“LANGUAGE DISORDERS”

Lecturer :

Created by:
2nd group

GUSNAWATI. N 40300121040
ALDHITA DZAKIYYAH ADNAN 40300121049
WAFIQ AZIZAH 40300121051
PUTRI ANNISA 40300121056

ENGLISH AND LITERATURE DEPARTEMEN

ADAB AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
ALAUDDIN ISLAMIC STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR
2024
A. Introduction
Psycholinguistic approach has been adopted by many linguists and
clinicians. Because of that, in the field of psycholinguistics an effort is
needed to interpret language phenomena or disorders. Language disorder
is experienced by someone when the person shows an impaired
understanding of a spoken, written, or other symbol system. In
communication, there is a process to take mind out from brain in words or
sentences. The function of brain and good speech organ will make easy to
communicate well.3 So from that, someone who has good brain function
and speech organs, will be easy to communicate. Likewise, someone who
has a brain function disorder and speech organ. Of course that person will
be difficult to produce a language. Both receptive and productive
languages. This is called as language disorder. Linguistically, language
disorder is inability of acquiring and processing the information (Mu’alim,
2020).
The study of language disorders represents a nexus among many
disciplines, both theoretical and applied. The development of effective
treatments for language disorders requires a mechanistic understanding of
the problems at hand. Thus, applied clinical disciplines that address
language disorders often dovetail with classically theoretical fields, such
as developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and linguistics. The
study of language disorders now also falls under the purview of biological
psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and neurobiology. Thus, the
contemporary study of language disorders is highly multidisciplinary, with
psychological methods and psycholinguistic theories offering prominent
and essential contributions. A language disorder can arise from
impairment at many distinct levels of a processing hierarchy composed
nominally of input, output, and word meaning. For example, failure to
name an object (i.e., anomia) might result from perceptual deficits in
visual object identification (i.e., agnosia), degradation of the core concept
that underlies object meaning (i.e., semantic impairment), or failure to
accurately link a word form to a target concept (i.e., lexical retrieval
deficits). One way of isolating the particular cause of a language disorder
is to first pursue a broad, psycholinguistic modeling approach. Figure 1
represents a highly stylized model of some of the key systems that support
language, and the discussion that follows focuses on the selective
vulnerability of these system (Miller, 2016).
There are three main types of language disorders:
 Expressive Language Disorder, people have trouble getting their
message across when they talk. They often struggle to put words
together into sentence that make sense.
 Receptive Language Disorder, people to get the meaning of what
others are saying. Because of this, they often respond in ways that
don’t make sense.
 Mixed Receptive-expressive Language Issues, people struggle with
both using and understanding language.

Language disorders are often developmental. They start in early childhood

and continue into adulthood. But they can also be caused by a brain injury
or illness. Language disorders are not a matter of intelligence. People who
have them are as smart as other people. But having a language disorder can
make it challenging to learn and to connect with other people.

Persistent difficulties in the acquisition and use of language (expressive or

receptive) across modalities (spoken, written, sign language) due to
deficits in comprehension or production that include reduced vocabulary,
limited sentence structure and impairments in discourse (ability to use
vocabulary and connect sentences)”. Result in functional limitations in
effective communication, social participation, academic achievement or
occupational performance. Onset in the early developmental period. Not
attributable to hearing or other sensory impairment, motor dysfunction or
other medical or neurologic condition including ID or GDD(Moats, 2020).
Language Disorders-Common Features
  Limited amount of speech
 Limited range of vocabulary
 Difficulty acquiring new words
 Word-finding vocabulary errors
 Shortened sentences
 Simplified grammatical structure
 Limited varieties of sentence types
 Use of unusual word order
 Formulation difficulty
 Difficulty understanding words, sentences or specific types of
sentences.

Language Disorders-Categories
 Developmental language impairment or disorder (DLI or DLD)
 Broad term for a variety of developmental disorders in which speech
and language are also affected
 Specific language impairment (SLI)
 Developmental disorder in the absence of intellectual disability,
hearing loss, motor disorder, socioemotional dysfunction or frank
neurologic deficit
 Risk factors – family history, male sex, lower parental education level,
lower paternal occupational status, more siblings
 Probable genetic component with complex inheritance pattern.

B. Common Language Disorders
a. Aphasia is a disorder that results from damage to portions of the brain that
are responsible for language. For most people, these areas are on the left side
of the brain. Aphasia usually occurs suddenly, often following a stroke or
head injury, but it may also develop slowly, as the result of a brain tumor or a
progressive neurological disease. The disorder impairs the expression and
understanding of language as well as reading and writing. Aphasia may co-
occur with speech disorders, such as dysarthria or apraxia of speech, which
also result from brain damage. Most people who have aphasia are middle-
aged or older, but anyone can acquire it, including young children. About 1
million people in the United States currently have aphasia, and nearly
180,000 Americans acquire it each year, according to the National Aphasia
Association.
Causes Aphasia. Aphasia is caused by damage to one or more of the
language areas of the brain. Most often, the cause of the brain injury is a
stroke. A stroke occurs when a blood clot or a leaking or burst vessel cuts off
blood flow to part of the brain. Brain cells die when they do not receive their
normal supply of blood, which carries oxygen and important nutrients. Other
causes of brain injury are severe blows to the head, brain tumors, gunshot
wounds, brain infections, and progressive neurological disorders, such as
Alzheimer's disease.(National Institute on Deafness and Other
Communication Disorder, 2015)
Types of Aphasia, there are two broad categories of aphasia: fluent and
nonfluent, and there are several types within these groups. Damage to the
temporal lobe of the brain may result in Wernicke's aphasia (see figure), the
most common type of fluent aphasia. People with Wernicke's aphasia may
speak in long, complete sentences that have no meaning, adding unnecessary
words and even creating made-up words.
For example, someone with Wernicke's aphasia may say, "You know that
smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like
you want before." As a result, it is often difficult to follow what the person is
trying to say. People with Wernicke's aphasia are often unaware of their
spoken mistakes. Another hallmark of this type of aphasia is difficulty
understanding speech.

The most common type of nonfluent aphasia is Broca's aphasia (see figure).
People with Broca's aphasia have damage that primarily affects the frontal
lobe of the brain. They often have right-sided weakness or paralysis of the
arm and leg because the frontal lobe is also important for motor movements.
People with Broca's aphasia may understand speech and know what they
want to say, but they frequently speak in short phrases that are produced with
great effort. They often omit small words, such as "is," "and" and "the."
For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say, "Walk dog," meaning,
"I will take the dog for a walk," or "book book two table," for "There are two
books on the table." People with Broca's aphasia typically understand the
speech of others fairly well. Because of this, they are often aware of their
difficulties and can become easily frustrated.

Another type of aphasia, global aphasia, results from damage to extensive

portions of the language areas of the brain. Individuals with global aphasia
have severe communication difficulties and may be extremely limited in their
ability to speak or comprehend language. They may be unable to say even a
few words or may repeat the same words or phrases over and over again.
They may have trouble understanding even simple words and sentences.

There are other types of aphasia, each of which results from damage to
different language areas in the brain. Some people may have difficulty
repeating words and sentences even though they understand them and can
speak fluently (conduction aphasia). Others may have difficulty naming
objects even though they know what the object is and what it may be used for
(anomic aphasia). Sometimes, blood flow to the brain is temporarily
interrupted and quickly restored. When this type of injury occurs, which is
called a transient ischemic attack, language abilities may return in a few
hours or days. for people who have difficulty using spoken language.

Increasingly, patients with aphasia participate in activities, such as book

clubs, technology groups, and art and drama clubs. Such experiences help
patients regain their confidence and social self-esteem, in addition to
improving their communication skills. Stroke clubs, regional support groups
formed by people who have had a stroke, are available in most major cities.
These clubs can help a person and his or her family adjust to the life changes
that accompany stroke and aphasia.
b. Dyslexia. According to conventional wisdom, the term dyslexia
designates poor reading performance that cannot be explained by a
primary visual deficit such as a visual field defect, reduced visual
acuity, an eye movement disturbance, a hearing disorder, or a
neurological or psychiatric disease. The reading performance is
“substantially below that expected given the person’s chronological
age, measured intel ligence, and age-appropriate education”
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM 4,
(Werth, 2019).
According to Allan M, Dyslexia come originally from greek word dys
(difficulty) and lexia (words). Dyslexia is a type of learning disability
(or learning difference) that affects how well someone can read and
spel. According to Peer, dyslexia is a combination of abilities and
difficulties which affects the learning process in one or more of
reading, spelling and writing. Accompanying weaknesses may be
identified in areas of speed of processing, short-term memory,
sequencing, auditory and/orvisual perception, spoken language and
motor skills. It is particularly related to mastering and using written
language, which may include alphabetic, numeric, and musical
notation. Usually, someone who has a language disorder especially
dyslexia will have limited communication. The person doesn’t know
how to share a conversation. Because of that thing, this study will
analyze language disorders “dyslexia” of people who suffer from
language disorders, especially in expressive skills.

Caused of Dyslexia. The exact cause of dyslexia is still being researched,

but there are two main areas of focus: genetics and brain development.

 Genetics: Dyslexia is highly heritable, meaning it runs in families. If

you have a parent with dyslexia, you're more likely to have it as well.
Researchers haven't pinpointed a single dyslexia gene, but they
 believe several genes likely work together to influence brain
development in ways that can lead to dyslexia.
 Brain development and function: People with dyslexia may have
differences in how certain parts of their brain are structured or how
they function. This can affect how they process written language.
Studies suggest that the brains of people with dyslexia may have
slight differences in areas involved in processing language and
reading. These differences can affect things like phonological
awareness, which is the ability to identify and manipulate the sounds
in spoken language.

While genetics and brain development are the main areas of study,
there may be other contributing factors to dyslexia, such as:

 Low birth weight or premature birth

 Exposure to certain substances during pregnancy that can affect
brain development.
It's important to remember that dyslexia is not a sign of lower
intelligence. People with dyslexia can be just as smart and capable as
anyone else. However, they may need different types of support to
learn to read and write effectively (Werth, 2023).

REFERENCE

Danny D and Natalia V, An Introduction to Psycholinguistics.2nd Edition, (Great

Britain: Pearson longman, 2006), 257.

Miller, H. L. (2016). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology. The

SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Psychology, January.
[Link]

Moats, L. C. (2020). Speech to print language essentials for teachers. 1–11.

[Link]

Mu’alim, B. F. (2020). a Psycholinguistic Analysis About Language Disorder of

 Dyslexic Character in “Taare Zameen Par” Movie State Institute of
Islamic Studies Jember Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training English
Education Program 2020.

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorder. (2015).

Voice, Speech, and Language- Aphasia. National Institute of Health, 1–4.
[Link]

Werth, R. (2019). What causes dyslexia? Identifying the causes and effective
compensatory therapy. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 37(6),
591–608. [Link]

Werth, R. (2023). Dyslexia: Causes and Concomitant Impairments. Brain

Sciences, 13(3). [Link]