INTELLIGENCE

One of the most important single variables, which affect schooling, is

intelligence. Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge.
Success in school and colleges and in one’s own profession, social
adjustment, possession of general information etc. are all associated with the
concept of “intelligence”. The word intelligence is derived from the Latin
verb ‘intellegere’ which means understanding.

According to Alfred Binet intelligence is the ability for judgement or common

sense. Thorndike de nes intelligence as “one’s capacity to deal effectively
with situations”. For Jean Piaget, ‘intelligence is the ability to adapt to one’s
surroundings’. In the words of Cyril Burt, “Intelligence is the capacity of
exible adjustment.” According to David Wechsler (1977): ‘The global
capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the
environment.’

Despite substantial interest in the subject, there still isn't a consensus among
experts about the components of intelligence or whether accurate
measurements of intelligence are even possible.

Although contemporary de nitions of intelligence vary considerably, experts

generally agree that intelligence involves mental abilities such as logic,
reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. Speci cally, current de nitions
tend to suggest that intelligence is the ability to:

• Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of

knowledge is an important component of intelligence.
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 • Recognize problems: To use knowledge, people rst must identify the
problems it might address.

• Solve problems: People must then use what they

have learned to come up with solutions to problems.1
Research on intelligence plays a signi cant role in many areas including
educational program funding, job applicant screening, and testing to identify
children who need additional academic help.

Intelligence is de ned as mental capability that involves the ability to reason,

to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend complex ideas,
to learn quickly and to learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a
narrow academic skill, or test-taking smartness.

In simple words, intelligence is nothing but thinking skills and the ability to
adapt to and to learn from life’s everyday experiences.

Who’s more intelligent? An engineer designing a bridge, a manager

motivating his staff, a professor teaching a class, a violin player in a
symphony, an author writing a story, an African Bushman nding water in the
desert?

Nature and Characteristics of Intelligence and its Development:

Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labour. It is a gift from nature.

Intelligence is not memory. An intelligent person may have poor memory.
Intelligence is not a skill which a worker acquires after planned practice.
Intelligence is not a guarantee of a good behaviour of the individual.

To understand the nature of intelligence we need to know the classi cation

intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndike and Garret:
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1. Concrete Intelligence – It is the ability of an individual to comprehend
actual situations and to react to them adequately. The concrete intelligence is
evident from various activities of daily life. This type of intelligence is
applicable when the individual is handling concrete objects or medicines.
Engineers, mechanics and architects have this type of intelligence.

2. Abstract Intelligence – It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and

symbols. Abstract intelligence is required in the ordinary academic subjects in
the school. This is acquired after an intensive study of books and literature.
Good teachers, lawyers, doctors, philosophers etc. have this type of
intelligence.

3. Social Intelligence – It means the ability of an individual to react to social

situations of daily life. Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of
social intelligence. Persons having this type of intelligence know the art of
winning friends and in uencing them. Leaders, ministers, members of
diplomatic sources and social workers have it.

Thus we see the nature of intelligence as the ability for adjustment to

environment, ability to perceive relationship between various objects and
methods, ability to solve problems, ability to think independently, ability to
learn maximum in minimum period of time, ability to bene t from one’s own
experience and the experience of others.

Therefore, intelligence is an inborn ability of an individual, the distribution of

intelligence is not equal among all human beings. There is wide individual
difference that exists among individuals with regard to intelligence.

Characteristics of Intelligence:

The main features of Intelligence are the following:

1. Intelligence is an innate natural endowment of the child.

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 2. It helps the child in maximum learning in minimum period of time.
3. The child is able to foresee the future and plan accordingly.
4. The child is able to take advantage of his previous experiences.
5. The child faces the future with compliance.
6. He develops a sense of discrimination between right or wrong.
7. The developmental period of intelligence is from birth to adolescence.
8. There is a minor difference in the development of intelligence between
boys and girls.
9. There are individual differences with regard to the intelligence between
boys and girls.
10. Intelligence is mostly determined by heredity but a suitable environment
necessary to improve it.
11.
Development of Intelligence:

It is generally agreed upon by almost all psychologists that intelligence

increases up to adolescence and declines in old age. According to Pinter, the
development of intelligence takes place at a rapid space up to the age of 14
years, and then it stops at any stage in between the ages of 14 – 22 years.

In the opinion of Terman, students and adults reach the limit of their
intelligence growth at the age of 16 years. According to Binet, this limit is
reached at the age of 15 years.

According to Ottis, intelligence grows up to the age of 18 years. The

researchers of Thorndike reveal that the power to learn in a person develops
up to the age of 22 years and this power continues to work up to the age of
45 years.

According to some psychologists, the intelligence of dull children grows only

up to the age of 14 years and those of normal ones up to the age of 16 years.

In the case of children of genius category, it continues to grow up to the age

of twenty years.
However, the de nite age till when intelligence grows has not been
determined. This problem remains even today as it was earlier.

Conclusion: It can be rightly said that intelligence is the ability to adjust, to

think, to understand, to reason and to act in the best possible manner. We
can also conclude that during early childhood, there is a period of relatively
rapid growth of intelligence followed by a slower late during adolescence.

Intelligent quotient (IQ) refers to mental age (MA) divided by chronological

age (CA) and multiplied by 100. Multiplying by 100 helps to avoid the decimal,
as it changes the IQ into a whole number. So IQ= MA/CA X 100 A merit of the
IQ as used by intelligence tests was that, it helped to compare the intelligence
of individuals with different chronological and mental age. For example, let us
calculate a 13 year old person’s IQ who has a mental age of 16. Example 1:
IQ= MA (16)/CA (13) X 100= 123. Now suppose a 16 year old person also
has a mental age of 16. So, his IQ will be 100. Example 2: IQ= MA (16)/CA
(16) X100 = 100.

An IQ score of 100 is regarded as average intelligence, because in this case

a person’s mental age and chronological age is equal (example 2). It is the
mathematical average or mean for IQ scores. IQ scores will be over 100
when mental age is higher than chronological age (as seen in rst example).
When a person’s chronological age exceeds his mental age, IQ scores are
below 100. Let us now discuss an illustration of this situation, in which 14
year old Rajat has a mental age of 11. So Rajat’s IQ will be 78, as IQ=
MA(11)/CA(14) X 100 = 78. Modern intelligence tests use deviation IQ instead
of a ratio IQ. In deviation IQ, the IQ is obtained statistically from a person’s
relative standing in his/her group. In simpler words, they tell us how far above
or below average the person’s score was, relative to others scores. For
example, if a person score at 50th per centile, then half of the people of his/
her age who take the test score are higher than his/her IQ and half score
lower. Distribution of IQ scores We all know that individuals differ in the level
of intelligence. Some individual may be very dull, some may be average and
some other people may be more intelligent. But can we know, how many of
them in a group are dull or intelligent or average? We can get the answer to
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this question by knowing the distribution of intelligence scores in a given
population. The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate
a normal distribution. This normal distribution is symmetrical in nature around
the central value, called the mean. If we plot the IQ scores of large number of
people on a graph, it assumes the shape of a normal distribution curve or
otherwise called as bell shaped curve. The distribution of IQ scores in the
form of a normal distribution is shown in the Figure 3aF.

The IQ scores are distributed in such a manner that the majority of

individuals’ scores tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a
few people have either very high or very low IQ scores in the population. The
average IQ score in the population is 100. The people with IQ score range of
90 – 110 have normal intelligence. Those individuals having an IQ score
above 130 are considered as having exceptional talents (intellectually gifted);
whereas IQ below 70 may mean that the person may have mental
retardation/intellectual disability. These two groups (intellectually gifted and
intellectually disabled) deviate from the normal population with respect to their
cognitive, emotional and motivational characteristics. The following Table 3aT
shows the classi cation of people on the basis of IQs.
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 SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Charles Spearman (1863-1945), an English psychologist and the originator

of factor analysis was the rst to claim that intelligence consists of general ‘g’
factor and speci c ‘s’ factors. His theory is known as ‘Two Factor
Theory’(1904).One of his major contributions to the history of psychology is
the development and use of ‘factor analysis’. He used the techniques of factor
analysis and corelational analysis to nd out the ‘g’ and ‘s’ factor. Factor
analysis involves nding out the correlation of related variables, and then
grouping the variables to form clusters and derive the underlying factors.
Thus a larger number of variables are reduced to a lesser number of factors.
In his book, ‘The Abilities of Man’ (1927), Spearman elaborated that all
intellectual activities share a single common factor that runs through all the
activities a person performs during his life. Spearman called this general
factor as ‘mental energy’ which is determined innately. A person cannot be
trained to have a higher ‘g’factor. It is a part of who they are. People possess
general intelligence or ‘g’ in varying degrees. On the basis of this general
intelligence, we describe a person as either intelligent or dull. This ‘g’ is the
major determinant of one’s score in any intelligence test. In addition to this
general or ‘g’ factor, he recognised the speci c factors, each called ‘s’, which
are speci c to different abilities. For example, test of arithmetic, spatial
relationships, verbal uency, each of these speci c intelligence measure a
separate ‘s’. An individual’s intelligence score re ects the amount of ‘g’ plus
the magnitude of various ‘s’ factors possessed by the individual. For example,
one’s performance in spatial intelligence test would be a function of a
person’s general intelligence (g) and his spatial ability (s). Theories of
Intelligence 7 8 Spearman statistically analysed the interrelation among
various scores obtained by different individuals on various tests.A positive
correlation between any two test or mental function implies a factor common
to both or ‘g’ and two speci c factors ‘s’. Let us assume that, the two tests are
M (mechanical) and N (numerical), the common factor in these tests is ‘g’ and
the speci c factors are sM and sN. Similarly, let V (verbal) and S (spatial) be
two other tests with ‘g’ as the common factor and sV and sS are the speci c
factors as shown in Figure 4aF below (In the Figure 4aF, g refers to ‘general
ability’ and s refers to ‘Speci c abilities’). Spearman’s theory states that the
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objective of psychological tests should be to measure individual’s ‘g’as it runs
through all the abilities and predicts individual’s performance. Individuals
differ on the basis of ‘g’ they possess. Spearman has often been criticised for
his factor analytic approach to intelligence which was purely psychometric
and ignored the cognitive basis of intelligence. Louis Thurstone (1935)
objected to Spearman’s emphasis on general intelligence. He suggested that
intelligence can be divided into a number of primary abilities by using factor
analysis. However, the contribution of Spearman to the eld of psychology
remains valuable as his model of two factor theory introduced factor analysis
in psychology.

GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI) THEORY

Joy Paul Guilford, an American psychologist, was born in March 7, 1897 in

Marquette, Nebraska. He is best known for his psychometric studies of
human intelligence, including the distinction between convergent and
divergent production. After completing his graduation from University of
Nebraska, he studied under Edward Titchner at Cornell during 1919 to 1921
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and conducted intelligence testing on children. He taught in different
universities, like University ofKansas, University of Nebraska and University
ofSouthern California till his retirement in 1967. Unlike Spearman, Guilford
believed that intelligence is a combination ofmultiple activities. Traditional
models prior to Guilford proposed intelligence as a monolithic and global
attribute. By the 1950’s, he tried to develop a system to classify the new
mental abilities being discovered and the rst version of the Structure of
Intellect (SI) model was presented. This model was based on factor analysis.
He argued that intelligence consists of numerous intellectual abilities. He rst
proposed a model with 120, later on revised to 180 independently operating
factors in intelligence. In this Structure of Intellect Model, all the mental
abilities were organized along three dimensional framework: Content,
Operations, and Product. This model is represented as a ‘cube’ with each of
the three dimensions occupying one side (5×6×6 = 180 speci c abilities).
Thus, there are Theories of Intelligence 8 0 three feature of intellectual task:
the content dimension which includes broad areas of information; the
operations dimension which includes the operations or general cognitive or
mental activities, and the products dimension which contains results of
applying particular operations to speci c contents. Thus this model is also
called 3- dimensional model represented in the form of a cube.

The Contents Dimension The contents dimension includes the broad areas of
information to which human intellect operations are applied. Initially, these
included only four categories, later on auditory and visual were separated
making it ve content dimensions. 1) Visual – information perceived through
seeing or the information arising from the stimulation of retina in the form of
an image. 2) Auditory – information perceived through hearing or information
arising from the stimulation of cochlea of the inner ear as a sound. (Figural:
Information that is non-verbal or pictorial, later divided into Visual and
Auditory) 3) Symbolic – information perceived as symbols or signs that stand
for something else, has no meaning by themselves (Arabic numerals, letters
of an alphabet, musical and scienti c notations). 4) Semantic – concerned
with verbal meaning and ideas. 5) Behavioural – information perceived as
acts or behaviour of people. 4.5.2 The Operations Dimension As the name
suggests, this consists of six operations or general intellectual processes: 1)
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Cognition – the ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become
aware of information

2) Memory recording – the ability to encode information.

3) Memory retention – the ability to recall information.

4) Divergent production – the ability to generate multiple solutions to a

problem; creativity

. 5) Convergent production – the ability to deduce a single solution to a

problem; rule-following or problem-solving.

6) Evaluation – the ability to judge whether or not information is accurate,

consistent or valid.

4.5.3 The Products Dimension The products dimension contains results of

applying particular operations to speci c contents. There are six kinds of
products in increasing complexity, they are:

1) Units – represents a single item of information or knowledge.

2) 2) Classes – a set of items that share some common attributes.

3) 3) Relations –
represents a connection between items or variables; may be linked as
opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies.

4) 4) Systems – an organization of items or networks with interacting parts.

5) 5) Transformations –
changes perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge; such as
reversing the order of letters in a word.
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 6) 6) Implications – predictions, inferences, consequences, or
anticipations of knowledge.

Each task accomplished by a person includes a particular type of content,

mental operation and a product. For example a test of recall on ‘the
movements undertaken by Gandhiji during the freedom struggle’ includes the
‘semantic’ aspect of content dimension as it involves information using words
or sentences, ‘memory’ is the process dimension and ‘relation’ of the
sequence of events is the product dimension. As there are 5 types of
contents, 6 types of operations and 6 types of products, resulting in 180
(5×6×6) types of distinct mental abilities among which more than 100 have
been empirically veri ed. Guildford’s structure theory of intelligence has been
criticised for being too complex. From the practical point of view, Guildford’s
factors are so narrow and specialised that they have little value of prediction
in vocational and educational guidance. Despite all these criticism, his theory
is a signi cant contribution to the eld of research on intelligence.

Gardner rst proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in

his 1983 book “Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the
de nition of intelligence and outlines several distinct types of
intellectual competencies.
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 Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while
evaluating each “candidate” intelligence that was based on
a variety of scienti c disciplines.

He writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our

pro le of these intelligences may differ individually based on
genetics or experience.

Gardner de nes intelligence as a “biopsychological potential

to process information that can be activated in a cultural
setting to solve problems or create products that are of
value in a culture” (Gardner, 2000, p.28).

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

• Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

proposes that people are not born with all of the
intelligence they will ever have.

• This theory challenged the traditional notion that there

is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as
“g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on
cognitive abilities.

• To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner

introduced eight different types of intelligences
consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial,
Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal,
Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.
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 • Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-
mathematical modalities are most typed valued in
school and society.

• Gardner also suggests that there may other “candidate”

intelligences—such as spiritual intelligence, existential
intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not
believe these meet his original inclusion criteria.
(Gardner, 2011).

Inclusion Criteria to be Categorized as a Multiple

Intelligence
Potential of isolation by brain damage.
Evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility.
Identifiable core operations or set of operations.
Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.
Distinct developmental history and definable set of expert “end state” performances.
Existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional people.
Support from experimental psychological tasks.
Support from psychometric findings.

Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard Gardner’s multiple

intelligence theory that deals with sensitivity to the spoken
and written language, ability to learn languages, and
capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals.
Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use language
masterfully to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It
includes the ability to manipulate syntax, structure,
semantics, and phonology of language.

People with linguistic intelligence, such as William

Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have the ability to analyze
information and create products involving oral and written
language, such as speeches, books, and memos.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your linguistic intelligence:

Lawyer

Speaker / Host

Author

Journalist

Curator
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning
Smart)

Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to

analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical
operations, and investigate issues scienti cally.
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Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the ability to use
logic, abstractions, reasoning, and critical thinking to solve
problems. It includes the capacity to understand the
underlying principles of some kind of causal system.

People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert

Einstein and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop equations
and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract problems.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your logical-mathematical

intelligence:

Mathematician

Accountant

Statistician

Scientist

Computer Analyst
Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

Spatial intelligence involves the ability to perceive the visual-

spatial world accurately. It includes the ability to transform,
modify, or manipulate visual information. People with high
spatial intelligence are good at visualization, drawing, sense
of direction, puzzle building, and reading maps.

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and

manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used, for
instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of
more con ned areas, such as those of importance to
sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or
architects.

People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright

and Amelia Earhart, have the ability to recognize and
manipulate large-scale and ne-grained spatial images.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your spatial intelligence:

Pilot

Surgeon

Architect

Graphic Artist

Interior Decorator
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)
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 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s
whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or the mouth)
to solve problems or to fashion products.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves using the body with

nesse, grace, and skill. It includes physical coordination,
balance, dexterity, strength, and exibility. People with high
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at sports, dance,
acting, and physical crafts.

People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael

Jordan and Simone Biles, can use one’s own body to create
products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind–
body union.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your bodily-kinesthetic

intelligence:

Dancer

Athlete

Surgeon

Mechanic

Carpenter
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Physical Therapist
Musical Intelligence (Music Smart)

Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance,

composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.

Musical intelligence involves the ability to perceive,

discriminate, create, and express musical forms. It includes
sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, and tone color. People
with high musical intelligence are good at singing, playing
instruments, and composing music.

People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed

Sheeran, have the ability to recognize and create musical
pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your musical intelligence:

Singer

Composer

DJ

Musician
Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)
Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the
intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and,
consequently, to work effectively with others.

Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand

and interact effectively with others. It includes sensitivity to
other people’s moods, temperaments, motivations, and
desires. People with high interpersonal intelligence
communicate well and can build rapport.

People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma

Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have the ability to recognize and
understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and
intentions.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your interpersonal

intelligence:

Teacher

Psychologist

Manager

Salespeople

Public Relations
Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self-Smart)
Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand
oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself,
including one’s desires, fears, and capacities—and to use
such information effectively in regulating one’s own life.

It includes self-awareness, personal cognizance, and the

ability to re ne, analyze, and articulate one’s emotional life.

People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and

Maya Angelou, have the ability to recognize and understand
his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.

This type of intelligence can help a person understand

which life goals are important and how to achieve them.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your intrapersonal

intelligence:

Therapist

Psychologist

Counselor

Entrepreneur

Clergy
Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)
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Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to recognize,
categorize, and draw upon patterns in the natural
environment. It includes sensitivity to the ora, fauna, and
phenomena in nature. People with high naturalist
intelligence are good at classifying natural forms.

Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in recognizing

and classifying the numerous species—the ora and fauna
—of his or her environment.

People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin

and Jane Goddall, have the ability to identify and distinguish
among different types of plants, animals, and weather
formations that are found in the natural world.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your naturalist intelligence:

Botanist

Biologist

Astronomer

Meteorologist

Geologist
Critical Evaluation
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Most resistance to multiple intelligences theory has come
from cognitive psychologists and psychometricians.
Cognitive psychologists such as Waterhouse (2006) claimed
that there is no empirical evidence to the validity of the
theory of multiple intelligences.

Psychometricians, or psychologists involved in testing,

argue that intelligence tests support the concept for a single
general intelligence, “g”, rather than the eight distinct
competencies (Gottfredson, 2004). Other researchers argue
that Gardner’s intelligences comes second or third to the “g”
factor (Visser, Ashton, & Vernon, 2006).

Some responses to this criticism include that the multiple

intelligences theory doesn’t dispute the existence of the “g”
factor; it proposes that it is equal along with the other
intelligences. Many critics overlook the inclusion criteria
Gardner set forth.

These criteria are strongly supported by empirical evidence

in psychology, biology, neuroscience, among others.
Gardner admits that traditional psychologists were valid in
criticizing the lack of operational de nitions for the
intelligences, that is, to gure out how to measure and test
the various competencies (Davis et al., 2011).

Gardner was surprised to nd that Multiple Intelligences

theory has been used most widely in educational contexts.
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 He developed this theory to challenge academic
psychologists, and therefore, he did not present many
educational suggestions. For this reason, teachers and
educators were able to take the theory and apply it as they
saw t.

As it gained popularity in this eld, Gardner has maintained

that practitioners should determine the theory’s best use in
classrooms. He has often declined opportunities to aid in
curriculum development that uses multiple intelligences
theory, opting to only provide feedback at most (Gardner,
2011).

Most of the criticism has come from those removed from the
classroom, such as journalists and academics. Educators
are not typically tied to the same standard of evidence and
are less concerned with abstract inconsistencies, which has
given them the freedom to apply it with their students and let
the results speak for itself (Armstrong, 2019).

Support

Shearer (2020) provides extensive empirical evidence from

neuroscience research supporting MI theory.

Shearer reviewed evidence from over 500 functional

neuroimaging studies that associate patterns of brain
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activation with the cognitive components of each
intelligence.

The visual network was associated with the visual-spatial

intelligence, somatomotor networks with kinesthetic
intelligence, fronto-parietal networks with logical and general
intelligence, auditory networks with musical intelligence, and
default mode networks with intra- and interpersonal
intelligences. The coherence and distinctiveness of these
networks provides robust support for the neural validity of MI
theory

He concludes that human intelligence is best characterized

as being multiple rather than singular, with each person
possessing unique neural potentials aligned with speci c
intelligences.

Implications for Learning

The most important educational implications of the theory of

multiple intelligences can be summed up through
individuation and pluralization. Individuation posits that
because each person differs from other another there is no
logical reason to teach and assess students identically.

Individualized education has typically been reserved for the

wealthy and others who could afford to hire tutors to
address individual student’s needs.
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Technology has now made it possible for more people to
access a variety of teachings and assessments depending
on their needs. Pluralization, the idea that topics and skills
should be taught in more than one way, activates an
individual’s multiple intelligences.

Presenting a variety of activities and approaches to learning

helps reach all students and encourages them to be able to
think about the subjects from various perspectives,
deepening their knowledge of that topic (Gardner, 2011b).

A common misconception about the theory of multiple

intelligences is that it is synonymous with learning styles.
Gardner states that learning styles refer to the way an
individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks
and materials.

Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all

eight intelligences at varying degrees of pro ciency and an
individual’s learning style is unrelated to the areas in which
they are the most intelligent.

For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may not

necessarily learn best through writing and reading.
Classifying students by their learning styles or intelligences
alone may limit their potential for learning.
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Research shows that students are more engaged and learn
best when they are given various ways to demonstrate their
knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers more
accurately assess student learning (Darling-Hammond,
2010).

Therapeutic Bene ts of Incorporating Multiple

Intelligences Within Therapy

Pearson et al. (2015) investigated the experiences of 8

counselors who introduced multiple intelligences (MI) theory
and activities into therapy sessions with adult clients. The
counselors participated in a 1-day MI training intervention
and were interviewed 3 months later about their experiences
using MI in practice.

The major themes that emerged from qualitative analysis of

the interviews were:

• MI helped enhance therapeutic alliances. Counselors

felt incorporating MI strengthened their connections
with clients, increased counselor and client comfort,
and reduced client suspicion/resistance.

• MI led to more effective professional work. Counselors

felt MI provided more tools and exibility in responding
to clients. This matches ndings from education
research on the bene ts of MI.
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 • Clients responded positively to identifying strengths
through MI. The MI survey helped clients recognize
talents/abilities, which counselors saw as identity-
building. This aligns with the literature on strength-
based approaches.

• Clients appreciated the MI preference survey. It

provided conversation starters, increased self-
re ection, and was sometimes a catalyst for using
music therapeutically.

• Counselors felt comfortable with MI. They experienced

increased con dence and professional comfort.
Counselor con dence contributes to alliance building
(Ackerman & Hilsenroth, 2003).

• Music use stood out as impactful. In-session and

extratherapeutic music use improved client well-being
after identifying musicality through the MI survey. This
matches the established bene ts of music therapy
(Koelsch, 2009).

• MI training opened up therapeutic possibilities.

Counselors valued the experiential MI training. MI
appeared to expand their skills and activities.
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The authors conclude that MI may enhance alliances,
effectiveness, and counselor con dence. They recommend
further research on long-term impacts and optimal training
approaches. Counselor education could teach MI theory,
assessment, and tailored interventions.

Verbal and Non-verbal Tests

i. Verbal tests. This denotes tests in which questions are asked or oral or in
written form of a given language, for which answers also have to be given in
oral or written language. These tests are not intended for, and cannot be used
in the case of illiterates and small children, since such people lack linguistic
ability.

ii. Non-verbal tests. These include tests that do not require the use of
language, but could be manipulated using gures, pictures, blocks or even
other objects. Examples of it are Army Beta Intelligence Test, Pidgon’s non-
verbal tests and Raven’s Progressive Matrices. Their advantage is that they
can be used for testing subjects who lack language ability.

Difference between Verbal test and Non-verbal test

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 [Link]. Verbal Test Non-verbal Test
1 It makes use of It makes use of
language pictures and designs
The abilities measured The abilities measured
are verbal reasoning, are spatial ability,
memory and speed and induction
numerical reasoning
It cannot be used for Individuals who lack
testing individuals language ability also
who lack language can be tests by it.
ability
It is less expensive It is more expensive
The results of the tests The results of the tests
are much affected by are less affected by
schooling schooling
Standardization is Standardization is
easy difficult
7 Administration and Administration and
scoring are easy scoring are difficult

Individual and Group Tests

i) Individual Tests. These tests are administered to one individual at a time.

They include performance tests as well as tests that require linguistic ability.
Some examples of these are: Stanford Binet Intelligence Tests, Wechsler
Bellevue Intelligence Test, Koh’s Block Design Tests, etc. These tests are
particularly appropriate for testing individuals, but they are not nancially
feasible as they are expensive. In addition to this they are time consuming.
Administration of such tests require more expert training also.

ii) Group Tests. In this category the tests are administered upon a large
number of examinees simultaneously. The group Intelligence test of the State
Bureau of Psychology is an example. Such tests are more objective and less
expensive. But in these tests no rapport between the subject and the
examiner is established. Hence compared to individual tests, they are less
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useful for solving problems of individuals. Nevertheless, they have proved
really useful for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance.

Difference between Individual and Group Tests

No. Individual Test Group Test

1 Tests intelligence of an Tests intelligence of a
individual at a time group at a time
2 Useful for children of Not useful for children
every age of lower age groups
3 Time consuming Time saving
4 Uneconomic in terms Economic in terms of
of money and labour money and labour
5 Administration is not Administration is easy
easy
6 Interest of the Interest of the
individual is assured individual is not
assured
7 Results can be judged Results cannot be
then and there judged them and there