The Research Basis for Spalding’s

The Writing Road to Reading

and the Evidence for its Effectiveness

“Guiding children to a love of reading and learning

for almost half a century.”
Research incorporated within The Spalding Method ®
The act of reading is a complex process, involving many subprocesses occurring simultaneously
or in parallel. Although readers use these subprocesses unconsciously to some degree, research
supports systematic and explicit instruction to help all students use them more efficiently.

Teachers who are familiar with the research upon which Spalding is based are better able to
understand the rationale for the structure and routines of the program. The instructional design of
The Spalding Method is based upon widely accepted research in the following four domains:

Research domains that form the basis of

The Spalding Method

©2022, Spalding Education International 

Domain #1: Principles of Reading Process

Reading process-related research

addressed by The Spalding Method


Phonemic Awareness Research Spalding Approach
The understanding that spoken words and syllables consist of
sequences of elementary speech sounds is a powerful predictor
of success in learning to read (Adams 1990). Research findings
demonstrate that phonemic awareness is more highly related
to learning to read than are tests of general intelligence,
reading readiness, and listening comprehension (Stanovich
1986, 1993). Furthermore, it is the most important core and
causal factor separating normal and disabled readers (Share
and Stanovich 1995); and it is equally important in learning
to spell (Ehri and Wilce 1987; Treiman 1985, 1993). Phonemic
awareness instruction is strongest when the sounds are
presented with the symbols (Ball and Blachman 1991; Byrne
and Fielding-Barnsley 1993, 1995; Hatcher, Hulme and Ellis
1994).
In The Spalding Method, children are explicitly taught
phoneme manipulation tasks such as isolating, segmenting, and
blending phonemes, identifying beginning, ending, and medial
sounds, and substituting phonemes in spoken words. Children
are also taught the symbols that represent the speech sounds.

Feature Recognition Research Spalding Approach

Feature recognition is the ability to distinguish vertical, diagonal
and horizontal lines, and curves. Research tells us the parts
of the brain specialized for distinguishing lines and curves
are activated by looking at print, although the reader may not
be conscious of this (Farnham-Diggory 1992). Thus, shapes
of letters are not remembered as holistic patterns; rather, the
visual system analyzes each letter in accordance with these The Clock Face Four Points Using the clock
elementary features. Therefore, to be fluent at recognizing Most Often Used to write c (2 to 4)

letters, students need to be familiar with the distinctive features

of each letter (Adams 1990).

The six features used to write the 26 manuscript letters are

taught and practiced in The Spalding Method.


Letter Recognition Research The Spalding Approach
Letter recognition is the ability to group features into patterns,
automatically recognizing letters as wholes. Previously, poor
readers’ errors with letter orientation were often considered
signs of neurological dysfunction or immaturity. Yet, Adams
(1990) notes:

“Letter reversals seem to be merely a symptom of

low print knowledge, rather than a cause of reading
problems. Moreover, training children to attend to the
relevant contrasts between letters has been shown
to hasten their ability to recognize and distinguish
between them.” (Adams 1990, 65).

In The Spalding Method, explicit handwriting instruction

in combining features into manuscript letters is followed by
practice forming lower-case letters in daily written phonogram
reviews. To assist recall, children explain which features are
used to form each letter.

Sound-Symbol Relationships The Spalding Approach

(Decoding) Research
Research findings demonstrate that “the critical component
of reading that must be taught is the relationship of print to
speech.” (Fletcher and Lyon 1998, 57). Early and systematic
emphasis on decoding leads to better achievement than late
or more haphazard approaches (Adams 1990; Beck and Juel
1995; Chall 1996a). University of Michigan professor Dr. Keith
Stanovich asserts that “direct instruction in alphabetic coding
facilitates early reading instruction is one of the most well
established conclusions in all of behavioral science” (Stanovich
1994, 285).

In The Spalding Method, teachers model, then coach children

to simultaneously say and write the 70 common sound-symbol
relationships (phonograms). From the beginning, teachers
provide daily oral and written phonogram (sound-symbol)
practice until automaticity is achieved.


Spatial Placement Research The Spalding Approach
The spatial placement process enables the reader to recognize
or anticipate where particular letters are likely to be located
(Farnham-Diggory 1992). This knowledge enhances children’s
ability to spell and read. For example, they learn that the letter
y most frequently occurs at the ends of words.

Children are taught to expect certain letters and letter

combinations to occur in specific places and to differentiate the
“legal” from “illegal” position of letters in print.
For example, ai, oi, and ui do not occur at the end of
English words.

Vocabulary (Lexical Process) Research The Spalding Approach

Beginning in infancy, the brain stores the meaning of
words, and word parts (prefixes, base words, and suffixes).
The lexical process, which includes both understanding
of vocabulary and the morphology of language, enables
the listener or reader to access those meanings (Farnham-
Diggory 1992).

In The Spalding Method, high frequency words (the Extended

Ayres Words list) are the foundation for vocabulary instruction.
Children learn the meanings of these words as well as word
parts. Vocabulary is extended through use of quality literature
in the daily reading lessons and extensive independent reading.


Sentence Structures The Spalding Approach
(Syntactic Process) Research
When children arrive at school, they need direct instruction in
the written structure of the English language, including parts
of speech, word order, and rules of capitalization, punctuation,
and grammar. In her book Speech to Print, Dr. Louisa Cook
Moats (2000), Director of an Early Intervention NICHD-funded
Project, states:

“The teacher who understands language and how

children are using it can give clear, accurate, and
organized information about sounds, words, and
sentences. The teacher who knows language will
understand why students say and write the puzzling
things that they do and will be able to judge what a
particular student knows and needs to know about Teachers explain 29 language rules and expand children’s
the printed word.” (Moats 2000, 1). knowledge of language structure and conventions in the
writing lessons. Master teachers model and coach as children
learn the attributes of simple, compound, and complex
sentences and parts of speech.


Text Comprehension The Spalding Approach
(Semantic Process) Research
The NRP Report (2000) stated that text comprehension is
enhanced when readers:

• 
Actively connect ideas in print to their prior knowledge
and experiences;

• Construct mental representations;

• Use cognitive strategies; and

• 
Reason strategically when their comprehension breaks
down.

The NRP noted that it is helpful for teachers to demonstrate

Using The Spalding Method, children are explicitly taught five
such strategies until the students are able to carry them out
strategies for making meaning out of the text they read.
independently.
The five “mental actions” represent conscious processes to be
used as tools by children when encountering each new reading
experience. They include:

• 
Monitoring comprehension and the identification
of unfamiliar words, phrases, or sentences;

• 
Making connections both within the text and with
prior knowledge while reading;

• 
Making predictions based upon prior knowledge
and details already gathered from text;

• 
Reformatting of text details to categorize
information; and

• 
Summarizing information to confirm stated or
derive implied main ideas.

Children practice these cognitive strategies (mental actions) on

narrative, informative, and informative-narrative print.


Domain #2: Principles of Reading Development
The late Dr. Jeanne Chall (1983) observed that the facts of beginning reading fit a developmental rather than a
single process. This suggests that readers are doing different things in relation to printed matter at each successive
stage. Analysis of school results, laboratory experiments, and clinical findings indicate that the first task in learning
to read is learning the relation between sounds and letters - decoding.

Teachers who know the developmental stages of reading are able to plan lessons that meet students’ instructional
needs at each stage. Chall identified four stages in the reading development process:

The Chall stages of reading development

Chall notes that the ages or grade levels associated with each stage are approximations to identify where the
instructional emphasis typically takes place. In many schools, Stage 1 begins in kindergarten.


Chall Stage 0: Prereading Spalding Approach
From birth to kindergarten, children develop three types of
knowledge. First, they learn a basic vocabulary to describe
persons, places, things, events, and procedures in their
environment. They develop a range of knowledge (facts and
concepts) about letters, words, books, and the world around
them. During these years, children also develop communication
skills. The foundation for all communication is the ability to
describe people and events and the facts and concepts they have
learned. Students who have traveled, been read to extensively,
or have watched educational television, have an advantage.
They have an extended vocabulary and quite a range of
knowledge upon which to draw. Research has shown that the
abilities, knowledge, and skills acquired during the Prereading
Stage are substantially related to success with reading at Stage 1.
Although the first 700 words in the Extended Ayres list are
in the spoken vocabulary of most preschool children, The
Spalding Method provides procedures for teaching the meaning
and usage of unfamiliar words.

In kindergarten, appropriate oral sentence structure is

modeled, and the conventions of written sentences are taught.
Children’s literature is read aloud and discussed to expand
vocabulary, knowledge of facts and concepts, and increase
communication skills. In this way, disadvantaged children or
those who have great difficulty learning language are helped to
keep up with classmates.


Chall Stage 1: Decoding Spalding Approach
The essential aspect of Stage 1 is learning the relationship
between spoken sounds in words and the written symbols
representing those sounds. Children learn to identify letters
that represent speech sounds, to recognize differences between
similar words (bun/bug) and to know when they have made a
mistake. Experimental research has indicated that children go
through phases in making oral reading errors (Biemiller 1970).

In the first phase, children make word substitutions that are

semantically and syntactically correct. Next their errors have
a graphic resemblance to the printed word. In the final phase,
readers rely mostly on graphic exactness and somewhat on
word meaning. Less skilled readers remain in the first phase,
relying on word substitutions associated with meaning or a part
of speech.
Children are directly taught to read and write 70 common
phonograms (sounds-symbols) and to blend these phonograms
Good readers pass through these stages quickly. They do
into high frequency words. Daily oral and written phonogram
not skip words or rely on context to decode words; rather,
reviews develop sound-symbol mastery. Reading the Extended
eye movement studies show they see all the letters and read
Ayres list two ways (for spelling and for reading) helps children
virtually every word (Foorman et al. 1997; Rieben and Perfetti
automatically decode these and other similar words when
1991; Vellutino and Scanlon 1991; Vellutino, Scanlon, and
reading books.
Tanzman 1994).
In this stage, the primary focus is on decoding because it
must be automatic before the instructional emphasis can
shift to reading comprehension. Children cannot pay attention
to more than one thing at a time. They cannot pay attention
to meaning while struggling to decode words.

Even though decoding is the primary emphasis, children

also are introduced to the attributes and elements of quality
writing, the structure of different types of writing, and the
use of comprehension mental actions while listening to
stories read aloud. Listening comprehension skills transfer
quickly to reading.

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Chall Stage 2: Confirmation and Fluency Spalding Approach
Chall described Stage 2 as a consolidation of what is learned
through reading familiar print and what is already known
to the reader. By reading familiar stories, children can
concentrate on the print because the content is known to
them. This enables them to move beyond accuracy to fluency
(automaticity.) During stages 1 and 2, most new information
is still learned through listening, observing, and through
the muscular (kinesthetic) sense because the instructional
emphasis is on learning to read. Emphasis means that extra
time is allotted to the skills that need to be mastered at this
stage, however, it does not mean other skills are ignored.

Children in Spalding classes are pretested at the beginning

of grades 1 and above so teachers know where to begin
instruction. Daily oral and written phonogram reviews and
spelling dictation procedures, including reading words two
ways, develop instant word recognition and fluent reading.
Although the primary emphasis is still on mastery of decoding,
instant word recognition, and fluency, instructional time is also
spent on literary appreciation and listening comprehension.

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Chall Stage 3: Reading for Information Spalding Approach
In Stages 1 and 2, children learn to connect speech to print. In Second-grade and older children are pre-tested at the beginning
Stage 3, they learn to connect print to ideas. Thus, the emphasis of each grade to determine where to begin instruction. The
shifts from learning to read to reading to learn. At this stage primary instructional emphasis shifts from listening to reading
children read for information. Chall pointed out that the comprehension.
importance of prior knowledge becomes apparent at this stage.
What a student already knows is the most important element Expository text structure is an important focus at this stage.
in what he or she is able to learn. In addition, children also Children are explicitly taught to use the five mental actions
need to learn a process for finding information in a paragraph, to comprehend text. They also learn basic research skills, e.g.,
chapter, or book. note-taking to identify essential information to determine stated
or implied main idea(s), and summarizing text.
At the beginning of this stage, learning by reading is still less
efficient than learning by listening and observing. But by
eighth grade, the efficiency of reading should equal and begin
to surpass the other means of gaining information.

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Domain #3: Principles of Skill Learning
Over the past hundred years, much research has been devoted to the development of skill learning. Scientific
literature includes laboratory studies of every type of skill and studies of the development of each in everyday life -
from athletes to business entrepreneurs. Farnham-Diggory (1992) notes:

“Skill-acquisition in any field appears to include learning phases of three fundamental types:
analysis, practice to the point of automaticity, and attention-management. When you learn a skill, you
go in and out of these phases repeatedly…You cannot be in more than one of these learning phases
at the same time…Each phase of skill learning has its own logical requirements, and they are not
interchangeable.” (Farnham-Diggory 1992, 89).

PRACTICE TO ATTENTION
AUTOMATICITY MANAGEMENT

TASK
ANALYSIS

The following outlines each skill learning phase and how it is incorporated within The Spalding Method as explained
by Dr. Farnham-Diggory:

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The Analytical Phase (Task Analysis) Spalding Approach
During the analytical phase, children examine what is
involved in the task, clarify, and connect new learning to
what is already learned.

Effective teaching divides each new task into its parts. After
each subtask has been sequenced, each is then taught directly.

Teachers have children analyze and explain the parts and how
they fit together to promote concept and skill mastery.

Children are taught to analyze each task. For example, during

spelling lessons, they analyze the features of the alphabet
letters, the sounds of spoken words, the phonogram to use
when there are several possibilities, and the pronunciation of
words when more than one pronunciation is possible.

During integrated spelling/writing lessons, children analyze

the parts of speech and language rules and concepts. In
composition lessons, they analyze their purpose for writing,
their choice of a particular type of writing, and their use of
the conventions of writing.

During reading lessons, children analyze the attributes of

fine literature, the elements of narrative, informative, and
informative-narrative writing, and their use of comprehension
mental actions. With each of these analysis, children are
required to explain their reasoning.

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Practice to the Point of Automaticity Spalding Approach
Farnham-Diggory noted that basic, or first-order subskills,
must be automatic so that there is enough working memory
available to focus on second- or third-order subskills. For this
to occur, practice must be “well beyond the point where the
action feels smooth and efficient” (Farnham-Diggory 1992, 92).
Psychologists call this overlearning, and it involves actually
programming a part of the brain called the cerebellum to
carry out an action automatically.

Learning a routine to the point of automaticity involves

perceptual information, motor actions, and knowledge. One
example is the routine of signing one’s name. When first
learning to write, he or she tries to remember letters and the
rules for making them - jobs handled by other parts of the
brain. As name-writing is practiced, features of individual
letters are noticed first. With practice, the features are grouped
and whole letters are perceived. With sufficient practice, a In spelling lessons, children review new phonograms daily until
group of letters is perceived as a whole (e.g., one’s first name). they can say and write them automatically. They read Ayres
words two ways until they can read them fluently and spell
In the beginning, working and kinesthetic memory tell a child’s them accurately.
pencil to move up and around, back and forth; each motor
action receives a separate command. With practice, all these In integrated spelling/writing lessons, children compose oral
motor actions for writing his or her name are activated with (then written) sentences that demonstrate their understanding
a single command. In the process of automating an activity, of unfamiliar words. They compose sentences that demonstrate
control shifts from the cortex to the cerebellum. When name- knowledge of the attributes of simple (later compound,
writing is automated, a child can sign his or her name while complex) sentences. In composition lessons, children write
talking to a friend; however, it is difficult for him or her to start related sentences, then informative-narrative (then informative,
in the middle or recover if interrupted, and extremely difficult finally narrative) paragraphs that include the elements of
to change one’s signature once fully learned. each type of writing and that demonstrate the attributes of
paragraphs (Chapter 2).
At the beginning of learning a new task, practice is short
but frequent to achieve accurate performance; however, In reading lessons, children read aloud daily to develop fluency,
practice must be distributed over time to achieve identify attributes of quality literature, identify elements of
automaticity (overlearning). narratives (then informatives, finally informative-narratives),
and use and label three (then five) mental actions while
listening to or reading McCall-Harby and/or McCall-Crabbs
paragraphs. In Spalding spelling, writing, and reading lessons,
children have extensive practice of perceptual,
motor, and knowledge routines. Practice is distributed in
time over all three lesson types to move beyond accuracy
toward automaticity.

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Attention Management Spalding Approach
When routines become automated, space becomes available in
working memory to choose among them. How these choices
are made is an important part of learning any skill. Farnham-
Diggory (1992) explains:

“In general, attention-management involves the

construction of higher-order timesharing programs…
The attention-management program says, in effect
“When this-and-this happens, switch your attention
here. When that-and-that happens, switch your
attention there.” Learning to construct these higher-
order timesharing programs is essential to skill
development.” (Farnham-Diggory 1992, 94). Child-teacher interaction takes place in every Spalding lesson.
In spelling lessons, children respond in unison during oral
Since attention can be focused on only one task at a time, and written phonogram reviews and spelling dictation, and
students develop attention control by actively participating in all children write phonograms and spelling words. In the
each part of the lesson. integrated spelling/writing lessons, children participate in
group discussions about parts of speech and compose oral
(then written) sentences. In composition lessons, children
discuss related sentences and the writing process. They compose
group, then individual paragraphs of the three basic text types.
In reading lessons, children discuss attributes and elements of
literature, read in unison and independently, answer questions,
and use mental actions while listening or reading.

Part of attention management is teaching children to switch

focus from one task to another. For example, in spelling
lessons, children focus on reading individual sounds or
syllables when reading for spelling, and then switch attention
to recognizing whole words when reading.

In integrated spelling/writing lessons, children focus on

demonstrating the meaning of an unfamiliar word, then switch
attention to checking their use of English conventions (e.g.,
capitalization, punctuation). In composition lessons, they
switch attention from composing, to revising for content, and
finally, to editing.

In reading lessons, children switch attention to decoding when

they encounter an unfamiliar word, then reread the entire
sentence to focus again on comprehension.

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Domain #4: Principles of Effective Instruction
A successful model of instruction takes into consideration the nature of learning, how curricula should be organized,
how classrooms should be managed, and what constitutes achievement. Dr. Allan Collins and his colleagues
developed a cognitive apprenticeship model that provides an integrated theory of education. This highly effective
instructional delivery system involves students in every lesson; makes lessons more meaningful; and develops
students’ critical thinking skills.

“The…six teaching methods fall roughly into three groups: the first three (modeling, coaching,
and scaffolding) are the core of cognitive apprenticeship, designed to help students acquire an
integrated set of cognitive and metacognitive skills through processes of observation and of guided
and supported practice. The next two (articulation and reflection) are methods designed to help
students both to focus their observations of expert problem solving and to gain conscious access
to (and control of) their own problem solving strategies. The final method (exploration) is aimed at
encouraging learner autonomy not only in carrying out expert problem solving processes, but also
in defining or formulating the problems to be solved.” (Collins et. al., 1989, p. 481).

TEACHER STUDENT
BEHAVIORS BEHAVIORS
• Modeling • Articulation
• Coaching • Reflection
• Scaffolding and • Exploration
Fading

The following further details each of the six Collins-based principles of instruction
incorporated within The Spalding Method:

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Modeling Spalding Approach
Collins notes that when modeling, an expert carries out a task
“so that students can observe and build a conceptual model of
the processes that are required to accomplish the task” (Collins
et al. 1989, 22). This holds true for tasks that are concrete
and observable as well as cognitive tasks such as reasoning,
problem solving, knowledge retrieval, and decision-making. It
is the teacher’s job to make these tasks visible by thinking out
loud.

During spelling lessons, teachers model precise formation

of features, letters, phonograms, and each word in spelling
dictation. During integrated/spelling writing lessons, teachers
model composing sentences that demonstrate correct
meaning and usage of unfamiliar or difficult spelling words.
In composition lessons, teachers model thinking out loud
while composing paragraphs of each text type. For literary
appreciation lessons, teachers model thinking out loud while
identifying and explaining each attribute of literature and the
elements of each type of writing. For listening (then reading)
comprehension lessons, they model use of five mental actions.

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Coaching Spalding Approach
As soon as children attempt the task, the transition from
modeling to coaching begins. When coaching, the teacher
guides, prompts, and provides feedback as the student performs
a task, or part of one. The goal is to bring the performance of
the novice closer to that of the expert. During the coaching
phase, the teacher guides and supervises practice to the point
of automaticity. The teacher provides specific feedback, telling
students exactly where they departed from the model.

After the teacher provides one or more clear, specific models of

each new skill, coaching begins.

In spelling lessons, during oral phonogram reviews,

teachers say the sounds correctly as soon as a phonogram
is mispronounced. During written phonogram reviews, they
initially show each phonogram immediately after children
write it so errors can be corrected quickly. As children’s
accuracy improves, teachers use delayed feedback.

In integrated spelling/writing lessons, teachers prompt as

children compose oral sentences by giving additional examples
and by providing specific, immediate feedback when grammar
or word sequence is incorrect. In composition lessons, they
guide as children use the writing process.

In reading lessons, teachers guide as children identify examples

of descriptive language, help children articulate their reasons
for word choices and provide immediate feedback. In text
structure lessons, they coach as children determine text type.
For conscious use of mental actions, they guide as children
think out loud and name the mental action used.

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Scaffolding and Fading Spalding Approach
In instructional terms, a scaffold is a support system. When
scaffolding, the teacher provides support because novice
learners are not yet able to independently perform the task.

The difference between coaching and scaffolding is in degree.

During the coaching phase, the new skill is not yet in long-term
memory so most children need help most of the time. When
the majority of children can accurately perform all or part of a
skill, teachers fade (withdraw support).

Fading occurs when the majority of children know the content

and can apply their knowledge independently. The amount of
practice required to reach this point varies significantly.

In spelling lessons, teachers can usually fade quickly on single-

sound consonants and easy multi-letter phonograms, but
they scaffold on multi-sound consonants, vowels, and difficult
multi-letter phonograms until mastery is achieved. They
fade on easy words and syllables but scaffold when words or
syllables have difficult phonograms or more than one spelling
is possible.

In integrated spelling/writing lessons, teachers can usually

fade quickly with simple sentences but scaffold for compound
and complex sentences. In composition lessons, they fade on
composing related sentences but scaffold on using the writing
process to compose three types of writing.

In reading lessons, teachers can fade as soon as children

identify descriptive words accurately, but scaffold all year on
difficult concepts. In text structure lessons, they fade as soon
as students can identify clear examples, but scaffold all year
on more difficult passages. Teachers may fade quite quickly on
the first three mental actions, but continue to provide support
identifying implied main ideas.

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Articulation Spalding Approach
Students verbalize the principles, rules, or situations underlying
knowledge use. This process can take place through dialogues,
critiques, or summaries. It is well-known in learning theory
that verbalization aids transfer to new situations. As children
put their understanding into words, they learn to generalize
more efficiently and to discover principles they did not
understand before.

In spelling lessons, students explain formation of individual

letters and how language rules apply to spelling words. In
integrated spelling/writing lessons, they explain the attributes
to simple (then compound, complex) sentences. In composition
lessons, students decide the type of writing and identify the
elements to include. In reading lessons, they explain the
attributes and elements of literature and the five mental
actions.

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Reflection Spalding Approach
Reflection involves comparing one’s own performance on
motor tasks, problem solving skills, and thinking processes to
those of another. The learner tries to identify key principles
and features. This instructional technique frequently utilizes
technology that replays students’ performance and permits
what Collins et. al. (1987) term abstracted replay. Children’s
reflections become more detailed as they become more adept at
self-analysis.

In spelling lessons, children compare their letter formation over

time, their handwriting in new and previously written notebook
sections, and reflect on how knowing the rules improves their
spelling and reading. In writing lessons, they reflect on their
daily performance composing sentences and then paragraphs.
In reading lessons, children reflect on books they have read
and how knowledge of text structure and use of mental actions
assists comprehension.

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Exploration Spalding Approach
Finally, after students have received direct instruction and
sufficient practice, they are pushed into applying their new
skills to new domains. They must figure out how and when
their skills are relevant, and also must take ownership of the
outcomes. Farnham-Diggory stated that:

“Instructionally, a Spalding teacher has been trained

to model her own analytical processes; she is
trained to coach rather than didactically preach;
and she is trained in techniques of scaffolding. The
whole curriculum is, in effect, a giant scaffold. It
provides a supporting structure for dealing with print.
Articulation of principles is consistently demanded of
students. They must always explain and justify their
reasoning. Reflection is embodied in the marking
Children apply decoding skills to reading independently.
system - the simple but very effective system for
They apply their knowledge of phonograms, spelling rules,
annotating parts of words that exemplify rules…
and attributes of sentences to compose sentences and later
Exploration is assured through the program’s
to compose paragraphs of the three types of texts. They apply
emphasis on literature.” (Farnham-Diggory
the five mental actions to comprehending library books and
1987, 13-14).
content area texts.

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