Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Health, social, personal, vocational benefits can be derived

from proper physical fitness practices and more specifically,

developing these healthy fitness practices should be fundamental to

this populations lifestyle for a number of reasons. Focused on speed

and movement training to enhance all areas of athlete performance,

two programs goal is not simply to run fast and recovering fast.

Playing, fast consists of running fast, reacting fast and recovering fast.

The goal of playing fast is met by three objectives: improve speed,

improve agility and improve conditioning.

The term fitness implies a relation between the task to be

performed and the individual capabilities to perform it. Physical

fitness is the qualities of the body in terms of its state of adoption to

physical activity.

Health and physical fitness have remained to be the

“motto” man from older days. The primitive man by the very nature of

his daily activities built a strong physique superior to the civilized

man. In modern civilized machinery world, the chances for physical

activities are less because of the invention of computers and many

other devices.
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Physical fitness is to the human body what fine-tuning is to

an engine. It enables us to perform up to our more specifically, it is.

“The ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly, with energy

left over for enjoying leisure-time activities and meeting emergency

demands. It is the ability to endure, to bear up, to withstand stress to

carry on in circumstances where an unfit person could not continue.

And is a major basis for good health and well-being”.

For elite sports, the trainer should be able to design

workouts that cover all relevant fitness areas – strength, flexibility,

agility, aerobic and anaerobic endurance and speed. These workouts

must be both specific to the sport and suitable for the level of the

athlete. In addition, the trainer should be able to assess fitness levels,

understand physiological and biomechanical test data, liaise with

physiotherapists regarding injury prevention and rehabilitation and

also be able to pass on sound nutritional instruction. This job

description, if carried out to full capacity, requires a great deal of

experts and experience and is likely to be beyond the knowledge base

of most head coaches. Thus the advantage of using a specialist

fitness trainer is that he or she has the specific skills, experience and

time to optimize the physical preparation of the athlete.

Physical education is a very important part of the

educational process. It is not a “frill” or an “ornament” tacked on to

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the school program as a means of keeping children busy. It is,

instead, a vital part of education. Through a well-directed physical

education program, children develop skills for the worthy use of

leisure time, engage in activities conducive to healthful living, develop

socially and contributed to their physical and mental health.

A study of history reveals that other civilizations have

recognized the important place of physical education in the training of

their youth. In ancient Athens, for example, every Athenian followed

three main studies: gymnastics, grammar and music. Here in

America the contributions physical education in the educational

program have been recognized for many years. In 1918 the National

Educational Association set forth its well-known cardinal principles of

secondary education, which listed seven objectives of education:

health, command of fundamental processes, worthy have membership,

vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure time and ethical character.

Physical education is playing a very important part in achieving these

objectives. Through such contributions as the benefits of exercise to

physical health, the fundamental physical skill that makes for a more

interesting, efficient and vigorous life and the social education that

contributes to the development of character and good human

relations, these cardinal principles are brought nearer to realization.

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Training is a systematic process of repetitive progressive

exercise of work involving learning and acclimatization. Training is

the net summation of adaptations induced by regular exercise.

Students on the exercises with reference to fitness state that it

enables the tolerate more effectively, subsequently stresses of similar

nature. The process of stressing the sportsman and his adaptation to

these stress is called sports training and it is the mean by which

sports performance is improved.

Trainings has been explained as a programme of exercise

designed to improve the skills and increase the energy capacities of an

athletes for particular event. [Fox, 1984]

The word training means different things in different fields.

In sports the word training is generally understand to be a synonyms

doing physical exercises. In a narrow sense, training is doing physical

exercise for the improvement of performance. This concept is reflected

in words for terms which are gives to a separate components of

training or separate methods of procedures of doing physical

exercises, sports, medicine and exercise physiologists also understand

training to be doing physical exercise for improvement of performance

or of separate performance factors.[Hardayal Singh, 1984]

Pierre Dumas explained training as a methodological

application of general and special exercise, performed either in groups

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or individually and designed to bring the athlete to his peak condition

at the time of competition.

The major objective in training is to cause biological

adaptations in order to improve performance in a specific task to

enhance physiological improvement effectively and to bring about a

change, specific exercise and over load must be followed. By exercising

at a level above normal a variety of training.

In general physical training imposes stress on the body

tissues, in particular, the muscles. Chronic muscular activity which

occur during training can be considered a (+) ve form of stress

because it stimulates growth and improves muscular performance.

The most of the changes that occur in the muscle as a result of

training are gradual and occur over several weeks or months. The

magnitude of these muscular adaptation is somewhat proportional to

the amount of exercise performed during training.

There is now a much broader base of knowledge regarding

these special human beings and athletes and this is directly reflected

in the methodology of training. New methods are surfacing which are

often found to be useful in daily training. [Wilmore and Costil, 1984]

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Training denotes the process of preparation for some task.

This process invariably extends to a number of days and even months

and years. Means and measure from several sports scheme disciplines

significantly support the training of an advanced sports person.

Sports training is the basic form of an athlete’s training. It

is the preparation systematically organised with the help of exercises

which in fact is a pedagogically organised process of controlling the

development of an athlete. [Howard and Rosemary Payne, 1981]

Sports training is a basic preparation of the sportsmen for

better performance through physical exercise. It is based on scientific

principles of aiming at education and performance, enhancement.

Sports activities consists of motor movement and action and their

success depends to a great extend on how correctly they are

performed. Techniques of training and improvement of tactical

efficiencies plays a vital role in training process. [Edward L. Fox, 1984]

The term “Training” is widely used in sports. But there is

some disagreement among coaches and sports scientists regarding the

meaning of this word. Some experts understand that sports training

is basically doing physical exercises, the factors essentials are sports

equipment and implements verbal instructions, means of recovery,

means of assessment of performance capacity, nutrition, psychological

means etc. Further advanced training of sports persons significantly

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supported by several sports performance in addition to physical and

physiological characteristics, the social and psychic capacities of the

sports persons also have to improved.

It is always assessed, planned, organized and implemented

by a coach or a sports trainer. Sport training is a dynamic process. It

continuously goes on refining and perfecting its means and methods

of the continuous improvement of sports performance. At the same

time it is planned and carried out is such a way that optimum

development of personality of sportsman takes place. [Boucher and

Malina, 1993]

Sports training aims at improving the performance of spots

persons. The sports performance depends on several factors like

constitution, condition, technique, tactics, coordination and personality.

Sports training is done for improving sports performance. The sports

performance as any other type of human performance, is not the

product of one single system (or) aspect of human personality. On the

contrary it is the product of the total personality of the sports person.

The personality of person has several dimensions. Example., Physical,

physiological, social and psychic. In order to improve sports

performance the social and psychic capacities of the sports person

also have to be improved in addition to the physical and physiological

ones. In other words the total personality of sportsman has to be

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improved in order to improve his performance. Sports training

therefore, directly and indirectly aims at improving the personality of

the sports man.

Aerobic exercise is physical exercise that intends to

improve the oxygen system. Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers

to the use of oxygen in the body's metabolic or energy-generating

process. Many types of exercise are aerobic, and by definition are

performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time.

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted

with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance

running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ

by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as

well as by how energy is generated within the muscle.

In most conditions, anaerobic exercise occurs

simultaneously with aerobic exercises because the less efficient

anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to

energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. What is

generally called aerobic exercise might be better termed "solely

aerobic", because it is designed to be low-intensity enough not to

generate lactate via pyruvate fermentation, so that all carbohydrate is

aerobically turned into energy.

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Initially during increased exertion, muscle glycogen

is broken down to produce glucose, which undergoes glycolysis

producing pyruvate which then reacts with oxygen (Krebs cycle) to

produce carbon dioxide and water and releasing energy. If there is a

shortage of oxygen (anaerobic exercise, explosive movements),

carbohydrate is consumed more rapidly because the pyruvate

ferments into lactate.

As carbohydrates deplete, fat metabolism is increased so that it

can fuel the aerobic pathways. The latter is a slow process, and is

accompanied by a decline in performance level. This gradual switch to

fat as fuel is a major cause of what marathon runners will call as

"hitting the wall". Anaerobic exercise, in contrast, refers to the initial

phase of exercise, or to any short burst of intense exertion, in which

the glycogen or sugar is respired without oxygen, and is a far less

efficient process. Operating anaerobically, an untrained 400 meter

sprinter may "hit the wall" short of the full distance.

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is

performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period

of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an

aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with

near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while

golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated

by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some

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sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic exercises,

such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes are designed

specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness.

As a result, aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of death due

to cardiovascular problems. In addition, high-impact aerobic activities

(such as jogging or jumping rope) can stimulate bone growth, as well

as reduce the risk of osteoporosis for both men and women.

Aerobic capacity describes the functional capacity of the

cardiorespiratory system, (the heart, lungs and blood vessels). Aerobic

capacity is defined as the maximum amount of oxygen the body can

use during a specified period, usually during intense exercise. It is a

function both of cardiorespiratory performance and the maximum

ability to remove and utilize oxygen from circulating blood. To

measure maximal aerobic capacity, an exercise physiologist or

physician will perform a VO2 max test, in which a subject will undergo

progressively more strenuous exercise on a treadmill, from an easy

walk through to exhaustion. The individual is typically connected to

a spirometer to measure oxygen consumption, and the speed is

increased incrementally over a fixed duration of time. The higher, the

measured cardio respiratory endurance level, the more oxygen has

been transported to and used by exercising muscles, and higher the

level of intensity at which the individual can exercise. More simply

stated, the higher aerobic capacity, the higher level of aerobic fitness.
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The Cooper and multi-stage fitness tests can also be used to assess

functional aerobic capacity for particular jobs or activities.

‘Aerobic’ refers to a variety of exercises that stimulate heart

and lungs activity for a time period sufficiently long to produce

beneficial changes in the body.

“Aerobics” basically means living or working with oxygen.

Aerobics or endurance exercises are those in which large muscle

groups are used in rhythmic repetitive fashion for prolonged periods of

time.

Aerobic is a system of exercises designed to promote the

supply and use of oxygen in the body. Some of these exercises

include running, dancing, rowing, skating and walking. Aerobic

exercise increases cardio respiratory fitness, which is the heart’s

ability to pump blood and deliver oxygen throughout the body. Some

benefits of cardio respiratory fitness are increased endurance and

energy. Weight control decreased blood pressure, decreased heart

rate, decreased cholesterol levels and an increased ability to manage

stress.

The word “aerobics” is relatively old in the context of sport

and exercise. Cooper has developed an aerobics exercises programme

in the spirit of preventive medicine with a view that aerobic types of

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exercises would be useful to develop cardio respiratory health and

fitness.

Many of the early aerobics classes were called “high

impact” that is, both feet may be off the floor at any given time. High

impact was characterized by running or jogging in place, jumping

jacks and small jumps or hops. This was an exciting beginning to

aerobics, however this style created a tremendous amount of stress on

the joints and many of the participants developed impact – related

injuries. So ‘low impact’ aerobics was developed in response to the

increase in injuries. In low impact aerobics one foot is on the floor at

all times, the routines are characterized by marching in place and

traveling from one side of the room to the other. The variable impact

aerobics is a combination of high and low impact moves with a

combination as high intensity impact with the safety of low impact.

The creativity of aerobics instructors and the industry in

general have developed new and varied types of aerobic classes. These

includes water aerobics, sculpting, strength, abdominal, sports

conditioning and circuit or interval classes.

Aerobics is an efficient method to decrease the percentage

of body fat to attain the other metabolic benefits of fitness. Aerobics is

also a very good way to develop musculoskeletal fitness while building

strength, flexibility and co-ordination.

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Aerobics is a progressive physical conditioning programme

that stimulates cardio respiratory activity for a time period sufficiently

long to produce beneficial changes in the body. As the intensity and

duration of work increases the demand for fuel in the working muscle

also increases to meet the additional demand for energy.

Speed is a determinant ability in many sports such as

sprinting events, boxing, fencing, team sports and others. For sports

in which it is not a determinant factor including speed activities in

training enhances high intensity training. Consequently, speed

training represents an important concern for almost every sport.

Power represents the one component of athletic fitness that may be

most indicative of success in sports requiring extreme and rapid force

production. Over the years, researchers, fitness specialists and

coaches have attempted to design strength and conditioning programs

geared toward optimally activating, sensitizing and potentially

educating this force production system. Power can be increased by

either increasing the amount of work (or) force. The overload

principles provide the athlete with a means of improving strength

levels. Practice of skill pattern components increase the speed

efficiency of practical movement patterns. [Mark Albert, 1982]

A separate quality quite distinct from strength, which can

be developed with training, is power. In simple terms, power is the

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ability to generate force quickly. It is defined mathematically as force

and velocity. High level of power will occur in the mid range of either

force or velocity. If an athlete develops greater power, this in turn,

enhances his ability to generate both force (strength) and velocity

(speed). This amalgam of speed and strength be more useful for

athletic performance than strength alone.

To increase in power and the ability to generate more force

at fast speeds. Indeed, research shows that maximum strength is

strongly correlated with power, especially in less experienced athletes.

This endorses traditional heavy weight training as way to improve

athletic performance.

Speed is one of the main requisite, which enable for higher

performance in certain tasks. Speed is more a product of nature than

nature. A person is born with muscles capable of working at speed.

The capacity for work of a sustained nature is very limited

– probably in the region of 30-40 seconds for a major group, fast

acting fibers also have to receive a special nerve impulse which is

probably more refined in some people than others, so promoting the

natural gift of speed. [Wilf Paish, 1991]

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“It is the performance prerequisite to do motor actions

under given conditions (movement task, external factors, individual

prerequisites) in minimum of time”. [Hardayal Singh, 1991]

Speed represents the components of athletic fitness that is

important for success in sports, requiring extreme and rapid force

production. Speed can be increased either by increasing the amount

of work or practicing the skill development.

Speed is the most important component of physical fitness.

Without speed there is no sports and physical education. Speed of

muscular contraction is an innate quality. But speed of movement

can be gained through practice. Speed is a rapidity movement and it

can be tested with 50 yards dash. [Barry L. Johnson and Jack Nelson,

1989]

Speed is related to the percentage of fast twitch muscle

fibers in the athlete’s body, because the quantity of fast twitch muscle

fibers is partially inherited. It is difficult to significantly improve an

athlete’s speed. However it can be done.

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Endurance is the ability of the person to perform

movement of moderate (Sub-maximum) contractions over prolonged

period of time under conditions of fatigue or tiredness. It is the

product of all psychic and physical energy of human body.

Cardio respiratory efficiency may be defined as the ability of

the heart and circulatory system to adjust to the stress of activity.

[Vere Skubi and Hodgkins, 1993]

It is a physiological fact that the human organism needs

stimulating exercise. When your total body is subjected to regular

molecular activity, requiring a vigorous stress on the heart, lungs and

muscles, the general efficiency of our physiological functions

improves. There is no scientific evidence for a healthy person. But an

abundance of research now strongly supports the theory that regular,

vigorous exercise helps to keep healthy hearts and may prevent

cardiovascular disease. A physically fit heart beats at a lower rate &

pumps more oxygen, which denotes the substantial increase of ability

to do more physical work. People who keep fit greatly enlarge their

fullness of living.
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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of the study was to find out the effects of

aerobic and anaerobic circuit trainings on selected physical and

physiological variables such as speed, agility, strength endurance,

cardio respiratory endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time,

systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure among college

men students.

DELIMITATIONS

The study was delimited in the following aspects,

1. The study was confined to forty-five men students studying

Bachelor’s degree in the Department of Physical Education,

Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu, India as

subjects.

2. The selected subjects were randomly divided into three equal

groups of fifteen each. Group I underwent aerobic circuit

training, Group II underwent anaerobic circuit training and

Group III acted as control.

3. The experimental group namely aerobic circuit training and

anaerobic circuit training for three days per week in the

alternate session for twelve weeks.

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4. The following physical and physiological variables such as

speed, agility, strength endurance, cardio respiratory

endurance, resting pulse rate, breath holding time, systolic

blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure were selected as

criterion variables.

5. The selected criterion variables such as speed, agility, strength

endurance, cardio respiratory endurance, resting pulse rate,

breath holding time, systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood

pressure were assessed by using 50 mts run, shuttle run, bend

knee sit ups, cooper’s 12 minutes run/ walk test, radial pulse,

holding the breath for time and by using sphygmomanometer

respectively.

6. The data were collected on selected criterion variables at prior

and immediately after the experimental period i.e., pre and post

tests respectively.

7. The age of the subjects were ranged from 18 to 24 years.

LIMITATIONS

The following limitations were considered while interpreting

the results of the study.

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1. The environmental conditions during tests and training periods

were considered as limitations of the study.

2. The subject’s previous experience and knowledge in training,

which might influence the results, were considered as

limitations.

3. Since, the subjects were motivated verbally during testing and

training periods, no attempt was made to differentiate their

motivation level.

4. The life style and food habits of the subjects were considered as

limitations. However, all the subjects were residing in hostel.

5. The psychological factors that affect the metabolic functions

were not taken into consideration.

HYPOTHESES

The following were drawn as hypotheses for this study.

1. It was hypothesized that the significant changes on selected

physical and physiological variables such as speed, agility,

strength endurance, cardio respiratory endurance, resting pulse

rate, breath holding time, systolic blood pressure and diastolic

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blood pressure for anaerobic circuit training group which would

be higher than the aerobic circuit training group.

2. It was also hypothesized that the improvement on selected

physical and physiological variables namely strength

endurance, cardio respiratory endurance and breath holding

time for aerobic circuit training group would be significantly

higher than the anaerobic circuit training group.

3. It was hypothesised that there would be a significant difference

among aerobic circuit training group, anaerobic circuit training

group and control group on selected physical and physiological

variables after twelve weeks of training period.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS

Training

Training may be defined as ‘systematic process of

repetitive, progressive exercise or work, involving the learning process

and acclimatization’.

Sports Training

Matvey [1981] defined “sports Training is the form of an

athlete’s training. It is the preparation systematically organised with

the help of exercises which in fact that is a pedagogically organised

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with the help of exercises process of controlling an athlete’s

development.

Aerobics

Aerobics means ‘with oxygen’. Aerobic exercise is designed

to produce a sustained increase in heart rate and whose energy cost

can be met by the body from aerobic sources, that is, from increased

oxygen consumption.

Aerobic training

This is a particular strenuous exercise routine which

requires plenty of oxygen, it is particularly helpful for strengthening

the heart and lungs through using your bodies muscles to increase

the heart rate.

Anaerobic training

This form of training requires very little oxygen and a

common form of this type of this exercise is sprinting.

Circuit Training

Circuit training is a combination of high-intensity aerobics

and resistance training designed to be easy to follow and target fat

loss, muscle building and heart fitness. An exercise "circuit" is one

completion of all prescribed exercises in the program. a form of

athletic training in which a number of exercises are performed in turn.

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Speed

Bucher [1990] says, “Speed is the ability of the individual

to make successive movements of the same kind in the shortest period

of time”. Speed is the number of movements per unit of time.

Agility

Agility is generally defined as the ability to change direction

quickly and effectively while moving early as possible at full speed.

Strength Endurance

It may be defined as the ability of a muscle or muscle

group to perform repeated contractions against a resistance to sustain

contraction for an extended period of time with less discomfort and

more rapid recovery. [Ajmeer Singh, 1995]

Cardio Respiratory Endurance

Cardio respiratory endurance is the ability work close to

one’s maximum aerobic capacity for a prolonged period of time. To

increase one’s endurance is depend upon increasing the ability to

work at high, relative work load for extended periods of time. [Jack

Daniels, Robert Fitts and George Sheehan, 1998]

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Resting Pulse Rate

“The number of beats while at rest felt in exactly one minute

is the resting pulse rate”. It was assessed on the lateral side (radial

artery) of the forearm.

Breath Holding Time

Breath holding time is defined as the duration of time

through which one can hold his/her breath without inhaling and

exhaling after a deep inhalation.

Systolic Blood Pressure

The pressure exerted on the vessel walls during

ventricular contraction, measured in millimeters of mercury by

the sphygmomanometer (Howley, 1997).

Diastolic Blood Pressure

The pressure exerted on the blood vessel walls during the

resting portion of the cardiac cycle, measured in millimeters of

mercury by the sphygmomanometer (Howley, 1997).

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The aim of research in the field of physical education is to

help the physical educators and coaches to gain additional knowledge

in the area of training methods. The present investigation has the

following significant contribution.

1. The findings of the study would reveal the extent to which

the aerobic and anaerobic circuits trainings improve the

selected physical and physiological parameters.

2. The study would provide scientific base and guidance to the

physical educationist, coaches, and athletes to identify which

method of training is best suited to develop physical and

physiological parameters and influenced which variables.

3. The results of the study would provide an additional

knowledge in the area of research.

4. The results of the study would provide the knowledge for

multi sports events.

5. The contribution of the study would bring out new and

useful training method for the advancement of performance

in the field of sports and games.