GREENFIELD UNIVERSITY KADUNA

COURSE CODE:
BIO 101
(GENERAL BIOLOGY)

LECTURE NOTE

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 1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
A. Introduction

Biology is the science that studies life. What exactly is life? This may sound like a silly
question with an obvious answer, but it is not easy to define life. For example, a branch of
biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living
entities but lack others. It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause
diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life.

From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with four questions: What are the shared
properties that make something “alive”? How do those various living things function? When
faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of
organisms so that we can better understand them? And, finally—what biologists ultimately
seek to understand—how did this diversity arise and how is it continuing? As new organisms
are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions.

B. Characteristics of Living Things

All living things manifest certain characteristics. They demonstrate the ability to use energy
from the environment for survival and carry out their various activities. For
continuous survival, protoplasm must be added. Waste must be gotten rid of. New ones or
offspring must be produced. Nine characteristics distinguish living things from non-living
things. These are:
1. Ingestion
2. Assimilation
3. Growth
4. Reproduction
5. Waste elimination
6. Responsiveness
7. Co-ordination
8. Regulation
9. Movement

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 i. Ingestion

All living things feed one way or the other. They take in food for many reasons, chief among
these is for energy purposes. The organism needs energy to carry out all the other activities
associated with living things. There are two kinds of living things, plant and animal. Plant
manufacture food, i.e. basic materials are secured, light energy is utilised to convert the
materials to complex nutritive substances, which are used as food. Animals depend on plants
for food.

ii. Assimilation

Living organisms utilise food (nutrients) to maintain life. This is done by a process called
metabolism. It is a chemical process involved in keeping the life of the organism going. There
are two aspects of metabolism,
(a) anabolism (substances are synthesised from simpler substances, e.g. photosynthesis…
(b) catabolism (the breakdown of the substances).

iii. Growth

Growth simply put is increase of materials in an organism. This is done in stages, a unicellular
organism increases its protoplasm while a multicellular organism increases the number of
cells, and every living cell is made up of protoplasm.

iv. Excretion

All living organisms get rid of unwanted products (waste). As a result of cell activities in the
protoplasm, many materials formed (by-products) which are not beneficial to the cell and if
left will cause harm to the cell.

v. Reproduction

All cells of living organisms multiply or divide. This multiplication or division enables the
organism to perpetuate their species. Reproduction can take different forms. (a) fission into
two or more parts, (b) fusion of protoplasmic material from two sources (i.e. male and female
gametes) resulting in an offspring.

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 vi. Responsiveness

Living organisms respond to forces or anything external, even internal, i.e. any stimuli in the
environment, it could be change of weather. Organisms do this by many methods. You will
learn some of these in detail as your study progresses.

vii. Co-ordination and Regulation

Chemical and physical changes in the organism are involved in all these activities. There is a
general process of co-ordination and regulation by enzymes to keep the system of the
organisms balanced and unified. Materials are exchanged, energy is exchanged between the
organism and its environment.

C. Biological Taxonomy (CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS)

Classification in Biology is the platform upon which Natural and Medical Sciences such as
Microbiology, Zoology, Botany, Physiology, Anatomy, Pharmacology, Pharmacognosy,
Molecular Biology etc., are built. It is the most diversified field in the sciences and its
relevance in human existence cannot be overemphasized. Biology is defined as the study of
life which began with very primitive forms of life that were not visible to the human eye, such
as the mycoplasm, viruses to more complex forms of life. The need to classify these
organisms for easy identification and understanding of their various characteristics became
very necessary as modified species are increasingly being discovered on a regular basis, a
consequence of mutations from environmental hazards and ecological changes. These
characteristic modifications may include size, shape, structure, function or even the habitat of
the organism. Whatever their peculiarities, organisms in the same phyla shared closer
similarities in their characteristics than other organisms in that kingdom. The various
kingdoms include; Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae
and Kingdom Animalia, all of which have one thing in common- LIFE, hence are called
living things.

A. Kingdom Plantae

The plants are multicellular, multi-tissued, autotrophic organisms with cellulose-containing

cell walls. The vascular plants possess roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive organs.
Their life cycle shows an alternation of generations between haploid (gametophyte) and

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diploid (sporophyte) generations. Plants are either metaphyta or embryophta (i.e. nonvascular
or vascular plants). All member of this family comprises of true nucleus and advanced
membrane bound organelles. They are quite different from animals. The Kingdom Plantae
contains about 300,000 different species of plants. Among the five kingdoms, Kingdom
plantae is very important, as they are the source of food for all other living creatures present
on planet earth. Kingdom Plantae Characteristics
• Most of the plants are eukaryotic and chlorophyll containing organisms.
• Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of cellulose.
• They have an ability to grow by cell division.
• In life cycle of plant cells, the interchanges occur from the embryos and are supported
by other tissues and are self-producers.
• Plants have both organs and organ systems.
• They obtain their energy from sun through photosynthesis.
• Plants reproduce both by sexual and asexual.
• Plants develop a self-defence mechanism to protect them from being destroyed by
animals, fungi and other plants.
• Organisms within Kingdom Plantae are multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic.
• They lack motility.
• This kingdom includes all types plants like herbs, shrubs, trees, creepers, climbers,
aquatic plants, desert plants, mountain plants, flowering and non-flowering plants, etc.

Classification

The Kingdom Plantae contains about a billion types of plants species and it was very difficult
to identify different types of species. Many biologists contributed in classifying different
plants species in to their separate kingdom. Based on their classification, plants are divided
into the four main groups. These classifications were based on:
• The presence of vascular tissue.
• The absence of vascular tissue.
• The presence of seeds.
• The absence of seeds.
Vascular tissue and the seeds are mainly considered as they play a vital role in:
• Vascular tissue helps in transporting substances (water, minerals and sugars)
throughout the plant.

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• Seeds are structures, which contains an embryo that helps in storing food.

Kingdom Plantae Classification

Phylum Thallophyta
• All the plants that lack a well-differentiated body structure belong to this group.
• Thallophytes are commonly known as algae.
• The majority of them are aquatic.
• Some examples are Spirogyra, Chara, Ulothrix, etc.

Phylum Bryophyta
• They are non-vascular land plants, which do not contain any conducting tissues and are
often referred to as bryophytes.
• These plants are small, grow close to the ground and include mosses and liverworts.
• They are very small in structure and are considered as important members of our
ecosystem.
• The reproduction process is carried in their spores. They are non-flowering plant and
are found mainly growing on the ground, on other plants and on rocks.
• They play a vital role in preventing soil erosion.
• Phylum bryophyta e.g.: Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.

Phylum: Pteridophyta
• They are seedless vascular plants, i.e. contains vascular tissues but do not produce
seeds.
• They are involved in transportation of fluids.
• The reproductive process is carried out by spores.
• Phylum pteridophytae e.g. horsetails, ferns and club mosses.

B. Kingdom: Animalia

The animals are multicellular, multi-tissue, heterotrophic organisms whose cells are not
surrounded by cell walls. Animals generally are independently motile, which has led to the
development of organ and tissue systems. The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word
animalis which means 'having breath'. Kingdom Animalia is characterized by eukaryotic and
heterotrophic organisms. They are multicellular and lack cell wall. They depend directly or
indirectly on plants for their food. Food is ingested and digested in their internal cavity and

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food reserves are stored as glycogen or fat. Nutrition is holozoic, i.e., by ingestion of food.
Animals follow a definite growth pattern; the adults have a definite shape and size. Higher
forms of animals exhibit well developed sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of the
organisms are capable of locomotion. Reproduction is by copulation of male and female
which is followed by development in embryonic stages.

General characteristics of the Kingdom Animalia are as follows:

• Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.
• They have multiple cells with mitochondria and they depend on other organisms for
food.
• Habitat - Most of the animals inhabit seas, fewer are seen in fresh water and even
fewer on land.
• There are around 9 to 10 million animal species that inhabit the earth. Only 800,000
species are identified.
• Biologists recognize 36 phyla in the animal kingdom.
• Size - The sizes of animals range from a few celled organisms like the mesozoans to
animals weighing many tons like the blue whale.
• Animal bodies - Bodies of animals are made of cells organized into tissues which
perform specific functions. In most animal tissues are organized into complex organs,
which form organ systems.
• Cell structure - The animal cell contains organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgi complex, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, vacuoles, centrioles,
cytoskeleton.
• Animals are made up of many organ systems, that aid in performing specific functions
that are necessary for the survival of the organism.
• Organ systems are skeletal system, muscular system, digestive system, respiratory
system, circulatory system, excretory system, reproductive system, immune system
and the endocrine system.
• Body symmetry - Most of the animals are bilaterally symmetrical, while primitive
animals are asymmetrical and cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical.
• Locomotion - Most animals have the ability to move, they show rapid movement when
compared to plants and other organisms.

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• Respiration - It is a gaseous exchange of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon
dioxide. This process takes place in organs of respiration like the lungs, gills, book
gills and book lungs and some animals skin are also used for respiration.
• Digestion - Animals ingest food, and digestion takes place in the internal cavity like
the digestive system in animals, in primitive animal’s vacuoles are for digestion.
• Nervous system - Sensory mechanism and the coordination of the organ systems is
carried on by the nervous system. In animals the nervous system comprises of nerve
ganglions, or brain, spinal cords and nerves.
• Circulatory system - The distribution of nutrients, exchange of gases and removal of
wastes takes place in the circulatory system. This system comprises of the heart, blood
vessels and the blood.
• Excretory system - Removal of wastes from kidneys.
• Skeletal system - support and protection is provided by the skeletal system.
• Reproductive system - Most animals reproduce sexually, by the fusion of haploid cells
like the eggs and the sperms.
• Glands of the endocrine system help in control and coordination of the body system.

Kingdom Animalia has approximately 36 sub-divisions known as 'phyla'. Each phyla share
particular properties structurally and functionally which together separate it from other phyla.

C. Kingdom Protista

The Protists are predominantly unicellular, microscopic, nonvascular organisms that do not
generally form tissues. Exhibiting all modes of nutrition, protists are frequently motile
organisms, primarily using flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia. They are either animal-like
protozoans or plant-like protists. All single celled organisms are placed under Kingdom
Protista. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom
forms a link between other kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi. Protists represent an
important step in early evolution. The first protists evolved probably 1.7 billion years ago.
Members of Protista are primarily aquatic in nature. It is a very large group comprising of at
least 16 phyla. Many protists like algae are the primary producers in the aquatic ecosystem.
Some protists are responsible for serious human diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness.
Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Protists are unicellular, some are
colonial or multicellular, they do not have specialized tissue organization. The simple cellular
organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes. The cell body of the protists

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have a nucleus which is well defined and membrane bound organelles. Some have flagella or
cilia for locomotion. Reproduction in protists is both asexual and sexual. They live in any
environment that contains water.

General characteristics of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

• They are simple eukaryotic organisms.
• Most of the organisms are unicellular, some are colonial and some are multicellular
like algae.
• Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and
plants.
• These organisms are eukaryotic, since they have a membrane bound nucleus and
endomembrane systems.
• They have mitochondria for cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for
photosynthesis.
• Nuclei of protists contain multiple DNA strand and the number of nucleotides are
significantly less complex than eukaryotes.
• Movement is often by flagella or cilia.
• Protists are multicellular organisms that are not a plant, animal or fungus.
• Respiration - cellular respiration is primarily aerobic process, but some living in mud
below ponds or in digestive tracts of animals where there are strict facultative
anaerobes.
• Nutrition – is by both heterotrophic and autotrophic.
• Flagellates are filter feeding, some protists feed by the process of endocytosis
(formation of food vacuole by engulfing a bacteria and extending their cell
membrane).
• Reproduction - some species have complex life cycle involving multiple organisms.
Example: Plasmodium. Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.
• They can reproduce by mitosis and some are capable of meiosis for sexual
reproduction.
• They form cysts in adverse conditions.
• Some protists are pathogens of both animals and plants. Example: Plasmodium
falciparum causes malaria in humans.
• Protists are major component of plankton.

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Kingdom Protista Classification

Kingdom Protista are categorized into two taxons:

Protozoans - animal-like single-celled organisms.

Algae - plant-like single or multi-celled organisms.

NB: some biologists classify microscopic, unicellular algae as protists and multicellular forms
as plants. Other biologists classify all algae plants (thallophyta) except blue-green algae,
which are monerans

Animal-like Protists - PROTOZOANS

Protists that have resemblance to animals are known as protozoans. They live in moist and
watery environments. The characteristics similar to animals are - their ability to move and
their inability to produce their own food (heterotrophs). They differ from animals by being
unicellular while animals are multicellular.

Protozoans are classified based on their mode of movement, into four categories:
Sacordinians - move using pseudopod.
Zooflagellates - move using flagella.
Ciliaphorans - move using cilia.
Sporozoans - forms spores.

Phylum Sarcodina - The movement in sarcodinians is by extending lobes of cytoplasm

known as pseudopodia. The pseudopodium is used for movement and feeding. During the
formation of the pseudopodia the cytoplasm streams into the lobe causing the lobe to 'ooze'
and grow. Because of this the peudopodians have a 'blob like appearance. Example: Amoeba
spp, Foraminiferans spp Amoeba sarcodinat common phyla classified under traditional
biological methodology.

D. Kingdom Monera

Monerans are considered as the most primitive group of organisms consisting of bacteria and
blue-green algae, which are mostly prokaryotic (i.e. organisms without membrane bound
organelles). Recent technics in biochemistry reveals a certain group, Archaebacteria, which
are eukaryotic. Monerans are generally, free-living unicellular organisms that reproduce by

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fission. Their genetic material is concentrated in a non-membrane-bound nuclear area.
Motility in bacteria is by a flagellar structure that is different from the eukaryotic flagellum.
Most bacteria have an envelope that contains a unique cell wall, peptidoglycan, the chemical
nature of which imparts a special staining property that is taxonomically significant (i.e.,
gram-positive, gram-negative, acid-fast). Monerans are most abundant of all organisms, due to
their versatility of their habitat. It is estimated that a single drop of water contains 50 billion
bacteria. The Kingdom Monera includes organisms that are single-celled known as bacteria.
The microorganisms in Kingdom Monera are considered as the most ancient living forms on
earth. The kingdom is divided into two groups Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. All the
organisms of this kingdom are prokaryotes. These cells do not have nuclear membrane, the
chromosome is single and circular, they also lack membrane bound cellular organelles. This
kingdom includes bacteria, cyanobacteria, mycoplasma etc. They are unicellular organisms
and do not have specific mode of nutrition. They can be either aerobic or anaerobic. Cell
organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria are absent. Reproduction is by spore
formation and binary fission.

Kingdom Monera Characteristics

General characteristics of the kingdom Monera are as follows:
• They are primitive organisms.
• All organisms of the kingdom are prokaryotes.
• They are present in both living and non-living environment.
• They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot springs, acidic
soils etc.
• They are unicellular organisms.
• Membrane bound nucleus is absent.
• DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism referred
as nucleoid.
• A rigid cell wall is present.
• Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are absent.
• Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean
floor, in deserts and on or inside the body of plants and animals.
• Nutrition - autotrophs - can produce their own food. Heterotrophs - depend on others
for food, Saprophytes - feed on dead and decaying matter. Parasitic - live on other host
cells for survival and cause. Symbiotic - in mutual relation with other organisms,

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 Commensalism - it is where one organism is benefited and the other is not affected.
Mutualism - where both the organisms are benefited.
• Respiration - respiration in these organisms vary, they may be obligate aerobes - the
organisms must have oxygen for survival. Obligate anaerobes - the organisms cannot
survive in the presence of oxygen. Facultative anaerobes - these organisms can survive
with or without oxygen.
• Circulation - is through diffusion.
• Movement - is with the help of flagella.
• Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction
is by binary fission, while sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and
transduction.

[Link] Fungi or Mycota

The fungi, comprising of nonvascular organisms, exhibit an osmotrophic type of heterotrophic

nutrition. Although the mycelium may be complex, they also exhibit only simple tissue
differentiation, if any at all. Their cell walls usually contain chitin, and they commonly release
spores during reproduction.

Fungi show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms
and they obtain their nutrients by absorption. The cell wall of fungi is mostly made up of
carbohydrate chitin, while the cell wall in plants is made of cellulose. The carbohydrates
stored in fungi are in the form of glycogen. The 'fruit' body of fungus is only seen, while the
living body of the fungus is a mycelium and it is made up of tiny filaments called hyphae. The
mycelium is hidden. Nutrition in fungi is by absorbing nutrients from the organic material in
which they live. Fungi do not have stomach; they digest their food before it passes through the
cell wall into the hyphae. The hyphae secret enzymes and acids that break down the organic
material into simple compounds.

General characteristics of fungi are as follows:

• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.
• They are non-vascular organisms.
• They reproduce by means of spores.
• Depending on the specie and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be
produced.

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• They are typically non-motile.
• Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.
• The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic
threads called hyphae.
• The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall is
composed of chitin.
• Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.
• Fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to accomplish this the fungi
produce exoenzymes.
• Fungi store their food as starch.
• Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
• The nuclei of the fungi is very small.
• During mitosis the nuclear envelope is not dissolved.
• Nutrition in fungi - they are saprophytes, or parasites or symbiotics.
• Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is referred to
as teleomorph, while asexual state is referred to as anamorph.

F. Kingdom: Fungi

Based on the type of spore case in which the spores are produced, fungi are classified into four
divisions.

Division Ascomycota: Sac Fungi

The sac-fungi produce spores in small cup-shaped sacs called asci, hence the name
ascomycota. The mature sac fungi spores are known as ascospores, they are released at the tip
of the ascus breaks open. Yeast is the most common one-celled fungi. Yeast reproduces
through asexual process called budding. The buds form at the side of the parent cell and they
pinch-off and grow into new yeast cell which is identical to the parent cell. Examples of sac-
fungi are morels, truffles, cup fungi and powdery mildews. Example: Aspergillus, Claviceps,
Neurospora. Yeast Cell Ascomycota

Division Basidiomycota: Club Fungi

Basidiomycota includes the mushrooms, puff-balls, smuts, rusts and toadstools. The spores are
borne on a club-shaped spore case called basidium. In mushrooms the basidia are lined at the

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gills under the cap. Huge numbers of spores are produced by the club fungi. In fact, an
average sized mushroom produces over 16 billion spores. These spores rarely germinate or
mature. Example: Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).

Division Zygomycota: Zygote forming Fungi

These fungi are usually found on cheese, bread, and other decaying food. They are zygote
forming fungi, hence the name zygomycota. The spores are produced in round-shaped case
called sporangium. The grayish fuzz seen on bread and decaying food is actually mass of
mature sporangia mold. Under the microscope they are seen as pinheads. When the
sporangium breaks open hundreds of spores are released. Example: Mucor, Rhizopus (the
bread mould) and Albugo.

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B. CELL METABOLISM
Introduction
The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions is called metabolism (from the Greek
metabole, change). Metabolism is a property of life that arises from interactions between
molecules within the orderly environment of the cell.
Concepts in cell metabolism
Cell metabolism can be pictured as the total of the thousands of chemical reactions that occur
in a cell, arranged as intersecting metabolic pathways. A metabolic pathway refers to series
of steps of chemical reactions of a specific molecule resulting in a certain product. Each step
of the pathway begins with a specific molecule (initial substrate) and is catalyzed by a specific
enzyme until the final end-product as shown below:

Metabolic pathways are broadly divided into two: Catabolic pathways and anabolic pathways.
a) Catabolic pathways or exergonic reactions
Some metabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler
compounds. These degradative processes are called catabolic pathways, or breakdown
pathways. A major pathway of catabolism is cellular respiration, in which the sugar glucose
and other organic fuels are broken down in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and
water. Energy that was stored in the organic molecules becomes available to do work of the
cell, such as ciliary beating or membrane transport.

b) Anabolic pathways or endergonic reactions

Anabolic pathways, in contrast, consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler
ones. They are sometimes called biosynthetic pathways. An example of anabolism is the
synthesis of a protein from amino acids.

Catabolic and anabolic pathways are the “downhill” and “uphill” avenues of the metabolic
map. Energy released from the downhill reactions of catabolic pathways can be stored and
then used to drive the uphill reactions of anabolic pathways.

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These concepts can be applied to bioenergetics, the study of how energy flows through living
organisms.
Applications of laws of energy transformation (thermodynamics)

The study of the energy transformation that occurs in a collection of matter is called
thermodynamics. The matter under study is called the system and the rest of the universe or
everything outside the system is referred to as surroundings. There are two types of systems-
the isolated system (e.g. liquid in a thermos bottle, which is unable to exchange energy with
its surroundings); and the open system (e.g. organisms, in which energy and matter can be
transferred between the system and its surroundings). Two laws of thermodynamics govern
and explain energy transformations in organisms and all other collections of matter.
The first law of thermodynamics

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the energy of the universe is constant. It states
that energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The
first law is also known as the principle of conservation of energy.
By converting sunlight to chemical energy (food), a green plant acts as an energy transformer,
not an energy producer or creator.
The lion will convert the chemical energy of the organic molecules in its food to kinetic and
other forms of energy as it carries out biological processes.
The second law of thermodynamics

In the process of carrying out chemical reactions that perform various kinds of work, living
cells inevitably convert organized forms of energy to heat. A logical consequence of the loss
of this usable energy during energy transfer or transformation is that each such event makes
the universe more disordered. Scientists use a quantity called entropy as a measure of disorder,
or randomness. This is what the second law of thermodynamics states: Every energy transfer
or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
Taking a second look at our example of the lion, as it converts chemical energy to kinetic
energy, it is also increasing the disorder of its surroundings by producing heat and small
molecules such as the CO2 it exhales (products of foods broken down). It therefore follows
that the processes (especially, metabolic processes) that occur naturally and spontaneously (on
their own) have the tendency of increasing the entropy of the universe.

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Cellular respiration and catabolic pathways

One catabolic process, fermentation, is a partial breaking down of sugars and, it occurs
without the use of oxygen. However, the most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway is
aerobic respiration, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuels (as
in the cells of most eukaryotes and prokaryotes). Some prokaryotes use substances other than
the oxygen as reactants in a similar process that yields chemical energy.

Technically, the term cellular respiration has two major aspects aerobic and anaerobic. The
overall process can be summarized as follows:
Organic compounds + oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Although carbohydrates, fats and proteins can all be processed and consumed as fuel, it is
more helpful to learn the steps of cellular respiration using sugar, glucose (C6H12O6):

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP + Heat)

Summary or overview account of cellular respiration and anabolic pathways

Respiration is a cumulative function of three metabolic stages:

1) Glycolysis,

2) The citric acid/tricarboxylic acid/Kreb’s cycle and,

3) Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis.

Glycolysis, which occurs in the cytosol/cytoplasm, begins the degradation process by breaking
glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.

The citric acid cycle, which takes place within the mitochondrion matrix of eukaryotic cells,
or simply in the cytosol of prokaryotes, completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a
derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide with the release of energy in form of molecules of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The carbon dioxide produced by respiration represents
fragments of oxidized organic molecules.

Some of the steps of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are redox (reduction-oxidation)
reactions in which dehydrogenases transfer electrons from substrates (food) to ionized
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), forming reduced nicotinamide adenine

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dinucleotide (NADH), and a similar electron carrier and a co-enzyme called reduced flavine
adenine dinucleotide (FADH2).

In the third stage of respiration, the electron transport chain accepts electrons from the
breakdown products of the first two stages (most often via NADH) and passes these electrons
from one molecule of the food to another. At the end of the chain, the electrons are combined
with molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions (H+), forming water (H2O).

The energy released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion (or
prokaryotic cell) can use to make ATP. This mode of ATP synthesis is called oxidative
phosphorylation because it is powered by the redox reactions of the electron transport chain.

In eukaryotic cells, the inner membrane of the mitochondrion is the site of electron transport
and chemiosmosis, the processes that together constitute oxidative phosphorylation. In
prokaryotes, these processes take place in the plasma membrane.

Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% (34 molecules) of the ATP generated by
respiration. A smaller amount of ATP (10% or 4 molecules) is formed directly in a few
reactions of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by a mechanism called substrate-level
phosphorylation. This mode of ATP synthesis occurs, when an enzyme transfers a phosphate
group from a substrate molecule to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), rather than adding an
inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation.

Summary or overview account of photosynthesis and anabolic pathways

Photosynthesis is not a single process, but two processes, each with multiple steps. These two
stages of photosynthesis are known as the light reactions (the photo part of photosynthesis)
and the Calvin cycle (the synthesis part).

The light reactions are the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical
energy. Water is split, providing a source of electrons and protons (hydrogen ions, H +) and
giving off O2 as a by-product. These take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast.

Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of the electrons and hydrogen ions from water
to an acceptor called NADP + (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), where they
temporarily stored.

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The light reactions use solar power to reduce NADP+ to NADPH by adding a pair of electrons
along with an H+. The light reactions also generate ATP, using chemiosmosis to power the
addition of a phosphate group to ADP, a process called photophosphorylation.

The light reactions do not produce sugar; that rather happens in the second stage of
photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle.

The second stage of photosynthesis, Calvin cycle begins with the incorporation of CO 2 from
the air into organic molecules (a 5-carbon sugar named ribulose bisphosphate- abbreviated
RuBP by attaching it) already present in the chloroplast. This initial incorporation of carbon
into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation. This occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplast.

The Calvin cycle then reduces the fixed carbon to carbohydrate by addition of electrons. The
reducing power is provided by NADPH, which acquired its cargo of electron in the light
reactions.

The metabolic steps of the Calvin cycle are sometimes referred to as the dark reactions, or
light-independent reactions, because none of the steps requires light directly, the chloroplast
uses light energy to make sugar by coordinating the two stages of photosynthesis.

19
 C. CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
From the Cell Theory, the “cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living
organisms”. This means that all living organisms are made up of cells; or that cells are the
building blocks of all living organisms. You have also learnt that some organisms are made up
of only one cell which performs all the characteristic functions of life. These organisms are
known as unicellular organisms. Some other organisms are made up of several cells each
performing a particular function to sustain the organism. These are known as multicellular
organisms.
Definition of cell
From the Cell Theory, the “cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living
organisms”.
Let us now examine the following statements that represent the modern cell theory:
All known living things are made up of cells;
The cell is the structural functional unit of all living things;
All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation does not occur);
Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division;
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition;
All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
This means that all living organisms are made up of cells; or that cells are the building blocks
of all living organisms. Cells in plants and animals have some differences in structure and
organization, although common structures with same functions can be identified in both cells.
Coarse structure of a cell
Coarse structure of a cell is the structure of a cell as seen with a good optical (light)
microscope. The best light microscope can magnify up to 1,500 times the original size of the
object (specimen). However, most laboratory microscopes you will come across at this level
do not have that capacity. What is seen of a coarse structure of a typical animal cell is a
structure that is bounded on the outside by a limiting membrane, called the cell (or plasma)
membrane. The cell membrane is the cell’s contact point with its environment and through it
materials enter or leave the cell. In general, plasma membranes are semi-permeable allowing
certain molecules and particles to enter the cell while disallowing others.
Within the eukaryotic cell there is a nucleus which is bounded by a membrane the nuclear
membrane. The nucleus is the centre of control of all cellular activities. An enucleated
eukaryotic cell (i.e. one whose nucleus has been removed) can only function for a limited
20
period; an example is the human erythrocyte which has a half-life of 60 days (maximum life
span is 120 days). The rest of the cell is made up of the cytoplasm, in which are contained
various particulate organelles (membrane systems) and soluble substances. These carry out the
various chemical reactions that are typical for the cell. However, under the light microscope,
the cytoplasm may look like an amorphous (formless) body and these organelles may not be
too distinct, or clearly visible (Fig. 3.1 a).

Fig 3.1 Coarse structures of: (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.
Components that make up the cell structure of living things
There are notable differences in the cell structure of all living organisms- plant and animals;
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms; however, all exhibit similar basic plan of cell
organization. This implies that they have common basic structural components. Most
components of the structure whether from plant or animal cell will therefore be discussed in
this section. In basic plan of cell organization, the following parts of a generalized cell
together with their contents/organelles can be identified and described:
Components of a cell structure
Parts of a cell Cellular contents/organelles
1. Cell wall Middle lamella with pits

2. Plasma or Cell membrane

3. Cytoplasm a) Mitochondria
b) Golgi bodies
c) Endoplasmic recticulum
d) Ribosomes
e) Plastids

21
 f) Vacuole
4. Nucleus a) Nucleolus

b) Chromosomes

1) Cell Wall

A plant cell consists of protoplasm (cytoplasm and nucleus) representing the living parts and a
cell wall. The cell wall is a nonliving rigid structure that protects the cell. The structure
consists of middle lamella with pits. Plant cell walls are also reinforced with cellulose and
lignin materials to make them rigid. They are produced by the protoplasm during cell division
2) Plasma or cell membrane

Under the light microscope the plasma membrane is seen as a thin line. But under the electron
microscope, it is seen as being made up of three layers; two dark layers separated by a light
one. Chemical analysis and other advanced studies have revealed that the membrane has a
lipoprotein (fat, plus protein) composition.
The two dark regions of the membrane are made up mainly of protein while the light one in-
between consists of lipids. The plasma membrane, therefore, consists of a thin sandwich of
lipids between two layers of proteins. This structure of the membrane is known as the unit
membrane and it is characteristic of all cell membranes. The membrane will be discussed
more fully in the next unit.
The protein constituent of the membrane gives the cell its permeability and flexibility. There
are pores which perforate the membrane at regular intervals, while small molecules e.g.,
molecules of water, can pass through these pores, larger molecule cannot. This is one way in
which the membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell.
The protein molecules are long and complex and so can fold or unfold. In this way the
membrane can expand or contract. This could also provide a possible means of controlling or
selecting which molecules may enter or leave he cell. Such a membrane is said to be
selectively permeable (or semi-permeable). Although all membranes have the same basic unit
structure described above, the various membranes in the cell are of different thickness and
have different biochemical properties, since they contain different proteins.
3) Cytoplasmic or cystolic Particles and Organelles

22
Cytoplasm is a solution of many substances, mainly protein in water. It is a transparent
slightly viscuous fluid which fills the cell, and in which the various structures (organelles) are
suspended. In other words, the cytoplasm contains soluble enzymes, free ribosomes, and
additional systems of membranes which serve to divide the cell into a number of
compartments called organelles. Such organelles include endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, golgi apparatus, nucleus, lysosomes, ribosomes, centrioles, vacuole as well as
chloroplasts - chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthetic energy production and CO2 fixation
in eukaryotic autotrophs to produce manufactured food.
(i) Mitochondria (singular; mitochondrion)

These are found in virtually every type of cell except bacteria, blue-green algae and the red
blood cells of mammals. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double lipoprotein membrane
similar to the plasma and nuclear membranes. The inner membrane is variously folded into
projections called cristae. This provides an increased internal surface area for chemical
activities
The outer membrane is elastic; thus, the mitochondrion is able to swell or contract with
relative ease. The degree of stretching of the membrane controls the size of the substances
entering the mitochondrion. The outer and inner membranes constitute the membrane phase
while the rest of the mitochondrion is the liquid phase or the matrix.
The Mitochondria are the respiratory centers of the cell. They are concerned with the energy
problems of the cell. The matrix contains many soluble enzymes which act on metabolic fuels
such as carbohydrates, breaking them down to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) with the
release of energy. The energy thus produced is in form of a special complex molecule called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is the energy “currency” of the cell. ATP production
occurs on the inner membrane but the enzymes come from the matrix; so, both the inner
membrane and matrix are involved in ATP production.
Cells which by their function expend a lot of energy contain a large number of mitochondria
and they are to be seen highly packed in that part of the cell where the energy is required e.g.
the tail of animal spermatozoa is densely packed with mitochondria. They are also found in
great number alongside the contractible fibrils in muscles particularly in the flight muscles of
insects and at the surface of cells where active transport occurs.
(iii) Lysosomes

23
 These resemble mitochondria externally but are distinguishable by their lack of internal
cristae. The enzymes contained in them are also different from those of the mitochondria.
Lysosomal enzymes are mainly hdroxylases, and their main function is the degradation of
large molecule by the addition of water (hydro = water, lysis = break). In this way large
molecules are broken down into smaller ones like when starch is broken down into sugars.
The lysosomes also have an important role to play in the destruction of worn-out organelles
in the cell. Such old organelles are enclosed in a sac-like structure formed by a membrane and
the lysosomes pour their content of enzymes into the sac. After digestion, the products are
absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm and used for the synthesis of new organelles.
(iv) Ribosomes

We have already come across these in association with the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) and at that time we noted that they function as sites for protein synthesis.
Ribosomes may also lie free in the cytoplasm; it is for this reason they must be included in a
discussion of cytoplasmic particles. The function, however, remains are associated with ER or
they lie free in the cytoplasm. Each ribosome consists of two sub-units. The smaller sub-unit
is surmounted on the larger one. They are designated as the 30S (in bacterial) and 40S (in
animals) for the smaller units; and 70S and 80S, respectively for the large sub-units. The S is
called a Sverdberg unit (and is a function of their sedimentation rates).
(v) The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of sacs that manufactures, processes, and
transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is connected to the
double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a connection between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. ER is a system of membrane enclosed sacs and tubules in the cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum is the site where the cell manufactures the following:
 most of the membranes of the cell (plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, nuclear
envelope);
 lipids (including lipids for membranes, e.g., of the mitochondria, that are not made by the ER);
 trans-membrane proteins and secreted proteins
(i) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (S.E.R.) provides the cell an organic phase in its
membranes and unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol are synthesized here. Foreign organic
compounds are hydroxylated here to make them easier to digest.

24
 The SER represents only a small portion of the ER in most cells, e.g. serving as transport
vesicles for the transport of protein to the Golgi apparatus. However, it is a prominent
constituent of some cells. Examples:
 The cells of the adrenal cortex (which secrete steroid hormones);
 The cells of the liver (hepatocytes) where it synthesises lipids for secretion of lipoproteins.
 The sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells is SER.

(ii) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is a single membrane system covered with ribosomes
for the synthesis of proteins to be exported from the cell. The RER takes up a large proportion
of the cytoplasm of cells specialized for protein synthesis such as those cells secreting
digestive enzymes (e.g. the pancreas cell); and antibody-secreting plasma cells.
(vi) Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's chemical
products. It modifies proteins and fat built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for
export to the outside of the cell.
(vii) Microfilaments
Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These filaments are
primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton
(viii) Microtubules

These straight, hollow cylinders, composed of tubulin protein, are found throughout the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and perform a number of functions.
(ix) Plastids
Plastids are peculiar features of the cytoplasm of plant cells. They are classified as
leucoplasts depending on whether they are coloured or not. Leucoplasts are colourless
plastids in which starch is deposited. They occur in cells not usually exposed to light e.g.,
in deep-seated cells, but they may develop green coloured plastids and are of two types:
those that contain red orange or yellow pigments.
Plastids contain chlorophyll are called chloroplasts while those that contain the other
colours are termed chromoplasts. In the present discussion, we shall concentrate on
chloroplasts to which green plants owe their colour, and without which photosynthesis
(the process by which green plants manufacture carbohydrates from water and carbon
dioxide) cannot take place. The energy needed for this very important process is trapped
from the sun by the chlorophyll which is contained in chloroplasts.

25
Electron microscopic studies have revealed the chloroplasts as complex structures. On
the outside it is bounded by a double membrane and internally it is organized into a series
of lamella areas (grana) and non-lamella areas (stroma)

Within the grana the chlorophyll molecules are precisely arranged. The chlorophyll is in a
single layer and is sandwiched in-between layers of proteins, and closely associated with
lipids and carolenoids. This arrangement makes for efficiency in photosynthesis. It has been
found that anything that leads to a disturbance in the lamellar structure of a granum leads to a
reduction in the efficiency of photosynthesis.
The stroma can be visualized as the aqueous part of the chloroplast which contains dissolved
salts and enzymes. Enzymes are also part of the lamellar structure of the granum. The other
plastids mentioned earlier differ from chloroplasts in that they lack the lamellar structure of
chloroplasts.
(x) The Centrosome (Centriole)
This is a cytoplasmic particle which is more characteristic of animal than plant cells. It lies
just outside the nucleus and functions in cell division. It possesses a high degree of internal
organization. It is a cylindrical structure with a detailed structure that is similar to that of the
cilia and flagella; in fact, it is involved in the formation of cilia and flagella in certain cells.
The centriole has the same 2 + 9 tubular structure found in cilia and flagella.
(xi) Vacuoles
A vacuole is a fluid-filled space within a cell. The fluid (or cell sap) is a solution of various
salts in water. Animal cells usually contain numerous minute vacuoles while in many plant
cells a single large vacuole which takes up most of the volume of the cell is present.
Vacuoles are formed at cell surfaces by a process of pinocytosis by which the cell takes in
substance in liquid form. At points on the surface of the cell, invaginations or infoldings of the
plasma membrane occurs. These develop into flask-like structures which are then called
micropinocytic vesicles. Later the neck of the flask closes up and the vesicle is sealed off from
the exterior. It becomes entirely enclosed within the cell and moves freely in the cytoplasm; in
this condition it is known as a vacuole. The single large vacuoles which are characteristic of
mature plant cells are believed to be formed by a fusion of many small vacuoles.
The means by which larger particles are taken into the cell is called phagocytosis. This is
clearly demonstrated during the formation of good vacuoles by amoeba. It is also the means
by which white blood cells engulf bacteria and other harmful foreign particles.

26
(xi) Peroxisomes

These are microbodies of diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly
spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but
peroxisomes are the most common.
(xii) The Nucleus

This is the most prominent feature of the cell under the microscope. It is the controlling centre
of the cell, in that it provides information to the cytoplasm to kept it (the cytoplasm)
functioning for an indefinite period. A cell in which the nucleus has been removed eventually
dies. For instance, the mature red blood corpuscles (erythrocytes) of man which lack nuclei
are short-lived.
The nucleus is bounded externally by a double-layered membrane – the nuclear membrane.
The nuclear membrane has the characteristic unit membrane structure of all cellular
membranes. The outer layer of this nuclear is continuous with the membranes of the
endoplasmic recticulum. This nuclear membrane is punctuated by a series of pores, the
necleopores, which provide a route through which materials move from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm and vice versa.
When the nucleus is appropriately stained the central portion shows a network of fine thread
with coarser lumps of heavier substances. This is the chromatin. The chromatin is the
chromosomes in a diffuse state. This diffuse state of the chromosomes permits maximum
surface contact with the nuclear sap. We shall discuss the chromosomes later during cell
division. Also present in the nucleus is a dense rounded body – the nucleolus which is a
protein – rich particle; it is also very rich in RNA.
Functions of cell organelles and components
Part of cell Cell organelle or Function
component
1. Cell wall Middle lamella with pits (i) Gives shape,

(ii) Protects parts of the cell

1. Cell membrane Cell membrane Covers cellular components

27
2. Cytoplasm a) Mitochondria Power house of the cell
where all energy is
released
b) Golgi bodies
Assist in transport of new
layer of synthesized lipid
c) Endoplasmic and protein
recticulum Site of protein and lipid
synthesis and drug
metabolism
d) Ribosomes
Assist in the process of
e) Vacuoles protein synthesis
Acts as an osmoregulator
by helping to remove
excess water in cells.
f) Plastids
In plants, contain pigments
(chlorophyll) that are used
in photosynthesis; converts
glucose to starch
3. Nucleus a) Nucleolus Produces ribosomes for
protein synthesis
Contain deoxyribonucleic
b) Chromosomes
acids (DNA) or gene
Differences between plant and animal cells
Area of difference Plant cell Animal cell
Shape and covering Exhibit definite shape No definite shape
because of presence of
rigid cellulose cell wall
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm pushed towards Cytoplasm spread
edge of wall through the cell
Vacuoles Large fluid-filled central Few, small vacuoles
vacuoles
Inclusions Starch grains present Glycogen granules

28
 found
Plastids Green plastids Absent
(chloroplasts present)
Nucleus Centriole absent Centriole present

29
D. Diversity in Living Organisms

Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variety of living organisms present on a

particular region. There are about 20 lac organisms known on the Earth which differ from
one another in external form, internal structure, mode of nutrition, habitat, etc.
The warm and humid tropical regions of the Earth between the tropic of Cancer and the
tropic of Capricorn have a rich diversity of life, i.e. plants, animals, and microorganisms
and are called the region of mega biodiversity. India is one of the 12 countries which
consist of more than half of the biodiversity of the Earth.
Taxonomy - It is a branch of biology which deals with identification, nomenclature, and
classification of organisms. Carolus Linnaeus is called the father of taxonomy.
Classification
The method of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and
differences is called classification.
Importance of classification:
 It makes the study of wide variety of organisms easy and in systematic manner.
 It helps to understand how the different organisms have evolved with time.
 It helps to understand the inter-relationships among different groups of organisms.
 It forms a base for the study of other biological sciences, like biogeography.
Basis of classification:
There are the certain features or properties used for the classification of living organisms
which are known as characteristics. Organisms with same characteristics are placed in
same groups.
Classification system
1. Two kingdom classifications: Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 classified the living organisms
into two groups as plants and animals.
2. Five kingdom classification: H. Whittaker in 1959 further classified the organisms into
five kingdoms as Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae,
and kingdom Animalia.
Note - Carl Woese in 1977 further divided kingdom Monera into archaebacteria (or
Archae) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).
Hierarchy of classification

30
Linnaeus proposed a classification system by arranging organisms into taxonomic groups
at different levels according to the characteristics they have. The groups or the levels from
top to bottom are:
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum(Animals) / Division(Plants)
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genius
7. Species
Species: A species is a group of living beings which can reproduce among themselves and
keep their population alive.
Hierarchical naming of Human

The Five kingdom classification

31
The major characteristics considered for classifying all organisms into five major
kingdoms are:
1. Type of cellular organization -
a) Prokaryotic cells: These are primitive and incomplete cells without well – defined nucleus.
b) Eukaryotic cells: These are advanced and complete cells with well – defined nucleus.
2. Body organization -
a) Unicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of single cell with all activities
performed by the single cell.
b) Multicellular organisms: These are organisms made up of large number of cells with
different functions performed by different cells.
3. Mode of obtaining food -
a) Autotrophs: These are the organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis.
b) Heterotrophs: These are the organisms which depend on other organisms for food.
Nomenclature - An organism can have different names in different languages. This creates
confusion in naming organism. So, a scientific name is needed which is same in all languages.
Binomial nomenclature system given by Carolus Linnaeus is used for naming different
organisms.
Following are some conventions in writing the scientific names:
 Genus should be written followed by the species.
 First letter of the genus should be capital and that of the species should be in small
letter.

32
  When printed the name should be written in italics and when written with hands genus
and species should be underlined separately.
Example – Homo sapiens for humans, Panthera tigris for tiger.
Kingdom 1: Monera
Following are its basic features:
 Prokaryotic, Unicellular.
 Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 May or may not have cell wall.
 Examples- Anabaena and Bacteria (heterotrophic), Cyano-bacteria or Blue green algae
(autotrophic).

Kingdom 2 : Protista
Following are its basic features:
 Eukaryotic, Unicellular.
 Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 May have cilia, flagella or pseudopodia for locomotion.
 Examples: plants like- Unicellular algae, Diatoms; animals like- protozoans (Amoeba,
Paramecium, Euglena); fungi like- slime molds and water molds.

33
 Kingdom 3: Fungi
Following are its basic features:
 Eukaryotic
 Mostly multicellular but sometimes unicellular(yeast)
 Source of food:
a) Mostly saprophytes - these organisms use decaying material for food.
b) Some parasitic - these organisms live inside body of other living organism to have food
and can be disease causing.
c) Symbiotic relation - these are relations between two organisms in which they live together
for benefit of one or both. Lichens are a symbiotic relation between fungi and cyanobacteria.
Here fungi gets food from cyanobacteria and in return cyanobacteria gets water and protection
from sunlight through fungi.
 Cell wall is made of chitin
 Examples-mushrooms(Agaricus), green mold(Penicillium), smut(Aspergilus)

Kingdom 4: Plantae
Following are its basic features:
 Eukaryotic, Multicellular
 Autotrophs
 Cell wall present
Basis of division in Kingdom Plantae
1. Differentiated body parts: Body is differentiated into leaves, stems, roots, flower, etc.
2. Presence of vascular tissue: There are two types of vascular tissues present in the plants:
 Xylem: helps in transport of water.
 Phloem: helps in transport of food.
3. Reproduction through seeds or spores:

34
 Phanerogamae: Plants with seeds are called phanerogamae. They contains embryo with stored
food and are multicellular.
 Cryptogamae: Plants with spores are called cryptogamae. They contains only naked embryo
and are generally unicellular.
4. Seeds are inside the fruit or naked:
 Angiospermae - these are plants with seeds inside the fruit and bears flowers.
 Gymnospermae - these are plants with naked seeds and do not bear flowers.
Note - If xylem and phloem are absent the plants would be small as transport of food and
water will be difficult.
Division 1: Thallophta
Following are its basic features:
 Basic and elementary plants with undifferentiated body parts.
 Generally called algae.
 No vascular tissue present.
 Reproduce through spores.
 Mainly found in water.
 Example- Ulva, Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Chara.

Division
2: Bryophyte
Following are its basic features:
 Body structure differentiated but not fully developed.
 No vascular tissues present.
 Reproduce through spores.
 Found on both land and water therefore known as ‘Amphibians of Plantae kingdom’.
 Example - liverwort(Marchantia, Riccia), mosses(Funaria), hornwort (dendrocerous).

35
 Division 3: Pteridophyta
Following are its basic features:
 Differentiated body structure- leaves, stems, roots,etc.
 Vascular tissues present.
 Reproduce through spores
 Examples- Marsilea, fern, horsetails

Division 4: Gymnosperms
Following are its basic features:
 Differentiated body parts
 Vascular tissues
 Naked seeds without fruits or flowers
 Perennial, evergreen and woody
 Examples- Pines(deodar), Cycus, Ginkgo.

36
 Division 5: Angiosperms
Following are its basic features:
 Also known as Flower - bearing plants.
 Later on flower becomes fruit.
 Seeds are inside the fruit.
 Embryos in seeds have structure called They are also called seed leaves because in many
plants they emerge and become green when they germinate.
Angiosperms are further divided on the basis of number of cotyledons into two parts:

Kingdom 5: Animalia
Basis of classification of Animalia kingdom:
1. Symmetry:
i) Bilateral symmetry: it is when an organism can be divided into right and left halves,
identical but mirror images, by a single vertical plane.
ii) Radial symmetry: it is when an organism is equally spaced around a central point, like
spokes on a bicycle wheel.

37
 2. Germ layers: in embryonic stages there are different layers of cells called germ cells. The
three different types of germ cells are -
 Ectoderm – It is the outermost layer which forms nail, hair, epidermis, etc.
 Endoderm - It is the innermost layer which forms stomach, colon, urinary bladder, etc.
 Mesoderm – It is the middle layer between ectoderm and endoderm which forms bones,
cartilage, etc.
So, according to the number of germ layers present in embryonic stage, animal could be:
i) Diploblastic - organisms which derived from two embryonic germ layers (ecto and endo).
ii) Triploblastic - organisms which derived from all the three embryonic germ layers.
3. Coelom: Body cavity or coelom is important for proper functioning of various organs. For
example, heart which has to contract and expand needs some cavity or empty space, which is
provided by the coelom.
On the basis of presence or absence of coelom, organisms are divided into:
i) Acoelomates - these are the simple organisms having no body cavity.
ii) Coelomates - these are complex organisms having true cavity lined by mesoderm from all
sides. These are further sub- divided into schizocoelomates or protostomes(coelom formed
due to splitting of mesoderm) and enterocoelomates or dueterostomes( coelom formed from
pouches pinched off from endoderm)
iii) Pseudo coelomate - these are organisms having false coelom. They have pouches of
mesoderm scattered between endoderm and ectoderm.
4. Notochord: it is a long rod like structure, which runs along the body between nervous
tissues and gut and provides place for muscle to attach for ease of movement.
Organisms could be:
 Without notochord
 With Notochord
 With Notochord in initial embryonic stages and vertebral column in adult phase.
Phylum 1: Porifera or sponges
Following are its basic features:
 Cellular level of organization.
 Non motile animals.
 Holes on body which led to a canal system for circulation of water and food.
 Hard outside layer called as skeletons.
 Examples - Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectelia.

38
 Phylum 2: Coelenterata
Following are its basic features:
 Tissue level of organization
 No coelom
 Radial symmetry, Diploblastic
 Hollow gut
 Can move from one place to another.
 Examples: hydra, sea anemone, jelly fish (solitary); corals (colonies)

Phylum 3: Ctenophores
Following are its basic features:
 Tissue level of organization
 No coelom present
 Radial symmetry, Diploblastic
 Have Comb plates for locomotion
 Aquatic

39
 Examples- Pleurobrachia

Phylum 4: Platyhelminthes
Following are its basic features:
 Also called flat worms.
 No coelom present
 Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
 Free living or parasite
 Digestive cavity has one opening for both ingestion and egestion.
 Example - Planaria (free living), Liver fluke (parasitic).

Phylum 5: Nematode
Following are its basic features:
 False coelom
 Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
 Cylindrical
 Many are parasitic worms living inside human body, and can cause various diseases, like
Filarial worm causes elephantiasis, Round worms and Pin worms live in human intestine.

40
 Example - Ascaris, Wulchereria.

Phylum 6: Mollusca
Following are its basic features:
 Coelom present
 Triploblastic, bilateral symmetry
 Soft bodies sometimes covered with shell
 Generally not segmented
 No appendages present
 Muscular foot for movement
 Shell is present
 Kidney like organ for excretion
 Examples - Chiton, Octopus, Pila, Unio.

Phylum 7: Annelida
Following are its basic features:
 Second largest phylum
 Coelom present
41
 Bilateral, triploblastic
 Segmented (segments specialized for different functions)
 Water or land
 Extensive Organ differentiation
 Examples - Earthworm, Leech, Nereis

Phylum 8: Arthropoda
Following are the basic features:
 Largest phylum (consist of 80%of species)
 Generally known as insects.
 Coelom present
 Bilateral, triploblastic
 Segmented, sometimes fused
 Tough exo-skeleton of chitin
 Joint appendages like feet, antenna
 Example- Prawn, Scorpio, Cockroach, Housefly, Butterfly, Spider,

Phylum 9: Echinodermata
Following are its basic features:

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 Spiny skin, Marine
 No notochord
 Coelom present , bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
 Endoskeleton of calcium carbonate.
 Water vascular system for locomotion.
 Bilateral symmetry before birth and radial symmetry after birth.
 Example- Antedon, Sea cucumber, Star fish, Echinus.

Phylum 10: Hemichordata

Following are its basic features:
 Small group of marine animals
 Cylindrical, Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic
 Coelom present
 Gills for respiration
 Examples - Balanoglossus

Phylum 11: Chordata

Following are its basic features:

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 Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
 Coelom present
 Notochord
 Gills present at some phase of life.
 Dorsal nerve chord
 Post anal tail present at some stage of life, For example, present in humans in embryonic
stages.
 Subdivided into two
(a) Prochordata -
 Notochord at some stage of life
 Marine
 Example- Herdemania, Amphioxus,
(b) Vertebrata -
 Notochord converted to vertebral column
 2,3,4 chambered heart
 Organs like kidney for excretion
 Pair appendages
 Example- humans(4 chambered), frog(3 chambered), fishes(2 chambered)
Vertebrates are divided into five classes namely Pisces, Amphibia, Reptillia, Aves and
Mammalia.

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 Following are some common features of the five classes of vertebrates:

Note -
 Warm blooded organism: these are organisms which maintain same body temperature
irrespective of outside temperature. Example – humans. Human’s body temperature is
approximately 370.
 Cold blooded organisms: these are organisms which changes their body temperature as per
surrounding temperature. Example – frog
 Fishes are divided into two on the basis of skeleton:
i) Fishes with bony skeleton called bony fishes. Example- Tuna.
ii) Fishes with cartilage skeleton called Cartilaginous fishes. Example – Shark
Classification and evolution
Evolution is a process by which a new species is developed from an old species with gradual
changes. Charles Darwin first described this idea of evolution in his book ‘The Origin of
species’ in the year 1839.

45
More complex organisms develop from the simpler organisms. The older, simpler organisms
are called primitive or lower organisms while the younger, complex organisms are
called advanced or higher organisms.
Evolution and classification is somehow related, as classification of organism is done
considering how evolution has occurred. While organisms classified in same group are likely
to have evolved in similar ways.

E. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Introduction
The modern system of classification began in 1758 when Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) or
Carl von Linne’, a Swedish doctor and botanist, published his 10 th edition of System Naturae.
In the previous editions, Linnaeus had used a polynomial (many-name) Latin system.
However, in the 10th edition, he introduced the binomial (two-name) system of
nomenclature. This system used two Latin names – genus and specific epithet
(epithet=descriptive word) for each species of organism.

Recall that a species is defined as a population of organisms capable of interbreeding and

producing fertile offspring. Individual organisms are therefore members of a species. A genus
(plural, genera) is a group of closely related population of organisms. The specific epithet is a
word added to the genus to describe or identify which one of several species within the genus
we are discussing. It is similar to the naming system we use with people in formal situations
such as registration, enrollment, etc. The applicant or candidate is usually identified with two
names- ‘surname’ (which is the genus or generic name in taxonomy) and the first name (which
is the specific epithet in taxonomy). This is the applicant’s personal/unique name. In
taxonomy, the unique name given to a particular type of organism is called its specie name or
scientific name. In order to clearly identify the scientific name, the binomial system stipulates
that they should be italicized (for names written electronically) or underlined (for handwritten
names). The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized. The specific epithet is usually
written in lowercase. For example, with the binomial system, the white water lily is known as
Nymphaea odorata, while housefly is called Musca domestica. Rules exist to govern the
worldwide classification and naming of species and these are expressed in the international
rules for botanical nomenclature, and the international bacteriological code of nomenclature.

46
In addition to assigning a specific name to each species, Linnaeus recognized a need for
placing organisms into groups. This system divides all forms of life into kingdoms, the largest
grouping used in the classification of organism. Initially there were two kingdoms- Plantae
and Animalia- but the number of kingdoms was increased as better knowledge of the nature of
organisms accumulated. Recently, biologists recognized a category above that of kingdoms,
known as domains. Thereare three domains:

 Eubacteria,

 Archaea, and

 Eucarya.

Each domain is subdivided into kingdoms. There are four kingdoms of life in the Domain
Eucarya: Protista (protozoa and algae), Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Each of these kingdoms
is divided into smaller units and given specific names. The taxonomic subdivision under each
kingdom is usually called a phylum (plural=phyla), although microbiologists and botanists
replace this term with the word division.

A class is a subdivision within a phylum. For example, within the phylum Chordata within
the kingdom Animalia, there are seven classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and
three classes of fishes. An orderis a category within a class. The order Carnivora is an
order of meat-eating animals within the class Mammalia. There are several other orders of
mammals including horses and their relatives, cattle and their relatives, rodents, rabbits, bats,
seals, whales, and many others.

A family subdivision of an order consists of a group of closely related genera, which in turn
are composed of groups of closely-related species. The cat family, Felidae, is a subgrouping
of the order Carnivora and includes many species in several genera, including the Canada lynx
and bobcat (genus Lynx),the leopard, tiger, jaguar, and lion (genus Panthera),the house
cat (Felis), and several other genera. Thus, in the present-day science of taxonomy, each
organism that has been classified has its own unique, binomial name. In turn, it is assigned to
larger groupings that are thought to have a common evolutionary history. (See the illustration
of the levels of classification of an organism using the modern binomial classification
scheme).

47
 Domains and Kingdoms of living organisms
As earlier mentioned, there are three domains recently recognized by
biologists. These include the

• Eubacteria,

• Archaea, and

• Eucarya.

Each domain is subdivided into kingdoms. There are four kingdoms of life in
the Domain Eucarya: Protista (protozoa and algae), Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.

1. Domains Eubacteria and Archaea (kingdom monera)

Members of the domains Eubacteria and Archaea are commonly known as bacteria. They are
all tiny, prokaryotic cells that are difficult to distinguish from one another. Because of this, it
was assumed that the members of these groups were closely related. However, they show a
wide variety of metabolic abilities. Individual species are distinguished from one another
primarily by differences in their metabolic activities and details of their chemical structure.
Evidence gained from studying DNA and RNA nucleotide sequences and a comparison of the
amino acid sequences of proteins indicate that there are major differences between the
Eubacteria and Archaea. The Eubacteria evolved first and their ancestors (primitive kinds of
ancient prebionts, protocells and prokaryotic cells) probably used DNA as their genetic
material. The Eubacteria gave rise to the Archaea and, finally, the Eucarya evolved.

I. Eubacteria

The “true bacteria” (eu=true) are small, prokaryotic, single-celled organisms ranging from 1 to
10 micrometers (µm). Their cell walls typically contain complex organic molecules, such as
peptidoglycan, polymers of unique sugars, and unusual amino acids not found in other kinds
of organisms. The most common shapes of the cells are spheres, rods, and spirals.

Since they are prokaryotic, Eubacteria have no nucleus, and the genetic material is a single
loop of DNA. Some have as few as 5000 genes. The cells reproduce by binary fission. This is
a type of asexual cell division that does not involve the more complex structures used by
eukaryotes in mitosis or meiosis. As a result, the daughter cells produced have a single copy of

48
 the parental DNA loop. Some cells move by secreting a slime that glides over the cell’s
surface, causing it to move through the environment. Others move by means of a kind of
flagellum found in eukaryotic organisms.

Binary fission in bacteria

The first Eubacteria were probably anaerobic because of the then reducing atmosphere. Today,
there are both anaerobic and aerobic Eubacteria. Many heterotrophic Eubacteria are
saprophytes; others are parasites; still others are mutualistic; finally, some are commensalistic.
Several kinds of Eubacteria are autotrophic. Many are called cyanobacteria because they
contain a blue-green pigment, which allows them to capture sunlight and carry on
photosynthesis. They can become extremely numerous in some polluted waters where
nutrients are abundant. Others use inorganic chemical reactions for their energy sources and
are called chemosynthetic organisms.

II. Archaea

The term “archaea” comes from the Greek term “archaios”, meaning “ancient”. That does not
mean it precedes the Eubacteria in evolution. Although the Archaea are prokaryotic like the
Eubacteria, they have many chemical similarities to the Eucarya.

For example, the Archaea and Eucarya both lack pepitdoglycan as their cell wall building
material and they both have introns as components of their DNA, while the Eubacteria have
peptidoglycan and lack introns. Members of the Archaea exist in many shapes including rods,

49
spheres, spirals, filaments, and flat plates. Because they are found in many kinds of extreme
environments, they have become known as extremophiles. Based on the particular extreme
habitats they occupy, the archaea are divided into three groups: (1) Methanogens are
methane-producing bacteria that are anaerobic. They can be found in the intestinal tracts of
humans, sewage, and swamps. (2) Halobacteria (halo = Salt) are found growing in very salty
environments such as the Great Salt Lake (Utah), salt ponds, and brine solutions. Some
contain a special kind of chlorophyll and are therefore capable of generating their ATP by
photosynthesis. (3) The thermophilic Archaea live in environments that normally have very
high temperatures and high concentrations of sulphur (e.g., hot sulphur springs or around deep
–sea hydrothermal vents). Over 500 species of thermophiles have been identified at the
opening of hydrothermal vents in the open oceans. One such thermophile, Pyrolobus fumarii,
grows in a hot spring in Yellowstone national Park. Its maximum growth temperature is
1130C, its optimum is 1060C, and its minimum is 900C.
23.3 Domain Eucarya
Some biologists hypothesize that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells by a process
of endosymbiosis. This hypothesis proposes that structures like mitochondria, chloroplasts,
and other membranous organelles originated from separate cells that were ingested by larger,
more primitive cells. Once inside, these structures and their functions became integrated with
the host cell and ultimately became essential to its survival. This new type of cell was the
forerunner of present-day eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells are usually much larger than those of the prokaryotes, typically having more
than a thousand times the volume of prokaryotic cells. Their larger size was made possible by
the presence of specialized membranous organelles, such as mitochondria, the endoplasmic
reticulum, chloroplasts, and nuclei.
Kingdom Protista
The changes in cell structure that led to eukaryotic organisms most probably gave rise to
single –celled organisms similar to those currently grouped in the kingdom Protista (see figure
2.0). Most members of this kingdom are one-celled organisms, although there are some
colonial forms.
There is a great deal of diversity among the approximately 60,000 known specieis of Protista.
Many species live in fresh water; others are found in marine or terrestrial habitats, and some
are parasitic, commensalitics, or mutualistic. All species can undergo mitosis, resulting in
asexual reproduction. Some species can also undergo meiosis and reproduce sexually. Many

50
contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts and are autotrophic; others require organic molecules as
sources of energy and are heterotrophic. Both autotrophs and heterotrophs have mitochondria
and respire aerobically.
Amoeba and Paramecium are commonly encountered examples of protozoa. Many seaweeds
and ponds scums are collections of large numbers of algal cells. Slime molds are less
frequently seen because they live in and on the soil in moist habitats; they are most often
encountered as slimy masses on decaying logs.
Through the process of evolution, the plant like autotrophs probably gave rise to the kingdom
Plantae, the animal like heterotrophs probably gave rise to the kingdom Animalia, and the
fungus like heterotrophs were probably the forerunners of the kingdom Fungi.
Kingdom Fungi
Fungus is the common name for members of the kingdom Fungi. The majority of fungi are
nonmotile. They have a rigid, thin cell wall, which in most species is composed of chiti, a
complex carbohydrate containing nitrogen. Members of the kingdom Fungi are
nonphotosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms. The majority of the approximately 70,000 specieis
(mushrooms and molds) are muticellular, but a few, like yeasts, are single –celled. In the
multicellular fungi the basic structural unit is a network of multicellular filaments. Because
all of these organisms are heterotrophs, they must obtain nutrients from organic sources. Most
are saprophytes and secrete enzymes that digest large molecules into smaller units that are
absorbed. They are very important as decomposers in all ecosystems. They feed on a variety
of nutrients ranging from dead organisms to such products as shoes, food –stuffs, and
clothing. Most synthetic organic molecules are not attacked as readily by fungi; this is why
plastic bags, foam cups, and organic pesticides are slow to decompose.
Some fungi are parasitic, whereas others are mutulaistic. Many of the parasitic fungi are
important plant pests. Some attack and kill plants (Chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease); others
injure the fruit, leaves, roots, or stems and reduce yields. The fungi that are human parasite are
responsible for athlete’s foot, vaginal yeast infections, valley fever, “ringworm,” and other
diseases. Mutualistic fungi are important in lichens and in combination with the roots of
certain kinds of plants.
Kingdom Plantae
Another major group thought to be derived from the kingdom Protista are the green,
photosynthetic plants. The ancestors of plants were most likely specific kinds of algae
commonly called green algae. Members of the kingdom plantae are nonmotile, terrestrial,

51
multicellular organisms that contain chlorophyll and produce their own organic compounds.
All plants cells have a cellulose cell wall. Over 300,000 species of plants have been classified;
about 85% are flowering plants, 14% are mosses and ferns, and the remaining 1% are cone
bearing and several other small groups within the kingdom.
A wide variety of plants exist on Earth today. Members of the kingdom plantae range from
simple mosses to vascular plants with stems, rooms, leaves, and flowers. Most biologists
believe that the evolution of this kingdom began nearly 500 million years ago when the green
algae of the kingdom protista gave rise to two lines: the nonvascular plants like the mosses
evolved as one type of plant and the vascular plants like the ferns evolved as second type (See
diagram below). Some of the vascular plants evolved into seed –producing plants, which
today are the cone-bearing and flowering plants, whereas the ferns lack seeds. The
development of vascular plants was a major step in the evolution of plants from an aquatic to a
terrestrial environment.
Plants have a unique life cycle. There is a haploid gametophyte stage that produces a haploid
sex cell by mitosis. There is also a diploid sporophyte stage that produces haploid spores by
meiosis. This alternation of generations is a unifying theme that ties together all members of
this kingdom. In addition to sexual reproduction, plants are able to reproduce asexually.
Kingdom Animalia
Like the fungi and plants, the animals are thought to have evolved from the Protista. Over a
million species of animals have been classified. These range from microscopic types, like
mites or aquatic larvae of marine animals, to huge animals like elephants or whales.
Regardless of their types, all animals have some common traits. All are composed of
eukaryotic cells and all species are heterotrophic and multicellular. All animals are motile, at
least during some portion of their lives; some, like the sponges, barnacles, mussels, and corals,
are sessile (nonmotile, i.e., not able to move) when they are most easily recongnised – the
adult portion of their lives. All animals are capable of sexual reproduction, but many of the
less complex animals are also able to reproduce asexually.
It is thought that animals originated from certain kinds of Protista that had flagella (see figure
2.0). This idea proposes that colonies of flagellated Protista gave rise to simple multicellular
forms of animal like the ancestors like the ancestors of present-day sponges. These first
animals lacked specialised tissues and organs. As cells became more specialised, organisms
developed special organs and systems of organs and the variety of kinds of animals increased.

52
Although taxonomists have grouped organisms into six kingdoms, some organisms do not
easily fit into these categories. Viruses, which lack all cellular structures, still show some
characteristics of life. In fact, some scientists consider them to be highly specialised parasites
that have lost their complexity as the developed as parasites. Others consider them to be the
simplest of living organisms. Some even consider them to be nonliving. For these reasons,
viruses and certain other infections particles are considered separate from the three domains.

VIRUS

Viruses are smallest and possibly the most primitive living organism smaller than bacterial.
All viruses are entirely parasitic and are quite inert in their free state in air or water. They
grow, multiply and produce disease symptom in the living cells of plants and animals.
Electron microscopy and x-ray photography have revealed detailed facts about virus structure.
Virus particles have no cellular structure. They are complex organisms with genetic
mechanism. They are of varying shapes (10-200mm). a virus structure contains a core of
nucleic acid, (mostly DNA and sometimes RNA) surrounded by a thin film of protein (protein
coat) with a protective layer. The DNA is a genetic (hereditary) material responsible for all
biochemical activities. Viruses can be isolated, purified and obtained in crystal form (e.g.
Tobacco Mosaic Vitus TMV) when a viral particle (also called a virion) gains access to the
interior of a specific host, it has the capacity to direct its own replication. The viral nucleic
acid which is the infective part of a virion, can monopolize the biosynthetic machinery of a
host cell, forcing it to synthesize the molecular component of virus molecules rather than the
normal host cell components. All plans viruses contain RNA and are either rod like relics.

Viruses are the smallest biological particle (the tiniest are only 20 nm in diameter). However,
they are not biological organisms so they are not classified in any kingdom of living things.
They do not have any organelles and cannot respire or perform metabolic functions. Viruses
are merely strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid.
Viruses only come to life when they have invaded a cell. Outside of a host cell, viruses are
completely inert.

Since first being identified in 1935, viruses have been classified into more than 160 major
groups. Viruses are classified based on their shape, replication properties, and the diseases that
they cause. Furthermore, the shape of a virus is determined by the type and arrangement of
proteins in its capsid. Viruses pathogenic to humans are currently classified into 21 groups.

53
Some viruses called Bacteriophages also attack bacteria and destroy their nuclear materials.
Some plant disease caused by virus include (a) mosaic diseases in apple, bean, cabbage,
canliflower, cucumber, cassava, tobacco (b) black ring spot of cabbage, (c) leaf roll of
potatoes (d) chlorotic diseases in apple, pepper, rose (e) leaf curl in bean, beef, cotton,
pawpaw, soyabean, tobacco (f) necrosis in potato, tomato. Some vital diseases in animal
include (a) AIDS (b) mumps, small pox, chicken pox, measles, herpes, polio, yellow fever
(Hepatitis B), common cold, influenza, etc.

Viruses can also attack bacteria and infect bacterial cells. Such viruses are called
bacteriophages.

Viral structure
A virus consists of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a coat of protein (see diagram below).
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, which mean they are infectious particles that can
function only when inside a living cell. Because of their unusual characteristics, viruses are
not members of any of the three domains. Biologists do not consider them to be living because
they are not capable of living and reproducing by themselves and show the characteristics of
life only when inside living cells.

Viral Replication

As previously stated, viruses are not a biological life form so they cannot reproduce by
themselves. They need to take over a functioning eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell to replicate its
DNA or RNA and to make protein coat for new virus particles.

In order to enter a cell, a virus must attach to a specific receptor site on the plasma membrane
of the host cell. The proteins on the surface of the virus act as keys which fit exactly into a
matching glycoprotein on the host cell membrane. In some viruses, the attachment protein is
not on the surface of the virus but is in the capsid or in the envelope.

There are two forms of viral replication: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle.

54
 Lytic Cycle

1. Attachment: The virus binds to specific receptors on the host cell.

2. Entry: There are two ways in which a virus can enter cells. Firstly, the virus can inject its
nucleic acid into the host cell. Secondly, if a virus is contained in an envelope, the host cell
can phagocytosise the entire virus particle into a vacuole. When the virus breaks out of the
vacuole, it then releases its nucleic acid into the cell.

3. Replication: The virus's nucleic acid instructs the host cell to replicate the virus's DNA or
RNA.

4. Assembly: New virus particles are assembled.

5. Lysis and Release: The virus directs the production of an enzyme which damages the host cell
wall, causing the host cell to swell and burst. The newly formed virus particles are now
released.

Lysogenic Cycle

1. Attachment: Similar to Lytic Cycle

2. Entry: Similar to Lytic Cycle

3. Incorporation: The viral nucleic acids is not replicated, but instead integrated by genetic
combination (crossing over) into the host cell's chromosome. When integrated in a host cell
this way, the viral nucleic acid as part of the host cell's chromosome is known as a prophage.

4. Host Cell Reproduction: The host cell reproduces normally. Subsequent cell divisions,
daughter cells, contain original father cell's chromosome embedded with a prophage.

5. Cycle Induction: Certain factors now determine whether the daughter cell undergoes the lytic
or lysogenic cycle. At any time, a cell undergoing the lysogenic cycle can switch to the lytic
cycle.

The reproduction cycle of viruses with RNA and no DNA is slightly different. A notable
example of a RNA-based virus is HIV, a retrovirus.

Retrovirus reproductive cycle

1. The retrovirus force RNA into cell, by either one of the two methods of entry (See above).

2. In the retrovirus are reverse transcriptase enzymes, which catalyses the synthesis of a DNA
strand complementary to the viral RNA.

55
3. Reverse transcriptase catalyses a second DNA strand complementary to the first. With these
two strands, the double-stranded DNA can be created.

4. DNA is then incorporated into the host cell's chromosomes. Similar to the concept of a
prophage, this incorporated DNA is called a provirus. However, the provirus never leaves the
host cell, unlike a prophage.

5. The infected host cell undergoes the lytic or lysogenic cycle.

Viral Genome

The genome of a virus consists of DNA or RNA, whose size and configuration vary. The
entire genome can exist as a single nucleic acid molecule or several nucleic acid segments.
Also, the DNA or RNA may be single-stranded or double-stranded, and either linear or
circular.

Not all viruses can reproduce in a host cell by themselves. Since viruses are so small, the size
of their genome is limiting. For example, some viruses have coded instructions for only
making a few different proteins for the viruses' capsid. On the other hand, the human genome
codes for over 30,000 different proteins. Therefore, the lack of coded instructions cause some
viruses to need the presence of other viruses to help them reproduce themselves. Such viruses
are called replication defective.

Lastly, it is worthy to note that 70% of all viruses are RNA viruses. As the process of RNA
replication (with enzymes and other organelles of the host cell) is more prone to errors, RNA
viruses have much higher mutation rates than do DNA viruses.

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E. ECOSYSTEMS AND BIOMES

Definition of Concepts

Ecology: The study of the interrelationships between living organisms and the living and non-
living components and processes in an environment.

Biome: A major ecological region within which plant and animal communities are similar in
general characteristics and in their relationships to the physical environment. Eg. vegetation
zones such as the Tundra, Desert & Rainforests.

Ecosystem: The collection of all living organisms in a geographic area, together with all the
living and non-living things with which they interact.

· Acquatic Ecosystems (water-based) ecosystems

· Terrestral Ecosystems (land-based) ecosystems.

Population: A group of organisms of the same kind living in a given area

Natural Community: Populations of different plant and animal species interacting among
themselves in an area.

Habitat: The specific physical location where a particular organism lives or is adapted to live
in a community.

Ecological Niche: An organism’s role or occupation within a community.

Bio-geography: A study of the distribution of plants and animals, the diverse spatial patterns
they create, and the physical and biological processes (past & present) that produce this
distribution.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS

1. Boitic and Abiotic

Every ecosystem is composed of two basic units:

a) Biota: the living organisms - all plant & animal species

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 b) Abiotic: the non-living physical and chemical component consisting of wind,
temperature, water, soil, precipitation etc.

The single abiotic factor most lacking in a particular environment is termed a Limiting
Factor. e.g. water – in a desert and temperature - Tundra.

The variation in physical factors that a population can withstand and continue to thrive in an
environment is termed Range of Tolerance.

CATEGORIES OF ORGANISMS

1. PRODUCERS:

Green plants that carry on photosynthesis. Producers are termed auto-trophs because they are
self-nourished – they do not depend on other species to feed.

During photosynthesis, plants capture light energy with their chlorophyll and use it to convert
carbon dioxide and moisture (absorbed from air) into sugar (chemical energy). Oxygen is
released as a by-product.

Every major ecosystem has its particular green plants that carry on photosynthesis and release
chemical energy (carbohydrates, protein etc.) on which non-producers feed. (algae & plankton
in aquatic systems, plants in terrestrial systems)

2. CONSUMERS:

a) Consumers are heterotrophs (other-nourished) for they rely on chlorophyll-containing

plants or the products of such plants for nourishment.

b) Consumers are subdivided into groups according to their food source.

Primary consumers: Species that feed directly on producers (plant-eating species). They are
also called Herbivores. E.g. elephants, goats, cattle

Secondary Consumers: Species that feed on primary consumers. Secondary and higher order
consumers are called Carnivores. E.g. fox, cat.

Tertiary and higher-level Consumers: Species that obtain their nourishment by eating other
meat-eating species. E.g. tiger

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Multiple level Consumers: Species that obtain their nourishment from eating both plants and
animal species. Also called Omnivores

3. DECOMPOSERS:

They are the final link in the food chain. Comprise of organisms that feed on dead matter and
break it down to release chemical energy back into the soil for plants to re-use them. E.g.
fungi, bacteria, insects, worms and others.

Detritivores: feed on detritus matter (dead plants and animals) e.g. crab, vulture, termites,
wood beetle and crayfish. Also called scavengers.

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SPECIES

The Food Chain.

A food chain or food web comprises a sequence of organisms through which energy and
nutrients are taken in and used up. A food chain in a wet meadow could be: Grass-->
Grasshopper--> Snake--> Hyena.

Food chains begin from producers to consumers and the major feeding levels are
called Trophic Levels.

Producers belong to the First Trophic Level. Primary consumers, whether feeding on living
or dead producers feed from the Second Trophic Level. Organisms that feed on other
consumers belong to the Third Tropic Level. Only about 10% of the calories in plant matter
survive from First to the Second trophic level.

NON-FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

1. Mutual relationships:

Relations between organisms can be

(a) mutually beneficial to both species, For example, relationship between flowers and
insects is a mutually supportive relationship, or …

(b) Parasitic, in that such a relationship benefits only one party. Examples include ticks,
fleas, mosquitoes, mistletoe plants and fungi.

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Mutually beneficial relationships are also termed Symbiotic (sym = together, bio = living)
and can be described as

a) Commensalism is a mutual interaction between two different species in which one

organism benefits but the other is neither harmed nor helped in any way, or…

b) Mutualism is a type of species interaction in which both participating species

benefit.

2. Competitive Relationships:

Plant and animal species compete over food, water, territorial space and mating with the
opposite sex.

The Principle of Competitive Exclusion: explains that no two species can occupy the same
niche (food or space) successfully in a stable community.

Closely related species therefore live far from one another. This is because plants and animals
must compete for water, nutrients, light and space. The outcome of this competition
determines the character of an ecosystem.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Processes through which elements that sustain life (water, carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen)
are continuously made available to living organisms.

Well known chemical cycles include: Nitrogen Cycle, Hydrological cycle, Carbon cycle,
and Phosphorus cycle

THE NATURAL BOIMES

1. Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest

a) evergreen broadleaf forest

2. Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub

a) Tropical monsoon forest

b) Tropical deciduous forest

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3. Tropical Savanna

a) Tropical grassland b) Savanna woodland

4. Mid-latitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest

a) Temperate broadleaf

b) Midlatitude deciduous forest

5. Needleleaf Forest & Montane Forest

a) Taiga, b) Boreal forest, Montane forest

6. Temperate Rain Forest

a) West coast Forest, b) Coast redwoods

7. Meditarranean Shrubland

a) Sclerophyllous shrubs

b) Australian eucalyptus forest

8. Warm Desert and Semi-Desert

a) Subtropical desert and scrubland

9. Cold Desert and Semi-Desert

a) Midlatitude desert, scrubland and steppe

10. Arctic and Alpine a) Tundra

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 F. General Reproduction

Reproduction is the production of new generation of individuals of the same species. It is one
of the fundamental characteristics of living organisms. It involves the transmission of genetic
material from one generation to another ensuring the species survive over a long period of
time. Reproduction is generally defined as the process by which living organisms give rise to
young ones of their own kind. In the absence of reproduction, a specie might go extinct.

All Living things produce more of their own kind. The process through which a living thing
(organism) produces new living things (young ones) like itself is called reproduction.

Reproduction is the process of producing individuals of the same kind. Most of the organisms
reproduce by mating that increases the genetic variability of the organism. The males and
females have separate reproductive organs known as gonads. These gonads produce gametes
that fuse together to form a single cell called the zygote.
Few animals such as earthworms, snails, slugs, etc. are hermaphrodites and possess male and
female reproductive organs in the same organism.

Modes of Reproduction
Depending on the number of parents involved, there are different modes of reproduction. In
animals is of two types of reproduction:

1. Sexual Reproduction.
2. Asexual Reproduction.

A. Reproduction in Animals
a. Sexual Reproduction in Animals
The process in which the male and female gametes fuse together to form a new individual is
called sexual reproduction. Let us have a brief account of the human reproductive organs and
their role in reproduction.

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i. Reproductive Organs
The male reproductive organs comprise a pair of testes, sperm ducts, and a penis. The sperms
are produced by the testes. The sperms are very small in size with a head, a middle piece, and
a tail.
The female reproductive organs comprise a pair of ovaries, oviducts, and the uterus. The eggs
(ova) are produced by the ovaries. The development of the baby takes place in the uterus. A
mature egg is released into the oviduct every month.
Process of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

ii. Fertilization
The semen contains millions of sperms. A single sperm fuses with the ova during fertilization.
The nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together to form a single nucleus. Thus, a zygote is
formed.
Fertilization is of two types:

 Internal Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female is known as internal
fertilization. For eg., humans, cows, dogs, etc. This method is more prevalent in terrestrial
animals. However, some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This may take place by
direct introduction of sperms by the male in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits
the sperms in the environment which is picked up by the female in her reproductive tract.
They are three ways by which offsprings are produced by internal fertilization:
1. Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive nourishment from the
yolk.
2. Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s body where they receive
nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
3. Viviparity– The offsprings are born directly instead of hatching from the eggs. They receive
nutrition from the mother. This can be seen in mammals.

 External Fertilization
The fertilization that takes place outside the female is called external fertilization. For eg.,
frogs, fish. Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning. The environmental
signals such as water temperature trigger spawning.

iii. Embryo Development

The zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells. This is known as the developing embryo.
These cells differentiate into respective tissues and organs. The embryo gets implanted in the
uterine wall. This process is known as implantation.
When all the body parts of the embryo start being visible, it is called a foetus. The child is
developed after nine months in humans.

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iv. Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
Oviparous and viviparous animals are two different groups of animals, which are classified on
the basis of fertilization. The main difference between oviparous and viviparous animals are
listed below:

Oviparous Viviparous

Meaning

Egg-laying animals Animals that give birth to the young ones

Fertilization

Either internal or external Fertilization is internal

Nutrients to the developing embryo

Provided by the egg yolk Provided by the mother through the placenta

Development of zygote

There is very little or no development of the

The embryo develops entirely inside the mother.
embryo inside the mother.

Survival chances

There are fewer chances of survival since the The young one is protected inside the mother and so
eggs are laid outside the body the chances of survival are more.

Examples

Insects, hens, fish, amphibians. Humans, dogs, cats, horses, etc.

b. Asexual Reproduction in Animals

Besides sexual reproduction, the other major type of reproduction seen in the animal kingdom
is asexual reproduction. This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms and
unicellular microbes.
It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the involvement of a single parent
without the involvement of the gamete formation. The individuals produced are genetically
and morphologically similar. It occurs in unicellular organisms. The cells divide by mitotic
division and no fertilization takes place. The division occurs very rapidly.

B. Reproduction in Plants

 In asexual reproduction, organisms can give rise to new organisms without fusion of gametes.
 Only one parent is involved.

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a. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

 Sexual reproduction in plants occurs through the fusion of gametes, which eventually gives
rise to seeds that develop into the new plant.
 Flowers are the parts of the plant involved in sexual reproduction.
 The male gamete i.e. pollen grains are produced by anthers while the female gamete i.e. ovule
is produced by pistils.
 The male and female gametes meet due to pollination, fuse by fertilization and give rise to a
new plant by fruit and seed formation.

b. Asexual Reproduction

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is of the following types:

1. Binary Fission
It is seen in amoeba and euglena. The parent cell undergoes mitosis and increases in size. The
nucleus also divides. Two identical daughter cells are obtained, each containing a nucleus.
Prokaryotes like bacteria majorly reproduce by binary fission.

2. Budding
In this, the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. It remains attached to the parent until
it matures. After maturation, it detached itself from the parent and lives as an individual
organism. This form of reproduction is most common in Hydras.

3. Fragmentation
In some organisms like Planarians, when the body of an organism breaks into several pieces
each piece grows into an individual offspring. This is known as fragmentation. It can occur
through accidental damage by predators or otherwise, or as a natural form of reproduction. In
few animals such as sea star, a broken arm grows into a complete organism.

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4. Regeneration
It is a modified form of fragmentation and occurs mostly in Echinoderms. When a part of an
organism, like an arm, detaches from the parent body, it grows into a completely new
individual. This is known as regeneration.

5. Parthenogenesis
This is a form of asexual reproduction where the egg develops without fertilization. This
process occurs in bees, wasps, ants, aphids, rotifers, etc. Ants, wasps, and bees produce
haploid males. Parthenogenesis has been observed in a few vertebrates such as hammerhead
sharks, Komodo dragons, blacktop sharks when the females were isolated from the males.
6. Spore Formation

The term is also used to refer to the process of reproduction via spores. Spores are the
reproductive bodies and are microscopic. When these spores are released into the surrounding
area, they develop into new plants under favorable conditions. Examples: Fungi, Ferns

7. Vegetative Propagation

It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves
and buds. Eg: rose, Bryophyllum

C. Pollination

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male part of the flower i.e. anthers
to the female part of the flower i.e. stigma.

Types of Pollination
There are two types of pollination:

1. If the pollen happens to land on the stigma of the same flower, it is called self-pollination.
2. When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower of the same plant, or that
of a different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.

1. Zygote

In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote. So in case of plants,
the male gametes present in the pollen grains fuse with the female gamete i.e. egg. This fusion
is called as fertilization and the cell formed out of the fusion is called as a zygote.

2. Fertilization
Fertilization is the phenomena of fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete cell.

3. Embryo

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 The zygote further develops to form the embryo. In animals, the embryo grows into an adult.
In Plants, the embryo further gives rise to shoot system and root system.

Fruits and Seed Formation

 In plants, post fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off.
 The ripened ovary forms the fruit.
 The ovules form the seeds.

Seed Dispersal

 Seeds and fruits of plants are dispersed away by wind, water and animals.
 The seeds show different characteristics depending on their dispersing agent.
Wind

1. Seeds are winged and light to get carried by the wind. eg: maple and drumstick.
2. Hairy seeds, eg: aak (Madar) and hairy fruit of sunflower.

Water

1. These seeds or fruits normally develop the ability of floating in the form of fibrous or spongy
outer coat, eg: coconut.

Animals

 Spiny seeds with hooks that are attached to the animal body and are hence carried to distant
places. Eg: Xanthium, Urena
Few of the seeds disperse when the fruits burst out with a sudden jerk, which gets scattered
away to a distance far from the parent plant. Eg: Balsam and Castor.

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G. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
We have seen that reproductive processes give rise to new individuals that are similar, but
subtly different. We have discussed how some amount of variation is produced even during
asexual reproduction. And the number of successful variations is maximized by the process of
sexual reproduction. If we observe a field of sugarcane, we find very little variations among
the individual plants. But in a number of animals including human beings, which reproduce
sexually, quite distinct variations are visible among different individuals. In this chapter, we
shall be studying the mechanism by which variations are created and inherited. The long-term
consequences of the accumulation of variations are also an interesting point to be considered.
We shall be studying this under evolution.
ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING REPRODUCTION
Inheritance from the previous generation provides both a common basic body design, and
subtle changes in it, for the next generation. Now think about what would happen when this
new generation, in its turn, reproduces. The second generation will have differences that they
inherit from the first generation, as well as newly created differences would represent the
situation if a single individual reproduces, as happens in asexual reproduction. If one
bacterium divides, and then the resultant two bacteria divide again, the four individual bacteria
generated would be very similar. There would be only very minor differences between them,
generated due to small inaccuracies in DNA copying. However, if sexual reproduction is
involved, even greater diversity will be generated, as we will see when we discuss the rules of
inheritance. Do all these variations in a species have equal chances of surviving in the
environment in which they find themselves? Obviously not. Depending on the nature of
variations, different individuals would have different kinds of advantages. Bacteria that can
withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave, as we have discussed earlier. Selection of
variants by environmental factors forms the basis for evolutionary processes, as we will
discuss in later sections.
Heredity
The most obvious outcome of the reproductive process still remains the generation of
individuals of similar design. The rules of heredity determine the process by which traits and
characteristics are reliably inherited. Let us take a closer look at these rules.
Inherited Traits

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What exactly do we mean by similarities and differences? We know that a child bears all the
basic features of a human being. However, it does not look exactly like its parents, and human
populations show a great deal of variation.
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – Mendel’s Contributions
The rules for inheritance of such traits in human beings are related to the fact that both the
father and the mother contribute practically equal amounts of genetic material to the child.
This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA. Thus, for
each trait there will be two versions in each child. What will, then, the trait seen in the child
be? Mendel (see box) worked out the main rules of such inheritance, and it is interesting to
look at some of his experiments from more than a century ago.
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884)
Mendel was educated in a monastery and went on to study science and mathematics at the
University of Vienna. Failure in the examinations for a teaching certificate did not suppress
his zeal for scientific quest. He went back to his monastery and started growing peas. Many
others had studied the inheritance of traits in peas and other organisms earlier, but Mendel
blended his knowledge of science and mathematics and was the first one to keep count of
individuals exhibiting a particular trait in each generation. This helped him to arrive at the
laws of inheritance that we have discussed in the main text. Mendel used a number of
contrasting visible characters of garden peas – round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants,
white/violet flowers and so on. He took pea plants with different characteristics – a tall plant
and a short plant, produced progeny from them, and calculated the percentages of tall or short
progeny. In the first place, there were no halfway characteristics in this first generation, or F1
progeny – no ‘medium-height’ plants. All plants were tall. This meant that only one of the
parental traits was seen, not some mixture of the two. So the next question was, were the tall
plants in the F1 generation exactly the same as the tall plants of the parent generation?
Mendelian experiments test this by getting both the parental plants and these F1 tall plants to
reproduce by self-pollination. The progeny of the parental plants are, of course, all tall.
However, the second-generation, or F2, progeny of the F1 tall plants are not all tall. Instead,
one quarter of them are short. This indicates that both the tallness and shortness traits were
inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness trait was expressed. Thus, two copies of the
trait are inherited in each sexually reproducing organism. These two may be identical, or may
be different, depending on the parentage. A pattern of inheritance can be worked out with this
assumption.

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Tall short
TT x tt Tt x Tt
F1……… Tt TT Tt Tt tt ………..F2
Tall Tall Tall Tall Short
In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall plants, while only tt is a short plant. In other words,
a single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies have to be ‘t’ for the
plant to be short. Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant traits, while those that behave like ‘t’ are
called recessive traits. Work out which trait would be considered dominant and which one
recessive What happens when pea plants showing two different characteristics, rather than just
one, are bred with each other? What do the progeny of a tall plant with round seeds and a short
plant with wrinkled-seeds look like? They are all tall and have round seeds. Tallness and
round seeds are thus dominant traits. But what happens when these F1 progeny are used to
generate F2 progeny by self-pollination? A Mendelian experiment will find that some F2
progeny are tall plants with round seeds, and some were short plants with wrinkled seeds.
However, there would also be some F2 progeny that showed new mixtures. Some of them
would be tall, but have wrinkled seeds, while others would be short, but have round seeds.
Thus, the tall/short trait and the round seed/wrinkled seed trait are independently inherited.
How do these Traits get Expressed?
How does the mechanism of heredity work? Cellular DNA is the information source for
making proteins in the cell. A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is
called the gene for that protein. How do proteins control the characteristics that we are
discussing here? Let us take the example of tallness as a characteristic. We know that plants
have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant height can thus depend on the amount of a
particular plant hormone. The amount of the plant hormone made will depend on the
efficiency of the process for making it. Consider now an enzyme that is important for this
process. If this enzyme works efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will be
tall. If the gene for that enzyme has an alteration that makes the enzyme less efficient, the
amount of hormone will be less, and the plant will be short. Thus, genes control
characteristics, or traits. If the interpretations of Mendelian experiments we have been
discussing are correct, then both parents must be contributing equally to the DNA of the
progeny during sexual reproduction. We have discussed this issue in the previous Chapter. If
both parents can help determine the trait in the progeny, both parents must be contributing a
copy of the same gene. This means that each pea plant must have two sets of all genes, one
inherited from each parent. For this mechanism to work, each germ cell must have only one
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gene set. How do germ-cells make a single set of genes from the normal two copies that all
other cells in the body have? If progeny plants inherited a single whole gene set from each
parent, then the experiment cannot work. This is because the two characteristics ‘R’ and ‘y’
would then be linked to each other and cannot be independently inherited. This is explained by
the fact that each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate
independent pieces, each called a chromosome. Thus, each cell will have two copies of each
chromosome, one each from the male and female parents. Every germcell will take one
chromosome from each pair and these may be of either maternal or paternal origin. When two
germ cells combine, they will restore the normal number of chromosomes in the progeny,
ensuring the stability of the DNA of the species. Such a mechanism of inheritance explains the
results of the Mendel experiments, and is used by all sexually reproducing organisms. But
asexually reproducing organisms also follow similar rules of inheritance. Can we work out
how their inheritance might work?
Sex Determination
We have discussed the idea that the two sexes participating in sexual reproduction must be
somewhat different from each other for a number of reasons. How is the sex of a new-born
individual determined? Different species use very different strategies for this. Some rely
entirely on environmental cues. Thus, in some animals, the temperature at which fertilised
eggs are kept determines whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female.
In other animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that sex is not
genetically determined. However, in human beings, the sex of the individual is largely
genetically determined. In other words, the genes inherited from our parents decide whether
we will be boys or girls. But so far, we have assumed that similar gene sets are inherited from
both parents. If that is the case, how can genetic inheritance determine sex? The explanation
lies in the fact that all human chromosomes are not paired. Most human chromosomes have a
maternal and a paternal copy, and we have 22 such pairs. But one pair, called the sex
chromosomes, is odd in not always being a perfect pair. Women have a perfect pair of sex
chromosomes, both called X. But men have a mismatched pair in which one is a normal-sized
X while the other is a short one called Y. So women are XX, while men are XY. Now, can we
work out what the inheritance pattern of X and Y will be? As shown below, half the children
will be boys and half will be girls. All children will inherit an X chromosome from their
mother regardless of whether they are boys or girls. Thus, the sex of the children will be
determined by what they inherit from their father. A child who inherits an X chromosome
from her father will be a girl, and one who inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.
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Example:
XX x XY
XX XX XY XY
Girls Boys

EVOLUTION
We have noted that there is an inbuilt tendency to variation during reproduction, both because
of errors in DNA copying, and as a result of sexual reproduction. Let us now look at some
consequences of this tendency.
An Illustration
Consider a group of twelve red beetles. They live, let us assume, in some bushes with green
leaves. Their population will grow by sexual reproduction, and therefore, can generate
variations. Let us imagine also that crows eat these beetles. The more beetles the crows eat,
the fewer beetles are available to reproduce. Now, let us think about some different situations
that can develop in this beetle population.
In the first situation, a colour variation arises during reproduction, so that there is one beetle
that is green in colour instead of red. This beetle, moreover, can pass the colour on to its
progeny, so that all its progeny beetles are green. Crows cannot see green-coloured beetles on
the green leaves of the bushes, and therefore cannot eat them. What happens then? The
progeny of green beetles is not eaten, while the progeny of red beetles continues to be eaten.
As a result, there are more and more green beetles than red ones in the beetle population. In a
second situation, again, a colour variation arises during reproduction, but now it results in a
beetle that is blue in colour instead of red. This beetle can also pass the colour on to its
progeny, so that all its progeny beetles are blue. Crows can see blue-coloured beetles in the
green leaves of the bushes as well as they can see red ones, and therefore can eat them. What
happens initially? In the population, as it expands, there are a few blue beetles, but most are
red. But at this point, an elephant comes by, and stamps on the bushes where the beetles live.
This kills most of the beetles. By chance, the few beetles that have survived are mostly blue.
The beetle population slowly expands again, but now, the beetles in the population are mostly
blue. It is obvious that in both situations, what started out as a rare variation came to be a
common characteristic in the population. In other words, the frequency of an inherited trait
changed over generations. Since genes control traits, we can say that the frequency of certain
genes in a population changed over generations. This is the essence of the idea of evolution.
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But there are interesting differences, too, in the two situations. In the first case, the variation
became common because it gave a survival advantage. In other words, it was naturally
selected. We can see that the natural selection is exerted by the crows. The more crows there
are, the more red beetles would be eaten, and the more the proportion of green beetles in the
population would be. Thus, natural selection is directing evolution in the beetle population. It
results in adaptations in the beetle population to fit their environment better. In the second
situation, the colour change gave no survival advantage. Instead, it was simply a matter of
accidental survival of beetles of one colour that changed the common characteristic of the
resultant population. The elephant would not have caused such major havoc in the beetle
population if the beetle population had been very large. So, accidents in small populations can
change the frequency of some genes in a population, even if they give no survival advantage.
This is the notion of genetic drift, which provides diversity without any adaptations. Now
consider a third situation. In this, as the beetle population begins to expand, the bushes start
suffering from a plant disease. The amount of leaf material for the beetles is reduced. The
beetles are poorly nourished as a result. The average weight of adult beetles decreases from
what it used to be when leaves were plentiful, but there is no genetic change occurring. After a
few years and a few beetle generations of such scarcity, the plant disease is eliminated. There
is a lot of leaf food. At this time, what would we expect the weight of the beetles to be?
Acquired and Inherited
Traits We discussed the idea that the germ cells of sexually reproducing populations are made
in specialised reproductive tissue. If the weight of the beetle is reduced because of starvation,
that will not change the DNA of the germ cells. Therefore, low weight is not a trait that can be
inherited by the progeny of a starving beetle. Therefore, even if some generations of beetles
are low in weight because of starvation, that is not an example of evolution, since the change
is not inherited over generations. Change in non-reproductive tissues cannot be passed on to
the DNA of the germ cells. Therefore, the experiences of an individual during its lifetime
cannot be passed on to its progeny, and cannot direct evolution. Consider another example of
how an individual cannot pass on to its progeny the experiences of its lifetime. If we breed a
group of mice, all their progeny will have tails, as expected. Now, if the tails of these mice are
removed by surgery in each generation, do these tailless mice have tailless progeny? The
answer is no, and it makes sense because removal of the tail cannot change the genes of the
germ cells of the mice.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882)

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Charles Darwin set out on a voyage when he was 22 years old. The five-year voyage took him
to South America and the islands off its coast. The studies that he conducted during this
voyage were to change forever the way we look at the variety of life on earth. Interestingly,
after he got back to England, he never left its shores again. He stayed at home and conducted
various experiments that led him to formulate his hypothesis that evolution took place due to
natural selection. He did not know the mechanism whereby variations arose in the species. He
would have been enlightened by Mendel’s experiments, but these two gentlemen did not know
of each other or their work!
This is the reason why the ideas of heredity and genetics that we have discussed earlier are so
essential for understanding evolution. Even Charles Darwin, who came up with the idea of
evolution of species by natural selection in the nineteenth century, could not work out the
mechanism. It is ironic that he could have done so if he had seen the significance of the
experiments his Austrian contemporary, Gregor Mendel, was doing. But then, Mendel too did
not notice Darwin’s work as relevant to his!
Darwin’s theory of evolution tells us how life evolved from simple to more complex forms
and Mendel’s experiments give us the mechanism for the inheritance of traits from one
generation to the next. But neither tells us anything about how life began on earth in the first
place. J.B.S. Haldane, a British scientist (who became a citizen of India later), suggested in
1929 that life must have developed from the simple inorganic molecules which were present
on earth soon after it was formed. He speculated that the conditions on earth at that time,
which were far from the conditions we see today, could have given rise to more complex
organic molecules that were necessary for life. The first primitive organisms would arise from
further chemical synthesis. How did these organic molecules arise? An answer was suggested
by the experiment conducted by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953. They
assembled an atmosphere similar to that thought to exist on early earth (this had molecules
like ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulphide, but no oxygen) over water. This was
maintained at a temperature just below 100°C and sparks were passed through the mixture of
gases to simulate lightning. At the end of a week, 15% of the carbon (from methane) had been
converted to simple compounds of carbon including amino acids which make up protein
molecules. So, can life arise afresh on earth even now?
SPECIATION
What we have seen so far is micro-evolution. That means that the changes are small, even
though they are significant. Also, they simply change the common characteristics of a
particular species. But this does not properly explain how new species come into existence.
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That can be said to have happened only if this group of beetles we are thinking about, splits
into two populations that cannot reproduce with each other. When this happens, they can be
called two independent species. So, can we extend the reasoning we have used above to
explain such speciation? Consider what would happen if the bushes the beetles feed on are
spread widely over a mountain range. The beetle population becomes very large as a result.
But individual beetles feed mostly on a few nearby bushes throughout their lifetime. They do
not travel far. So, in this huge population of beetles, there will be sub-populations in
neighbourhoods. Since male and female beetles have to meet for reproduction to happen, most
reproduction will be within these sub-populations. Of course, an occasional adventurous
beetle might go from one site to another. Or a beetle is picked up by a crow from one site and
dropped in the other site without being eaten. In either case, the migrant beetle will reproduce
with the local population. This will result in the genes of the migrant beetle entering a new
population. This kind of gene flow is bound to happen between populations that are partly, but
not completely separated. If, however, between two such sub-populations a large river comes
into existence, the two populations will be further isolated. The levels of gene flow between
them will decrease even further. Over generations, genetic drift will accumulate different
changes in each sub-population. Also, natural selection may also operate differently in these
different geographic locations. Thus, for example, in the territory of one sub-population,
crows are eliminated by eagles. But this does not happen for the other sub-population, where
crow numbers are very high. As a result, the green variation will not be selected at the first
site, while it will be strongly selected at the second. Together, the processes of genetic drift
and natural selection will result in these two isolated sub-populations of beetles becoming
more and more different from each other. Eventually, members of these two groups will be
incapable of reproducing with each other even if they happen to meet. There can be a number
of ways by which this can happen. If the DNA changes are severe enough, such as a change in
the number of chromosomes, eventually the germ cells of the two groups cannot fuse with
each other. Or a new variation emerges in which green females will not mate with red males,
but only with green males. This allows very strong natural selection for greenness. Now, if
such a green female beetle meets a red male from the other group, her behaviour will ensure
that there is no reproduction between them. Effectively, new species of beetles are being
generated.
EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION
Based on these principles, we can work out the evolutionary relationships of the species we
see around us. It is a sort of going backwards in time. We can do this by identifying
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hierarchies of characteristics between species. In order to understand this process, let us think
back to our discussion on the classification of organisms in Class IX. Similarities among
organisms will allow us to group them and then study the groups. For this, which
characteristics decide more fundamental differences among organisms, and which ones decide
fewer basic differences? What is meant by ‘characteristics’, anyway? Characteristics are
details of appearance or behaviour; in other words, a particular form or a particular function.
That we have four limbs is thus a characteristic. That plants can do photosynthesis is also a
characteristic. Some basic characteristics will be shared by most organisms. The cell is the
basic unit of life in all organisms. The characteristics in the next level of classification would
be shared by most, but not all organisms. A basic characteristic of cell design that differs
among different organisms is whether the cell has a nucleus. Bacterial cells do not, while the
cells of most other organisms do. Among organisms with nucleated cells, which ones are
unicellular and which ones multi-cellular? That property marks a very basic difference in body
design, because of specialisation of cell types and tissues. Among multi-cellular organisms,
whether they can undertake photosynthesis or not will provide the next level of classification.
Among the multi-cellular organisms that cannot do photosynthesis, whether the skeleton is
inside the body or around the body will mark another fundamental design difference. We can
see that, even in these few questions that we have asked, a hierarchy is developing that allows
us to make classification groups. The more characteristics two species will have in common,
the more closely they are related. And the more closely they are related, the more recently
they will have had a common ancestor. An example will help. A brother and a sister are
closely related. They have common ancestors in the first generation before them, namely, their
parents. A girl and her first cousin are also related, but less than the girl and her brother. This
is because cousins have common ancestors, their grandparents, in the second generation
before them, not in the first one. We can now appreciate that classification of species is in fact
a reflection of their evolutionary relationship. We can thus build up small groups of species
with recent common ancestors, then super-groups of these groups with more distant common
ancestors, and so on. In theory, we can keep going backwards like this until we come to the
notion of a single species at the very beginning of evolutionary time. If that is the case, then at
some point in the history of the earth, non-living material must have given rise to life. There
are many theories about how this might have happened. It would be interesting to come up
with theories of our own!
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships

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When we try to follow evolutionary relationships, how do we identify characteristics as
common? These characteristics in different organisms would be similar because they are
inherited from a common ancestor. As an example, consider the fact that mammals have four
limbs, as do birds, reptiles and amphibians (Fig. 9.8). The basic structure of the limbs is
similar though it has been modified to perform different functions in various vertebrates. Such
a homologous characteristic helps to identify an evolutionary relationship between apparently
different species. However, all similarities simply in organ shape are not necessarily because
of common ancestry. What would we think about the wings of birds and bats, for example
(Fig. 9.9)? Birds and bats have wings, but squirrels and lizards do not. So are birds and bats
more closely related to each other than to squirrels or lizards? Before we jump to this
conclusion, let us look at the wings of birds and bats more closely. When we do that, we find
that the wings of bats are skin folds stretched mainly between elongated fingers. But the wings
of birds are a feathery covering all along the arm. The designs of the two wings, their structure
and components, are thus very different. They look similar because they have a common use
for flying, but their origins are not common. This makes them analogous characteristics, rather
than homologous characteristics. It would now be interesting to think about whether bird arms
and bat arms should be considered homologous or analogous!
Fossils
Such studies of organ structure can be done not only on current species, but also on species
that are no longer alive. How do we know that these extinct species ever existed? We know
this from finding fossils. What are fossils? Usually, when organisms die, their bodies will
decompose and be lost. But every once in a while, the body or at least some parts may be in an
environment that does not let it decompose completely. If a dead insect gets caught in hot
mud, for example, it will not decompose quickly, and the mud will eventually harden and
retain the impression of the body parts of the insect. All such preserved traces of living
organisms are called fossils.
How do we know how old the fossils are? There are two components to this estimation. One is
relative. If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it is reasonable to suppose that the
fossils we find closer to the surface are more recent than the fossils we find in deeper layers.
The second way of dating fossils is by detecting the ratios of different isotopes of the same
element in the fossil material. It would be interesting to find out exactly how this method
works!
Evolution by Stages

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A question that arises here is – if complicated organs, such as the eye, are selected for the
advantage they provide, how can they be generated by a single DNA change? Surely such
complex organs will be created bit-by-bit over generations? But how can each intermediate
change be selected for? There are a number of possible explanations. Even an intermediate
stage, such as a rudimentary eye, can be useful to some extent. This might be enough to give a
fitness advantage. In fact, the eye – like the wing – seems to be a very popular adaptation.
Insects have them, so does an octopus, and so do vertebrates. And the structure of the eye in
each of these organisms is different – enough for them to have separate evolutionary origins.
Also, a change that is useful for one property to start with can become useful later for quite a
different function. Feathers, for example, can start out as providing insulation in cold weather.
But later, they might become useful for flight. In fact, some dinosaurs had feathers, although
they could not fly using the feathers. Birds seem to have later adapted the feathers to flight.
This, of course, means that birds are very closely related to reptiles, since dinosaurs were
reptiles! It is all very well to say that very dissimilar looking structures evolve from a common
ancestral design. It is true that analysis of the organ structure in fossils allows us to make
estimates of how far back evolutionary relationships go. But those are guesses about what
happened in history. Are there any current examples of such a process? The wild cabbage
plant is a good example. Humans have, over more than two thousand years, cultivated wild
cabbage as a food plant, and generated different vegetables from it by selection. This is, of
course, artificial selection rather than natural selection. So, some farmers have wanted to
select for very short distances between leaves, and have bred the cabbage we eat. Some have
wanted to select for arrested flower development, and have bred broccoli, or for sterile
flowers, and have made the cauliflower. Some have selected for swollen parts, and come up
with kohlrabi. Some have simply looked for slightly larger leaves, and come up with a leafy
vegetable called kale. Would we have thought that all these structures are descended from the
same ancestor if we had not done it ourselves?
Another way of tracing evolutionary relationship depends on the original idea that we started
with. That idea was that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic events in
evolution. If that is the case, then comparing the DNA of different species should give us a
direct estimate of how much the DNA has changed during the formation of these species. This
method is now extensively used to define evolutionary relationships.
EVOLUTION SHOULD NOT BE EQUATED WITH ‘PROGRESS’ ‘PROGRESS’
‘PROGRESS’

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In an exercise of tracing the family trees of species, we need to remember certain things.
Firstly, there are multiple branches possible at each and More to Know! Evolution of wild
cabbage! Heredity and Evolution 157 every stage of this process. So, it is not as if one species
is eliminated to give rise to a new one. A new species has emerged. But that does not
necessarily mean, like the beetle example we have been thinking about, that the old species
will disappear. It will all depend on the environment. Also, it is not as if the newly generated
species are in any way ‘better’ than the older one. It is just that natural selection and genetic
drift have together led to the formation of a population that cannot reproduce with the original
one. So, for example, it is not true that human beings have evolved from chimpanzees. Rather,
both human beings and chimpanzees have a common ancestor a long time ago. That common
ancestor is likely to have been neither human or chimpanzee. Also, the first step of separation
from that ancestor is unlikely to have resulted in modern chimpanzees and human beings.
Instead, the two resultant species have probably evolved in their own separate ways to give
rise to the current forms. In fact, there is no real ‘progress’ in the idea of evolution. Evolution
is simply the generation of diversity and the shaping of the diversity by environmental
selection. The only progressive trend in evolution seems to be that more and more complex
body designs have emerged over time. However, again, it is not as if the older designs are
inefficient! So many of the older and simpler designs still survive. In fact, one of the simplest
life forms – bacteria – inhabit the most inhospitable habitats like hot springs, deep-sea thermal
vents and the ice in Antarctica. In other words, human beings are not the pinnacle of
evolution, but simply yet another species in the teeming spectrum of evolving life.
Human Evolution
The same tools for tracing evolutionary relationships – excavating, time-dating and studying
fossils, as well as determining DNA sequences – have been used for studying human
evolution. There is a great diversity of human forms and features across the planet. So much
so that, for a long time, people used to talk about human ‘races’. Skin colour used to be the
commonest way of identifying these so-called races. Some were called yellow, some black,
white or brown. A major question debated for a long time was, have these apparent groups
evolved differently? Over recent years, the evidence has become very clear. The answer is that
there is no biological basis to the notion of human races. All humans are a single species. Not
only that, regardless of where we have lived for the past few thousand years, we all come from
Africa. The earliest members of the human species, Homo sapiens, can be traced there. Our
genetic footprints can be traced back to our African roots. A couple of hundred thousand years
ago, some of our ancestors left Africa while others stayed on. While the residents spread
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across Africa, the migrants slowly spread across the planet – from Africa to West Asia, then to
Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia, East Asia. They travelled down the islands of Indonesia and
the Philippines to Australia, and they crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas. They
did not go in a single line, so they were not travelling for the sake of travelling, obviously.
They went forwards and backwards, with groups sometimes separating from each other,
sometimes coming back to mix with each other, even moving in and out of Africa. Like all
other species on the planet, they had come into being as an accident of evolution, and were
trying to live their lives the best they could.

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