality − More space is provided for the remaining
products are obtained. animals.
− It prevents or minimizes animal theft (animals − Cost of feeding of the remaining animals Is
rarely get stolen) reduced.
− Restriction in movement makes the animal − It maximizes yield
conserve energy which helps them to increase in − It prevents unnecessary death of animals.
weight and size.
DEBEAKING
Disadvantages of intensive system It is the partial removal of the beak of a bird.
− Animals are not very active and hence, they are Importance (advantages) of debeaking.
prone to ill health.
− Requires high financial investment. (Cost of − Reduces cannibalism.
construction of house and feeding) − Reduces wastage of food.
− Rate of disease spread is high if not immediately − Prevents eating of eggs.
detected and well managed. − prevents pecking of each other.
− Animals are not exposed to wide range of green
Methods of debeaking.
forage feed.
− It requires more labour − Heated knife method
− It requires little attention or time − Use of an electric device (hot blade electric
device method)
HUSBANDRY OR MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES. Causes of cannibalism.
Management practices are husbandry activities − Too little feed and water
carried on animals to ensure proper growth and good − Presence of mould in feed
health of animals. − Irregular feeding periods
Management practices include: − Overcrowding
− Mixing of different age groups DIPPING
− Dampy (wet) floor It is the practice where a chemical solution
− High temperature in pens (disinfectant) is prepared and placed at the entrance
− Anaemia so that visitors as well as farm animals dip their feet
− Boredom of the animal. before entering the farm house.
− Continuous feeding of animals with unbalanced
Importance (advantages) of dipping
rations.
− Lack of ventilation − It controls ectoparasites on the farm animals.
− High light intensity − It helps to improve the growth of animals.
− Low protein in diet. − It improves the health of animals.
− Starvation or hunger
DOCKING
How to reduce cannibalisms.
It involves the cutting of the tail of animals to a very
− Debeaking in birds. small size.
− Removal of victims Importance (advantages) of docking
− Removal of ring leaders
− It improves on the appearance of the animals (it
DECOMBING (DUBBING) makes the animal look nice and attractive).
− It makes mating easier and quicker in female
It is the removal of the comb of a bird.
animals.
NOTE: Dubbing may also be used to refer to removal
of the comb and wattle. VACCINATION

Importance (advantages) of decombing It is the process of introduction of dead or weakened

pathogens to stimulate the immune system to produce
− It prevents the bird from being disturbed by flies. appropriate antibodies.
− It helps the fowl to grow fat.
Importance (advantages) of vaccination
− It reduces microbial infection of the comb.
− It protects the animal from getting diseases.
DEWORMING AND DRENCHING
− It helps reduce the spread of diseases.
Deworming
DEHORNING
Deworming is the management practice where
recommended drugs are given to animals at specific It is the process of removing the horns from the
times to kill worms. animals that are not polled.

Drenching Importance (advantages) of dehorning

Drenching is the process of pouring a liquid drug − It prevents animals from hurting each other.
down the throat of animals to kill internal parasites − It makes it easy to handle animals.
and worms. − It reduces danger of the farmer or attendant being
hurt by the animals.
Importance (advantages) of deworming and
drenching − It gives the animals more space and room to
move about.
− To get rid of all forms of worms. − Enhance easier transportation of animals.
− To ensure proper development of animals. − Dehorned animals feed in relative comfort.
− It improves the health of animals.
− It improves the food intake of animals. Methods of dehorning
− It relieves the animal from parasites. − By sawing off horns.
− It eliminates fever and vomiting which results − By burning off the horn buds (disbudding)
from worm infestation. especially in young animals.
− It improves the quality of meat. − By using hot iron dehorners
− By using electric dehorners Types of castration
− By using dehorning tube
− Open or bloody castration (knife or surgical
− By using sodium sticks method)
− By using dehorning pastes
− Closed or bloodless castration
Equipment that can be used for dehorning are: Open or bloody castration
− hot iron dehorners Open or bloody castration involves the surgical
− electric dehorners operation in which the testes are removed completely.
− dehorning tube
Disadvantages of opened castration.
− sodium sticks
− dehorning pastes − It involves excessive bleeding.
− saw − There is high risk of the animal being infected.
− mechanical dehorning chippers − It is very complicated.

Importance of horns in animals Closed castration

− It is used to drive away flies. Closed castration aims at avoidance of cutting open
− It beautifies the animal. the scrotum.
− Animals use their horns as defense against Methods of closed castration.
predators.
− It helps the animal to float when swimming or 1. The Ring or elastrator method: in this method, a
drowning. circular tight rubber band (elastrator) is hanged
around the neck of the scrotum to gradually cut off
− In work animals, horns serve as a point of
the scrotum.
attachment for the yoke.
2. Burdizzo method: this method uses burdizzo to
CASTRATION. crush the spermatic cord of the animal being
It is the removal of the testes or breaking (crushing) castrated. There is no open wound.
of the spermatic cord of a male animal making it NB: The burdizzo is a plier-like instrument that is
sexually unproductive. used for crushing the spermatic cord of the animal
It is the removal of the testes or breaking (crushing) being castrated.
of the spermatic cord of a male animal not needed for 3. Injection method: This method uses female
breeding. hormones to feminize the male animal.
Castration makes the male animal incapable of IDENTIFICATION/MARKING
producing sperms for the purpose of reproduction.
It involves putting sign or marks on the body of the
Importance (advantages) of of castration. animal for easy identification (recognition) and
− It makes the animal gentle and easy to managed. tracking.
− It helps the animal grow at faster rate (it facilitate Importance (advantages) of identification.
growth).
− For easy identification.
− It prevents the spread of venereal diseases or
sexually transmitted diseases. − To prevent animal theft.
− It removes unwanted (offensive) odour from − It enhances record keeping.
castrated animals (castrates) − It facilitates the carrying out of management
− Meat of castrated animals is tender. practices like vaccination and deworming (It
makes it easy to identify dewormed or vaccinated
− It improves flavour of the meat.
animals)
− It prevents inbreeding.
− Easy routine husbandry record keeping
− It eliminates indiscriminate mating.
− It makes it easy to distinguish between dairy
− It prevents unwanted pregnancies.
cattle and beef cattle.
− It makes it easy to differentiate sick or It refers to putting the female animal intended for
unproductive animals from healthy ones breeding (mating) on a high nutritive diet before and
after breeding (mating)
Methods of identification/marking
Importance (advantages) of flushing.
1. Tattooing: involves the use of special instruments
to make marks (numbers or letters) on the farm − It increases rate of ovulation.
animal for identification. It involves piercing outline − It ensures successful fertilization and
of desired marks (numbers or letters) on the skin and implantation.
then incorporating a pigment of ink. − It improves weight gain of mother.
2. Branding: involves the use of chemicals or hot STEAMING UP.
iron with desired marking to burn off the skin of the
animal which becomes permanent. It refers to putting a late pregnant animal on a high
nutritive diet before parturition (child birth)
3. Ear tagging: in this method tags or labels with
identification are fixed on the ears of the animals. Or Importance (advantages) of steaming up

It involves the use of special ear tags with − It improves lactation.

identification numbers clipped into the ear of the − It increases the female animal and offspring
animal using a special appliance. Or against disease.
It involves placing identifiable objects on the ears of − It facilitates delivery and avoids still birth.
animals. − It fattens the female animal to support he weight
during parturition.
NB: the ear tag can be metallic or plastic.
Weaning.
4. Ear notching: it involves cutting a unique design
normally V shape along the borders of the ear by Weaning is the act of separating the young animal
using blades or scissors. from their mother to prevent suckling.
5. Leg tagging: A plastic or metallic tag with Importance (advantages) of weaning.
identification is clipped to legs of the animal.
− It encourages the young to feed on solid food
Characteristics of good identification method. − It prepares the mother to be on heat in time (it
− It must be visible and readable to people at a facilitate early oestrus cycle)
distance. − Young one grow faster
− It must not lower the economic value of the − In cows, it reduces incidence of mastitis in the
animal. mother.
− It must provide some information. − Early weaning could be done when mother is
− It must be relatively permanent. sick.
− It must establish ownership. NUTRITION IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION
(FEEDS AND FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS).
SALT LICKING/MINERAL LICKING
Terms in feeding of farm animals.
It involves the preparation of solution of salt or
minerals for the animal to lick to supplement mineral Ration.
requirement.
A ration is the amount of total feed provided or
Importance (advantages) of mineral licking. served to one animal in a day.
It supplements mineral requirements of the animals. Ration is the daily allocation of food to an animal.
FLUSHING. Production ration
It refers to providing quality feed to increase Production ration is the amount of food needed by an
productive performance of the female animal. animal to enable it grow, work, reproduce or produce
milk.
Maintenance ration. Common legumes are: cowpea, Calopo
Maintenance ration is the amount of food needed to Zero grazing
prevent increases or decreases in live weight of the
It involves cutting and carrying grasses from the field
animal.
to the pens of the animal without allowing the
Maintenance ration is the amount of food that will animals to graze directly on the field.
just be enough to maintain supplies of energy.
Advantages of zero grazing.
Balanced ration (Balanced diet)
− Feed is not contaminated by animal droppings.
Balanced ration is a ration (diet) which contains all − There is no destruction of the grass on the field.
the necessary nutrients in their right proportion − Feed obtained can be stored.
(amount) for healthy growth
Disadvantages of zero grazing.
Importance of balanced ration (diet).
− It is labour intensive.
− It helps in proper growth.
− It is expensive.
− To prevent illness
− Pasture land is denied of animal manure.
− To prevent nutritional based diseases (deficiency
diseases). Hay and silage.
− It improves efficiency of feed conversion into
animal products. Hay
Hay is dry forage conserved for use by livestock in
Starter ration.
future date. OR
Starter ration is a formulated feed that is fed to an
Hay is a dehydrated forage material.
animal right from birth.
Hay is prepared in dry season when there is enough
Grower ration
sunlight.
Grower ration is the food that is fed to an animal to
Hay crops include grasses, legumes, maize, and
prepare them to grow.
sorghum.
Fattening ration.
Preparation of hay.
Grower ration is the food that is fed to an animal to
− Forage is harvested by machines or manually.
improve their weight gain.
− Weeds and foreign materials are removed.
Concentrates. − It dried (cured) in sunlight or using oven to
Concentrates are feed which are low in fibre but high dehydrate forage.
in digestible nutrients. − It should be constantly turned to ensure faster and
uniform drying.
Grazing − Well cured hay is gathered, baled and stored in
It is the act of animals feeding on grasses or herbs sacks.
established on the field.
Characteristics of a well prepared or good quality
Browsing. hay.
It is the act of animals feeding on cut forages or − Brown or slightly green in colour.
shrubs. − Less fibrous and easily digested.
PASTURE − Low moisture content.
− It can be stored for long period without
Pasture is an area with well-established grasses or deteriorating.
legume for the purpose of grazing by animals.
− Free from weeds and foreign materials.
Common grasses are: Elephant grass, Guinea grass, − Must not have mould.
Gamba grass, giant star grass, carpet grass, Bahama − Must be leafy.
grass, buffel grass
Silage. NB: Pasture mating, pen mating and hand mating are
all natural mating.
Silage is fresh green forage preserved by partial
fermentation. They are mostly grasses and legumes. Pasture mating
Advantage of silage over hay. It is the natural mating of male and female animals
while grazing on pasture. It is common in extensive
− Silage retains higher proportion of plant nutrient. and semi-intensive systems.
− Silage is a better source of proteins and vitamins
− There is less wastage from silage because whole Pen mating.
plant is eaten. It is the natural mating of male and female animals
while in the pen.
Disadvantage of silage over hay.
In this type of mating, little number of males is kept
− Silage preparation requires special equipment. with limited number of females in the pen so that they
− Materials for silage are bulky and difficult to can mate at any time the female comes on heat.
handle.
− Silage easily goes mouldy if not properly stored Advantages of Pasture mating and Pen mating
− There is more cost to preserve silage − It is cheaper and does no require individual
attention.
Differences between silage and hay.
− The burden of farmer to carry female on heat to
Silage Hay the male is removed.
− It saves time.
It is highly acidic It is less acidic

It has strong aroma It has weak aroma Disadvantage of Pasture mating and Pen mating

It is slightly wet and It is dry, dusty and not − It is indiscriminate and uncontrolled.
green green − It results in production if undesirable offspring.
− It results in inbreeding.
It has high moisture It has low moisture
− Males tend to be overused.
content (about 70%) content (about 20%)

It has low content of It has high content of Hand mating.

vitamin D vitamin D In thus method, the female animals on heat ate sent to
a proven make for mating. It is practiced mainly
It has a laxative effect It has no laxative effect.
under intensive systems
Breeding
Advantage hand mating
Breeding is the mating of selected male and female
− Prevent indiscriminate mating.
animal in a planned manner.
− Results in production of gods and desired
Mating/ copulation/ servicing. offspring
It is the introduction (insertion) of the male penis into − Reduce the spread of disease.
the vagina of the female. − It allows for implementation of desired breeding
program.
Mating can be grouped into natural mating and
− It prevents inbreeding.
artificial mating.
− Over using of males for mating is removed.
Types of mating.
Disadvantage hand mating
− Pasture mating (flock/herd mating)
− Pen mating − It is costly and requires individual attention.
− Hand mating (Stud mating). − There is burden of farmer to carry female on heat
− Artificial insemination to the male.
− It requires a lot of time.
− There is no room for the female to exercise.
Artificial insemination. Gestation period
It is the breeding method where semen is introduced Gestation period is the time between fertilization and
into the female reproductive tract by artificial means. birth.
It is the deposition of selected and chemically treated It is the period of development of a young animal in
semen of a proven male animal into the reproductive the womb of the mother
tract of the female animal on heat by human device.
Parturition
NB: The semen of the animal is collected using an
It is the natural process of giving birth to a young
artificial vagina and a teaser animal.
calf.
Advantage
Parturition is the process by which the baby is
− Produce healthy offspring expelled from the womb through the birth canal.
− Enables farmer to select desired trait in males.
Signs shown in an animal when parturition is
− One potent male can serve many females. about to occur.
− It makes it possible for females that cannot be
mounted to reproduce − The udder swells.
− It eliminates sterility − The vulva becomes relaxed
− It prevents venereal diseases. − The belly distends and drops
− Semen can be used on large number of females. − There is frequent urination.
− It is safe and cheaper in terms of introducing new − Animal does not show sign of heat.
breeds of animals into a country. − It isolates itself from the rest
− There is alternating lying down and rising up.
Disadvantage

− It requires expert skills

− Requires costly apparatus.
− It requires a high degree of organization.

Heat period (oestrus).

It is the period in the sexual cycle of the female
animal during which it is ready to receive a male for
mating.
Signs of female animal on heat

− Animal becomes restless and aggressive.

− Discharge of slimy fluid from the vulva
− Mounting of other females
− Vulva swells and become reddish.
− Sniffing of other animals
− Loss of appetite
− It makes an unnecessary or grunting noise
− Chin resting
− It stands still without resistance for the male to
mate her.
− There is frequent urination.