Composite

Materials
an introduction

A VKCN publication

R.P.L. Nijssen
Composite Materials

An Introduction

[Link]

iii
1st English edition, based on 3rd Dutch edition (ISBN: 978-90-77812-51-8)

Copyright©2015 R.P.L. Nijssen, Inholland University of Applied Sciences

ISBN: 978-90-77812-471

Composites – basic knowledge, author: R.P.L. Nijssen, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution – Share
Alike 4.0 International license. Go to [Link] to read a copy of this
license.

This book may be obtained in digital form (Open Access) via:

[Link]/lectoraatgrootcomposiet and
[Link]

This translation was made possible by the Inholland and the Arnhem and Nijmegen University of Applied
Sciences, with special thanks to Rens Horn.

Printed copies have been made available by Inholland University of Applied Sciences These
copies can be obtained via VKCN (shipment and administration fees apply)

Preface
In today’s industry, fiber reinforced thermosets and thermoplastics play an
important role in production, engineering, usage and education. To promote
the well-thought use of these composite materials, the book in front of you
intends to provide an introductory course to composites for students at the
Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences (Hogescholen) and is a translation
based on the Dutch book ‘Composieten – basiskennis’ (3rd edition),
developed and supported by the Dutch Association for Composites in the
Netherlands (VKCN).
The Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences (‘Hogescholen’) are part of the
academic system and provide education and research that is generally less
theoretical and more applied than universities. Students graduate with the
title of ‘Bachelor of Engineering’, and some continue to a university Master’s
programme, often after 6 months to a year of additional premaster education.
This book is not intended specifically for the ‘usual suspects’ in terms of
composite courses, viz. those given at aeronautical or aerospace
departments. It is more general and aims to provide basic knowledge to any
technical Bachelor-level student, in aeronautical and mechanical

iv
engineering, civil engineering and architecture, technical business studies,
etc. It mostly excludes detailed mechanics of composites (which is often a
large part of composite textbooks), and focuses on the most important topics
related to manufacturing, materials, processes, design, testing,
sustainability, and certification.
In this category, the body of Dutch literature was quite limited and partly
outdated at the time when a group of teachers from various ‘Hogescholen’
convened and decided to try and solve this issue. Even in this day and age,
for many Dutch students at the ‘Hogescholen’, reading and studying in Dutch
is still easier than reading English. Furthermore, there is a great wealth of
English textbooks on composite materials, there is really no urgent need to
add to that. Therefore it was decided to write the book in Dutch.
The reason that we, more or less against the above logic, made this
English version is a highly pragmatic one: in many ‘Hogeschool’
departments, the curriculum contains parallel English and Dutch spoken
tracks, and ideally these use the same textbooks.
Nevertheless, even if the world does not really need yet another book on
composites, we hope that it can still play a role in fostering well-thought use
of composite materials in engineering. In the Netherlands, we were/are in the
situation that exciting new developments are driven by innovative industry,
often small- and medium enterprises. These companies hire alumni of,
among others, our ‘Hogescholen’, which often need to be trained
‘on the job’ for the company’s specific processes. On the other hand, there are
several sectors where composites are regarded as new materials. The potential
for improving or complementing design with these materials is very promising, but
knowledge of materials and how to design with them is lacking because it is often
limited in the curricula of ‘Hogescholen’ and Universities.
Education on the potential as well as pitfalls of composites is crucial for
initiating and driving new developments in many engineering disciplines.
In the collaborative spirit of the contributors, this textbook is published
‘Open Access’.

v
Contents
Preface v

Chapter 1 Materials 12
1 - 1 What is a composite? 12
1 - 2 Pros and cons of composites 13
1 - 3 Fibres 16
1 - 3.1 The role of fibres in a composite 16
1 - 3.2 Glass and carbon – the most commonly used fibres 16
1 - 3.3 Other fibres 19
1 - 3.4 Fibre properties 19
1 - 3.5 Plies and laminates 19
1 - 3.6 Yarns, bundles, textiles 20
1 - 4 Polymers 23
1 - 4.1 The role of polymers as a matrix in a composite 23
1 - 4.2 Thermoplastics 25
1 - 4.3 Thermosets 25
1 - 4.4 Different kinds of polymers 25
1 - 4.5 Material properties 29
1 - 5 Glass transition temperature 29
1 - 6 Viscosity and permeability 30
1 - 7 Sizing 32
1 - 8 Sandwich and core materials 32
1 - 9 Sources 35
1 - 10 Exercises for this chapter 36
Chapter 2 Production methods 38
2 - 1 Moulds and plugs 38
2 - 2 Categories of production methods 40
2 - 2.1 Raw materials 40
2 - 2.2 Aiding materials and devices 41
2 - 3 Processing methods 41
2 - 3.1 Open-mould processes for thermosets 42
2 - 3.2 Closed-mould processes 49
2 - 4 Further machining and material removal 52
2 - 5 Sources 53
2 - 6 Exercises for this chapter 54

vi
Chapter 3 Design of laminates 57
3 - 1 Description of a laminate 57
3 - 2 Failure mechanisms 58
3 - 2.1 Mechanical failure mechanisms 59
3 - 2.2 Other failure mechanisms 62
3 - 3 Calculations with composites 65
3 - 3.1 Estimating stiffness and strength 65
3 - 3.2 Classical laminate theory 68
3 - 3.3 Finite Element Method 77
3 - 3.4 Rules of thumb for laminate design 77
3 - 4 Sources 81
3 - 5 Exercises for this chapter 83
Chapter 4 Sandwich 86
4 - 1 Bending of sandwiches 87
4 - 2 Buckling of sandwiches 89
4 - 3 Sources 90
4 - 4 Exercises for this chapter 91
Chapter 5 Joints 95
5 - 1 Adhesive joints 95
5 - 1.1 Making good adhesive joints 95
5 - 1.2 Failure of adhesive joints 98
5 - 1.3 Types of adhesive 98
5 - 2 Mechanical joints 99
5 - 2.1 Surface pressure and stress around a hole 99
5 - 2.2 Failure of mechanical joints 99
5 - 2.3 Use of inserts 100
5 - 2.4 Screwed connections 100
5 - 2.5 Bolted connections 100
5 - 2.6 Hybrid and other joints 101
5 - 2.7 Joints in thermoplastics 103
5 - 3 Sources 105
5 - 4 Exercises for this chapter 106
Chapter 6 Sustainability 108
6 - 1 Life Cycle Analysis 108
6 - 2 Sustainability of composites 108
6 - 2.1 Production of composites 109
6 - 2.2 Maintenance and repair 110

vii
6 - 2.3 Energy saving in the construction industry 110
6 - 2.4 Composites in motion 111
6 - 2.5 End of life 112
6 - 3 Sources 114
Chapter 7 Testing 116
7 - 1 Why test? 116
7 - 2 Test- and measurement methods for composites 116
7 - 2.1 Test set-up and methods of measurement 116
7 - 2.2 Types of mechanical tests 120
7 - 2.3 Other tests 124
7 - 3 Interpretation of test results 127
7 - 4 Sources 129
7 - 5 Exercises for this chapter 130
Chapter 8 Standards and Certification 133
8 - 1 A case of trust 133
8 - 2 Test standards 134
8 - 3 Design standards 134
8 - 4 Standards development 135
8 - 5 Design manuals 137
8 - 6 Sources 137
Answers to exercises 139
Content and illustrations 147
VKCN working group Education 149

viii
ix
Microscopic image of a glass fibre/epoxy composite

material. The loose fibres, and, in the background, the

matrix which holds the fibres together are clearly

visible. The diameter of these fibres is approximately

17 micrometer.
Composites – an introduction Materials

Composites – an introduction

Chapter 1 Materials
After reading this chapter, you will know the definition of a composite, be familiar with the
role of fibres and matrix, and be able to describe the production of a number of fibre types
as well as the curing of various resin types. You will know the most important properties
of commonly used fibres, resins and textiles.

1-1 What is a composite?

This chapter provides an overview of the materials from which a composite can be
composed, and their most important properties. First we shall determine what a composite
actually is. Various definitions of composites may be used:

• 'a combination of a stronger and a weaker material'

• 'a material composed of different parts'

• 'a combination of two materials'

The above definitions pose some problems. The first two leave us without an answer to the
question: “Why make such a combination?”. The third definition implies that alloys,
twocomponent adhesives and solutions are composites. The first and last definitions are
restrictive, since no further materials are included. In this book, the following definition will be
used:

A composite is a material structure that consists of at least two macroscopically identifiable

materials that work together to achieve a better result.

This is quite a mouthful, but at least the objections raised above no longer apply. This
description still requires further explanation.
When a composite product is manufactured, the material itself and the structure are often
made at the same time. Usually there is no raw, unmachined material that is kneaded,
deformed and assembled into a structure, but the structure as well as the material are made
in one go; hence the term 'material structure’. Composites as defined in this book are
manufactured of fibres mixed with a (polymer) resin or matrix. These two components do not
dissolve into each other and remain visible (“macroscopically identifiable”). The favourable
properties of fibres and matrix are utilised to the maximum, while the unfavourable properties

12
 Materials

of one component are compensated for by the other component as much as possible,
achieving a structure that could not have been made with either of the separate components.
In this regard, for composites, one often refers to (a variation of) the 'materials triangle'
(see Figure 1). This triangle shows that the possibilities of arriving at a particular structure
depend to a large extent on the material and the production method.
The restriction 'macroscopically identifiable materials' excludes alloys, mixed adhesives
and salt solutions. In particular, this book discusses composites that consist of fibres that
have been embedded in a polymer material – i.e. fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP). In such
composites, the strength of the fibres is used to make a material that is stronger than the
polymer alone (see also 1 - 3.1 and 1 - 4.1).
This book focuses on FRP for use in load-bearing structures. Here, a 'better result' refers
to applications of composites that make the
structure stronger, more rigid, better capable
of withstanding sustained loads etc. than when
the materials are used on their own. It does not
mean that the structure necessarily is better
than a structure with other materials.

1 - 2 Pros and cons of composites

Composite materials are relatively
unknown and are often regarded as hightech
materials for modern applications.
Figure 1: The Materials Triangle Almost every

material has previously gone through this phase;

even wood used
for building ships was once regarded as revolutionary and later the same applied to steel.
This process was not straightforward. A certain motivation was required for adopting new
materials (e.g. strength, stiffness, shortage of existing materials) and new construction
methods became necessary. Shipyards, for example, disappeared or had to be completely
reorganised in order to process the new material. Design methods and computational
procedures changed, often through a process of bitter experience; for example, unexpected
brittle fractures in American Liberty ships eventually helped improve steel ship design.
It can be disputed that composites are revolutionary materials. As Figure 2 illustrates,
modern composites have been used in structures for more than 60 years. However, a
'transition to composite' seems to be gradually taking place in more and more industries
(see e.g. Figure 3).

Engineers are considered to be familiar with available materials and – based on project
requirements – to be capable of selecting the right materials for the job. Know-how can be

13
Composites – an introduction Materials

Figure 2: The 1961 Chevrolet Corvette, with fibre glass body parts [1]
obtained through modern software, such as CES Edupack [3], which is able to compare the
properties of countless materials.
In addition, it is necessary to know both the advantages and disadvantages of a material.
The table below summarises a number of these possible (!) pros and cons. Also see [2].

14
Composites – an introduction Materials

Figure 3: Transition from metal to composite in the transport sector [4]

Table 1: Pros and cons of composite materials

Advantages Disadvantages

Weight saving High material costs

High degree of freedom in form, Sophisticated computational
material and process methods sometimes required

Easy to colour Colour and gloss preservation

not always predictable

Translucent Relatively limited knowledge on

structural behaviour of details
and connection methods

High degree of integration of Finishing not yet well developed

functions possible

Strength, stiffness, thermal and Stiffness and failure behaviour

electrical resistance can be designed can be undesirable; sensitive to
temperature, fire and lightning
strike

Low total maintenance costs High costs of raw materials

Water- and chemically resistant Sensitive to UV light

Use of durable materials possible Recycling not yet well

developed

Automated manufacturing possible Sometimes capital intensive

production methods (e.g.
automated methods)

The above-mentioned advantages and disadvantages relate to a ‘current’ material that is

not further specified. Careful distinctions should be made per design, because characteristics
are not applicable or incompatible in some cases. An example is the lower weight; for objects

15
Composites – an introduction Materials

that do not need to be moved often and are not appreciably loaded by their own weight, it
would not make sense to opt for lightweight design. Furthermore, costs and sustainability of a
design should always be considered throughout the life cycle. The costs of components or
life-cycle phases can soar (e.g. investments in a mould) or materials may not be sustainable.
For example, the production of carbon fibres requires high amounts of energy. This may
sometimes be compensated for by the total costs of use due to lower maintenance costs or
energy consumption during transport or in energy generation processes such as wind
turbines.
The relative number of advantages and disadvantages means little in respect to the general
applicability of a composite. A particular aspect of a design may either lead to guaranteed
success or be show-stopper.

1-3 Fibres
1 - 3.1 The role of fibres in a composite

The fibres generally determine the strength and stiffness of the composite material (see
frame describing strength, stiffness and transverse contraction). A polymer to which directional
fibres have been added is much stronger in the fibre direction than the polymer without fibres.
Perpendicular to the fibre direction, the increase in stiffness is less pronounced. The strength
in that direction is smaller, since the fibres act as stress concentrators. In practice, fibres are
often incorporated in different directions.

1 - 3.2 Glass and carbon – the most commonly used fibres

Although many types of fibres exist that are suitable as reinforcement in a composite
material, glass fibres and carbon fibres (carbon/graphite) are most commonly used.
Production methods of these fibres differ.
To produce glass fibres, silicon oxide (SiO 2, from sand) is heated together with various
additives above its melting point. The molten material is then fed to small channels with small
holes in the bottom (of approx. 2 mm diameter) through which the molten material passes.
The viscous melt is wound on a coil. This is done at high speed (tens of metres per second).
As a result, the molten fibres are stretched and become much thinner – approximately 20
micrometers in diameter. Immediately after leaving the extrusion sleeves (which are made of
a platinum-rhodium alloy that is capable of withstanding high temperatures), the fibres are
sprinkled with water so that they solidify at high speed. The water contains an additive to
facilitate further processing of the fibres. See Figure 4. For a further discussion of the fibre to
textile process, see 1 - 3.6.

16
 Composites – an introduction Materials

platinum-rhodium nozzle, diameter

ca. 2 mm
liquid glass

Applicator for water-

based sizing

Bundles are spooled

onto bobbin at ca. 60
km/h

Figure 4: Overview of glass fibre production

There are various types of glass, each with different material properties. Each type is
designated by a letter. The most common type is E-glass. Other types include S-glass
(increased strength and stiffness), C-glass (chemically resistant), D-glass (low dielectric
constant and thus highly suitable for application in radomes, for example). The type of glass
is determined by its chemical composition.
The process described above is relatively cheap but involves a number of complicating
factors. The constituents must be mixed in the correct ratios. Also, changing the chemical
composition requires time and material, since the furnace must first be purged. The material
of the glass furnace has a limited lifetime of a few years.

oxidation carbonisation post-processing

Application of sizing and

winding onto bobbins

ca. 2000 ºC

ca. 200 ºC

Inert gas , e.g. N2

PAN precursor
O2

Figure 5: Overview of carbon fibre production

17
Composites – an introduction Materials

Carbon fibres are removed in an inert

produced in a atmosphere); and ultimately Stiffness, strength, and
completely different way Poisson contraction
(Figure 5). Various raw The response of a material to an external load is often illustrated
materials can be used, in a stress-strain diagram. One axis displays the stress (load F
provided their chemical divided by stressed area A). The other axis displays strain: relative
compound has a high carbon elongation, i.e. elongation divided by original [Link] slope in this
atom content. In general, diagram is a measure of flexibility, this is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus. Failure occurs at failure strain and -
PAN
stress. The larger the failure stress, the stronger the material. The
(polyacrylnitrile), pitch or
larger the resistance against elongation, the stiffer the material is.
rayon/viscose (now used
(NB: although these concepts may be confused in colloquial
in e.g. language: the opposite of strong is ‘weak’; the opposite of stiff is
biocomposites) are ‘flexible’.) In composites, the strength and stiffness depend on fibre
used. PAN is a orientation as well as fibre and matrix properties.
manufactured product that
has welldefined
properties. Pitch,
on the other hand, is a
natural product. PAN is fibre
preferred for consistent
quality, while pitch is
cheaper. Threads
drawn from PAN
or pitch pass composite
through three stages:
oxidation at
approximately 200ºC matrix
(the fibres obtain their
characteristic black colour in
this stage); carbonisation at strain
800-
1600ºC (various Elongation of a material in one direction typically results in some
contraction in the perpendicular direction. This is called transverse
components, such as nitrogen
contraction or Poisson contraction (reflected in Poisson’s ratio).
atoms, are

graphitisation (where the fibre

obtains its definitive composition). The fibres are stretched during this process, so that the
orientation of the carbon chains in the material runs parallel to the fibre direction as much as
possible, and an anisotropic fibre is formed. Carbon fibres are often transversally isotropic and have
a much higher stiffness in the axial direction than in the transverse direction (see page 25).

18
Composites – an introduction Materials

1 - 3.3 Other fibres

In addition to glass and carbon, many other fibre reinforcements are used. With respect to the
manufacturing method, basalt fibres closely resemble glass fibres. Basalt (volcanic rock) is heated
in a furnace, similar to glass, after which threads are drawn. The basalt is ready for processing ‘as
is’ – which means components do not need to be mixed beforehand. The composition of basalt
depends on the site where it is mined, however. This means that ultimately there is only a limited
supply. Furthermore, basalt is more difficult to melt than glass and more abrasive. Therefore,
extrusion sleeves must be replaced more frequently. This leads to basalt being more expensive than
E-glass, although it is still cheaper than the more expensive kinds of glass and carbon.
Other commonly applied fibres are aramid fibres (aromatic polyamides), known by the
brand names Kevlar and Twaron. The polymer chains in these fibres are strongly directed
during the manufacturing process, resulting in the formation of a stiff fibre. The specific gravity
of these fibres is very low, resulting in good specific properties. An important advantage of
these fibres is their great tenacity, making them very suitable for application in bullet-proof
vests.
During processing and in use, natural fibres (from plants such as flax, hemp, bamboo and
wood) have the disadvantage of being sensitive to moisture absorption and rotting. Another
disadvantage of plant fibres is that they are fairly short. Their strength and stiffness, certainly
in relation to their weight, can be of the same order as that of synthetic fibres (see Table 2).

1 - 3.4 Fibre properties

Some important material properties of reinforcing fibres are shown in Table 2. Compare
these values for a moment with those for a 'known' material such as steel. Chapter 7
discusses the way in which all these properties are determined.

1 - 3.5 Plies and laminates

Key terms in working with composites are ply and laminate. A layer of impregnated fibre
reinforcement is called a lamina or ply; a stack of plies is called a laminate (see Figure 6).
There are many possibilities for the internal structure of a ply, and for how a laminate is built
up. These are introduced below and in Chapter 2.

Table 2: Properties of some fibres

Property E-glass Carbon* Aramid Bamboo

Stiffness [GPa] 70-80 160-440 60-180 10-15

Breaking strength [MPa] 2400 2000-5300 3100-3600 100-200

Failure strain [%] 2.6 1-1.5 1.7 -

Density [kg/m3] 2500-2600 1800-2000 1540 400-800

Fracture length** [km] 96 187 238 25

* There are many types of carbon fibres, and emphasis may be placed on high strength or high
modulus** (see page 35).

19
 Composites – an introduction Materials

laminate

Figure 6: Definition of ply and laminate

1 - 3.6 Yarns, bundles, textiles

Fibres and fibre bundles are often not processed in a product directly but are first processed to
form a textile. Except for winding and pultrusion purposes (for production methods, see Chapter 2),
a textile is much more suitable than a fibre or roving (fibre bundle). The methods used for processing
fibres into textiles are largely derived from the textile industry, and much of the terminology used in
this field is also used in the context of processing reinforcing fibres to form textiles.
As can be seen in Figure 7, a filament (one single fibre) can be bundled to a strand (end) and
directly processed to form a mat. Such a mat consists of short or long fibres that have been bonded
onto each other in a more or less arbitrary pattern. This actually means it already is a composite. A
short-fibre or long-fibre mat is generally called a chopped strand mat or continuous strand mat (both
sometimes confusingly abbreviated to CSM). In the event

filament

yarn/roving

woven fabric mat

cut
fibres
Figure 7: From Fibre to textile ( based on [5])
of a very low areal weight, the term fleece is used.

20
Composites – an introduction Materials

The fibres can also be bundled to twisted strand to form a yarn. Untwisted strands can be
combined into a roving. Two classes of reinforcing material can be made:

• Woven fabric

• Non-crimp fabric

In a woven fabric, the fibre bundles are woven. The crimp, the surface structure and the
drapeability are determined by the weave pattern of warp and weft. Crimp in this context is defined
as the 'curviness' of a fibre in a woven fabric that is determined by the weave pattern. Various
weave patterns are shown in Figure 8.

Plain weave

Basket weave

Twill weave Satin weave

Figure 8: Weave patterns

The degree to which a woven fabric complies with the volume decrease of the resin during
curing is related to the crimp of the woven fabric. Drapeability is related to the ease with which a
textile takes on an imposed shape. The more drapeable a textile is, the less susceptible it is to
creasing, and the larger the possible changes of direction the textile can have in the mould.
However, this detracts from the quantity of control that you have over the direction of the fibres in
the draped textile during handling. The weave has a large influence on the properties of a ply. In
general, looser weaves, such as twill and satin, show better drapeability and permeability than a
smooth weave, which in turn provides a more stable textile.
0

21
 Composites – an introduction Materials
36

24

12

270 0

90

180
0

270 90

180

270 90

180

Figure 9: Polar stiffness diagram (based on [6])

The stiffness of a composite can be different in different directions due to fibre orientation. This
is shown in a polar stiffness diagram, in which the stiffness in different directions is indicated as the
distance from the origin to the line in the respective direction (see Figure 9).
As the name indicates, a non-crimp fabric (NCF) has no built-in crimp; all fibre bundles are
straight. This is achieved by stitching the fibre bundles either to each other or to a thin support layer.
The latter consists of a limited amount of fibres oriented transversally to the main direction of the
textile or a thin fleece of arbitrarily oriented (cut) fibres. For this reason, non-crimp fabric is often
referred to as stitched fabric (see Figure 10).

22
Composites – an introduction Materials

stitching yarn

Figure 10: Production of a quasi-isotropic non-crimp fabric by stitching (based on [7])

1-4 Polymers
The world around us is full of polymer products. At first glance, the differences between most
polymers are not obvious. But just as different wood species were used for different purposes in the
past (e.g. oaks for robust furniture, tropical hardwood for window frames and sandalwood for carved
images), different polymer materials are used for different purposes. For example, plastic coffee
cups are made of polystyrene (as is the insulation in a refrigerator), the vacuum cleaner in a corner
of your student accommodation is made of impact-resistant ABS and your water bottle is made out
of inert polyethylene.

1 - 4.1 The role of polymers as a matrix in a composite

In composites, fibres are embedded in a polymer, which is called the ‘matrix’ (originating from the
Latin word for ‘womb’). It may not seem logical to partly compromise the high strength and stiffness
characteristics of the fibre materials by mixing them with polymer materials. Indeed, most production
techniques are at least partially based on including as little polymers to the composite as possible.
The most important and most obvious reason for including the polymer is that the polymer acts as
an 'adhesive' and binds the fibres together. By encapsulating a fibre with polymer, the fibre can
absorb higher compressive loads; it is supported by the resin. A somewhat less obvious, but very
important, function of the polymer is that the fibres can work together better, because the polymer
transfers loads from one fibre to the other through shear stresses. External loads are thus better
distributed over the fibres in a composite than in a dry fibre bundle. When one filament breaks, the
load is distributed over the other filaments.
In addition, the polymer largely determines the sensitivity of the composite to external influences
such as moisture, chemicals, and ultraviolet light. It often determines colour and surface quality,
opacity, and fire safety.
In summary, the role of the polymer in a composite should not be underestimated. The term 'fibre-
reinforced plastics' does not justify the role of the polymer, because the polymer itself plays a crucial
role in the success of a composite material.

23
 Composites – an introduction Materials

Isotropy
A material is isotropic with regards to a property if this property is of equal magnitude in all directions. The
opposite of isotropic is anisotropic. Because of their fibre orientation, composites are virtually always
anisotropic. A special case of anisotropy is ‘transverse isotropy’: this is often the case in carbon fibres.
Another case is ‘orthotropic’: t his is almost always the case for plies. Sometimes a composite i s made as
isotropic as possible: a quasi-isotropic stacking sequence is used. A quasi -isotropic laminate may have fibres
in 0º, 90, and ±45º-directions with respect to the load.

Transversal isotropy (e.g. carbon):

Elongitudinal ≠ Etransversal

Elongitudinal Ez Ex

Ey

Etransversal
orthotropy (e.g. UD-ply):
Ex ≠ Ey ≠ Ez

24
Composites – an introduction Materials

Various kinds of polymers are used in composites. The most relevant are discussed in the
following sections. But first we shall classify polymers into two categories, since most of the
processing methods depend on the category the polymers belong to. These categories are the
thermoplastics and the thermosets.

1 - 4.2 Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are polymers that melt upon heating, becoming formable and regain their solid
shape upon cooling. Most commonly used unreinforced polymers are thermoplastics. In molecular
terms, thermoplastics consist of long entangled chains. Upon heating, some freedom of movement
is gained through the molecular movements.
Exceptions aside, thermoplastics are not generally suitable for impregnation of a fibre
reinforcement due to their viscosity (high viscosity in liquid state, related to the molecular state). This
prevents the thermoplastic from wetting the fibres adequately (impregnating), thus a good composite
cannot be formed. To produce composite materials using thermoplastics, high pressures and
temperatures are necessary. A commonly used method is to alternate dry plies with thermoplastic
films and produce a composite by means of a heated mould (e.g. compression moulding).
Alternatively, thermoplastic yarns or fibre bundles are co-spun with the fibre reinforcement. Then, a
lower external pressure is needed to arrive at a good impregnation.
A recent process development is the infusion of thermoplastics. The infusion process uses
monomers that polymerise during curing. Since monomers have short chains they do not get
entangled, leading to a low viscosity in liquid state and making them suitable for infusion.

1 - 4.3 Thermosets

Thermosetting resins (in short: thermosets) do not melt on heating, but ultimately disintegrate.
From a molecular point of view, most thermosets consist of relatively short chains ensuring the non-
cured polymers to have very low viscosity (see 1 - 6). Curing is carried out by initiating a chemical
reaction, in which the short chains form bonds and create a three-dimensional ‘cross-linked’
network. The temperature is often regulated during curing. This can also apply for the pressure
(depending on the fabrication method).
The distinction between thermoplastics and thermosets is not always clear. Polyesters, which are
classified as thermosets below, can also be thermoplastic. Phenolic resins behave as thermoplastics
up to a particular temperature.

1 - 4.4 Different kinds of polymers

The most commonly used thermosetting plastics are polyesters, vinylesters and epoxies. A
comparison of these three immediately reveals:

• Polyesters and vinylesters are cheaper to produce than epoxies.

• Epoxies shrink less during curing than polyesters and vinylesters.

• Polyesters are more sensitive to damage due to osmosis (water that is absorbed in the
polymer and can cause blisters, see Chapter 3).

25
 Composites – an introduction Materials

• All polymers require at least two components to be mixed: in the case of polyester and
vinylester this is the monomer and a catalyst (and accelerator) to cure; epoxies require a
hardener to be mixed with the main component.

• An exothermic reaction takes place in all systems.

Further details and finer distinctions are discussed below. General properties can be found in
Table 3.

1 - 4.4.1 Polyester
Polyester composites are widely used, partly due to their low price. The material is used on a
large scale in yacht building, the automobile industry, tanks and piping, and in artificial stone. In the
case of polyester, the most important components have already been mixed (unsaturated polyester
monomers and styrene). This means that polyester may cure inside the resin container. If you wait
long enough, this will indeed happen. At room temperature, this process is very slow and can be
delayed by dedicated additives (inhibitors). To obtain a workable process time, a catalyst (e.g. a
peroxide) is added to the non-cured polyester (a catalyst accelerates a chemical reaction but does
not take part in the reaction itself). A small percentage (by weight) is enough to initiate a reaction.

‘polyester ’
chain

Styrene -molecule

Figure 11: Schematic representation of cured polyester

The unsaturated polyester is dissolved in approx. 35% styrene (an extremely volatile solvent with
a low odour threshold). During curing, this styrene forms cross-links with the unsaturated resins in
the polyester chains, causing a three-dimensional structure to be formed. The largest part (>95%)
of the styrene takes part in this reaction. A part of the styrene evaporates during the process (<5%).
This is readily noticeable due to the low odour threshold – you can easily find a plant where polyester
is processed by simply following your nose. A low styrene emission polyester resin (LSE) also exists.
The molecular chain of a polyester contains several reactive groups. A cured polyester is shown
(schematically) in Figure 11.
The volatile styrene easily boils at low pressures. This means that special attention must be paid
to pressure in a vacuum injection process. Traditionally, polyester has often been used in hand
lamination or spray-up processes (see Chapter 2).
Polyester is sensitive to water (see Chapter 3). This sensitivity of polyester to water does not
apply to all polyesters. If an isophthalic acid polyester is used (instead of ortho polyester), even
moveable swimming pool floors can be produced using polyesters (see Figure 12).

26
Composites – an introduction Materials

Figure 12: Moveable swimming pool floor (source: Variopool)

1 - 4.4.2 Vinylester
Vinylesters are used in applications where a higher chemical resistance is required than
polyesters can offer. Vinylesters are less sensitive to moisture and can be used, for example, as
protective coating over polyester structures that are exposed to water. The lack of sensitivity to
moisture is partly due to the relatively small portion of esters (because the monomers are slightly
longer) and partly due to the type of esters located adjacent to

‘vinylester’
chain

Styrene-molecule

Figure 13: Schematic representation of cured vinylester

aromatic groups, so that the mechanical properties are better. This results in a somewhat tougher
cured polymer, shown schematically in Figure 13. A disadvantage of vinylesters is that they can turn
yellow (due to the aromatic ether compounds). It is prudent to use a vinylester layer as a protective
coating, but from an aesthetic point of view another layer may sometimes be applied on top of it.

27
 Composites – an introduction Materials
1 - 4.4.3
Epoxy
Epoxy materials are more expensive and applied less often than polyesters and vinylesters. With
the rise of vacuum injection technologies their market share has risen. A large percentage of wind
turbine blades is made with epoxy systems, partly because the fatigue strength of fibre-reinforced
epoxy is higher than that of fibre-reinforced polyester (nevertheless, it is important to note here that
an important blade manufacturer, LM Glassfiber, has a very large market share in polyester blade
products).
From a chemical point of view, epoxies work differently from polyesters and vinylesters. The
polymer is formed by merging two components, often an epoxy molecule and an amine. The reaction
is initiated by mixing, which results in the components (epoxy molecules and amines) forming a
closed network that is more regular in structure than that of vinylesters (see Figure 14). A number
of variants exist for both components of an epoxy (Figure 14 is

‘epoxy’ molecule
(e.g. bisphenol A)

amine-molecule

Figure 14: Schematic representation of cured epoxy

only a schematic representation).
Epoxies are also known as adhesives; many two-component adhesives are epoxy-based. Such
adhesives are highly suitable for bonding metals.

The chemical composition and manufacturing method of polymers based on esters and epoxies
are so different that some manufacturers specialise in a particular type. DSM, for instance, does not
manufacture epoxy resins (although the vinylesters they sell are based on epoxies).

1 - 4.4.4 Phenolic resins

Phenolic resins are thermosets that have a high glass transition temperature and good fire-safety
properties when they come in contact with sparks (they scorch but do not burn or melt). For this
reason, they are often found in printed circuit boards and interior parts for aircraft and trains. They
are also used for bonding plywood and hardboard.

28
Composites – an introduction Materials

Disadvantages are that they are brittle and that water is released during curing.

1 - 4.5 Material properties

Table 3 shows some material properties of polymers. The exact properties depend on the
chemical composition of the polymers. The circumstances during curing also play a role (for
example, see 1 - 5). Note that the elongation at failure and the ultimate strength of resins play a
limited role in most composite structures. In a heavily loaded component, many fibres will lie in the
load direction. Since the elongation at fibre break is often lower,

Table 3: Resin properties

Property Polyester Vinylester Epoxy

Stiffness [GPa] 2.4-4.6 3-3.5 3.5

Ultimate strength [MPa] 40-85 50-80 60-80
Ultimate strain [%] 1.2-4.5 5 3-5
3
Density [kg/m ] 1150-1250 1150-1250 1150-1200
Curing shrinkage [%] 6-8 5-7 <2
resins will stretch up to the fibre breaking point. The ultimate strength of fibres is much higher,
however, and since the fibres are more rigid than the resins, they will absorb most of the stress.
The toughness of the resins (not listed in the table) plays an important role, particularly with
regard to impact and fatigue (see Chapter 3).
Shrinkage is also very important. Upon a large 'curing shrinkage', a composite ply will shrink more
in the transverse fibre direction than in fibre direction. In the event of an asymmetrical laminate
structure, this can cause undesired curing deformation (see also Chapter 3). 'Shrinkage stresses'
or 'residual stresses' occur in a ply and laminate due to uneven shrinkage during curing. This
happens because the resin shrinks, but the fibres do not. Bear in mind that epoxy resins shrink more
in volume during curing than the value specified in the table (approximately 5%). Subject to a
different curing mechanism, an epoxy will shrink to a large extent when it is still liquid, so that there
is a smaller effect on residual stresses. This may explain why an epoxy composite has relatively
good fatigue properties.
1-5 Glass transition temperature
The glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at which a resin passes from the 'glassy'
state (rigid and brittle, i.e. little plastic deformation at fracture) to the 'rubbery' state (slack and tough).
It is not recommended to use a composite in the vicinity of or above this temperature. The effect of
exceeding the glass transition temperature is much stronger with thermoplastics than with
thermosets, but is reduced for both by the reinforcing material.
The glass transition temperature depends on the circumstances during curing (for thermosets).
A higher glass transition temperature can be achieved by curing at higher temperatures and with
longer periods of heating.

29
 Composites – an introduction Materials
1
- 6 Viscosity and permeability
To better understand the infusion process of composites and to be able to determine the 'infusion
strategy' (see Vacuum technologies), knowledge of the viscosity of non-cured matrix materials is
important, as well as knowledge of the permeability of the reinforcing material. Calculations of
infusion are based on Darcy's law:

With:
Q = Volume flow [m/s] through a reference surface
K = Permeability [m2]
= Viscosity [Pa s]
p = Differential pressure[Pa]
x = Infusion length [m]
Here, viscosity reappears (the thicker the sustance, the higher the viscosity), as well as
permeability (the higher the value, the more permeable a substance is). The differential pressure
per unit of infusion length is also important. The formula shows that the lower the viscosity and the
higher pressure and permeability, the greater the volume that can flow through a particular cross-
section, A, of a medium and the shorter the infusion time. This formula is used in all branches of
science, particularly in geosciences (to describe groundwater and oil flows through rock).
The permeability of a reinforcing material does usually not change during infusion. But the
permeability of the fibre package (the 'dry' laminate) may be influenced, for example, when the fibre
package is pressed (and the permeability is lowered) with a one-sided mould. During the curing
process, the resin shows a large variation in viscosity – ideally from
‘watery’ to ‘hard’. Often, part of the curing already takes place during infusion. This should be taken
into account when designing the process.

30
Composites – an introduction Materials

Calculation example: infusion and Darcy’s law

Let’s look at a simple case of a thin, rectangular laminate which is infused in a
double-sided mould using a vacuum, see the figure below. Dimensions and
relevant material properties are in the table below.

fibre package
supply vacuum

Parameter Value
2
Permeability K [m ] 50 10-12
Differential pressure P [Pa] 1
Dynamic viscosity [Pa s ] 10-5
Infusion length x [m] 0.1

Substitution in Darcy’s law yields an infusion time of approximately half an hour

for one metre mould length. If the resin would have been supplied from the centre
of the mould instead of from the edge, the infusion time would be halved in this
(one-dimensional) configuration.

The viscosity in the above formula is a function of time and temperature. In the case of
thermosets, the higher the temperature, the faster the curing (and corresponding increase in
viscosity). This is sometimes complicated by the fact that the curing of thermosets involves an
exothermic reaction in which heat is generated. If there are limits to the rate at which this heat can
be removed (e.g. because of the surrounding laminate, an insulating mould, or in sandwich
materials), the temperature will rise and curing will be faster, causing the temperature to rise further.
This is a self-reinforcing process.

31
 Composites – an introduction Materials

Knowledge of the progress of the permeability and viscosity and the geometry of the product is
essential to determine the infusion strategy (e.g. for injection techniques). This is discussed further
in Chapter 2.

1-7 Sizing
In the manufacture of fibre materials, a thin film is applied around the fibre. This film contains
chemicals that, amongst other things, ensure that the fibre adheres well to the resin. The film forms
the interface between the fibre and the resin. Typically, it is approximately 0.5% of the weight of the
fibre. Since different resins have different chemical compositions, sizing is adapted to a specific
resin. A good adhesion between fibre and resin is important for the properties of a composite. In
addition to the different configurations of fibre materials (woven fabric, mat, etc.), care should be
taken in choosing a reinforcement product and resin to ensure good adhesion.

1-8 Sandwich and core materials

Sandwich materials make up a special category of composites. They generally consist of two
skins and a core material between them. Sandwich structures are often applied in lightweight
structures. The structural aspects of a sandwich are discussed in Chapter 4.
A selection can be made from a wide range of materials for both the skins and the core. A few
options for core material are discussed here.
Cores of sandwiches can consist of honeycomb structures, (balsa) wood and polymer foam. For
sandwich materials, it is important that the choice of material and the method of bonding to the skins
leads to a strong compound. A polystyrene foam, for example, would be sensitive to the solvents
that are used in many adhesives.

Figure 15: Sandwich material using honeycomb core

Honeycomb structures (Figure 15) are applied and is available to a limited extent only.
extensively in aerospace structures. Honeycombs are Polymer foams are widely used. They
relatively expensive. Balsa wood is cheaper and has a are available in various kinds of
good stiffness-to-weight ratio. Since it is a natural polymers and standard densities. Core
material, mechanical properties may vary, it can rot, materials are available as sheet

32
Composites – an introduction Materials

material. For application in curved or double-curved

surfaces, the materials are adhesively bonded as
blocks on a fibre cloth or provided with grooves in one
or two directions (fully or partially cut through the
thickness). This allows for bending or draping the plies
of core material (see Figure 16).
Joining a skin and a core can be done in advance
by bonding. It is possible to join skins and cores in
vacuum infusion. Upon impregnation of the skins and
the outermost layer of the core, the bond between skin
and core is made using resin. In this case, it is
necessary to take into account absorption of the resin
by the core as well as the chemical

Figure 16: Core material with grooves

(source: WMC)
compatibility of the core and the resin. Considerable quantities of resin can flow in the core grooves
described above. This may result in unnecessary weight increase of the product.

33
Composites – an introduction Materials

Breaking length
The breaking length is a material property which indicates the ratio of strength
and density. A large breaking length is especially useful for applications that are
(partially) loaded by their own mass, such as aircraft, long bridges or, somewhat
more exotic, space elevators. The tensile stress in the cross-section is:

𝐹 𝑚𝑔 𝐿𝐴𝜌𝑔
𝜎= = =
𝐴 A A
Where F is the force exerted by the free -hanging part, m is the mass of the
free-hanging part, g the gravitational acceleration , and the density. If this stress
is equal to breaking stress, the length is equal to:

𝜎
𝐿=
𝜌𝑔

This is called breaking length, which is closely related to specific strength

( failure/ ).

34
Composites – an introduction Materials

1-9 Sources
[1] [Link]/chevrolet/1953-corvette_c1
[2] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Kunststof composieten, een kennismaking´ (Fibre
reinforced composites, an introduction), and ‘Materialen en materiaaleigenschappen’ (materials
and material properties), factsheets about designs with composites, parts 1 and 5, via
[Link]
[3] CES Edupack, GRANTA Design
[4] VKCN – Poly Products B.V. opvouwbare zeecontainer Cargoshell (foldable sea container),
([Link])
[5] Engineering Materials, properties and selection, K.G. Budinski en M.K. Budinski, Pearson, New
Jersey, negende druk 2010
[6] R. van de Ven, Composietmaterialen (Composites), Stam Techniek, 1993, ISBN 90-401-0073-
X, (Figure 5.9)
[7] SP Guide to Composites, from [Link]

35
 Composites – an introduction Materials

1 - 10 Exercises for this chapter

1) What is the definition of a composite?
2) Name three advantages of composites.
3) Name three disadvantages of composites.
4) What is the function of fibres in a composite?
5) Name three kinds of fibres.
6) What is the function of polymer in a composite?
7) What is meant by a ply in a laminate?
8) In which two categories – both very relevant for the processing method – are
polymers divided?

36
Already at an early age we learn that there are various construction method s. The

performance (look, cost, strength, functionality) depends on design, materials and

the available tools. Some results can be achieved with one method and not with the

other…
Composites – an introduction Production methods

Production methods

Chapter 2 Production
methods
After studying this chapter you will be familiar with the most important techniques and
associated aids for processing fibres and resins into a composite structure. You will be able to
make an educated choice for a specific application.

When manufacturing a composite material, the material and the structure are often made in a
single process. This is related to the use of the polymer, since it cures during the process and is
then no longer deformable.

2-1 Moulds and plugs

To ensure that a product is made in the correct shape, production methods of composites are
often based on the use of moulds. The mould is often not highlighted in the discussion of production
methods, but is important for the quality of the product. Often it makes up a significant proportion
of the costs. For large products, the dimensional stability is important. This implies that a stiff mould
structure is necessary to retain its geometry over a large temperature range. For large series, the
mould must be capable of withstanding wear. Most resin systems form good adhesive bonds in the
cured state. This means that the mould must be provided with a release layer before starting the
production process. To this end wax, PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) or Teflon tape, for example, are used.
In modern production processes, the mould is provided with all kinds of sensors (temperature,
pressure) that monitor and register the state of the process (for example, for the quality system of
the producer).
In some cases, a direct mould can be used. The direct mould is a negative cast of the product.
The easier the product can be released from the mould by its geometry and/or application of a
release agent, the more products can be made from it (i.e. the larger the
'service life').
In other cases, to manufacture a mould, it is necessary to first make a positive 1-to-1 model (the
'plug'). The plug is then used to manufacture a high-quality composite mould. This can take place
when an object is copied. Take a ship, for example, of which a series is to be made. In this case a
'cast' can be made of the ship's hull (a direct mould), which can then be used to manufacture a
new ship hull. The original ship hull is then referred to as the plug. Sometimes a plug is produced
first (for example, using numerical machining equipment). The plug is then used to produce a mould
38
 Composites – an introduction

in which a ship’s hull is laminated. This apparently laborious method is used to ensure that the
geometry and the finishing of the final product on

Figure 17: Mould for a 52m wind turbine blade (source: Bright Composites)

the visible side are according to specifications. Making a mould in the shape of the inner wall of a
ship and laminating the ship’s skin over it can lead to an unsatisfactory result. Additionally, the
installation of other structural elements in the ship and the finishing process can become
complicated. The direct mould or plug can be made of the original object, but can also be a simple
MDF (Medium-Density Fibreboard) or EPS (Expanded PolyStyrene) mould with model paste, or a
higher-quality CNC-milled foam mould with model/tooling paste.
When making a mould and/or plug, the following should be taken into consideration:
Release: the product must ultimately be releasable from the mould. The sides of the mould
must make an angle of at least 1 to 2 degrees with respect to the direction of release, without
confining the product in the mould. When a product is not releasable but should still be made
as a single part, the mould can be provided with an insert. The insert can be taken from the
mould before release or loosened from the mould and released with the product.
Flanges: it is recommended to leave a 'production flange' around the final product. The
mould is made somewhat larger than the product so that sufficient space is left around the
product to insert aids, e.g. for the application of vacuum techniques. This allows space to finish
the edges of the product after release. For non-releasing products, the mould is sometimes
made in parts. In this case, part flanges can be used.
The mould and/or plug play a large role in achieving a good release, desired service life, good
appearance and gloss of the product, deformation of the product after release
(shrinkage stresses) and of course the geometry and tolerances of the product. In the

39
Composites – an introduction Production methods

(integral) design of a structure, special attention should be paid to the design of any moulds and
plugs that are to be used.

2-2 Categories of production methods

Production methods can be chosen on the basis of various criteria. A few examples:

• Suitable for single piece or serial production

• Temperature

• Pressure

• Cure rate

• Desired surface quality

• Initial materials

• Quantity and type of required tools

• Costs (a function of the above criteria)

As the material and the product are made in a single step, the quality of the end product is
determined to a large extent by the method of production. Manufacturing tools also determine the
success of a composite product. For each product, an optimum can be found between investment
in knowledge and tools and functionality. Choosing (a combination of) production technologies is
one of the most challenging aspects of constructing with composite materials. Especially since
there are production processes that are still under development or have yet to be developed.
In the following section, raw materials and aiding materials are discussed, followed by an
overview of the most current processes.

2 - 2.1 Raw materials

During the design process and when selecting a processing method, a number of choices must
be made with regard to the fibre reinforcement. The main options are:

• Bobbins with fibre strands or yarns

• Woven fabrics

• NCFs

• Mats with different combinations of fibre orientations

In the initial engineering stages, modifications of the manufacturing process may be

implemented. For example, fibre bundles can be braided, or chopped during the process to obtain
short fibres.
In addition to the separate resin and fibre components, it is also possible to order
preimpregnated materials, so-called ‘pre-pregs’. These are fibre reinforcements that are

40
Composites – an introduction Production methods

preimpregnated with a resin system that is not yet completely cured. The execution of a prescribed
temperature (and sometimes also pressure) cycle completes the curing process. Pre-pregs (which
must be stored at approximately -18ºC) are slightly tacky at room temperature. This must be taken
into account during manufacturing: once layers have been positioned, they do not shift easily
(which can be either helpful or a hindrance, depending on the situation).
For thermoplastic composites, similar materials are available where fibre reinforcement and
thermoplastic are interconnected to a larger or lesser extent. The material is consolidated by
heating.

2 - 2.2 Aiding materials and devices

In addition to protective materials when working with composites and their constituents,
pressure and temperature are the most important tools for composite processing.
For example, by manipulation of the pressure on a resin or a composite that has not yet cured,
the probability of gas formation can be lowered. A still liquid resin system can be 'degassed' by
subjecting it to low pressure. Due to the lower pressure, the volatile constituents will start boiling
and are removed from the resin system. During infusion, the pressure can be used to transport
resin and to impregnate fibre reinforcement. After impregnation, high pressure can be used to
remove excess resin and to reduce gas inclusions that may have developed during processing.
Relatively simple pumps are available for the application of vacuum or high pressure.
In addition, it may be necessary to pack the product completely air-tight in order to maintain
differential pressure. Various films, seal tapes ('tacky tape'), seal rings, etc. are commercially
available to make a product space air-tight. Tools exist for detecting possible leaks.
During the manufacturing process, both the viscosity of many resins and the reaction rate of the
resin system are heavily dependent on temperature. To improve wetting of the fibres, some resin
systems may be heated before impregnation so that their consistency becomes like that of water.
Accurate heating of the mould can ensure complete and timely curing of the whole product.
Heating can be done in an oven or an autoclave (an oven which can be pressurized). For small
products or repairs, electrical heating mats, or infrared heating elements can be used.
When working with composites, a variety of other tools are necessary. Important tools are
scissors, cutting wheels, electrical knives and 2D CAD /CAM cutting machines etc. for cutting
textiles to measure.
The preparation of the resin system, for example with epoxy resins, often requires two
components to be mixed. Manufacturers specify the mixing ratio in a mass ratio, for example
100:30 (mix 100 weight units of component A with 30 weight units of component B). This requires
a weighing scale. Automated mixing systems that can supply a continuous flow of resin with the
correct mixing ratio are commercially available.
A large number of more or less automated methods are available for the application of fibres
and resin in the mould. An example of this is a laser system that projects the contours on the mould
per ply, so that the (automatically cut) plies can be laid in place accurately by hand. Automated
systems use robotic arms to replace manual operations.

2-3 Processing methods

The following sections provide an overview of fairly widely used techniques. They can be
classified as open and closed-mould technologies. This distinction is somewhat arbitrary and

41
Composites – an introduction Production methods

certainly not exclusive. It is quite possible to make products using a combination of techniques (for
example, dry winding and subsequent impregnation under vacuum).

2 - 3.1 Open-mould processes for thermosets

Open-mould processes involve a mould on which the product is made and that is not covered
by a second mould or vacuum film (i.e. a flexible second mould) during the impregnation process.
Closed-mould processes are described further on in this chapter. In open-mould processes, it is
not possible to manipulate the pressure while wetting the fibres (impregnation). The emission of
volatile substances is generally larger and less controllable than in closed-mould processes.
It is possible to start a manufacturing process as an open-mould process, and subsequently
cover the product before curing and apply an over- or under-pressure to reduce superfluous resin
or air inclusions (voids).
Open-mould processes are not necessarily less high-tech than closed-mould processes. In
principle, laser-consolidated thermoplastic winding is also an open-mould process. But the two
most common open-mould processes are almost the simplest production methods available: spray-
up and hand lay-up.

2 - 3.1.1 Spray-up
Spray-up (Figure 18) is carried out using a dedicated spray pistol to apply a mixture of short
fibres and resin onto a mould. The fibre direction is more or less random. The thickness is controlled
by the duration of spraying a particular location. This technique is generally used for large objects
or to provide a coating for construction, marine or civil engineering applications.

Figure 18: Spray-up

2 - 3.1.2 Hand lay-up

Hand lay-up (Figure 19) is carried out by manually applying loose plies onto a mould, and
then wetting them with a roller or brush. This is a labour-intensive process, requiring measures
to prevent the plies from shifting.

42
Composites – an introduction Production methods

Figure 19: Hand lay-up

It is a cost-effective process since it requires only simple tools and a small number of consumables.

2 - 3.1.3 Filament winding

Filament winding (Figure 20) is an application-specific production process suitable for making
cylindrical containers such as pressure vessels. Filament winding offers the possibility to
orientate the fibres, providing significant weight advantages (see also Pressure vessels).
In the case of pressure vessels, the liquid/gas-tight inner layer (liner) is often used as the
mould. It can be problematic to remove the mould in the case of filament winding. Soluble
moulds also exist.

2 - 3.1.4 Fibre placement

The standard practice in fibre placement techniques is to use a pre-preg or thermoplastic
tape or fibre bundle. This is laid in the mould by a computer-controlled robot, without manual
labour. An advantage of this method is that fibres can be oriented in

43
Composites – an introduction Production methods

mandrel

Bobbin
Applicator (dry bundles )
(spreads resin evenly over rovings )

Figure 20: Winding

various directions within the plane. This is difficult to achieve with other methods and almost
impossible without automation.

2 - 3.1.5 Pultrusion
The term 'pultrusion' (Figure 21 and 22) is a combination of the verb 'to pull' and the noun
'extrusion'. Extrusion is used widely to produce profiles. In extrusion processes, the material is
compressed by a mould in the shape of the profile cross-section. A fibre-reinforced material
cannot be pushed through a mould easily. In pultrusion, the raw material is therefore pulled
through the mould. The raw material consists of a combination of fibre bundles and fibre mats
(Continuous Strand Mat), which are led through a resin bath and then through the mould.
The profile is cured at high temperatures (approximately 130ºC) in the mould and then
generally sawn off at a particular standard length. In principle it is possible to make infinitely long
profiles, but in practice pultrusion is a semi-continuous process in which the profiles are sawn to
length.

44
Composites – an introduction Production methods

resin and reinforcement supply

impregnating reinforcement with resin

saw

heating
(curing resin)

pulling units
(double, reciprocating)

Figure 21: Pultrusion machine

45
Composites – an introduction Production methods

Figure 22: Pultrusion is pre-eminently suitable for the production of various profiles [2, 3]

46
Composites – an introduction Production methods

Pressure vessels
A pressure vessel is a special application where composites offer the potential of large
weight savings. To understand this, knowledge of the pressure vessel formulas is
prerequisite.

For a cylindrical pressure vessel with internal pressure p, the longitudinal stress is given
by:

𝜋𝐷2
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝜋𝐷𝑡 = 𝑝
4
This makes sense, since the force exerted on the circular rim in the figure below is
balanced by the force on the bulkhead (not shown), of which the projected surface area is
equal to the area of the circle (for simplicity, the wall thickness is assumed to be small relative
to the diameter). After simplicifation:

𝐷
𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝
4𝑡
For the circumferential stress, the force on the straight rim is balanced by the pressure on
the cylinder half:

𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 2𝑡𝐿 = 𝑝𝐿𝐷

or:

𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
2𝑡

circumferential

t
longitudinal

This derivation shows, that in the cylindrical part of a pressure vessel manufactured of an
isotropic material, the circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal stress.

47
Composites – an introduction Production methods

By manufacturing a pressure vessel out of a fibrous material instead of an is otropic

material, the local strength can be adapted to the load. For pressure vessel s made of steel
wire, application of twice as much material in circumfe rential (hoop wound) direction
compared to in longitudinal direction may result in a weight saving of 25% (assuming that
steel wire has the same strength as steel sheet material ).
Taking it one step further, and replacing the steel with glass or carbon fibres in a polymer
matrix, and assuming that the composite strength is equal to the steel strength, the weight
can be reduced by a factor of approximately 4 (going from a dens ity of ca. 8kg/lit re to
2kg/litre).
The tensile strength of UD-composites often is significantly higher than steel strength. The
ratio of the composite tensile strength to that of steel is proportional to an additional weight
saving; less material is needed if it is stronger. Assuming this ratio to be 2 (composite is twice
the strength of steel), then a pressure vessel suitable for an equivalent internal pressure can
be made approximately 10 times lighter (0.75*0.25*0.5=0.1). Any influence of deviating
stiffness is disregarded here.

Netting theory
Since we now know that the circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal stress:

𝜎𝑜 = 2𝜎𝑙

What would be the optimal fibre angle to carry both the circumferential and longitudinal
stresses in the walls of a pressure vessel made out of fibres ? If we decompose the force F in
a fibre at an angle with respect to the longitudinal direction, in a longitudinal and
circumferential component, and divide by the associated fibre cross-sectional surface s in
longitudinal and circumferential directions, we can rewrite the above:

𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=2
𝐴⁄ 𝐴⁄
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

After some algebra we find the optimal fibre angle:

θ = atan√2~54.75°

A major assumption here is that the fibre is the only load -bearing element and the matrix
does not play any role in this regard. This is a basic assumption in a calculation method
called ‘ netting theory’, which does not consider the matrix material in composite calculations.

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Composites – an introduction Production methods

2 - 3.2 Closed-mould processes

2 - 3.2.1 Vacuum processes

Many processes can be characterised as vacuum processes, such as '(VA)RTM' (Vacuum-
Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding) or SCRIMP (Seeman's Composite Resin Infusion Moulding
Process). These processes have in common that the workpiece is impregnated using
atmospheric pressure. This can only be done if the workpiece is closed off in an air-tight
manner and air is extracted by a vacuum pump.
You can make a workpiece air-tight using a piece of plastic (vacuum film). The workpiece
must then be supported on one side by a mould to avoid it being compressed in its plane
(creasing). A rigid lower and upper mould can be used, making it easier to obtain the correct
fibre content and provide a good surface quality on both product sides. A suitable application
is the production of test specimens for material tests (see Chapter 7). The principle of a vacuum
process is fairly simple, the product quality is good and large products and reasonably large
series can be made.

2 - 3.2.2 Aids for vacuum processes

Figure 23 shows a typical vacuum infusion-set-up with the associated aids.
When a mould is used in the shape of the end product, a release layer should first be
applied. This allows the product to be taken out of the mould after curing (most resins are
excellent adhesives!). Then the laminate is built up according to the specifications. In the

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Composites – an introduction Production methods

vacuum bag sealant (‘tacky’) tape

(seal between vacuum bagging and mould)
resin inlet
runner channel
(tube with permeable walls)
vacuum

flow medium, bleeder / breather

release film / peel ply
resin trap laminate
tool release material (wax, Teflon)
mould heating mould

vacuum bagging /
infusion
membrane

Figure 23: Aids for vacuum processes

case of one-sided moulds, a 'peel ply/release film' is often used. This too is a kind of release
layer, but also ensures that the final surface structure obtains a particular roughness (which is
favourable for bonding, for example). Sometimes a cloth or gauze, known as a bleeder/breather
fabric is laid over a part of the product, ensuring that the resin can proliferate throughout the
product before curing. Finally the whole stack is sealed with vacuum film. This is pasted around
the product on the mould using a kneadable and very sticky vacuum bag sealant tape called
'tacky tape'. The tacky tape is not applied to the release layer.
In general the film is not stretched tight over the mould, but is left with some creasing in it so
it can handle deformations during the process. Once the set-up is air-tight, vacuum is applied
at one or several points. This results in resin being sucked into the product. To prevent

50
Composites – an introduction Production methods

superfluous resin running into the pressure gauge or vacuum system at the vacuum side, a
resin trap is often placed at the discharge side.

2 - 3.2.3 Infusion strategy

Prior to infusion, the connection locations of the resin feed and the air discharge on the
product must be selected carefully. To a large extent, these determine the ‘infusion strategy’. If
a wrong infusion strategy is chosen, the following two problems are most likely to occur:

• Incomplete infusion through an excessively long infusion path: During infusion, the
resin becomes tackier and will flow increasingly slower through the product. If infusion
paths (i.e. the distances between supply and discharge points) are too long, the resin
will not be able to proliferate throughout the product.

• Incomplete infusion through incorrect preferred path: The resin will follow the path of
least resistance between supply and discharge points. It will tend to follow
the flow-medium (e.g. the
bleeder/breather fabric mentioned above)
instead of the fibre package if the latter
(which is less easily transmissible for
resin) is covered by bleeder/breather over
the whole infusion path (which is easily
transmissible for resin). This is also the
case when resin feed lines (runners) run
too far into the set-up; in this case,
'racetracking' may occur, with dry spots
arising midway between the supply pipes.

Software based on a combination of the

finite element method and
Darcy's law (see Chapter 1) is
available with which infusion
Figure 24: Simulation of infusion process
[4] strategies can be designed. On the basis of the predicted infusion time, production time
can be estimated and possibly improved. Figure 24 shows an example of a simulation of an
infusion. For more information on design software, see [5].

2 - 3.2.4 Autoclave
An autoclave is a (large) oven that can be pressurised. As an autoclave is a pressure vessel, it
usually has a cylindrical shape (see Figure 25). If a workpiece is closed off and pressurised,
excessive resin may be removed, and air inclusions in the material may be reduced, similar to the
process in vacuum techniques. Unlike vacuum processes, autoclaves are not restricted to a
maximum of 1 bar. In general, pressures can be applied of up to ca. 40 bar. The oven function of
an autoclave can be used to complete the correct temperature cycle for optimal curing.

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Composites – an introduction Production methods

Figure 25: Autoclave at the composites lab, INHolland, Delft

Heating with an autoclave is relatively expensive. Therefore, if high pressure is not required,
there is no reason to use an autoclave. The dimensions of the workpiece are limited to the internal
dimensions of the autoclave. Autoclaves are used regularly in the production of aircraft
components.

2-4 Further machining and material removal

As in all design techniques, composites may require a certain amount of further finishing or
machining. In many mould technologies, it is necessary to machine the edges. Sanding and
polishing can be desirable. Painting a composite structure can be avoided by mixing pigment with
the resin or applying the coat of paint in the mould itself (gelcoat).
The two most important matters to be taken into account when finishing or machining
composites are:

• Excessive wear of the tools (e.g. due to the presence of glass fibres in many composites);

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Composites – an introduction Production methods

• The by-products released during machining, finishing, and material removal. The extent to
which dust and fibrous particles may be harmful are not (yet) fully known, but many
polymers and particles can be irritating, toxic and/or carcinogenic.

In addition, the same considerations play a role as when machining wood and metals, for
example the temperature of tools and products.
If these aspects are taken into consideration, composites can be excellently sanded, sawn,
milled and water-jet cut. When designing a composite structure, the question should be raised
whether the planned joints, machining and material removal operations are really necessary, and
whether they can be avoided by suitable adaptation of the design.

2-5 Sources
[1] Illustration adapted from Pultrex
[2] Illustration by courtesy of Joop van den Burg, Bijl Profielen
[3] See [Link]/rws/e-zine/vezelversterktekunststof/[Link] [4]
[Link]
[5] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Ontwerpsoftware´ (Design software), Fact
sheet on designing with composites, part 7, via [Link]

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Composites – an introduction Production methods

2-6 Exercises for this chapter

1) Describe at least four processing methods for composites.
2) What is an autoclave?
3) Explain the difference between a plug and a mould.
4) Put these vacuum injection-related terms in the correct order: release agent – mould – peel ply
– fibre package – vacuum film – bleeder/breather fabric.

54
Calculation methods for determination of structural

strength and stiffness are usefu l tools in every

upcoming engineer’s toolbox.

 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Chapter 3 Design of
laminates
After completing this chapter, you will be able to describe most of the failure mechanisms of a
composite and provide possible remedies. You will be able to make a simple estimate of the
stiffness of a laminate. In addition, you will be familiar with multiple-axis failure criteria and
understand how classical lamination theory works.

One of the major advantages of composite materials is that you can integrate strength and stiffness
into them. You can adapt these characteristics to loads in a particular direction and at a particular
place in the material (‘tailoring’). This means that structural calculations often differ from those for
isotropic materials. This chapter discusses a number of computational methods.
There are many ways in which you can construct composites. However, there are many ways in
which they can break. In existing computational methods, many failure mechanisms are difficult to take
into account. This means it is very important to be aware of the most important failure modes. Before
discussing calculation and design methods, we will focus on the most common failure mechanisms
and some courses of remedial action.

3-1 Description of a laminate

For manufacturing purposes as well as for structural calculations, it is convenient to have a clear
description of a laminate. We do this by first choosing a main direction. This is often the direction of
the highest stress in the structure or the laminate. We then determine the angle relative to this main
direction for each layer, from bottom to top, as follows:

[angle of layer 1 w.r.t. main direction / angle of layer 2 / angle of layer k.../.../angle of layer n]

Thus, as an example: [0/-45/+45/90] for the laminate in Figure 26. Note that a large quantity of
information is missing in this format. For example, it does not specify the fibre/resin combination in
each layer. Neither does it specify whether a sheet is a woven fabric or a non-crimp fabric, or what the
thickness of the layer is.
Methods are available to simplify the format in some cases. For example, if you wish to describe a
unidirectional laminate that consists of 20 layers, you do not need to specify each sheet. Instead you
could simply write:

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

[0]20

For a symmetrical laminate in which

the same plies lie at equal distance on
both sides of the centre plane (with
respect to angle, thickness and
materials), you can use the subscript s:

[0/90]s
x

to indicate a
Figure 26: Example of a laminate structure [0/90/90/0] lay-up.
You can also
(x is the main direction; clockwise is positive in this example) combine the
subscripts for thicker symmetrical laminates. In addition, text can be added at the layer locations,
e.g. to indicate a 'chopped strand mat' or the type of material. These notational rules are not very
strict, because additional text is often necessary when describing a laminate anyway. For
example:

[CSM/90G(400gsm)2/±45G(400gsm)/0C(600gsm)]2s

This describes a symmetrical laminate of 20 layers in which a chopped strand mat (CSM) is
alternated with two layers of glass (G) at angles of 90º and ±45º (the latter layer could be a square
woven fabric) and a layer of carbon (C). The surface weights (grams per square meter) are specified.
This does not specify precisely what kinds of materials are used in the plies (glass or carbon type,
and the resin used) or what the sheet thicknesses are. Additional accompanying text is therefore
required.
Note that, next to a symmetrical laminate, laminates can also be ‘balanced’. This means that for
every layer, there is an identical layer with the opposite fibre orientation. If a laminate is both
balanced and symmetrical, there are no coupling effects (see Chapter
3).

3-2 Failure mechanisms

Like all materials, composites can fail. An important difference with respect to isotropic materials
is that there are a multitude of basic failure mechanisms. These are related to laminate structure
and loading. The most important mechanisms are discussed here. Failure mechanisms are
classified according to two categories: mechanical and other failure mechanisms.

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

One failure mechanism often leads to the initiation or further development of another failure mechanism. In
composite materials, such secondary (or tertiary, quaternary etc.) mechanisms do occur.

3 - 2.1 Mechanical failure mechanisms

3 - 2.1.1 Splitting
If many fibres run in one direction and adhesion in a transversal direction with respect to the fibres is somehow
inadequate, a composite can split relatively easily. Splitting causes cracks to occur in the composite. These run
parallel to the fibres and throughout the whole thickness dimension of one or more plies. Splitting can be caused
by in-plane-bending or by a wedge effect in a bearing or connection. See Chapter 5, for example.
A good remedy is to choose the laminate structure such that plies in which the fibres have been oriented in
one direction are alternated with plies with fibres in other directions. Often UD plies are provided with the
necessary transversal reinforcement to prevent splitting.

3 - 2.1.2 Delamination
Delamination resembles splitting. In this case, however, the tear is formed between two plies in the plane of
the laminate (Figure 27). This form of failure can easily occur, since shear stress between plies can be high and
generally no reinforcement between the layers is provided. Although delamination can begin anywhere in a
composite, the edges of a sheet or laminate are particularly vulnerable. When two plies have very different
stiffness values (or

Figure 27: Delamination (source WMC)

their highest stiffness lies in two different directions, for example), the laminate will be more sensitive to
delamination. This is inherently the case with sandwich materials, where there is generally a great difference in
stiffness between the core and the skins. If the skin of a sandwich comes loose from the core, this is considered
to be delamination.
The resistance to delamination can be determined from an interlaminar shear test. One remedy is preventing
high shear stresses between plies. This can be done by reducing the external loads or by providing extra layers.
Good finishing of the edges also helps. An effective remedy is avoiding differences in stiffness between plies.
Finally, there are reinforcing materials and sandwich structures in which fibres run in the thickness direction as
well. Plies can be stitched together during the manufacturing process. Since the thickness direction in a laminate
is often indicated by the dimension Z, this is called Z-pinning or Zstitching.
The use of thermoplastics – which are generally tougher – can increase the resistance to these failure
mechanisms with respect to both splitting and delamination.

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

3 - 2.1.3 Buckling
Macroscopic or Euler buckling is a structural property which can
occur in long, slim compression elements, regardless of the material
used. The same calculation rules which apply to other materials also
apply for composites.

Damage through buckling should be taken into account when working

with composite materials. This concerns fibres, fibre bundles and plies
that buckle out under the influence of a compressive load (often in this
sequence). When plies buckle out, this often results in delamination
damage (see Figure 28).
Resistance to macroscopic buckling can be increased by
using a more rigid material or structure. Another way to increase
resistance is to use a smaller buckling length, e.g. by reducing
unsupported lengths or using thicker sandwich layers.
Figure 28: Buckling of plies and secondary
3 - 2.1.4 Fatigue
delamination
If alternating loads are repeated frequently
enough, they can eventually cause damage. Fatigue occurs in many
materials. We know a fair amount about fatigue in steel. This kind of fatigue usually starts at a notch, where
a crack is formed. This crack slowly develops further under the influence of varying loads. When it reaches
a critical length, the structure fails.
Not as much is known about fatigue in composites. It is clear, however, that the failure mechanism is
quite different than in steel.
An important difference is the number of fatigue cracks that can occur simultaneously in a laminate. This
is much larger than in a comparable steel structure. Cracks in laminates can start and develop in various
directions. They can even join to form larger cracks and delaminations.
The fact that many failure mechanisms occur during fatigue – sometimes even 'collaborating' failure
mechanisms – does not mean that composites perform worse. On the contrary, a well-designed laminate
is often capable of handling much heavier fatigue loads. This is reflected by the slope of the so-called S-N
curve. This curve shows the relationship between a load 'S' and the fatigue life, e.g. the number 'N' of
alternating loads until fracture occurs (see Figure 29). The S-N curve for composites is generally 'flatter'
than for steel. This means that a reduction of stress results in a longer life cycle. A flat slope of an S-N curve
is often regarded as a favourable property. This can be disputed, however, since a flat slope implies that
an increased load leads to a relatively shorter life. Despite this, it remains a fact that many composite
materials show very high fatigue lives for low-stress loads. Fatigue lives are sometimes so long that end-
of-life is not reached during use or testing.

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Figure 29: S-N curves for different materials (source: WMC)

The slope of an S-N curve is indicated in the following formula by m. This factor lies in the order of
approximately -10. A value of approximately -7 means that a 10% increase or reduction of the stress –
e.g. by adding or omitting 1 ply in 10 in the design – leads to a 50% reduction or increase of the life cycle
respectively. A slope of -24 increases or reduces the lifecycle by a factor of approximately 10 at the same
load change.

log(𝑁) = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑆 + 𝑏

In this formula, N is the life in number of load cycles, S is the maximum stress that occurs, m is the
slope of the curve and B is a parameter that determines the position of the S-N curve.
Another important difference with other materials is that composite materials lose part of their stiffness
under the influence of fatigue. This loss of stiffness increases if more fibres lie in other directions than
the load. Fatigue loads with an average tensile stress or compression stress can cause creep (in the
case of constant loads) or stress relaxation (in the case of external pre-tensioning or constant
displacement).
Fatigue damage can be avoided by adapting materials and fibre orientations to the load, by changing the
structure in such a way that loading is optimised or by lowering the stress in the structure by adding more

61
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

layers. When assessing fatigue sensitivity, joints and structural details in particular should be viewed
critically and frequently tested.

3 - 2.1.5 Impact damage

If impact is a possible load case for your design, you should take into account that this kind of damage can
be difficult to detect in composites. This is due to their elastic behaviour. The severity of damage is not always
obvious from the state of the impacted surface. Although metals often show clear dents, laminates tend to
bounce back – even if cracks and delaminations are present deeper in the laminate.
From the design point of view, this means that allowances must be made for the accessibility of both sides
of the laminate for inspection, maintenance and possible repair purposes. This means that the scale of impact
damage must be taken into account in the functional design stage.

3 - 2.1.6 Creep and stress relaxation

If you suspend a constant load from a metal rod, the rod will first stretch elastically. After that, it does not
change shape. Rods made from polymers and certain other materials will keep stretching, however, and
eventually they can break. This phenomenon is called creep (rupture). Creep also occurs in the case of
compression stresses. As a result, externally imposed pre-stresses can be reduced, leading to decreased
material stress levels. This is referred to as stress relaxation.
Glass fibre and most carbon fibres are rarely sensitive to creep. Aramid fibres, on the other hand, are creep-
sensitive due to their polymeric nature, like most resins. The effects of creep can be reduced by the correct
choice of material and by allowing for this in the design.
In most composites where the fibres carry the load and relieve the stress on the resins, little creep will occur.
Examples are UD laminates. You should allow for the effects of creep in laminates and structures where the
resin absorbs a large part of the load (e.g. laminates with fibres in the load direction, bonding, out-of-plane
loading etc.). Higher temperatures or harmful effects on the material through environmental influences greatly
affect creep behaviour. Despite this, some publications describe how creep fracture occurs in UD glass fibre-
reinforced polyester and epoxy after approx. 105 minutes at 50% and 70% respectively of the quasi-static
fracture strength (see [1]). This is attributed to fracture of the weak fibres, after which the load on the other fibres
is transferred by means of shear stress in the matrix. This shear stress is subject to redistribution due to creep.
This allows a chain reaction of fibre fracture to occur.

3 - 2.2 Other failure mechanisms

3 - 2.2.1 Osmosis
Osmosis is a general term for the transport of water or dissolved substances through a medium as a result
of differences in concentration. In composites, this term generally refers to the absorption of water by the resin.
This can lead to damage.
When permanently exposed to moisture, most resins will absorb water. This can amount to an increase of
several percentages in weight. Water absorption is reversible. If a composite is dried, the water will disappear
from the resin. The damage that was caused is not always reversible, however. A resin that is fairly sensitive to
damage by
water absorption is polyester. On a additional space, which is filled up by water again since water
molecular scale, water molecules will molecules attract each other. After a certain period of time, this
not only accumulate between the leads to visible blisters filled with a sourish-smelling liquid
polymer chains, but also disrupt (Figure 30). This damage can only be repaired by sanding and
bonding between them. This results in polishing, or by applying a new resin layer.

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

After osmosis or if cracks are

present in the resin (e.g. due to fatigue
or UV damage), water expanding upon
freezing can cause indirect damage.
Damage through exposure to
moisture should therefore be avoided.
Here too, prevention is better than
cure. The use of resins that are only
slightly or not at all sensitive to osmosis
(vinylester, iso-polyester or epoxy)
helps prevent water damage. If this
solution is too expensive, it can

Figure 30: Damage through osmosis and hydrolysis: blistering

(source: RWS-GPO)
suffice to apply an outer layer on the composite of one of the resins mentioned. This is
often done in the form of a gel coating (an unreinforced, pigmented moisture-resistant resin
layer of 1-2 mm thickness, applied in the mould).
Almost all thermoplastics are insensitive to moisture, except for polyamide (nylon).

3 - 2.2.2 UV-damage
Most fibres are not very sensitive to UV damage and are always protected by the
surrounding resin. The colour and gloss of the resin can change over time. This is caused
by UV radiation, which has a greater effect if a product is not kept clean. The influence of
UV radiation on the strength and stiffness properties of a composite is generally limited.
This is because any damage is restricted to about the first millimetre of the surface layer.

3 - 2.2.3 Erosion
In applications where an abrasive medium contacts the surface, erosion can occur. At
sufficiently high speeds, water has abrasive properties (waterjet cutting is an excellent way
to machine composites). Examples of where abrasion can occur are the wheel casings of
motor vehicles or the tips of helicopter blades. In first instance, any damage is generally
restricted to the surface. Structural properties can be jeopardised, however, if underlying
plies are damaged. Testing can provide insight into the sensitivity to erosion. There are
many different testing methods however. This may make it difficult to compare their results.
Applying – thermoplastic – protection strips often offers some protection against erosion.
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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

3 - 2.2.4 Temperature and fire damage

The fire safety of composite materials is an important criterion for the application. Often
the material 'competes' with steel, concrete or wood. The development of toxic gases and
the loss of strength and stiffness are of great importance in the event of fire. As is the case
with other materials, the kind of application largely determines the requirements for fire
safety. Relatively little is known about fire behaviour and applicable measures. This chapter
discusses the most important aspects.
For almost all materials used for structural purposes, their properties at high
temperatures and when burning ultimately lead to structural failure. For wooden structures,
this is self-evident. But concrete or steel also become unreliable during fires. In concrete,
slaked lime will dehydrate and crumble. Steel structures will deform and/or collapse. A
reinforced concrete structure will not catch fire quickly, but once it has suffered a fierce fire
it is often no longer suitable for repair.
In many composite materials, the matrix material in particular is sensitive to high
temperatures and fire. At temperatures above the glass transition temperature, the matrix
becomes rubbery. At higher temperatures, the matrix melts (thermoplastic) and at still
higher temperatures the matrix material will burn. This applies to both thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastic. This destroys the bonding between the fibres. Particularly in
structures in which compression stress prevails, this will quickly lead to failure.
Many measures can be taken to increase fire-resistance and safety. For all structures,
the presence of adequate escape routes, smoke alarms and sprinklers, suitable means for
smoke removal and fire doors are important. Often a fire-resistant layer is applied. This can
be an addition to the existing structural material or a dedicated material.
Another solution can be the application of phenolic resins. These resins perform well up
to a temperature of approximately 200ºC.
The following further options apply for composite materials:

• Implementing chlorine or bromine compounds: chlorine and bromine increase

the temperature at which the material burns. The addition of these compounds
(referred to as halogenising) increases the flashpoint of a resin. The gases that are
released are very toxic, however. Such compounds are generally not very
environmentally friendly either.

• Mixing resin with aluminium trihydrite (ATH): this aluminium compound

(obtainable as a dry, white powder) disintegrates at approximately 180ºC. This is
an endothermic reaction (and thus withdraws heat from the environment). It
produces water as a by-product. This has a fire-retarding effect.

• Applying thick solid laminates: an advantage of thick laminates is that the

materials have a low thermal conductivity coefficient. This means it will take
relatively long before a thick laminate is completely burned. Although the insulation
value of a sandwich material can be very high, the core material may be more
sensitive to temperature than the skins. In reinforcing materials such as glass,

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

strength and stiffness limits decrease in the event of fire. Thus in practice, the
fire damage for thick laminates will be superficial – the outermost resin layers
may incinerate, but with larger structures in particular the reinforcement
properties can remain intact for a relatively long period of time. This is
particularly the case in designs with non-critical pressure loads. The fibre-metal
laminate GLARE turned out to have better fire-safety properties than
unreinforced aluminium.

3-3 Calculations with composites

Determining the stiffness and strength of your structure is different when you use
composite materials rather than isotropic materials. Since layered structures are involved,
this applies even if you use quasi-isotropic laminates in your structure.
Various methods have been developed over the years for performing calculations on
composites. In general, you begin by determining the stiffness of a ply or laminate.

3 - 3.1 Estimating stiffness and strength

A first step in determining the properties of a ply or laminate is to determine the stiffness.
This is done on the basis of the reinforcements and resin used, and on the ratio between
the two. For this, the rules of mixture are used. This requires that you specify the fibre
content and the fibre and matrix stiffness values. The rules produce the stiffness values in
the different main directions. The rules of mixture are based on good adhesion between
the fibre and matrix, and on the absence of damage and inclusions.

3 - 3.1.1 Stiffness

[Link].1Parallel model
For an estimation of the longitudinal stiffness (i.e. in fibre direction), the parallel model
is used (see Figure 31). In this model, a composite is schematised as a 'block' of fibre
material next to a block of resin material. The composite stiffness is then calculated as
below. The calculation is analogous to electrical parallel switching, for example. In the
equations, the symbols E, F, A, v and σ and ԑ (the Greek letters sigma and epsilon) stand
for E-modulus, force, surface, volume fraction, stress and strain. Note that a volume fraction
in these prismatic cross-sections is equivalent to a surface fraction. The subscripts c, f and
m stand for composite, fibre and resin (matrix).

The strain values for fibres and matrix are equal.

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

stiffness transverse to the

ply: series model

Stiffness in fibre direction:

Parallel model

Figure 31: Composite simplified to a series and parallel model

[Link].2Series model
The simplest model with which the transversal stiffness can be determined is the series
model (see Figure 31). In this model there is a situation where the stresses must be equal:

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

In practice, it is not justified to rely on predicted values such as derived above. The series
model in particular is not fully consistent with real-life situations. For this reason, many
improved models have been developed, e.g. the Halpin-Tsai method. Experiments often
provide a more accurate understanding of the stiffness properties of a specific material.

3 - 3.1.2 Strength
The direction of the fibres would enable you to obtain the strength value, using the fibre
strength and the fibre content. In the transversal direction, you must assume that the
strength of the resin is dominant for strength calculation purposes. You must take the
influence of the fibres into account however.
A complication occurs when a ply is loaded along multiple axes. That can occur when a
structure is actually loaded in different directions simultaneously. It can also occur when a
particular ply is loaded by the neighbouring plies along several axes or by the structure of
the ply itself. In a ply with ±45º fibres that is subjected to a tensile load in the 0º direction,
for instance, both tensile and shear stress prevail.
For this reason, a so-called multiaxial stress or elongation criterion is often applied when
estimating strength under multiple-axis loads. This can be an independent criterion (in
which the strength in a main direction is not influenced by the stress in another direction)
or an interactive criterion (in which the strength is influenced by stress in another direction).
Figure 32 shows an independent ('maximum stress') and a dependent ('Tsai-Hill') failure
criterion in three dimensions. The rectangle (light-blue) and the asymmetrical ellipsoid
(dark-blue) give an example of such an independent and interactive failure criterion,
respectively.

σ2 Maximum stress criterion

σ1
τ12

Tsai-Hill-criterion

Figure 32: 3D examples of an independent and an interactive failure criterion

The 3D shapes define the 'space' in which a laminate or a ply are still whole. The
simplest independent failure criterion determines whether at least one of the stresses is

67
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

greater than permissible. The value of stress in the other directions is irrelevant. This is
shown by the light-blue 'bar', in which the lateral planes represent the maximum tensile
stress, compression stress or shear stress. As long as you remain within these planes, the
laminate or the ply is intact.
The disadvantage of this criterion is that it predicts that in the longitudinal direction, for
example, the single-axis tensile strength can always be obtained. In practice, a
simultaneously occurring shear or transversal stress will ensure that the tensile strength is
not obtained. The tensile strength in the direction '1' is thus dependent on the stress in
direction '2' as well as on the shear stress. An example of a permissible space is shown by
the asymmetrical ellipsoid. For a particular stress in the direction of '2', you can no longer
obtain the original tensile strength (indicated by the right end). You will arrive at a lower
value instead.
Generally a failure criterion is drawn in two dimensions. In that case, you will see the
projection of these bodies on the ( 1, 2)- or the ( 2, 12)-plane. Since the strengths of a ply
or laminate in tensile and pressure direction and in longitudinal, transversal and shear
directions are generally unequal, the bar and the ellipsoid are not symmetrical with respect
to the origin. You can also formulate these and other criteria in terms of strain. That is often
even more convenient when performing calculations on laminates.
Here too the model should be used as an initial estimation. This can then be verified by
testing, for example. This may involve the use of prototypes, if possible on a true scale and
in a laboratory (but preferably under practical circumstances). You should also take the
influence of time, temperature, humidity, radiation, etc. into consideration.
Finally you carefully consider what is meant by ‘failure’. In strength analysis, a distinction
is made between ‘first-ply failure’ and ‘last-ply failure’ (i.e. collapse of the first and last
laminate respectively). For the first-ply failure of a laminate, you calculate which ply fails
first. This does not necessarily mean that all of the laminate fails immediately. It may even
have some remaining strength. In a square laminate for example (with as many plies at an
angle of 90º relative to the load direction as at an angle of 0º), the 90º layer can fail first if
a particular strain is applied to the laminate. The 0º layers will carry most of the load in such
a laminate. That will remain this way if the 90º layers have failed. A 'first-ply failure' analysis
predicts the failure of the 90º layers, but the laminate will then not yet have failed.
The complete failure of the laminate can be described by extending the calculation and
investigating the sequence in which the layers fail and assessing how much of the load is
transferred to the remaining layers after the failure of each layer. The complete failure is
referred to as ‘last-ply failure’. Such an analysis is less conservative, that is, no strength is
left after failure of the layer. For some laminates, the calculation is more complex. For
unidirectional laminates, first and last-ply failure are close to each other. For a multipleaxis
laminate, first-ply failure can be interesting if danger of leaking is an important
consideration, e.g. in pressure vessels.
3 - 3.2 Classical laminate theory

A laminate is built up from different plies, each with its own properties. For laminates
with plies that are all equal and lie in the same direction, the laminate properties – the
relationship between external load/stress and strain – can be easily derived. But when plies
are stacked in different directions, the stiffness in a particular laminate direction will differ

68
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

per ply. This is because an external load then results in different internal ply stresses. A
'slack' ply will stretch just as much as a 'rigid' one, since the plies are bonded to each other.
Due to the difference in elasticity modulus, however, the slack ply will be under less tension
(see Figure 33).

Stress at uniform
0
strain
90
±45
90

Figure 33: The stress in a ply is dependent on the stiffness of the ply
This has an important consequence: if you want to determine the strength of a laminate,
you need to calculate the stresses per ply on the basis of the strain values and test them
with a failure criterion. However, the strain of the laminate depends again on the combined
stiffness values of the plies!

Figure 34: Coupling effects

69
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Tension/torsion- Tension/shear-coupling
coupling e.g. [ ]
e.g. [+ /- ]

Saddle-warping
(e.g. volumetric shrinkage of [0/90

Figure 35: More coupling effects that can occur as a consequence of laminate structure
In addition, coupling effects can occur, e.g. when the ply stiffness values do not lie
symmetrically relative to the centre of the laminate (see Figures 34 and 35), or when the
laminate is not balanced. In Figure 34, the top layer is provided with fibres transversely to
the bottom layer. When a load F is applied, the top layer (which is less rigid in the load
direction) will elongate more than the bottom layer. This will cause the laminate to curve.
Thus there is a ‘coupling’ between the load direction and the deformation in other
directions. Figure 36: Aircraft in which a
coupling effect has been
deliberately 'built-in'
Such coupling effects can
be desirable. Experiments
have been carried out on
aircraft wings, for example,
with a built-in relationship
between lift and the angle of
incidence. In these
experiments, use was made
of the possibilities of a
composite to improve the
stability of an inherently
unstable wing configuration
(see Figure 36).
When designing a
laminate, it is important to
know its strength and

70
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

stiffness, and to control possible coupling effects. To this

end, a theory known as
'Classical Lamination Theory' (CLT) has been developed. This is very suitable for calculating
the stress and elongation of each ply under an external load (force or moment). The
application requires fairly extensive calculations however, involving heavy use of linear
algebra. For manual calculations, this theory is less suitable. CLT is used particularly in
software applications.

3 - 3.2.1 Assumptions
Classical lamination theory is based on the following assumptions. These directly indicate
limitations and possibilities:

‘Smeared properties’: the structure of the fibres and resin is not modelled. For
each ply, 'smeared' properties are used. This means you cannot use the theory to
determine what takes place at a microscopic level within a ply. It is also assumed
that the fibre content is constant;

All plies stick to each other: the theory is not valid for delamination;

• The theory is linear elastic: any non-linear behaviour of the participating plies is
not taken into account;

• The laminate has a constant thickness: the theory is not valid in the vicinity of ply-
drops or other thickness jumps;

• The laminate is undisturbed: the theory is not valid in the vicinity of holes,
inclusions, inserts, corners and edges;

• The plies are thin compared to the laminate.

3 - 3.2.2 Overview of CLT

The flowchart in Figure 37 shows broadly how CLT works.
First of all, the 'technical constants' per ply are determined. These are the values of the

71
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Technical constants
for ply k
Forces and
(E, n) moments
Transformation matrix
Stack plies
(force- and moment Strains and
equilibrium)
curvatures

Figure 37: Overview of classical lamination theory

elasticity modulus and the Poisson ratio in each direction of the ply. Then the stiffness
matrix and/or the compliance matrix of each ply is determined in the main directions of
the ply, e.g. in and perpendicular to the fibre direction. This matrix establishes the
connection between stress and strain and contains the technical constants.
Because a ply can be processed in an arbitrary direction in a laminate, the main
direction of the ply is not always parallel to the main direction of the laminate. This is
often the load direction and the direction perpendicular to it. In a UD ply, the fibres will
not always lie in the load direction. Thus the ply is applied in a 'rotated' direction in the
laminate plane. The properties of the ply must be determined in the main direction of
the laminate. This takes place using the transformation matrix. Since a rotation in the
plane of the laminate is always involved in these considerations, you could also refer
to this as a rotation matrix.
When the plies are stacked, the stresses can be calculated in each ply as a
function of the external load and a combination of the (transformed) ply properties –
at least if the external load is a
z normal load in parallel to the plane
of the laminate. To this end, the
stiffness matrix of the
laminate is determined from the
stiffness matrices of the plies.
In order to calculate
the response at a bending moment
as well, curvature of the plate must
be introduced.
Figure 38: Curvature under the influence of bending; resulting This curvature is in fact again
strain pattern translated back to the strain values of the plies: plies that lie further from
the neutral – elastic – line, stretch further than the plies that are near it (see Figure 38).
The curvature here is curvature under the influence of load, not curvature that was
present beforehand.

72
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

The matrix that shows the relationship between external perpendicular and moment
loads and the strains and curvatures in the laminate is called an ABD matrix. The 'A'
part describes the strains in the plane of the laminate as a consequence of in-plane
loads N (and vice versa); The 'B' part describes the strains in the plane as a
consequence of bending moments M and the curvatures as a result of the in-plane
loads. The D matrix describes the relationship between curvatures and bending
moments. The terms that do not lie on the main diagonal describe the relationships
between strains/curvatures and loads that do not lie mutually in the same direction.
These are the coupling effects.

3 - 3.2.3 CLT step by step

The CLT 'components' are discussed below in greater detail.
[Link].1 Constitutive equation of a ply
The relationship between stress and strain is called a 'constitutive' relationship. For a
onedimensional bar, this is simple and equal to Hooke's law. For an element in a flat panel of
an anisotropic material that can be loaded in several directions, the constitutive relationship is
somewhat more complicated. The constitutive equation of an orthotropic ply is as follows:

Here the compliance matrix has been written out. You can write this in a similar form,
specifying stress as a function of the strain:

To do this, you must invert the compliance matrix to the stiffness matrix.

[Link].2 Positioning of ply in laminate – the transformation matrix

There are two variants of the transformation matrix: one for stress and the other for strains.
The formulation you should use depends on whether the constitutive equations of a ply have
been written in terms of a stiffness matrix or a compliance matrix.

for stresses or, simplified:

73
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

You can use this equation to calculate the stresses in the main direction of the ply as a
function of the rotation in the plane of the laminate of an angle . For strains:

74
Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

75
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Linear algebra (continued)

...or shorter:

{ε} = [C]{σ}

In the above equation, { } and { } are the stress and strain vectors, and [C] is
the matrix containing the compliances (o r ‘flexibilities’; the opposite of stiffnesses
or rigidities).
Furthermore, every element of the strain vector is constructed from the three
elements of the stress vector (a linear combination), with the coefficients, some of
which are equal to 0, listed in the stiffness matrix.
Initially we agreed that we would only consider plane stress. This includes
shear stress. Often, a subscript ‘12’ is included in the shear stress and shear
strain.
The original set of equations now reads as an algebraic equation; in fact, the
equation looks like the inverse of Hooke’s law – strain is compliance times stress.
In case you are wondering if this can be written as Hooke’s law itself, the
answer is yes. In matrix notation:

{σ} = [E]{ε}

Here, E (stiffness matrix) is not simply 1/C, nor is it a matrix consisting of

elements which are the inverse of the elements of C, but it is a new matrix: the
inverse of C. NB In literature, the stiffness matrix is often designated as Q.

Using the preceding formulas, you can now provide the relationship between stresses and
strains for a single ply – at an arbitrary angle relative to the laminate stress directions (in the
global laminate axis system) – by starting with the constitutive equation for a ply:

and ‘rotating’ this by means of the transformation matrices to obtain the constitutive
equation of that same ply in a global axis system:

76
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

[Link].3 Stacking plies – introduction to curvature

The relationship between the strains and stresses in a ply is thus known in an arbitrary axis
system (x, y). When a number of plies is stacked to form a laminate, the external forces in the
plane will have to be in equilibrium with the total ply forces. The elongations in a ply are jointly
determined by the curvature of the laminate. For equilibrium between internal and external
forces, the following then applies:

Here N represents the external load (line load), A represents the ply stress (line stress) as
a result of the elongations in the plane and B represents the contribution of the curvature of
the laminate ( ).
A similar relationship as above can be written for the equilibrium between external moments
and internal strains:

[Link].4 The ABD matrix

Combination provides the simplified ABD matrix:

of in extended form:

3 - 3.3 Finite Element Method

In the finite element method, a structure is considered as being divided into a large number
of 'building blocks', and each block has the properties of the structure material. By using such
blocks, the stresses and deformations in a relatively complex structure can be determined on
the basis of a simple set of material properties.
For analysing composite structures, FEM can be used. In this case, the possibilities are
rather limited compared to the modelling of structures of isotropic materials. Also, the models
are often more complex. On the other hand, FEM provides the opportunity to apply relatively
simple non-linear material behaviour in a structure. With some manipulation, damage
progression in composite structures can be estimated. Possibilities for this are limited to quasi-
static failure behaviour in particular, not to fatigue.
3 - 3.4 Rules of thumb for laminate design

In the previous section, the most important failure mechanisms and computational methods
were discussed. A good understanding of these mechanisms and methods is of great
77
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

importance in designing good laminates. Classical lamination theory is suitable for the detailed
design aspects of stiffness and the direct integration and calculation of coupling effects. This
is also useful as the basis for the analysis of failure of composites, since you can use it to
check the elongations and stresses for each ply with respect to the permitted values. Classical
lamination theory underpins fine element methods for composites (to quantify the properties
of the elements). These finite element methods can in turn be used to perform calculations on
design details in particular, such as holes, ply-drops, thickness jumps, and damage (in other
words, where classical lamination theory and other theories do not apply).
As has become clear, the application of laminate theory goes hand in hand with linear
algebra. It is not always necessary to perform extensive matrix computations, however. Many
software applications are available that can help you to apply classical lamination theory and
related theories. In many applications, however, you do not always need these for detailed
laminate design.
There are simple rules of thumb for designing good laminate structures [2][3]. Some of
these are:

• Work with symmetrical laminates.

 For each layer above the laminate’s mid-plane, there is an equal layer below the
mid-plane (in terms of distance to mid-plane, thickness, and material)

 When you use these, the coupling terms in the B matrix become 0.

 Bear this in mind when laminates are bonded to each other to form a thicker
laminate.

• Work with balanced laminates.

 In this case, for each ply at an angle x there is an equal ply at an angle –x. The
distance to the mid-plane does not have to be equal.

 A laminate can be both symmetrical and balanced!

• Prevent stiffness jumps between plies.

 One way to prevent stiffness jumps is by limiting the mutual fibre angles, e.g. to a
difference of 60º.

 Avoid unnecessary ply drops (internal or surface ply terminations).

 When bonding two laminates, make sure that the adhesive layer is applied to plies
that deviate at most 45º from the main direction.
• Use quasi-isotropic laminates where possible.

 A quasi-isotropic structure results in the least 'surprises'...

 ... but is often relatively heavy.

78
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Avoid abrupt thickness jumps...

 ... by ensuring ply drops occur one by one;

 ...by ensuring these ply drops don't occur too close to each other;

 ... by covering ply ends with a ply.

Note furthermore that a number of these rules of thumb follow from, and can be understood
through the use of laminate theory.
Finally, coupling effects due to unsymmetric or unbalanced laminate design will often
already show up shortly after manufacturing: the product may come out of the mould warped,
curved or twisted due to thermal strains after cooling. In addition, for symmetrical and balanced
laminates there may be internal stresses due to differential strains from ply to ply. These may
result in unwanted deformations if layers are subsequently sanded away, e.g. during post-
processing steps.
You will find more information on the use of composites in construction in [4]. Detailed
computational methods are given in [5], for example.

79
Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

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 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

Inverting a matrix (continued)

Following this, add the first row to the second:

E E
1 1 0 1−ν 1−ν
0
[1 + ν 0 0 | E νE
0]
0 0 1 1−ν 1−ν
0 0 G
Next, divide row 2 by (1+n):

E E
1 1 0 1−ν 1−ν
0
[1 0 0 | E νE
0]
2 1−ν 2
0 0 1 1−ν
0 0 G
Then, subtract row 2 from row 1:

E E E νE
0 1 0 1−ν − 1−ν 2 1−ν
− 1−ν 2 0
[1 0 0| E νE
0]
1−ν 2 1−ν 2
0 0 1
0 0 G
Finally, rewriting this and exchanging row 1 and 2:

E νE
1 0 0 1−ν 2 1−ν 2
0
[0 1 0 | νE E
0]
2 1−ν 2
0 0 1 1−ν
0 0 G
Now, on the left is the unit matrix, on the right is the inverse of the compliance matrix,
this is the stiffness matrix:

[C] = [E]−1

3-4 Sources
[1] Bryan Harris, Engineering composites, 1999
[2] van Nimwegen, J et al., ‘Bijlage 1 van het eindverslag van de deelwerkzaamheden
van het composietenlab Inholland binnen RAAK Composites in Mechatronics’
81
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

(Appendix 1 of the final report of activities at the Inholland Composites Laboratory

within RAAK Composites in Mechatronics), September 2011
[3] Bastings, B., ‘Lichtgewicht construeren – ontwerpen met koolstofvezel
composieten’ (Lightweight construction – designing with carbon fibre composites),
Fontys Hogeschool Engineering, 12 Mei 2012
[4] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Construeren in composieten´,
‘Ontwerp- en rekenmethodieken voor Composieten’, en ‘klassieke
laminatentheorie’ (‘Constructing in composites’, Design and calculation methods for
composites, and Classical lamination Theory’), Factsheets on designing with
composites, part 2 to 4 inclusive, via [Link]
[5] Nijhoff, A.H.J., ‘Vezelversterkte kunststoffen – mechanica en ontwerp’ (Fibre
reinforced plastics – mechanics and design), VSSD 2004-2005, ISBN: 90-4072484-
9

82
 Composites – an introduction Design of laminates

3-5 Exercises for this chapter

1. Name three failure mechanisms that can occur with composites, including their
possible cause and the measures you can take against the occurrence of these mechanisms.
2. Derive the compliance matrix from the stiffness matrix and/or vice versa by inverting
the matrix.
3. What is meant by the finite element method?
4. Name at least 4 handy rules of thumb for a good laminate structure.
5. For 55% (volume), a UD ply consists of fibres; the rest is resin. The stiffness of the
resin (epoxy) is 4GPa. The stiffness of the fibres (glass) is 72GPa. What is the stiffness in the
fibre direction of the ply?

83
Studying on an empty stomach is not

comfortable…time for a sandwich! The invention of

spreads and sandwich fillings has significantly

expanded the potential of bread. Sandwich materials in

turn constitute a great enrichment of the construction

material toolbox.
 Composites – an introduction Sandwich

Composites – an introduction

Chapter 4 Sandwich
This chapter aims to teach you how you can determine the strength and deflection of a sandwich
composite beam element, including shear deformation. You will become familiar with the most
characteristic failure mechanisms.

A sandwich 'material' is a structure that consists of an upper and a lower layer of relatively stiff
and strong material. These upper and lower layers are separated from each other at a fixed
distance by an intermediate layer. This intermediate layer is generally less strong and rigid, and in
all cases very light. Air would be a suitable material for the intermediate layer. Air cannot be bonded
to anything however, and its shear stiffness and strength are very low. Foam (which can be
regarded as 'air with a skin') is often used as a second best option. Balsa wood is also widely used.
In aviation technology, many applications use a honeycomb structure as core material. Below, we
will assume the 'skin' to be a laminate. In principle however, any combination of a skin and a core
can be included in the definition of a
‘sandwich’. A final consideration is the connection between the skin and the core. This connection
ensures that the skins and the core can interact (see Figure 39).
A sandwich structure is in many cases analogous to the commonly used 'I-beam' (or Hprofile).
In these cases, the flanges make the largest contribution to the moment of inertia and thereby
absorb most normal stresses. The web plate absorbs shear stresses.

skins Core

Adhesive joint

Figure 39: Overview of a sandwich structure

86
 Sandwich

In general, the functions of skin and core material are as follows:

Skins

 the skins provide the stiffness and strength in the plane of the laminate and include the
most important normal stresses

 the skins absorb contact forces and serve as a fixing element

Core

 keeps the skins at a distance, so that they can fulfil their structural function well

 dissipates most shear stresses caused by transverse forces

 supports the skins against buckling

 takes care of acoustic and, for example, thermal insulation

4-1 Bending of sandwiches

Thanks to its structure, a sandwich panel is relatively light for a given stiffness and strength.
This makes it suitable for spans (in floors, bridges) and as an anti-buckling panel (in walls,
bridges, wings). The impact properties of a sandwich panel can be good, since much energy
dissipation can occur in the deformation and failure of the core. On the other hand, implementing
joints in sandwich panels is not easy. Inserts are commonly used to this end (see 5 - 2.3). The
production of curved sandwich panels is not easy. In addition to flat core panels, grooved core
materials are also used. These can bend more easily (see Figure 40).

Figure 40: Core materials with grooves or blocks of core material bonded on thin mats are
suitable for (double-)curved sandwich panels

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mposites – an introduction Sandwich

When calculating the stresses in a sandwich structure, the theory associated with an
assembled beam is often used. For this purpose, the bending rigidity D of the whole bar must
be determined. This is equal to the sum of the stiffnesses multiplied by the moment of inertia
relative to the elastic axis of the sandwich (see also Figure 41).

where f stands for ‘face’ and c

stands for ‘core’. Note that in many
cases the contribution of the core (last
term) and the contribution of the
moment of inertia about the own
neutral axis of the skins (first term), can
be disregarded
[1].
Next, the normal stresses can be
calculated. These are generally higher
in the more rigid
skins than in the
weaker cores:

Here, the letter M stands for the

bending moment on the bar and z is the co-ordinate in thickness direction with respect to the elastic axis.
A disadvantage of sandwich
panels is that, when relatively shearflexible core materials are used, the deflection is larger than can be
expected on the basis of beam
theory. For the total deflection, both Figure 41: Cross-section of a sandwich of width b, skin thickness
the deflection as a result of the t and total thickness h normal stress and the deflection as a result of the
shear stress must be taken into account (Figure 42). If shear deformation is not taken into consideration,
you are likely to calculate too small a deflection relative to reality.
That would result in non-conservative designs (and thus be hazardous). The
associated formula for the shear stress is:

where Q is the tranverse force and S is the resistance moment. Since the contribution of
the core to the shear stress is often negligibly small and the difference between the shear
stress at the place of the bond with the laminate and at the place of the elastic axis is not so
large, the maximum shear stress in the core can be simplified to [1]:

88
 Composites – an introduction Sandwich

The deflection as a result of shearing follows from the local shear elongations. For a constant
tranverse force in a bar, this shear angle is also constant. The extra deflection is thus dependent on
this angle, multiplied by, for example, the distance to the bearing or clamping point.

Figure 42: Normal deformation (foreground) and shear deformation in a beam

You should therefore always take both the normal and the shear deformation into account when
calculating the total deflection of a sandwich. The formula for the deflection of, for example, a two-
sided supported beam with load P in the middle thus consists of two parts:

where A is the surface of the cross section of the sandwich and G is the shear modulus (shear
stiffness) of the core. If this is low (and that applies for many foam cores), the shearing of the core will
significantly contribute to the total deflection.

4-2 Buckling of sandwiches

As stated, sandwich panels are very suitable as structural elements that can absorb compressive loads
in the plane. The calculation of the buckling resistance is not considered here, but depends on the
constraints (the manner of clamping), the stiffness values of the skins and core, and the resistance against
bending. The relevant calculations are described in detail in, for example, [1] and [2].

89
mposites – an introduction Sandwich

Figure 43: From left to right: Euler buckling; crimp; three types of wrinkling ( based on [3])
Here it is stated that the nature of a sandwich structure leads to a multiplicity of possible failure modes
under a buckling load. A few have been described in Figure 43.
A panel can elastically buckle outwards. Damage can also occur, however, in the bond between skin
and core, so that the buckling resistance of the skin is actuated separately. This is much lower than the
buckling resistance of the sandwich. Buckling of one of the skins can also lead to tearing out of the core
(skin buckling outwards) or indentation damage of the core (skin buckling inwards). In the case of a
honeycomb core, the skin can buckle locally between the walls of the honeycomb. This is called dimpling
(Figure 44).

Figure 44: Dimpling of sandwich with honeycomb (based on [3])

4-3 Sources
[1] DIAB Sandwich Handbook, version 09-03
[2] Zenkert, D., (editor), ‘The Handbook of Sandwich Construction’, EMAS 1997
[3] Caprino, G., Teti, R., ‘Sandwich structures: Handbook’, Il Prato, 1989

90
 Composites – an introduction Sandwich

4-4 Exercises for this chapter

1. Demonstrate, using the formulas given in this chapter, that the values in the bottom table are realistic.

4t

2t

thickness relative weight

relative flexural relative flexural
stiffness strength

t 1 1 1

2t 7 3.50 1.03

4t 37 9.25 1.06

2. What has been omitted in calculating the values for the row 'Relative stiffness?
3. Name three advantages and four disadvantages of sandwich materials
4. For a typical pedestrian bridge, two possibilities are considered for the supporting structure: one with
two steel girders and another based on a sandwich variant (glass fibre-reinforced polyester with PVC
core). The bridges have identical dimensions: a width (b) of 2 metres, a span (L) of 5 metres and a
construction height (h) of 305 mm. The data of the two steel I-sections and of the used sandwich are
shown in the figure and table. The deflection of bridges must be smaller than 1/250th of the span.
a. Calculate the maximum load in the steel variant as a result of a load P in the middle of the bridge.
Calculate the normal and shear stress in the steel section.
b. In which direction do most fibres lie in the skins of the sandwich?
c. What are the deflection and the stresses in the sandwich variant for this load? What do you
notice?
d. Which measures do you propose to reduce the deflection of the sandwich bridge? Which is the
most effective?

91
mposites – an introduction Sandwich

2 steel beams
(option 1)
Sandwich panel
(option 2)

Parameter symbol, unit Option 1 Option 2

Moment of inertia I, mm4 116860000

Bending rigidity (EI) D, Nmm2 1.52391 1013

Area A, Askin, Acore, mm2 6830 16000, 594000

Density , skin, core, kg/m3 7850 1800, 60

Stiffness E, Ef(ibre), Ec(ore), N/mm2 210000 30000, 1000

Shear modulus G, N/mm2 1000

Mass per meter q, kg/m 53.6 (per beam) 64.4

92
Interconnecting fibrous

materials is not trivial.

Composite designers are

rediscovering age-old

techniques such as knotting,

splicing, braiding… When

selecting a connection method

it is sometimes just a matter of

cutting the knot.

 Joints

Composites – an introduction

Chapter 5 Joints
Bonding is both the basis and the Achilles’ heel of a composite structure. You will learn the
principles of the relevant mechanical and adhesive joints, their weaknesses and the ways in
which joints can be improved.

Composite parts must often be bonded to structural members made of another material. In
addition, the situation can arise where composite parts have to be bonded to each other. The first
is often unavoidable. It is preferable to avoid the latter however. Bonding composite parts to each
other will make the structure more complex, heavier and more expensive than when an integral
structure is made (without joints). In almost all joints, fibres are interrupted. This means that
stresses occurring in the structure must be transferred through the adhesive via shear stresses.
Joints can be classified on the basis of different criteria:

• Detachable ↔ non-detachable

• Bonding of non-cured laminates (primary, wet-on-wet) ↔ cured laminates (secondary)

• Between similar ↔ different types of materials

• Mechanical ↔ adhesive

This chapter is mainly discusses mechanical and adhesive joints.

5-1 Adhesive joints

5 - 1.1 Making good adhesive joints

A good adhesive joint is dependent on good preparation and design. Firstly, the quality of the
adhesive joint is determined by good workmanship. This implies pre-treatment (by cleaning and if
necessary sanding) of the objects to be bonded, and application of the adhesive in the correct way
and under correct temperature and moisture conditions.
Further, a good adhesive joint is designed such that the adhesive is principally loaded in shear.
The tensile strength of an adhesive joint is generally lower than the shear strength. Peel stresses
(stresses perpendicular to the adhesive joint that rely on the tensile strength) must thus be
prevented. Figure 45 shows examples of different types of adhesive joints. It also shows how good
and bad adhesive joints are designed.

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Composites – an introduction Joints

Thus, a good adhesive joint is parallel and symmetrical relative to the line of action of the forces
acting on it. Eccentricity should be avoided. As shown in Figure 46, for example, deformation of the
joint should be taken into account. This figure shows that secondary bending of the structure can
cause peel stresses.

Peak stresses often occur at the edges of an adhesive joint by stiffness transitions from the
structural member to the adhesive (e.g. Figure 47). These stiffness transitions can be reduced by
matching the stiffness of the adhesive and the laminate as closely as possible, e.g. by using a more
rigid adhesive and/or adapting the fibre direction of the plies to be bonded. A flexible adhesive,
however, has the advantage of redistributing peak stresses faster. Stress concentrations also arise
because an adhesive joint is often combined with a geometrical transition. The lower the shear
stress in the adhesive, the lower the peak stresses. These are proportional to the average stress.
The larger the adhesive surface, the better.

96
 Composites – an introduction Joints

Figure 46: Deformation (inducing peel stress) in a single lap joint through secondary bending
An adhesive layer is generally a fraction of a millimetre thin. In large structures (bridges, wind turbine
blades), thicker adhesive layers are often used. These can be up to a few millimetres thick. The behaviour
of an adhesive joint is dependent on adhesive thickness. A thicker adhesive layer can distribute stress
concentrations better internally, but will render the structure weaker than a thin adhesive layer. A thick
adhesive layer is more difficult to apply, because of the low viscosity of many adhesives. For this reason,
a filler (e.g. very short glass fibres) is often added to the adhesive for thick adhesive layers (>0.5 mm).
The adhesive is then referred to as bonding paste.

Single lap joint Relative strength

1
Beveled lap joint
1,25

Double lap joint

1,4

Stepped lap joint

2

Scarf joint
2,25

97
 Composites – an introduction Joints

Figure 47: Shear stress distributions and relative strength of an adhesive joint (based on [1])
5 - 1.2 Failure of adhesive joints

An adhesive joint can fail through excessively high stresses or poor design. The failure mechanism may
point out the possible cause. A distinction is made between adhesive and cohesive failure of adhesive joints
(Figure 48). In the event of adhesive ('stick on') failure, failure occurs at the place of the bonding between
the adhesive and the component to be bonded. Adhesive failure can be prevented by proper pre-treatment
(cleaning and drying, degreasing). Adhesive fracture can be avoided by ensuring that the components have
a correct roughness. Correct surface roughness provides a larger contact surface. Excessive roughness
causes air inclusions (voids). Adhesive failure occurs less readily if the parts to be bonded are porous. This
is due to the mechanical anchoring effect of the adhesive in the pores.
A cohesive ('cohesion') fracture occurs in the adhesive. The cohesion strength is determined by the type
of adhesive, possible curing shrinkage, the porosity of the adhesive
layer due to solvent evaporation (when bonding with solvent), any
entrapped air, and the homogeneity and correct ratio of the
components (for mixed 'two-component' adhesives).
If one of the structure’s components shows no or little residual
adhesive upon failure of an adhesive joint, the fracture is likely to be
adhesive. In that case, it must be checked whether pre-treatment
was carried out correctly and/or whether the adhesive was suitable
for the component to be bonded. Cohesive fracture indicates that the
adhesive itself was weaker than the joint between adhesive and
structural component. Often, a mix of these types of failure occurs.
Upon failure of a lap joint, exposed ply fibres are often visible. In that
case,

adhesive fracture has occurred between matrix material

e 48: Failure modes of adhesive and fibre reinforcement. This leaves little room for
(from top to bottom: cohesive, improvement of the adhesive joint itself.
ive, cohesive-adhesive)
5 - 1.3 Types of adhesive

The choice of adhesive type is very important. In addition to the mechanical properties, processing
methods and, of course, the costs, it is important to check whether the adhesive is suited to the surfaces to
be bonded. This is a matter of adhesion. You should take into consideration that material to be bonded may
be soluble in the adhesive. There are three adhesive types:

• thermoplastic ('hot melt') adhesives

• mixed or two-component adhesives (polymerisation adhesives)

• adhesive solutions (which cure under emission of a volatile solvent)

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 Composites – an introduction Joints

5-2 Mechanical joints

In the case of mechanical joints, no adhesive is used. Mechanical joints are generally of the 'pin-
loaded hole' joint type. Making holes in a composite structure has consequences.

5 - 2.1 Surface pressure and stress around a hole

In the case of a pin-loaded hole joint that is loaded in the plane of the laminate, the pin – which
can be a rivet, a dowel pin or a bolt – will rest against the hole edge and exercise surface pressure
on it. Screw or bolt thread that rests against a hole edge will damage the hole edge. The surface
pressure is dependent on the fit, laminate structure and possibly lateral support of the hole edge
(e.g. by washers).
In addition to surface pressure, a stress concentration occurs in the laminate. This is located in
the net cross section – i.e. the stress cross section minus the area of the hole – on both sides of the
hole. This is quantified by the stress concentration factor. This is the factor by which you must
multiply the stress in the remaining cross section. In metals, this factor is between 2 and 4. In
composites, this factor can be higher: between 1.5 and 7(!). The reason for this is that metals show
plastic deformation at the edge of a hole. This may result in increased elongation, but not in
increased stress levels within the material. This plastic behaviour hardly ever occurs with
composites.

5 - 2.2 Failure of mechanical joints

In Chapter 3, some possible failure modes of a composite were discussed. Bolted connections have the
following characteristic types of fracture (Figures 49 and 50):

• Tensile fracture in the net cross section as a result of stress concentration;

• Failure due to bearing pressure. This is the most favourable type of fracture (the most
'forgiving'). The strength can be raised by supporting the laminate in the thickness direction.
Washers can be used to achieve this;

• Fatigue fracture. On the contact surface

between bolt and hole, the fibres fail very
locally on pressure. As a result, the bolt fit is
partially lost and redistribution of the load
over the bolted joint occurs;

• Shear fracture. This type of fracture can be

prevented by increasing the end distance
and adding fibres in the ±45º direction;

• Creep. The pretensioning in a bolt can Figure 49: Failure under surface pressure and
decrease through stress relaxation in the fracture in the net cross section laminate.
This can have a negative influence on the quality of the joint.

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 Composites – an introduction Joints

Figure 50: Lateral shear fracture and split

fracture
5 - 2.3 Use of inserts

For various joints, it can be useful to fix a

piece of metal, wood or composite in one of the
components to be connected. This is generally
done to improve the distribution of the stresses
introduced by a bolt or screw. Inserts are used
with laminates, but are often particularly
necessary in sandwich laminates. Such an
insert is generally built into the laminate or
sandwich during the production of the part to be
connected or bonded later (Figure 51).

Figure 51 Inserts in a sandwich panel

5 - 2.4 Screwed connections

For fibre-reinforced polymers, a threaded joint can be made, just as for wood and soft materials,
where the pitch and thread height are fairly high. The strength and detachability of such a joint can
be considerably improved through the use of inserts.

5 - 2.5 Bolted connections

A bolt with nut (and if necessary a washer) has the advantage of the joint being detachable. Also,
pretensioning can be provided in the bolt, so that laminates and plies are pressed on each other.
This strengthens the joint through improvement of the resistance against failure under surface
pressure, impeding delamination and distribution of the stresses across the panels.
Bolts are generally provided perpendicular to the plane in laminates. In thick laminates, it is
possible to provide a joint in the laminate plane by using T-bolts or inserts.

100
 Composites – an introduction Joints

A T-bolt is shown schematically in Figure 52.

For the T-bolt, two holes must be drilled in the
laminate: one in wall location. Injection bolts can
the plane of the provide major advantages with respect
laminate (for the to fatigue.
bolt) and one A mechanical joining technique
perpendicular commonly applied in
to the laminate
(for the barrel
nut). Due to

the similarity

Figure 52: Joint in the plane of the laminate (Tbolt with a joining
or 'Ikea joint')
technique
commonly used
by a well-
known Swedish furniture company, this joint is also referred to
as an ‘Ikea joint’. The preliminary processing for the joint is
limited and simple, and considerable pretensioning can be
achieved.
A similar joint which needs no barrel nut is the insert. This
often consists of a sleeve with an internal screw thread that
has been built into the laminate (or is provided later by drilling
a hole and bonding). Pretensioning can be applied to this joint,
depending on which part of the internal screw was threaded. If
many bolts are to be used in a joint, more of these insert-joints
will fit in a cross section than T-bolted connections (see Figure
53).

5 - 2.6 Hybrid and other joints

There are still many more joints in use. An obvious

combination is that of adhesive and mechanical means. Such
joints are sometimes referred to as 'hybrid'. In this case, the
mechanical joint provides the contact force for the adhesive.
Sometimes this can lead to shorter production times. The
adhesive can compensate for manufacturing tolerances or
have the effect of making the joint liquid- or gas-tight.
So-called injection bolts also exist. These permit the space
between the bolt wire and the hole edge to be filled after
installation of the joint. This prevents the thread from 'eating'
into the composite. No threadless bolts are required at the hole

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Composites – an introduction Joints

Figure 53: Joints in the plane of the

laminate by means of an insert at the
blade division location [2] and at a
blade root of a wind turbine rotor
blade (source: TRES4/EOZEN)

bridge building and aircraft engineering involves the use of rivets. For composites,
particularly for applications in aircraft engineering, special rivets have been developed with
which high loads can be transferred.
All of the above-mentioned joining techniques are based on connecting two separate components,
after production of the components. In the case of composites, of course,

102
 Composites – an introduction Joints

Figure 54: Hütter loop joint in wind turbine blade root ([3]) and strap (source: Futura Composites)

the joint can also be made 'on the job', e.g. by providing a number of coupling layers.

A composite can even be carried out as a loop, in which the part to be connected is
either involved or not involved in the composite manufacturing process. A few examples
are the 'Hütter' blade root joints for wind turbine blades – a design that is not often used
nowadays – and the composite 'straps', with which superconducting magnets can be held
in place under cryogenic circumstances (Figure 54)).

5 - 2.7 Joints in thermoplastics

For composite materials in which use is made of thermoplastics, use can be made of
the ‘weldability’ of thermoplastic materials instead of adhesive bonding. The components
to be connected can be heated on the spot, so that the plastic melts. By fixing and allowing
the plastic to solidify, the parts are then ‘glued’ together. On-the-spot heating of
thermoplastics can be performed in all kinds of ways. For instance, heating can be done
using infrared light, microwaves or resistance and induction welding. In the last two cases,
a strip of metal gauze is included in the parts to be connected (Figure 55).

103
Composites – an introduction Joints

press

clamp

metal gauze

- laminate

Figure 55: Welding of thermoplastics (based on [4])

104
 Composites – an introduction Joints

5-3 Sources
[1] R. van de Ven, Composietmaterialen (Composite materials), Stam Techniek, 1993, ISBN 90401-0073-X,
(Figure 9.4)
[2] van Wingerde, A.M., van Delft, D.R.V., Molenveld, K., Bos, H.L., Bulder, B.H., and de Bonte, H., ‘Bladeco,
windturbine bladen van ecologische materialen (wind turbine blades from ecological materials)’, final
report (public, in Dutch), May 2002
[3] Copy of Figure 2.11 from Joncas, S., ‘Thermoplastic composite wind turbine blades – an integrated
design approach’, dissertation, TU Delft, 2010 (ISBN 978-2-921145-73-2). Original figure from: Hau, E.
Wind turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application and Economics.
Second edition, Springler-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2006
[4] Stavrov, D., Bersee, H.E.N., Thermal Aspects in Resistance Welding of Thermoplastic Composites.
Proceedings of ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Las Vegas, USA, July 2003

105
Composites – an introduction Joints

5-4 Exercises for this chapter

1) List in order of strength: double lap joint – slanting lap joint – a single lap joint – bevelled lap
joint.
2) Name three advantages and three disadvantages of a pin-loaded hole joint in composite
materials.
3) Name three advantages and three disadvantages of an adhesive joint in composite materials.
4) A pin-loaded hole joint is sensitive to different failure mechanisms. Give a possible remedy for
the failure of a pin-loaded hole joint:
a. shear fracture
b. tensile fracture
c. split fracture

106
An example of sustainable re-use of a construction?
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

Chapter 6 Sustainability
Sustainability in general, including the sustainability of composites, is a prominent discussion theme
nowadays. Quantifying the environmental burden of structures is a new and complicated specialisation.
This chapter broadly examines the environmental impact of composites and composite structures. It offers
some pointers for further study. An important aspect is that each structure must be considered over its
whole life cycle. This also applies to its environmental impact.

6-1 Life Cycle Analysis

For customers and producers, it can be interesting to compare the performance of products on the basis of
environmental impact. Life cycle analysis (or LCA) is the collective term for methods which are used to examine
the environmental impact of structures. In this regard, three life phases are distinguished [1]:

• production

• use

• end of life

LCA methods break a structure down into its components. They then determine how much material, energy
and water is consumed per component. They also determine any emission of harmful substances. This is quite
an in-depth process. A metal component, for example, requires iron ore to be mined and transported, and
machines and labour to be deployed. This is all factored into such an analysis.
During its use, a structure must be regularly inspected and maintained. This requires energy. This is often
accompanied by the emission of harmful substances.
A structure has a specific life cycle. At the end of its life cycle, a new purpose, application or destiny must be
found.
LCA is based on the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI). This is a database which includes a specification of the
environmental impact per material of structure. Such LCIs are compiled with care, but rely in part on
assumptions. The quantity of heat that is released in the incineration of a particular quantity of material can be
measured quite well, for example. The share of the commuter traffic of mineworkers or a maintenance crew
can differ per situation, however. Such effects need to be estimated.
The result of an LCA can be expressed in different ways. A range of impact indicators is
available. For example, the influence of a phase is expressed in tonnes of CO2, energy
consumption or in combined indicators such as the Eco or MKI score.

6-2 Sustainability of composites

The assumptions associated with an LCA are a source of discussion. For a new and
diverse collection of materials such as composites, the available knowledge of the
environmental impact is often relatively limited. There is quite some discussion about the
environmental friendliness of composites, particularly with respect to their production phase
and end of life phase.
In a recent VKCN press release [2], different comparative studies of bridges are
discussed, for example. The conclusion is that more reliable and comparable environmental

108
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

data must become available in order to be able to make an objective and valid comparison
between different materials (Figure 56).
In general, composite structures offer various possibilities for low-energy design. Using
them can provide significant environmental impact benefits. Various possibilities for
lowenergy design are discussed below.

Figure 56: Different results of comparisons on bridges ([2], [3]). The vertical axis in the lower figure shows
energy consumption in MJ

6 - 2.1 Production of composites

In general, a composite consists of fibres and a polymer. As discussed in Chapter 1, the

production of glass fibres and carbon fibres requires a considerable amount of energy.
In the case of carbon fibres, the amount of energy required is relatively large. Most polymers are made of
petroleum.
It is possible to make composites from natural materials. Most resins can be combined well with natural fibres
such as flax, hemp, wood or bamboo. The mechanical properties of natural fibres are in general lower than
those of synthetic fibres. Isolating suitable reinforcing material from these biological resources can be fairly
laborious. Also, an important disadvantage is the sensitivity to moisture during the manufacturing process.
However, the relatively low density of these fibres often provides composites with a high specific strength and
stiffness. Another benefit of natural fibres is that they are often very transparent, e.g. to radar.
To a lesser degree, matrix materials are available on the basis of natural resources. Instead of petroleum,
vegetable oil can also be used for making polymers. An important problem in the use of natural resources for
structural materials is the possible competition with food crops. Biocomposites thus partly face the same
problems as, for example, biofuels.
In addition to the impact of producing the constituents of a composite material, different production methods
will have different environmental influences. Production based on open moulds, for example, will deliver more
109
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

emission of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) than a closed-mould. With closed-moulds, however, many aids
are often used (e.g. vacuum film) that become waste after release of the product.

6 - 2.2 Maintenance and repair

On account of the materials used, composite structures will generally require less maintenance than steel
and wooden structures [4]. Examples are known in civil engineering, where the life cycle of a concrete structure
is extended by the external application of composite reinforcing materials, such as in Figure 57.
Repairing a composite structure generally involves the removal of the damaged parts and

Figure 57: Strengthening of a 'shear wall' (reinforcement wall that is widely used in earthquake-sensitive
structures) with carbon-composite [5]
applying new layers (hand-lay-up, pre-preg, or vacuum technique). This can generally be done in-situ.
Curing a repair can be done by means of an electrically heated blanket, for example. With the
necessary expertise, 'cosmetic' repairs can be carried out well. In the case of high-loaded structures
however, repairs will not always restore the original strength.

6 - 2.3 Energy saving in the construction industry

A recent development, popular with architects, is the application of composite exterior wall panels.
These allow a large degree of freedom in architectural design, and make it possible to design original,
low-weight structures. In renovation projects, this means that the existing support structures do not
need to be strengthened, or only require limited strengthening. In new structures, the support structure
can be designed on a light-weight basis. The good thermal insulation properties of glass fibres and
polymers, and the possibility of implementing exterior wall panels as sandwich structures, contribute
to lowenergy building characteristics (see for example Figure 58 or [6]).

110
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

Figure 58: Installation of exterior wall panels in the construction of the Utrecht city council offices.
With a surface area of 24000 m2 this facade, implemented by means of double-mould vacuum injection
techniques, is, at completion, the largest in Europe. The thermal and acoustic insulation values are R c=11.5
and 34 dB respectively (source: Polux)

6 - 2.4 Composites in motion

Composites are often applied in moving structures. A lightweight design can improve the energy-
efficiency characteristics of a structure. An obvious example comes from the transport world. For
shipping loads, you need a ship, train, aircraft or truck (trailer). The

energy consumption of all Assume for example that a truck-trailer combination can
these types of shipping is be made 5% lighter, and that this will save approximately
related to the weight of the 5% of fuel per ride. For 10 rides, the savings will also be
type of transport used. By 5%. If the savings in weight of non-paying load means that
saving weight, rolling- or 10% more payload can be transported per ride, however, a
water resistance is reduced. reduction of 1 in 11 rides will be achieved. This will result in
In 'automotive' applications, a savings of nearly 10%.
the fact that the structure is In applications where braking energy is stored in
often subjected to flywheels, a composite flywheel – thanks to its high
acceleration or deceleration
during travel also plays a role.
Light-weight design will
obviously result in energy
savings. In this respect, two
quantities play a role: fuel
savings and the extent of the
payload.
111
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

Figure 59: This 'bioscooter', an electrically driven scooter

made of biocomposite materials, was developed in a joint
venture with Hogeschool Inholland.

specific strength – is a good option.

In industrial applications such as pick-and-place machines and robots, the production rate can
be increased if lighter and stiffer materials are used for the components of the production machines.
Depending on the product, investments in lightweight designs can be recovered through higher
output.
The freedom of geometry offered by the use of composites can provide direct energy savings
through aerodynamic design (e.g. the light-weight fairings on truck cabins). In transport applications
in particular, light-weight construction can lead to energy savings, e.g. by applying composite
materials [7].
6 - 2.5 End of life

When a composite structure is at the end of its life cycle, various options are available. The
possibilities for composite structures are generally more limited than for traditional structures,
however. Depending on the type of resin and reinforcement, recycling may be possible. Incineration

112
 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

in cement furnaces is a method recognised by the EU. Composite waste is inert and thus not more
harmful than domestic waste [1].

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 Composites – an introduction Sustainability

6-3 Sources
[1] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Composieten en Milieu (Composites and the
environment)´, fact sheet on designing with composites, part 11, March 2012
[2] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Milieuvergelijkingen nog onbetrouwbaar
(Environmental comparisons still unreliable)´, press release, 3 October 2013
[3] Ryszard A. Daniel, Ecological Analysis of Material Selection for a Bridge, IABSE Symposium report
12/2008, DOI: 10.2749/222137809796068307
[4] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Civiele constructies en infrastructuur (Civil structures
and infrastructure)´, fact sheet, via [Link]
[5] [Link]
[6] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Bouwproducten en inrichting (Building products and
infrastructure)´, fact sheet, via [Link]
[7] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ´Transport(besparing) met composieten (Logistic
savings with composites)´, fact sheet, via [Link]

114
Unsuspectingly, this scientist runs onto the IJssel -lake, early

January 2012. Despite the inconstant climate he assumes

that the ice will carry him. Or did he spot his colleagues on

the horizon, who already proved the ice’s strength on their

skates? Trust may be t he basis of economy; in this cas e,

testing might be better...

Composites – an introduction Testing

Chapter 7 Testing
Testing composite materials calls for a different approach than testing isotropic materials.
This is due to fibre structure, the difference between tensile and compression properties and
failure mechanisms of composites. After completing this chapter, you will have an overall
understanding of the most important measuring and testing methods, and the similarities and
differences compared to isotropic material testing.

7-1 Why test?

Testing a material or structure can be done in practice for a number of reasons. These
invariably boil down to validating the assumptions that were made in the design stage. If the
design stage of a structure includes predictions as to its deflection or eigen-frequency, you can
assume a value for this stiffness, measure it from the raw material or measure the deflection or
eigen-frequency of the structure and thus check whether your assumption was correct. There are
different categories of tests:

• Quality control: does the material comply with the specifications stated by the supplier?

• Generation of input data for a design or design detail, e.g. testing the behaviour of a
joint.

• Partial or full-scale test: a test on a scale model or a whole structure.

The category of the testing to be performed, as well as the test and measuring methods to be
used, depend on the specific case. Does a product require certification? Then there is often a list
of standard methods that must be used. Are you investigating the behaviour of a non-standard
design detail? In that case you must sometimes develop your own test set-up and measurement
protocol.
In all cases the test must, of course, be representative of real-life circumstances. The test
method and the material to be tested, or the structure to be tested, must reproduce the stresses
and elongations that can occur in reality as much as possible.
7-2 Test- and measurement methods for composites
This chapter discusses the measuring and test methods that are relevant for the
properties of composites discussed in Chapter 3 in particular. In determining the properties
of composites, many options are available. The value of the property to be determined may
depend to a large extent on the measuring and test method that is chosen.

7 - 2.1 Test set-up and methods of measurement

For an example of a test set-up, see Figure 60. In the case of a coupon test – a coupon
is generally a strip of the material to be tested and is also referred to as a test piece or
specimen – the test set-up may include various elements. First of all the test piece will have
a particular geometry, depending on the test method and purpose. The test piece is fixed in
the test machine by clamping jaws or a dedicated accessory. In series with – or incorporated

116
 Composites – an introduction Testing

in – one of the clamping jaws, there is often a sensor that measures the applied force. The
hydraulic or spindle jack(s) generally include a sensor that measures the displacement of
the clamping jaws. These built-in force and displacement sensors are also used for the
actuation of the test machine. If the cross section of the coupon is known, the average stress
in the cross section can be calculated. The displacement speed during a test is often
prescribed by a standard. This is then set and documented by the displacement sensor.
The displacement signal from the built-in sensor generally has little meaning for the
evaluation of a test. This is because the measured displacement is the total of the coupon
deformation and the deformation of the test machine. This latter value can be relatively
large.

tabs

specimen
gauge section
extensometer

strain gauge
temperat ure
sensor
clamps

data acquisition
system
control

Figure 60: Test set-up for material tests (source: WMC)

Added force and displacement transducers can be used to collect more information on the
behaviour of the coupon.

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Composites – an introduction Testing

Strain is an important quantity. Together with the force, it is translated to the stiffness (the E
modulus). A commonly used method to measure the strain is using a strain gauge. This is a thin
metal wire that lies folded up on a plastic support (see Figure 61). If the support is subjected to
an elongation, the wire becomes longer and thinner. As a result, its electrical resistance changes.
By comparing the stress across the
connection points of the strain gauge (after
calibration) with the stress across known
resistors (often a Wheatstone bridge is
used), the mechanical elongation can be
determined. The advantage of a strain
gauge is that the sensor is relatively cheap
and can be quickly applied by adhesive
bonding. Disadvantages are that the
sensor is not reusable and is often
unsuitable for the
large elongations that may occur in
composites. The sensor is unsuitable for
Figure 61: Multi-axial strain gauge (source: WMC) use with a fatigue load. Strain gauges are
commercially available that can measure in several directions in the plane. This is useful for shear
tests or for measuring transverse contraction.
There are many alternatives for the strain gauge. The most common is the extensometer.
Although this sensor is based on strain gauges, it is reusable (see Figure 60). This sensor takes
up more space and is often removed before the fracture point in fracture tests to protect it from
damage.
In addition to the disadvantages mentioned, the above methods have the following
disadvantages:

• the measurements are contact measurements: the test piece can be influenced by the
sensors or by pretreatment for the application. Often the sensors are not capable of
withstanding extreme temperatures or moisture;

• the measures are local measurements: the strain is measured only at the place of the
strain gauge or extensometer, not beyond these points.

There are relatively new sensor technologies under development that do not have these
disadvantages. These methods are based principally on optical techniques in combination with
dedicated image processing software.
A relevant example is DICT (Digital Image Correlation Technique) (see Figure 62). Here a
pattern is first applied to the coupon. It is very important that this pattern is as random as
possible. Often the pattern consists of manually applied speckles (white background, black
speckles with spray paint). There is also software that prints stickers displaying arbitrary
patterns. A camera takes pictures of the coupon at different loads. Because elongation varies
with load, the speckles move slightly. The speckle displacement is tracked by software. Since
there are no fixed patterns in the speckles, the software is able to determine how a set of
speckles is displaced under the influence of a load. The speckle displacement, and thus the local

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elongation as well, are known for the whole coupon being tracked. Sensors do not need to be
clamped or bonded to the coupon. It is thus a non-contact, full-field technology.

cameras
lamp
specimen with
random pattern

overview

load causes strain

Digital Image Correlation software

calculates strain from comparison of
speckle patterns before and at load

photo 1 photo 2
Figure 62: Overview of the Digital Image Correlation Technique (source: WMC)
The most important disadvantage in particular is the cost of the software. Some
opensource software is available, although its usability is limited [1]. Further, the arithmetical
operations involved are fairly time-consuming. The technology is therefore not suitable for
real-time processing.
In addition to force, displacement and strain measurements, it is important to record the
temperature and often also the humidity in the laboratory. For fatigue tests, the temperature
of the test piece is important for determining the validity of a test. Heating of the test piece
during the test can influence the life cycle and invalidate the test.

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7 - 2.2 Types of mechanical tests

To obtain the mechanical properties of a coupon (and thus of a laminate), various tests can
be performed. A number of factors must generally be taken into account in this respect.
First of all, providing the test piece with a reduced cross section in the middle does not
deliver any benefit for UD composite materials in particular. This 'width tailoring' often takes
place with metal test specimens to ensure that the maximum stress occurs in a predictable
place. This allows any sensors that may be used to record the strain at break and stress
accurately. Width-tailoring a laminate means either the application of thickness variation
(where plies must be terminated) or the application of variation in width (where fibres are
intersected) or a combination of these. Particularly at fatigue load, by delamination and axial
cracking, a width-tailored test piece will become prismatic (Figure 63). In addition, the
probability exists of damage to the laminate during width-tailoring. In this respect, water-jet
cutting is the 'friendliest' method. This means that prismatic coupons are used in many
mechanical tests.

growth of axial
cracks

delamination
development

Figure 63: Creation of a prismatic test piece from a width-and thickness-tailored test piece of
UD material
In prismatic coupons, it is necessary to allow for the influence of the clamping. The hard jaws of
a test machine can cause damage to the test piece surface. Further, the laminate is depressed (by
the clamps) and a shear stress prevails on the surface (the test piece is generally held in the
clamping jaws by friction). In a prismatic test piece, there is a danger of the material breaking in
the vicinity of the clamping jaws. This results in a lower strength value than what the material is
really capable of, meaning the results are conservative. Often the ends of test specimens are
provided with so-called 'tabs'. These are pieces of metal or composite that are bonded to the ends
of the coupon to prevent damage to the surface. They reduce the probability of failure at the jaws.

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In addition, most test machines are equipped with standard clamping jaws. For some test
methods, an accessory is then necessary to be able to carry out the tests. This applies particularly
to shear tests, but also to compression tests. The advantage of an accessory is that the test result
is almost independent of the alignment of a test bench, for example. Many accessories are
available, however. This means it may sometimes be difficult to find a comparable set of data for
a specific laminate, since it is quite likely that the same laminate has been tested elsewhere using
another accessory (see Chapter 1). The nature of the accessories can sometime influence the
results and the type of sensors that can be applied.

7 - 2.2.1 Tensile test

A tensile test (for example [1]) is one of the simpler tests on a material. Since there are not many
different standards, a comparison of tensile strengths is quite reliable for most laminates. A tensile
test can determine the tensile strength, the stiffness, the Poisson contraction and the strain at
break (Figure 64). Subjecting a ±45º laminate to a tensile test will allow its shear properties to be
derived.

stress( )

vezel
strength

2, 2

1, 1
Stiffness
E= /
strain ( )

fracture strain

Figure 64: Properties from the stress-strain diagram of a tensile test

7 - 2.2.2 Compression test
The measurable compressive strength of a laminate is generally smaller than the tensile
strength, while the stiffness is more or less equal. Although a compression test can be done using
the clamping jaws of a standard test machine, there are various dedicated accessories on the
market with which the quality of a compression test can be improved [2], Figure 65.
Reasons for this can be: • the clamping jaws protrude or extend, so that
nonsupported test piece length becomes too
• the measurement length is large;
so small that the clamping
jaws cannot close • a separate accessory guarantees proper
sufficiently; alignment of the clamped-in parts of the test
piece;
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Composites – an introduction Testing

• by means of the accessory, hinge

the compression load can
be applied both by normal top and bottom of
load on the test piece ends specimen flush with
as well as by shear load in steel platens
the jaws;
specimen
• the whole test piece length
can be supported with an
bolts (adjust
accessory, so that it does
clamping)
not buckle out.

strain gauge cables and

connectors

clamps

Figure 65: Compression

test set-up with fixture

(source: WMC)
A laminate in a compression test will give less reliable values if fibres do not run sufficiently
parallel to the load. The greater the deviation, the less reliable the results will be.

7 - 2.2.3 In-plane shear test

For thin-walled structures in particular, it is often interesting to know the shear properties in the
plane of the laminate. There are various shear tests for determining this, e.g. [3] or [5]. An example
is given in Figure 66.
During the test, the two clamps move in opposite directions. This creates a shear stress in the
laminate. Often, the middle section of the laminate is narrowed. In a shear test, fibre orientation
must be carefully chosen. For an anisotropic laminate, the shear strength can be measured in the
plane in two different directions (and in the thickness direction).

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 Composites – an introduction Testing

Figure 66: Fixture for the in-plane-shear test

(source: [4])

7 - 2.2.4 Interlaminar shear test

In this test, the shear strength between the centremost plies of a test piece is determined
(interlaminar shear strength). This is a simple test, for which one does require a three-point
bending accessory. In the laminate, a shear stress
prevails that is highest between
the centremost layers. These layers
will shear off from each other and the result will
provide information on the resistance against
delamination, and thus also on the extent to
which curing of the resin was successful [6].

7 - 2.2.5 Structures and structural details

Figure 67: Fixture for the interlaminar

Besides coupons, structural details
shear test (source: [4]) or even whole structures can be tested. This is done later in
the design
process, when the failure behaviour of a detail or structure needs to be checked. It then involves
structures in which this behaviour (e.g. damage growth) cannot be predicted – or can scarcely be
predicted – on the basis of the results of simpler coupon tests such as discussed above. Examples
are the testing of a whole bridge, a complicated joint, etc. Technically speaking, these situations
involve cases in which:

• the stresses are multiaxial;

• different materials have been mutually connected, causing large stress gradients to
occur through the thickness;
• buckling occurs;

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Composites – an introduction Testing

• there are relatively large 3-dimensional 'jumps' in the structure;

• fatigue plays a role.

7 - 2.3 Other tests

7 - 2.3.1 Fibre volume content and fibre mass content

It is important to know the fibre and resin content of a composite. This determines the
performance of the composite to a large extent (see the section on the rules of mixture in Chapter
3, for example). The determination of the fibre and resin content of a composite is carried out by
a number of weighing operations, before and after removing the resin. The simplest way to remove
resin is by burning it away. This is often done in the case of glass fibre reinforced composites. The
procedure for the determination of the fibre content is as follows. A small block of composite is
weighed in 'dry' and 'wet' state. Weighing is done while the material is immersed in water. This
allows the volume of the block to be calculated. The block of composite is then placed in a furnace
with a gas outlet and heated. This burns away the resin, but not the fibres. The fibres are then
weighed. For polyester or epoxy-reinforced composites, incineration at approximately 550ºC for a
few hours is usually sufficient to reduce the material to clean fibres (Figure 68).
The more assumptions that are made regarding the densities of the components, the more
information this method will provide on the fibre content.

accurate
scale

Crucibles with fibres after

incineration of resin

Figure 68: Accessories for performing fibre volume content measurement (source: WMC)
The fibre content can, of course, be determined without assumptions by dividing the weight of
the fibre package with the weight of the composite:

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 Composites – an introduction Testing

Where:
FWF = Fibre Weight Fraction
mf = mass of the dry fibre package (after incinerating the resin)
mc = mass of the composite (before incinerating)

The fibre content follows from:

with:
FVF = Fibre Volume Fraction
Vf = volume of the dry fibre package (after incinerating the resin)
Vc = volume of the composite (before incinerating)

For this calculation, the volume Vc of the composite block is required. This can be determined by
a wet weighing process in a liquid with known density, generally water. Since the density of water
varies somewhat with the temperature, the temperature is also measured during weighing. The
volume Vc follows from:

mc,w = weight of the composite in water

w = density of water (depending on temperature)

The volume of the fibres follows from the mass and the density (this is often an assumption):

where f is the density of the fibres. Until now it has been assumed that the composite consists
only of fibres and resin. It is not inconceivable, however, that it also contains other components, e.g.
air inclusions (voids). In other words:

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 + 𝑉𝑣

Vm = volume of the matrix material

Vv = volume of the air inclusions
This can be rewritten as:

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Composites – an introduction Testing

𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 − (𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚)

The volume of the resin is determined from the difference between the mass of the original
composite and the fibre package, and the – assumed – density of the resin.

7 - 2.3.2 Glass transition temperature

The glass transition temperature provides information on the usability of a resin at a given
temperature. In addition, the measured value of the glass transition temperature provides
information on the manufacturing process (see also Section 1 - 5).
Various methods are available for determining the glass transition temperature and related
quantities. Roughly speaking, these can be categorised as mechanical-dynamic methods and
thermodynamic methods [7], [8].
The best-known from the first category is called DMA (Dynamic Mechanical Analysis). In this
method, the force and displacement are measured while a piece of composite is cyclically loaded
and the temperature is gradually changed. When the force and displacement are plotted against
each other, hysteresis appears at higher temperatures. This means that, as displacement increases
and decreases, the force follows with some delay. This results in a kind of loop-shaped signal in a
force-displacement diagram. The surface of this loop is a measure of the quantity of hysteresis. The
hysteresis is also used as a measure of material damping, because it is concerned with the quantity
of energy that is converted into heat by the material in each displacement cycle. At low temperatures,
hysteresis will be close to zero (the material behaves elastically and force and displacement will be
strongly proportionally linked). At higher temperatures, the material will show more rubbery or
viscoelastic behaviour and hysteresis will increase. The glass transition temperature can be
determined from the increases of this 'damping'. There are various DMA methods, e.g. a 3point
bending set-up or a torsion-bend. An advantage of this method is that there is a clear
relationship between the glass (dynamic) stiffness heat-absorption
transition temperature and the (DMA ) (DSC)
behaviour of the structure (namely
damping). A disadvantage is that
relatively much material and a fairly
extensive mechanical test set-up are
necessary.
In the other category, DSC
(Differential Scanning Calorimetry) is
mostly applied. Here the heat capacity
T g
of a test piece is compared with that of
a known piece of material (built into temperature
the DSC equipment). During heating,
the heat capacity of the test piece Figure 69: Measurement of glass transition
changes. The glass transition temperature with DMA and DSC (shown
temperature Tg is then derived from schematically)
this change.
In a standard set-up, the advantage of DSC is that only a small quantity of material is used. One
of the disadvantages is that the filling material content in a composite (e.g. the fibres) can provide a

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 Composites – an introduction Testing

misrepresented image of the glass transition temperature, which preeminently is a property of the
polymer.
In both methods, a certain amount of arbitrariness can occur in the interpretation of the test
results. The glass transition temperature is generally not a discrete temperature. The transition of
glass to rubbery behaviour takes place over a certain temperature range. For this reason, a series
of glass transition temperatures is often given. In this case, the socalled 'midpoint' (middle of the
transition area) is accepted as 'the' glass transition temperature. See also Figure 69.

7-3 Interpretation of test results

In this chapter, various measuring and test methods were described. The results are shown, for
example, in a table specifying the strength and stiffness of a material (in a particular direction!). Such
tables actually describe the behaviour of the material. This can then be used to optimise a design
in terms of material use. A good engineer will review such material properties critically. There are
different matters which you must bear in mind. These include:

Was the test representative of the actual use of the material? The material in a laboratory
test is subjected to other circumstances than in the final application. Significant differences
can arise between the behaviour of the material in a product application and in the
laboratory. This can be caused, amongst other things, by:

 The production of the test specimens. Has the same method been used, are the
thickness and the structure of the laminate the same? Making test specimens with
hand lay-up for a structure that has been pultruded will probably lead to
underestimation of many properties. In pultrusion, for example, the fibre content and
the alignment of the fibres is probably more readily reproducible than in the case of
hand lay-up.

 The applicable norm/standard and/or geometry of the test piece. Depending on the
shape of the test piece and any accessories, the results may be better or worse. For
example, the width-tailoring or support of a measurement section can have a
considerable influence on the end result. Various standards exist for the
measurement of the same material property (e.g. compressive strength and shear
strength). Each have their particular characteristics.

 Environmental influences such as temperature and moisture. In the laboratory, these

are generally maintained at a particular value (e.g. 23ºC and a relative humidity of
50%).

Calculation and presentation of results: stiffness is generally determined in a particular

strain range. In the case of non-UD laminates and shear properties in particular, stiffness
can differ considerably for various strain ranges. In other words, it is important to have an
idea as to the shape of the whole stress/strain curve. That is not always presented,
however. In addition, an average value is often given in which the spread is sometimes
expressed in standard deviations or variation coefficients. Which value would you use for
your design?

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Composites – an introduction Testing

Reliability: design and statistics

Suppose that a certain property (e.g. strength) is very accurately and reliably known. In addition, the
load has a constant value. As a designer, all you have to do is make sure that the strength is marginally
higher than the load, to make sure that the product never fails, but is not overdesigned:

100%

probability

load strength

stress
In most cases, however, the product’s material properties are subject to variations because of the
manufacturing method, tolerances, environmental influences, etc. The loads are also not completely
known (e.g. how many cars, trucks, cyclists will use a bridge during its lifetime?).

probability

load
strength

stress
Strength and load can be described as probability distr ibutions. In the above figure, the hor izontal
axis shows stress, the vertical axis shows the chance of this stress occurring . At the overlap of these
probability distributions, failure occurs. Using statistics and diagrams like the above, the reliability o f a
structure can be calculated.

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7-4 Sources
[1] ISO, ‘Determination of tensile properties’, ISO-527
[2] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for determining the compressive properties of polymer
matrix composite laminates using a combined loading compression (CLC) test fixture’,
ASTM 6641, 2009
[3] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for shear properties of composite materials using the V-
notched beam method’, ASTM 5379, 2005
[4] [Link] (with permission)
[5] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for shear properties of composite materials by Vnotched
rail shear method’, ASTM 7078, 2005
[6] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for short-beam strength of polymer matrix composite
materials and their laminates’, ASTM 2344, 2000
[7] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for transition temperatures and enthalpies of fusion and
crystallization of polymers by differential scanning calorimetry’, ASTM 3418, 2008
[8] ASTM, ‘Standard test method for glass transition temperature (DMA Tg) of polymer matrix
composites by dynamic mechanic analysis (DMA), ASTM 7028, 2007

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7-5 Exercises for this chapter

1) Explain why width-tailoring in the testing of composite materials does not always work.
2) Name three pros and cons of both an extensometer and a strain gauge.
3) Give two reasons for using a multiaxial strain gauge.
4) A piece of glass fibre reinforced epoxy composite of 25x25x3 mm is dry weighed (x g), and wet
weighed (the piece has been immersed in water with a density of 1 kg/l and is suspended from
a weighing scale). The resin is then removed in an incineration furnace. The remaining glass
package weighs y g.
a. What is the fibre content of this composite?
b. The piece shows visible small bubbles (the product was produced by means of hand lay-
up). The density of glass and cured resin is 2600 kg/m3 and 1150 kg/m3. What was the air
inclusion content?
5) Carbon burns (partly) at the temperatures adopted for current fibre content determination. How
could you measure the fibre content of a carbon composite?

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Language is a standard for mutual understanding. The pride

of the Babylonians who intended to build this tower all the

way to Heaven was punished with a multitude of different

languages - resulting in severe confusion of tongues...

 Composites – an introduction Standards and Certification

Chapter 8 Standards and

Certification
After completing this chapter, you will know the importance of standards and certification.
You will be familiar with the role they play from purchasing materials up to and including the
use of the end product.

As an engineer, you will be deeply involved in standardisation and certification. Within a

company, solutions are often standardised so that work can be done more efficiently. Industry
sector organisations, standardisation institutes and certification agencies provide work directives,
standards and certificates for whole industrial sectors or fields. The word
'standard' may suggest documents that specify more or less rigid practices and procedures.
Nothing is further from the truth, however. Continuous developments in the market and in
knowledge, new materials and construction methods necessitate ongoing efforts in the area of
standardisation. This also applies to composite materials [1].

8-1 A case of trust

Standards offer guidance in the areas of:

• Choice of material

• Design

• Testing

• Sales

The availability of standards and directives generally increases confidence in a product, and
thus in the market. When choosing materials for a particular design application, for example,
standard solutions are often available which are associated with a certain quality guarantee.
Using other materials could require extensive testing. Directives and standards provide
information for the designer on aspects he or she must take into consideration and on how
calculations should be done. By following standards during the testing of a design, the results are
more easily reproducible. They can also be repeated by other laboratories. The ability to
demonstrate that you have worked according to a standard and/or have a certificate or some
mark of approval – which in turn are based on standardised tests and training courses – helps to
cultivate confidence on the part of the customer.
You yourself would perhaps be more inclined to buy a product if it has a KEMA certification or
– in the case of a car, for example – if the dealer is a BOVAG member (Dutch association of vehicle
traders and workshop owners). However, you should bear the implications of such certificates or
standards in mind. An example is the ISO 9000 series. This is a widely-recognised certificate in
the world of production companies. An enterprise can obtain this certificate when its processes
and administrative procedures are regulated in a particular way and are directed at producing high-

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quality products and traceability of ingredients. Such an enterprise can still make bad products,
however. In principle, an ISO 9000 certificate says nothing at all about the quality of a product.
The only assumption you can make is that, thanks to the company's quality policy, errors are less
likely to occur and that the causes of any errors that do occur can be more easily traced.
For confidence in a structural material such as a composite, good standards and directives are
indispensable. For this reason, standards are widely used. You will find little that is not described
in them. There is a standard, for example, for performing Life Cycle Analysis (see Chapter 6).
There is even an ISO standard for comparing various kinds of teas [2].

8-2 Test standards

As discussed in the preceding chapters, material and structural properties form the basis of a
design. Often, identical material properties can be determined in different ways. The procedure for
performing a test is documented in a test standard. For composites alone, many thousands of test
standards exist. A test standard document specifies within fairly close limits how the material must
be prepared, which types of instruments and accessories are permitted, which circumstances are
required in the laboratory, which test parameters are of importance and which values they should
comply with, how test results should be processed and how they must be reported. When reporting
test results, reference can be made to the standard they are based on. That not only saves a
considerable amount of writing effort, but also facilitates comparison with material properties
obtained with the same or another standard.

8-3 Design standards

A design standard or directive describes how to design a product in such a way that it meets
requirements. It documents the requirements for strength, stiffness and sustainability and gives
methods for verifying product characteristics. Often reference is made to other testing standards.
Design standards are related to a particular way of designing, also referred to as 'design
philosophy'. Various design philosophies are possible. The one you choose depends on the
application.
In aviation, for example, reliability is defined in terms of a maximum quantity of 'damage' (human
lives) per passenger kilometre (the distance multiplied by the number of passengers transported).
Here, flight safety and optimisation of the structure are clearly conflicting design aspects. An
extremely light-weight structure that fails upon even modest loading is clearly not acceptable. On
the other hand, designing an aircraft in such a way that accidents would never happen due to
aircraft structural failure may require the use of more structural materials and thus compromise
profitability. The aviation industry therefore adopts 'damage tolerant' designs. That is, one
assumes that damage (e.g. fatigue cracks) will occur but – based on insight as to where and how
damage occurs – regular inspection intervals and repair methods are prescribed. In this way, light-
weight designs can be employed (with the advantage of more passengers per litre fuel) and still
be safe.
In bridge design too, a specific reliability is pursued. This reliability is a function of the probability
of the occurrence of excessive loads and the probability of the structure not being capable of
supporting such loads. In this case, reliability is translated to 'classes', where different
requirements would be specified for the reliability of a busy traffic bridge than for a footbridge that
is only used for light pedestrian traffic. An interesting requirement for bridges is the maximum

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 Composites – an introduction Standards and Certification

deflection. This is based partly on comfort requirements. A bridge that deflects too much may lead
to insufficient user confidence, since people are often inclined to think that strength and stiffness
are inextricably related. See Chapter 4 for an exercise showing that this is not necessarily the
case.
In applications where the probability of human injury upon failure is lower, the philosophy on
which a design is based could be different. Costs over the life cycle then play an important role. A
wind turbine, for example, is designed for a life cycle of approximately 20 years, with a minimum
of maintenance and repairs (safe-life design). Since it is fairly laborious to inspect or to repair a
wind turbine regularly, many of its components are built somewhat heavier.
In all cases, a design standard will need to contribute towards creating confidence in a product
(the safety image). Design standards are generally formulated in such a way that application of
the rules leads to a robust design that could probably be lighter.

8-4 Standards development

Various standardisation bodies are involved in making directives for composites. ISO
(International Standardisation Organisation) is a worldwide organisation. ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials), JISC (Japan Industrial Standards Committee), DIN (Deutsches
Institut für Normung) and NEN (Dutch Standards) are examples of national standards
organisations. These organisations often adopt international standards (of the ISO in particular) or
supplement general standards with national annexes that better reflect the practice in the country
concerned.
Standards can be quite general in nature and describe, for example, the procedure you must
follow in the statistical analysis of a collection of data. There are many sector-related or product-
specific standards. There are directives, for example, that describe the design of a wind turbine
right down to detail level and prescribe methods that – provided they are correctly applied – lead
to a safe design, e.g. the guidelines publisehd by the now merged GL (Germanischer Lloyd) and
DNV (Det Norske Veritas). In the construction industry and infrastructure in the Netherlands, the
CUR96 recommendation provides directives for the construction of composite bridges, locks and
floors, for example.
A directive or standard is generally developed by a committee of experts. A typical committee
consists of designers, officials, scientists, representatives of the industry organisation and
members of the certifying agency. In this way, a standard is created in which a balance is
guaranteed between the interests of the different parties and organisations involved in the
subsequent use of the standard. Government authorities, for

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 Composites – an introduction Standards and Certification

Figure 70: For bridges such as this 'Dragonfly' (source: Royal Haskoning DHV) the CUR96
directive [5] offers composite design guidance
example, seek safe structures and standards that are compatible with purchasing policy.
Design engineers, on the other hand, need practical design guidelines. It is important that as
much current knowledge of structures as possible is incorporated in the standards. Producers
and sellers of the structures are interested in a satisfactory balance between their effort in
complying with standards and the revenue of their product. Individual producers will find it
important to promote their own technology as a standard. The national interests of the
participants often play an important role in the development of international standards. The
values of safety factors, for example, but also the values of individual influencing factors are
partly scientifically determined. To a certain extent, however, it is inevitable that standards are
ultimately based on political compromises.
The history of directives shows that directives and standards for composites are strongly
linked to specialised fields. If a material finds new application in a certain area of specialisation,
it must comply with the same requirements as the traditional materials and structures for that
specialisation. Over the past decades, existing design directives and certification requirements
have been adapted for composites. Depending on the field of specialisation, such adaptations
may take many years to develop. An American directive for ship design, for example, dates
back to 1978 [3], while a Dutch directive for civil engineering was released in 2002 [4] and,
upon revision, was extended to cover building structures (2013) [5].

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 Composites – an introduction Standards and Certification

Figuur 71: Bicycle/traffic bridge crossing the Dutch highway A27; steel structure with
composite deck (source: Fibercore Europe). Standards and guidelines are instrumental in
ensuring optimal and safe realisation of such structures in busy traffic nodes. The challenge is
to make them applicable to hybrid structures incorporating innovative materials and
connections.

8-5 Design manuals

As discussed, standards and norms are intended to create confidence in technology and to
aid design engineers when using materials that may be new to them. The engineers, however,
also need their own judgement in interpreting the various directives. As a rule, standards and
norms are impartial, i.e. they do not express any explicit preference for a particular product or
tools. They are available at a certain charge from the publisher of the document. Some producers
offer design manuals. Such documents may offer extensive and detailed guidance on designing
structures using 'their' products. They are often easily obtainable or accessible (e.g. via websites)
and sometimes have a clear relationship with formal design directives. An example is a design
manual for pultruded profiles [6], based on design standards [7] and [8].

8-6 Sources
[1] Vereniging Kunststof Composiet Nederland, ‘Normen en kwaliteit (Standards and
quality)’, factsheet on design with composites, part 6, via [Link]
[2] [Link]
[3] Eric Greene Associates, ‘Marine Composites’, via
[Link]
[4] Ros, M., e.a., CUR96 recommendation, ‘Vezelversterkte kunststoffen voor civiele
draagconstructies (Fibre reinforced plastics in civil structures)‘, CUR, 2003

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 Composites – an introduction Standards and Certification

[5] Tromp, L.T., e.a., CUR96 recommendation, ‘Vezelversterkte

kunststoffen in bouwkundige en civiele draagconstructies (Fibre reinforced plastics in
architectural and civil structures)’, revision, SBKCURnet, available as of 2014
[6] Fiberline Composites A/S, ‘Fiberline Design Manual’, 2de editie, 2002
[7] EN13706. Reinforced plastics composites - Specifications for
pultruded profiles, first edition, June 2002
[8] Structural Design of Polymer Composites - EUROCOMP Design Code and Handbook,
The European Structural Polymeric Composites Group, John L. Clarke, Sir William
Halcrow and Partners Ltd. London, UK (Editors), Published by E & FN Spon, van
Chapman & Hall, London, VK, eerste editie1996

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 Answers to exercises
Chapter 1
1) What is the definition of a composite?
A composite is a material construction that consists of at least two macroscopically
identifiable materials that work together to arrive at a better result. 2) Name three
advantages of composites.
1) Weight saving
2) Considerable freedom in geometry, choice of materials, choice of process 3)
Low total maintenance cost
3) Name three disadvantages of composites.
1) Stiffness and failure behaviour can be inconvenient
2) Limited knowledge on behaviour of details and connections
3) Often high investment cost
4) What is the function of fibres in a composite?
Usually, fibres in a composite determine stiffness and strength to a large extent – A
polymer to which oriented fibres are added becomes much stronger and stiffer in fibre
direction than perpendicular to fibre direction. 5) Name three types of fibres.
1) glass fibre
2) carbon fibre
3) natural (bio-) fibres
6) What is the function of the polymer in a composite?
The most important function is that the polymer acts as a ‘glue’, keeping the fibres
together.
7) What is meant by a ply in a laminate?
This is a layer of impregnated fibre reinforcement. A stack of plies forms the laminate.
8) In which two categories – both very relevant for the processing method – are
polymers divided?
1) thermoplastics
2) thermosets

Chapter 2
1) Describe at least four processing methods for composites.
• Spray-up: a mixture of short (chopped) fibres and resin is sprayed onto the mould
using a dedicated spray gun.
• Hand lay-up: dry reinforcement layers are put in the mould and impregnated with
rollers and brushes.
• Winding: fibre bundles are impregnated and wound around a mandrel.
• Pultrusion: fibre bundles are drawn through a resin bath and, subsequently,
through a mould.

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 2) What is an autoclave?
This is a fairly large oven, capable of high temperatures and internal pressure, which can
be used to apply the optimal curing conditions to a product. 3) Explain the difference
between a plug and a mould.
A plug is the ‘mould for the mould’; the mould is then used to make the product.
4) Put these vacuum injection-related terms in the correct order: release agent – mould – peel
ply – fibre package – vacuum film – bleeder/breather fabric.
mould – release agent – fibre package – peel ply – bleeder/breather fabric – vacuum film

Chapter 3
1) Name three failure mechanisms that can occur with composites, including their
possible cause and the measures you can take against the occurrence of these
mechanisms.
Splitting: if many fibres run in a single direction, and the connection transverse to the
fibres is not satisfactory, a composite will be susceptible to splitting. Cracks will develop
parallel to the fibres, and through the thickness of one or multiple plies. Splitting can occur
because of in-plane bending, or a wedge effect of a support or connection. A good remedy
is to build up the laminate by alternating plies with different fibre orientations.
Delamination: is similar to splitting, but now the crack develops between two plies in the
plane of the laminate. This failure mechanism can easily occur, since the shear stresses
between plies can be high and usually the inter-ply interface is not reinforced. A remedy
is preventing high shear stresses between plies. If this is not possible, reinforcement can
be directed through-the-thickness, for example stitching plies together, or applying ‘Z-
pinning’.
Buckling: macroscopic- or Euler-buckling is a structural property which can develop
regardless of material in long, slender structural elements loaded in compression. The
possibility of damage because of buckling should be considered in design. This can be
the buckling of fibres, bundles and plies that buckle under load (often in this order).
Resistance agains macroscopic buckling can be increased by using a stiffer material or
structure, or by reducing the free buckling length. This can be done by reducing the size
of panels or using (thicker) sandwich layers.
2) Derive the compliance matrix from the stiffness matrix and/or vice versa by inverting
the matrix.
See chapter.
3) What is meant by the finite element method?
In this method, a structure is divided into ‘building blocks’, each of which has the
characteristics of the structural material. This method allows to determine stresses and
displacements in a relatively complex structure based on a simple set of material
properties.
4) Give at least 4 handy rules of thumb for a good laminate structure.
• Use symmetrical laminates
• Use balanced laminates
• Avoid stiffness jumps between plies

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 • When bonding two laminates, apply the adhesive to plies that deviate at most
45º from the main direction
• Use quasi-isotropic laminates where possible
5) For 55% (volume), a UD ply consists of fibres; the rest is resin. The stiffness of the
resing (epoxy) is 4 GPa. The stiffness of the fibres (glass) is 72 GPa. What is the
stiffness in the fibre direction of the ply? Ec=0.55*72+0.45*4=41.4GPa

Chapter 4
1 Demonstrate, using the formulas given in this chapter, that the values in the bottom table
are realistic.

Relative stiffness
The moment of inertia of a sandwich cross-section is predominantly determined by the
skins. In a panel (no core) with width b and thickness t, the moment of inertia is:

For the case in the second column (total thickness 2t), the moment of inertia can be
determined in two ways:

• Subtract the moment of intertia of an element of thickness t from the moment of

inertia of an element with thickness 2t:

• Compose the total moment of inertia from the moment of inertia of the elements
neutral axis, and the added term according to Steiner’s rule (cross-sectional area
multiplied with the square of the neutral axis shift):

Relative strength
The stress in the skins is given by:

The outer fibre distance (distance of outer fibres to neutral axis) y will double, while the
moment of inertia becomes 7 times as large. The ratio y/l therefore becomes 3.5 times
larger.
2 What has been omitted in calculating the values for the row ‘Relative stiffness?
Shear deformation.
3 Name three advantages and four disadvantages of sandwich materials.
Advantages: Often good combination of stiffness and weight; thermal and acoustic insulation;
suitable as anti-buckling element.
Disadvantages: sensitive to delamination of skin and core; connections require additional
attention; integration in a product requires additional attention, e.g. degassing in a vacuum-
process; shear deformation can be considerable.

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4 For a typical pedestrian bridge, two possibilities are considered for the supporting
structure: one with two steel girders and another based on a sandwich (glass
fibrereinforced polyester with PVC core). The bridges have identical dimensions: a width
(b) of 2 metres, a span (L) of 5 metres and a construction height (h) of 305 mm. The data
of the two steel I-sections and of the used sandwich are shown in the figure and table. The
deflection of bridges must be smaller than 1/250th of the span.
a. Calculate the maximum load in the steel variant as a result of a load P in the middle of
the bridge. Calculate the normal and shear stress in the steel section.
The maximum deflection in a steel profile (disregarding shear deformation) is given by:

If this is limited to 1/250th of L, i.e. 20 mm, this means for the total load:

The normal stress (in longitudinal direction, maximum near the top and bottom area of the
flange) follows from:

Whilst the average shear stress (a non-conservative approximation!) is calculated as:

b. In which direction do most fibres lie in the skins of the sandwich?

It is advisable to orient most fibres in the direction of the highest stresses. In the flanges of
a bridge support beam this is in longitudinal direction. Orienting part of the fibres in other
directions, however, is necessary to avoid e.g. splitting.
c. What are the deflection and the stresses in the sandwich variant for this load? What do
you notice?
With the formulas from the chapter:

This is larger than in the steel option, and the requirement w.r.t. deflection is not met. The
reasons are that the skins are less stiff and there is more deformation in the core. Also note,
that the stress in the skins is much lower than in the steel beam flanges. Therefore, the
bridge is less stiff but stronger at the same time.
Furthermore, the weight is 60% of the steel option (536 kg in steel, 322 kg in composites).
The composite option comes with an integrated ‘deck’, which needs to be installed
separately in the steel bridge.
d. Which measures do you propose to reduce the deflection of the sandwich bridge? Which
is the most effective?
Increasing the total thickness of the bridge by increasing the core thickness will lead to a
stiffer bridge and is most likely the most effective. Another option is to select a stiffer skin

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 material – e.g. based on (expensive) carbon fibres. Instead of a sandwich core, composite
shear webs, with fibres in ±45º with respect to the main direction of the web (beam
longitudinal direction). In this case, the use of pultrusion profiles is not so far away any
more.

Chapter 5
1 List in order of strength: double lap joint – slanting lap joint – a single lap joint – bevelled
lap joint
From weak to strong: single lap joint – bevelled lap joint - double lap joint – slanting lap joint
2 Name three advantages and three disadvantages of a pin-loaded hole joint in composite
materials.
Advantages: Simplicity, can be taken apart, quality does not highly depend on temperature
and humidity at time of connection; suitable to connect different materials; can be relatively
easily monitored.

Disadvantages: Fibres are cut, leading to lower strength and potentially large stress
concentrations. Delamination can be induced when making the hole. Creep can result in
loss of pre-stress.
3 Name three advantages and three disadvantages of an adhesive joint in composite
materials.
Advantages: Leak-proof, even load introduction, no holes required.

Disadvantages: Quality depends on pre-treatment, poor characteristics in out-ofplane

stress situations (peeling), usually not easy to take apart.
4 A pin-loaded hole joint is sensitive to different failure mechanisms. Give a possible remedy
for the failure of a pin-loaded hole joint:
a. shear fracture
This can be avoided by applying ±45º plies next to the pin-hole joint:

b. tensile fracture
Can be avoided by applying additional UD layers next to the joint, with the fibres in load
direction:

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 c. splitting
This can be avoided by applying additional layers next to the joint, transverse to the load
direction:

Chapter 7
1) Explain why width-tailoring in the testing of composite materials does not always work.
Delamination and axial crack development can effectively render an originally widthtailored
specimen to a rectangular specimen. This especially happens in fatigue tests on UD-
dominated specimens.
2) Name three pros and cons of both an extensometer and a strain gauge.
Extensometer, advantages: reusable, suitable for fatigue, measures average stiffness over
larger part of the surface than strain gauge.
Extensometer, disadvantages: relatively expensive, surface measurement, not a local
measurement (measures average strain between extensometer contact points)...this can
be a disadvantage!
Strain gauge, advantages: cost-efficient, local measurement.
Strain gauge, disadvantages: non-reusable, sensitive to fatigue, measures surface
strain only.
3) Give two reasons for using a multiaxial strain gauge.
Multi-axial strain gauges are required for measuring shear stress and Poisson’s ratio.
4) A piece of glass fibre reinforced epoxy composite of 25x25x3 mm is dry weighed (x g),
and wet weighed (the piece has been immersed in water with a density of 1 kg/l and is
suspended from a weighing scale). The resin is then removed in an incineration
furnace. The remaining glass package weighs y g.

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 a. What is the fibre content of this composite?
The composite volume is C=(x-z)/1. After incineration, y g remains. If the density is of the
fibre is known (e.g. 2600 kg/m3), the volume F can be determined (y/fibre density). The
resulting fibre volume fraction then is: F/C.
b. The piece shows visible small bubbles (the product was produced by means of
hand lay-up). The density of glass and cured resin is 2600 kg/m 3 and 1150 kg/m3.
What was the air inclusion content?
The fibre volume is known (F). The volume of the resin can be determined from M=xy.
The inclusion volume then is: I=C-(F+M).
5) Carbon burns (partly) at the temperatures adopted for current fibre content
determination. How could you measure the fibre content of a carbon composite?
For such materials, the resin can be removed using a strong acid (provided that this does
not damage the fibres).

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Content and illustrations
In ‘composing’ this textbook, no attempt was made to document new knowledge, but merely
to limit the content to a small part of the extensive and highly interesting existing knowledge,
selecting what was deemed indispensible basic knowledge of a ‘Hogeschool’ engineer (see:
VKCN working group Education). We used the expertise and lecture notes of the main author
and numerous teachers and industry experts, who gave useful feedback to concept versions
of this document. The final text and editing was done by the main author. If anything is unclear,
incorrect or incomplete, that is entirely on his account.
This book contains many (original) photos and illustrations, where care was taken to insert
references to the source or source of inspiration. To avoid cutting and pasting from existing
literature and to have a consistent set of figures, many illustrations were redrawn. This book
contains 4 types of pictures and illustrations:

• Pictures from named sources

• Pictures from the main author’s collection (no mentioned source)

• Illustrations inspired by existing illustrations (‘based on:...’)

• Illustrations not based on existing illustrations or very general illustrations (no

mentioned source)

The Dutch edition of this book seems to have become widely used in the past years. At
least part of the reason for that must be that, having been published under Open Access
conditions, it can be downloaded for free or ordered as a hardcopy for an administration fee.
The quality of free documentation from the Internet is partly determined by the feedback from
the users. Therefore, the author invites all useful feedback for further improved editions to:
[Link], followed by the ‘at’-sign, followed by: [Link]. Thanks!

147
VKCN working group Education
At various ‘universities of applied science’ in the Netherlands, composites are employed.
Teachers and team managers who have expertise and interest in the development of
composites education have united in the VKCN working group Education, via the ‘Platform
Composites’ (which emerged from the educational user group of a national project RAAK-pro
‘Quality Composites’), and coördinated by the research & education group ‘Groot Composiet’
of Hogeschool Inholland.
The main objective is to share and combine expertise with composites education. Bonds
with industry are used to inventorise their requirements regarding ‘composite competences’
of our alumni.
In 2012 the platform decided to translate the members’ expertise into this textbook.
Contributions and reviews of the book were provided by:

Hogeschool Contact person

Hogeschool van Amsterdam (Hva) Maaik Borst
Avans Dik Overdijk
Fontys Bart Bastings
Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen (HAN) Rens Horn
Haagsche Hogeschool (HHS) Nico Persoon
Hogeschool Inholland Rogier Nijssen
Hogeschool Zeeland Willem Haak
Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden Jaap Verhage
Saxion Hogeschool Paul de Roos
Hogeschool Windesheim Alexander Jansen and Margie Topp

The following colleagues contributed to the first two Dutch editions (in random order):
Katrin Tazelaar, Joop van den Burg (Bijl Profielen), Colin Leek and Kathy Cannings
(Pultrex), René Homan (Nedcam), Antoine Gerritse, Rob van Leeuwen, Koert Dingerdis
(Inholland), Edo Kuipers (Tres4), Don van Delft (WMC), Liesbeth Tromp (Royal Haskoning
DHV), Ane de Boer (RWS-GPO), Sebastiaan Lindstedt (Bright Composites), Jack Smit
(Polux), Roxy Goudsmit (VKCN), Simone Luijendijk and Bertrand van Leersum (ATO) and
students Bart van Oploo, Dirk van Viegen, Dave Stet and Jannes de Vries.
The English translation was made possible with help from Rens Horn, Nick den Uijl, and
their colleagues at the language center of HAN. Useful feedback and contributions were
provided by Marten-Jan de Ruiter and Tjeerd van der Zee (WMC), Bart Bastings and Ernie
Frieke (Fontys), Alexander Krimmer (Euros), Maaik Borst (HvA), Jan Peeters (Fibercore
Europe), Simon Fidder (VKCN), Vikki Small (TenCate), Martine van der Ent (Euroresins), and
Jasper Klarenbeek (CompoWorld). Thanks to their efforts, the potential audience will grow
from ca. 20 million Dutch speaking people to 5 billion English speaking people.
The research & education group ‘Groot Composiet’ was initiated at Inholland with the help
of the EFRO/Kansen voor West project ‘Open Innovatie Alliantie Groot Composiet’ (Open

149
Innovation Alliance), that ran from 2009 to 2013. This was a collaborative project of various
companies and knowledge institutes which shaped numerous innovative composite
developments.
Composite materials are an integral
part of present day technology. Today’s
engineers will, without doubt,
encounter these materials in aerospace,
but also in architecture, civil
engineering, transport and logistics,
maritime and mechanical engineering,
and technical business studies. This
textbook provides novice Bachelor level
students in this field with insight into
material properties, manufacturing
methods and design. This is
indispensible in shaping high quality
solutions by combining fibres and
matrix in a smart way.

ISBN: 978-90-77812-471 151