Aircraft Systems Engineering

and Conceptual Design

(ME4807)

Chapter 6: Fuselage Layout

Prof Trevor Young

School of Engineering, University of Limerick
Email: [email protected]

File: ME4807/Chapter 06_5

Lecture slides for student use only. Not to be reproduced without permission.
Chapter 6: Fuselage layout

1. Introduction

 This chapter discusses fuselage layout and introduces the following

topics:
 Cockpit and crew station;
 Passenger compartment;
 Cargo;
 Fuselage external shape.
 Wing design starts with an outside geometry, and we work inwards from
this initial definition to assess structural, systems (e.g. fuel storage) and
other considerations. An initial aerodynamic profile is selected early in
the design process, dictated by the need to generate lift and reduce drag
at specific mission design points.
 Fuselage design, on the other hand, starts with an internal geometry
and we work outwards from this initial definition to assess structural,
systems and other considerations. Accommodating the payload
(passengers, cargo, etc.) and crew requires internal space and access
(for ingress/egress), which has to be defined early in the design process.

School of Engineering ME4807 / Chapter 6 2

Chapter 6: Fuselage layout

1. Introduction

 Exceptions to this principle has been explored.

Figure Lockheed “flatbed” aircraft concept (ca 1983)

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.1 Visibility and Crew Position

DEP
 Requirements for unobstructed
outside vision for the crew
have a major impact on the
layout of the crew station –
influencing the position of the
cockpit, the forward fuselage
shape and the position of
major structural elements
(around the cockpit).
 A plot of the outside vision –
measured from a theoretical
design eye point (DEP) – is
prepared early in the
preliminary design phase and
evaluated to show compliance
with the regulations or design Figure Cockpit vision requirement and
specification (Fig. 2.1). physical layout (Torenbeek [1])

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.1 Visibility and Crew Position

Figure 2.1a External vision from pilot's seat Figure 2.1b External vision for
(horizontal flight) for Part 25 aircraft military fighter aircraft [2]
(Torenbeek [1])

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.1 Visibility and Crew Position

 Over-nose vision during landing is a major design driver, which can have
a significant impact on the forward fuselage design (Fig. 2.2). (Recall the
discussion on Concorde’s droop nose in Chapter 4.)

Figure 2.2 Downward view on approach (Part 25 aircraft) (Torenbeek [1])

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.1 Visibility and Crew Position

 Example: The external view from the captain’s DEP (a defined reference
location in the cockpit) for a military/utility transporter is shown in Figure
2.3.

Figure 2.3 Cockpit layout: Transall C-160 (Roskam [3])

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.1 Visibility and Crew Position

Specific safety issues may

also influence the position of
the crew seats (Fig. 2.4).

The aeroplane must be designed

to minimise hazards to the
aeroplane due to structural
damage caused by high-energy
fragments from an uncontained
engine or rotating-machinery
failure – FAA AC 25.905-1.

Figure 2.4 Area where pilots and primary flight

controls should not be located (Roskam [3])

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.2 Crew Percentiles

 The Design Requirement (or RFP) would usually specify the range of
crew percentiles that the crew station must be designed to
accommodate.
 For example, the aircraft may be designed to accommodate the 5th to
95th percentile range or the 3rd to 97th percentile range of a standardised
set of ergonomic measurements of the human body.
 Military specifications (e.g. MIL STD-1472D and DEF-STAN 00-970) are
frequently used by manufacturers of GA aircraft, although they would
usually not accommodate the larger crew percentiles.
 Commercial transport aircraft would accommodate similar crew
percentiles as military aircraft.

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.2 Crew Percentiles

Figure Example of anthropometric data (MIL-STD-1472 D)

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.2 Crew Percentiles

Figure Example of anthropometric data (MIL-STD-1472 D)

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.3 Ergonomics

 The ergonomic layout of the cockpit includes:

 “Aesthetic” aspects of the man-machine interface (e.g. menu selection, colours
and symbols on displays).
 Physical aspects (e.g. the positioning of controls, instruments and displays, the
movement required for control actuation, and the shape and tactile feel of the
levers, knobs etc.).
 CAD packages utilize sophisticated mannequins to assess the aspects of
reach, visibility, access, control movements, etc.

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.3 Ergonomics

 Case study: example of poor ergonomic design (cockpit control knobs/

switches in GA aircraft).

Figure Socata Rallye

Carburettor Mixture
heat (fuel/air)

Same push/pull lever design

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.3 Ergonomics
 Examples of good ergonomic design: Cockpit control knobs must conform to
the general shapes (but not necessarily the exact sizes or specific
proportions) in the following figure (FAR §25.781):

Figure FAR §25.781 Figure B787 cockpit

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.4 Cockpit Lighting

 Adequate lighting of the displays and controls under all operating

conditions may result in sophisticated back-lit displays.
 Reflections and glare can also be a major problem. This is influenced by
the angle of the windshield and the design of the glare shield which
extends over the instrument panel.

Figure Piper PA28 cockpit

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2. Crew Station / Flight Deck

2.5 Crew Escape

 Requirements for crew escape of civil aircraft in the event of a crash or

ditching are detailed in the regulations.
 For aircraft with more than 20 passengers there must be one exit on
each side of the cockpit or a top hatch.
 The requirement for in-flight emergency egress of the crew of military
aircraft results in the use of ejection seats or escape modules.

Figure Crew escape Figure Ejection seat test

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.1 Cabin Layout

 The cabin arrangement of commercial aircraft is determined more by

marketing than by regulations. But there are several specific regulations
(e.g. concerning minimum seat spacing, passenger emergency egress,
toilets, cabin crew, etc.) that will influence the design of the cabin.
 Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1 provide typical data for passenger
compartments (Raymer [4]).

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.1 Cabin Layout

Figure 3.1 Passenger

compartment reference
measurements (Raymer [4])

Table 3.1 Typical passenger

compartment data (Raymer [4])

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.1 Cabin Layout

 For many commuter and executive aircraft, the sidewall of the fuselage
cuts off a portion of the outer seat's “headroom”, as shown.
 A clearance of 250 mm from the passenger’s eye position is regarded as
a minimum.

Figures Example:
Embraer 170 family

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.1 Cabin Layout

It is usual to allow a maximum of 3

seats to be served by an aisle. Doors
and entry aisles are required for
every 10–20 rows of seats.

Figure B747-100

Figure 3.2 Typical passenger seating layout for B747-100

(from old Aer Lingus timetable)
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3. Passenger Compartment

3.1 Cabin Layout

Figure Concorde

Figure 3.3 Passenger seating layout for Concorde

(from old British Airways timetable)
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3. Passenger Compartment

3.2 Emergency Exits

 The cabin layout must consider emergency egress requirements.

 For aeroplanes having a seating capacity of more than 44 passengers, it
must be shown that the maximum seating capacity [including
crewmembers] can be evacuated from the airplane … within 90 seconds
(FAR §25.803).

Figure US Airways Flight 1549: ditching

on the Hudson River (2009)
Image credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.2 Emergency Exits (FAR/CS 25)

 The regulations (FAR 25.807) stipulate the number and size of

emergency exits. These are generally grouped into 4 classes – see Fig.
3.4 for a low wing aircraft (Torenbeek [1]).
 For high wing aircraft an exit having at least the dimensions of a type III
exit should replace each over-the-wing exit of type III or IV given in the
table. Additional requirements apply to aircraft which are to be certified
for making emergency descents on water.
 There should be unobstructed access to emergency exits. The seat pitch
for seats next to the emergency exits should be increased. This
influences the total cabin length.

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.2 Emergency Exits (FAR/CS 25)

See FAR/CS 25.807 for latest requirements

Figure 3.4 Emergency exits for FAR 25 certified aircraft (Torenbeek [1])

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.2 Emergency Exits (FAR/CS 23)

 Specific requirements for FAR 23 aircraft include:

 A separate exit for the crew if the exit from the cockpit is likely to be blocked
in a minor crash.
 Exits may be windows, doors or removable panels that provide an opening
large enough to admit a 483 mm by 660 mm ellipse.
 In the case of aerobatic aircraft, exits should be designed to allow each
occupant to bail out quickly with parachutes at speeds up to the design diving
speed.
 Demonstration of the proper functioning by test is required.

 Ballistic recovery system (BRS) have

been installed on some GA aircraft.

Figure Ballistic recovery system

(BRS) test
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3. Passenger Compartment

3.3 Passenger Doors and Windows

 The following general comments are applicable to airliners:

 Generally, passenger doors are located to port while service doors are fitted to
starboard; however, some widebody aircraft permit boarding from both sides.
 For a door to qualify as an emergency exit, its dimensions should be equal to
or greater than the dimensions given in Fig. 3.4.
 One door will usually suffice for 70–80 passengers; whereas two doors will be
required for up to about 200 seats.
 Doors should preferably be 1800 mm by 900 mm in size (these dimensions
may be difficult to obtain in smaller aircraft).
 The locations of passenger and service doors depend on the overall aircraft
configuration and the access required by loading vehicles (Fig. 3.5).
 Window pitch is usually decided by structural considerations with one
window located between the fuselage formers (frames). The pitch
distance is approximately 500 mm.

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.3 Passenger Doors and Windows

Starboard: doors
typically for access for
services

Port: doors typically for

passenger access

Figure 3.5 Ground handling access on the Lockheed L-1011

(Torenbeek [1])

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.4 Services

Some general comments follow.

 Toilets are usually located at the rear or forward part of the cabin as they
form an integral part of the aircraft structure and cannot easily be moved
to suit cabin layout changes. The ratio of passenger seats per toilet is
about 20 for first class and about 50 for economy class.
 Greater flexibility is available in the design and placement of galleys,
although they are often distanced from the toilets (Fig. 3.6). Galley
volume per passenger (widebody aircraft) is about 0.02 m3 for first class
and 0.06 m3 for economy.
 Typically, one flight attendant is required for every 35 passengers;
however, this varies widely depending on the seating classes and
operator preferences

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3. Passenger Compartment

3.4 Services

Figure 3.6 Example of narrow-body aircraft galley layout (Roskam [3])

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.1 Cargo Containers

 Luggage and freight are carried on commercial jet transport aircraft in

ULD (unit load device) containers and pallets.
 ULD containers are manufactured to standard dimensions (IATA publish
ULD regulations), to ensure compatibility between different aircraft types.

Figure Container loading

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.1 Cargo Containers

 LD1, LD2 and LD3 containers (Fig. 4.1a) are designated as half width
containers – two containers can be installed at each location in the
cargo compartment, below the passenger floor.

Figure: Two LD3 containers installed below

Figure 4.1a LD3 container
floor on a wide body (A300) aircraft
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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.1 Cargo Containers

 LD6, LD8, LD11 are full width containers and occupy the entire width of
the cargo compartment (Fig. 4.1b).
 One LD6 or LD11 container will occupy the space of two LD3s, and one
LD8 container will take space of two LD2s.

Figure 4.1b LD6 container

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.1 Cargo Containers

 The LD3 container is extensively used around the world as it is

compatible with most widebody (twin aisle) aircraft types (e.g. A300,
A330, A340, A350, A380, B777, B787, MD-11, Il-86, Il-96). Two LD3
containers or one LD 6 (or LD11) can be loaded at each station in the
cargo compartment.
 The B767 uses the smaller LD2 and LD8 containers as the aircraft has a
smaller diameter (this creates difficulties for operators in transferring
containers from one aircraft type to another).
 Certain narrow-body (single aisle) aircraft, such as the A320 family, can
accommodate a single reduced-height LD3 container (LD3-45W) at each
station.
 Operators frequently mix pallets with containers. Freight is placed on top
of the pallet and held down with netting. Military transport aircraft also
use flat pallets to pre-load cargo; loading on many aircraft types can be
performed directly from a truck bed.

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.2 Payload Weights

 The design requirement will typically specify the payload requirements.

FAA passenger weight data (for dispatch) can be used as a guide for new
aircraft projects. Note that the standard weights, as given by the FAA,
have been progressively revised upwards, as the average weight of
passengers has crept up over the past few decades (and will be revised
again, if required).

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.3 Freight Holds (Passenger Aircraft)

 It is desirable that belly freight holds have a height of greater than 900
mm. This implies that aircraft with a diameter of less than 3 m will likely
have the freight located above the floor.
 To control the centre of gravity it may be advantageous to have the
freight holds both ahead of and behind the wing.
 The freight hold on pressurised airliners is also pressurised. Figure 4.2 is
a schematic depicting the fuselage and cargo hold dimensions for two jet
aircraft types.

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.3 Freight Holds (Passenger Aircraft)

Figure 4.2 Fuselage and cargo hold dimensions for jet transport aircraft (Roskam [3])
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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.4 Cargo/Freight Aircraft

 Dedicated freighter aircraft prioritise, in their design, the ability to safely

house cargo (e.g. on pallets or in ULD containers within the fuselage)
and the loading and unloading of the cargo.
 Loading from the front or rear (or both) ends of the fuselage is usually a
key design requirement.

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.4 Cargo/Freight Aircraft

B747

AN 124

Figure Examples of cargo aircraft

(front loading)

Beluga XL

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.4 Cargo/Freight Aircraft

C160 Transall
Image credit: Wikipedia

AN 124-100
Image credit: https://afn.ajot.com

Figure Examples of cargo aircraft

(rear loading) C23 Sherpa
Image credit: www.militaryfactory.com

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.4 Cargo/Freight Aircraft

 The majority of commercial cargo aircraft operating today, however, are

derivatives or conversions of passenger transport aircraft. The
conversion of passenger transport aircraft, which have seen operational
service, to a cargo role is a common practice in the industry.
 Many different aircraft types have been modified in this way by
reinforcing the floor and installing one or more cargo deck door (on the
side of the fuselage).

Figure B767-300 freighter

conversion (Bedek)

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4. Payload and Cargo Provisions

4.4 Cargo/Freight Aircraft

 Aircraft manufacturers have also produced combi versions of passenger

aircraft. These aircraft derivatives have a partition installed in the
passenger cabin.
 A dedicated cargo hold is located on the same level as the passenger
seating, with a special provision for loading and unloading of the cargo.

Figure B737 Combi concept

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5. External Shape Definition

5.1 Nose Section

 Some general comments on the nose sections of passenger and freight

aircraft follow:
 The fineness ratio (length/diameter) is typically between 1.5 and 2.0. A low
value is used on nose-loading freighters to reduce the weight of the door.
 The nose section must be compatible with the requirements for radar
installation.
 The nose wheel may be located in the area ahead of the forward pressure
bulkhead.

fineness ratio = y/d d

y

Figure B787-9 Forward fuselage

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5. External Shape Definition

5.2 Mid Section

 In the case of passenger and freight aircraft the possibilities to vary the
shape of the aircraft are limited by practical considerations of the
payload.
 For passenger aircraft the shape is largely dictated by the passenger seating,
and the fuselage outer profile follows from the definition of the internal layout.
 In the design of fighters there is considerable scope for tailoring the external
shape for reasons of performance or function.
 Cylindrical mid-sections (of circular or elliptical cross section) are used
on passenger aircraft for structural simplicity, flexibility of seating and
the possibility of stretching the fuselage for future variants (Fig. 5.1).

Mid section

Figure B757-200
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5. External Shape Definition

5.2 Mid Section

Figure 5.1 Typical passenger

aircraft fuselage cross-sections
(Roskam [3])

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5. External Shape Definition

5.2 Mid Section

Figure Airbus A320 family

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5. External Shape Definition

5.2 Mid Section

 For aircraft operating in the high subsonic and supersonic regions, wave
drag becomes critical. Area ruling can be applied (to reduce wave drag)
by locally reducing the cross-sectional area of the mid-fuselage (see
Chapter 14).
 For commercial passenger aircraft such aerodynamic optimisation,
however, is undesirable as it negatively impacts the seating
arrangement. It is interesting to note that both the Concorde and the Tu-
144 had cylindrical mid-sections (constant cross section).

Figure Concorde Figure Tupolev Tu-144

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5. External Shape Definition

5.3 Aft Section / Afterbody

 Some general comments on the aft sections of passenger and freight

aircraft follow:

A bluff afterbody shape has

high drag and is avoided. Fig.
5.2 shows the relative drag
reduction that occurs with an
increase in fineness ratio.
A value of between 2.5 to 3.0
is typical and will prevent
large regions of boundary
layer separation.
For ease of production, part
of the aft fuselage section is
often conical in shape.

Figure 5.2 Afterbody drag (Torenbeek [1])

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5. External Shape Definition

5.3 Aft Section / Afterbody

During takeoff and landing the aft section

must clear the ground under normal
operations. This may necessitate the
fuselage tail to be swept up. For moderate
angles of up-sweep (to ~12°) the
aerodynamic implications are small.
On some freighters the angle that the tail is
swept up to accommodate the rear loading Figure Example: C130 Hercules
door is considerable (~25°).
Vortex formation on the aft fuselage
increases drag in cruise and may result in
unstable shedding of the vortices causing
lateral oscillations, particularly at low speed
(Fig. 5.3). Sharp edged devices (e.g. vortex
generators or strakes) have been used to
counter this problem by producing stable Figure 5.3 Vortex shedding on an
vortices. up-swept aft fuselage (Torenbeek [1])

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5. External Shape Definition

5.4 Aft Section / Afterbody

Base area (i.e. an “unfaired”

rearward facing blunt area)
causes “base” drag and
should be avoided, if at all
possible (Fig. 5.4).

Figure 5.4 Drag increase on an up-swept aft

fuselage (Torenbeek [1])

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Chapter 6: Fuselage layout

Trevor Young
Associate Professor Aeronautical Engineering
School of Engineering, University of Limerick
Email: [email protected]

Lecture slides for student use only. Not to be reproduced without permission.

School of Engineering ME4807 / Chapter 6 50