Growth and

Development
in Plants
• Growth is an irreversible increase in size and/ or dry mass which is brought about
by cell division, expansion or elongation.

• Development is the differentiation of cells into tissues to be used for specific

functions.

• In plants growth and development begin with the germination of the seed.

• Growth and development in plants is controlled by plant hormones or auxins.

 Ground Location Structure Function
Tissue Cell
Parenchyma Centre of stem(Pith) Thin cellulose cell wall allows the passage Meristematic
Cortex of stem and root of gases and dissolved solutes Provide support in herbaceous
Surrounding the midrib of Large vacuoles for storage and support plants
the leaf when turgid Store food in stem and roots
Mesophylls of leaves Some contain chloroplasts for Metabolism eg Photosynthesis
photosynthesis
Some have air spaces for exchange of gases
Collenchyma Outer cortex of stems the walls of are thickened at the corners; Provide strength in young plants
Supporting vascular hence the plants have some degree of especially leaves, stem, pedicel and
bundles in leaves flexibility ,this enables the plants to peduncle
withstand strains / bend but recover;

Sclerenchyma Around the vascular the cells are dead, thickened, elongated Provide rigidity
bundle in the stem and lignified Provide protection and support for
Outer cortex of some parts of plants eg. seed coat
stems
Supporting vascular
tissues in leaves
Xylem
Xylem tissue contains four main types of cells and
parenchyma. These cells are:
• Vessels are long, narrow, dead, hollow tubes joined
end to end, with their walls thickened with lignin.
Xylem vessels are produced from living cells whose
walls become thickened and lignified. Their
cytoplasm and nucleus then die and their cross- walls
break down, Their side walls are perforated.
• Tracheids are elongated, thin-walled, lignified cells
with a small lumen. They taper at both ends.
• Fibres and sclereids are long cells with lignified walls,
thicker than those of tracheids.
Phloem
Phloem tissue consists of three types of cells:
• Sieve tubes are columns of living, elongated,
cylindrical cells with perforated end walls called
sieve plates. The tubes have a thin lining of
cytoplasm and a central vacuole, but lack a nucleus.

• To each sieve tube is attached one or more

companion cells.
• The companion cells have dense cytoplasm and a
nucleus.

• The cambium tissue consists of brick-like cells

with living, dense cytoplasm and thin cell walls.
Seed
There are two types of seeds
structure • Endospermic
and • Non-Endospermic
Germination
Endospermic seed
• Endospermic seeds are those that have an
endosperm in the mature seed
• Example maize, wheat and castor bean
Non- Endospermic
• Seeds do not retain their embryonic
endosperm at maturity
• Dormancy is the resting period of seeds where growth is halted and
metabolism is reduced to a minimum.

• In dormancy state seed may survive adverse conditions such as

drought and low temperatures
 • It is the emergence of the embryo from the
seed coat due to the onset of growth and
development of the seed.
• It is a process where dormant seeds begin to
sprout when environmental conditions are
Germination satisfactory.
There are two types of germination namely
• Epigeal
• Hypogeal
Conditions
necessary for
Germination
VIABILITY OF THE SEED WATER AIR(CONTAINING OXYGEN)

SUITABLE LIGHT FOR SOME SEEDS

TEMPERATURE(WARMTH) EXAMPLE TOBACCO
Epigeal
germination
• This occurs when the
cotyledons appear
above the ground which
is caused by the
elongation of the
hypocotyl of the radicle
during germination
Hypogeal germination

• This occurs when the cotyledons remain below the

ground which is caused by the elongation of the
epicotyl of the plumule during germination
 • Seed absorbs water through the micropyle
and swell (imbibition)
• Seed coat(Testa) becomes soft
• Food in the endosperm or cotyledon is
Steps in digested, catalysed by enzymes
germination • End products of digestion are translocated to
the growing parts of the embryo
• The pressure set up by the absorbed water
ruptures the seed coat and the embryo
emerges
 • The radicle emerges first
• The hypocotyl of the germinating seed elongates
pushing the seed out of the soil
Epigeal • The cotyledons become exposed to sunlight and
turn green to photosynthesize
germination • The plumule develops into a green shoot and the
radicle develops into the root
• The cotyledons dry off
 • The radicle and plumule emerge simultaneously

Hypogeal • The epicotyl of the germinating seed elongates and

emerges leaving the cotyledon in the soil
• The plumule develops into a green shoot and the
germination radicle develops into the root
Epigeal Germination vs Hypogeal Germination
Epigeal Hypogeal

• Hypocotyl elongates • Epicotyl elongates

• Cotyledon emerges out of the soil • Cotyledon remains in the soil
• Cotyledon turns green to • Cotyledon does not
photosynthesize photosynthesize

• Plumule does not emerge • Plumule emerges simultaneously

simultaneously with the radicle with the radicle

• Energy is derived mainly from the • Energy is derived mainly from the
cotyledon cotyledon
 At the root and shoot tips of plants, cells in the apical
meristems have abundant cytoplasm, large nuclei and
thin cell walls. These cells are constantly dividing by
mitosis, and producing more cells.

• In regions of elongation, just behind the root and

Growth of shoot tips, the cells do not divide. They absorb water
and develop large vacuoles. Due to the thin,
seedlings extensible nature or the cell walls, these cells enlarge
and increase in length. This region is responsible for
into mature the increase in size of plants.
plants • A stage of maturation is reached when the cells
attain a maximum size. More cellulose is deposited in
the cell wall, making it thick and no longer extensible.
The cells now differentiate
 Primary growth is the growth of stem and roots in
length with the help of the apical meristem.
in plants, it results from the activity of the
primary meristems (apical meristems), and
produces the primary tissues.
Primary The primary meristem arises from groups of cells
called the promeristem, situated at the root and
growth shoot tips which differentiates into three regions:
• the dermatogen, which forms the epidermis
• the periblem, which forms the cortex
• the plerome, the vascular tissue
• The apical meristem of the stem and root is composed of two groups of cells, the tunica and the corpus.

• The tunica consists of an outer layer 2 to 3 cells thick which surrounds the central mass of irregularly
arranged corpus cells.

• The mitotic cell division of the apical meristem results in the formation of daughter cells which expand in the
region of elongation and become differentiated in the region of differentiation.

• In the stem, the apical meristem gives rise to leaf primordia which forms the apical bud that protects the
apical meristem. Axillary buds develop in the angle between the leaves and the main stem.

• In the roots, the apical meristem is protected by the root cap.

• In both root and stem, the tissues behind the region of differentiation are known as the permanent tissues:
epidermis, cortex, pericycle, primary xylem, primary phloem and cambium. These constitute the primary
structures of the plant, formed by primary growth.
Apical Meristem of the Shoot
Secondary Growth
secondary growth leads to further
increase in the girth stems and roots
of woody perennials with the help of
lateral meristems/cambium.

It occurs through The division or cells

in the cambium which initially
comprises small groups of cells
between the xylem and phloem.

The cambium is meristematic.

Vascular cambium
• The first step in secondary thickening involves radial division of the cambial cells.
• The small groups of cells then join a complete ring of cambium, separating the xylem and phloem
• Cells in the cambial ring divide tangentially producing secondary xylem the inside and secondary
phloem on the outside
• Secondary parenchyma. making up the medullary rays, is produced in between the vascular tissue
and thus the girth of the stem is increased,
• As secondary thickening proceeds. additional medullary rays are formed within the secondary
xylem and phloem, These allow transport of water and solutes inside the thickened stem.
• The cambium continues divide radially to cope with the stem's increasing circumference
• Much more secondary xylem is produced than secondary phloem, resulting in the phloem and
cambium being pushed outwards.
• The secondary xylem is the wood
• Secondary growth occurs rapidly during the rainy season
producing a wide band of large xylem vessels.

• In the dry season, however growth decreases, producing

narrow bands of small, thick, walled xylem vessels.
• The wider bands are lighter in colour than the narrow
bands,

• This seasonal growth results in the formation annual rings,

which can be seen in a cross-section through the stem,

• The number of rings can provide an accurate way of

determining the age of a tree.
Cork cambium
• The epidermis cannot divide in order to increase its width.
However, from the cells just beneath it arises the cork
cambium, which divides tangentially to form new tissues.
• New cells produced inside the cork cambium form the
secondary cortex, while those produced outside form a layer
of cork.
• The cell walls of the cork layer become impregnated by
suberin which makes the cork layer impermeable to water
and respiratory gases.
• To allow exchange of gases between the atmosphere and
living stem tissues. lenticels form in the cork layer.
• All of the tissues, both living and dead, outside the wood
are known collectively as the bark,
• Secondary growth continues throughout the life of the plant
• The successive cork layers formed as old ones rupture and
leave the characteristic cracks commonly found in the bark of
trees and shrubs.
Secondary
growth in
the root
 Differences between
Primary Growth Secondary Growth

• Results in the increase in length • Results in the increase in

of the plants axis Girth/width of stems and roots
of woody perennials
• Takes place by the activities of • Takes place by the joint activities
the apical meristem of the primary and secondary
meristematic tissues
• This is the first growth of the
plant and its parts • It is later period of growth
• Periderm and barks are not • Periderm, bark and lenticels are
formed formed
• Occurs in all plants and in all • Occurs in gymnosperms and
parts angiosperms but not in
monocots
Auxins
 • These are organic compounds that are
manufactured in one part of the plant and
translocated to another part where they act to
produce physiological response.
• Most of the Auxins in a plant is produced by the
apical meristem.
Auxins • They control many processes such as growth,
abscission (leaf fall), initiate flowering, break
dormancy of seeds, inhibit growth of buds,
stimulate root formation or bring about ripening
of fruits.
• Indole acetic acid (IAA) is a natural auxin which
controls elongation of roots and shoots.
The role of
Auxins in
root and
stem
elongation
Tropisms
 • It is a directional growth movement in plants
in response to external unilateral stimuli.
Tropism • Unilateral stimulus is a change in the
environment to which the plant is sensitive
that comes from one direction.
 Each type is named according to the type of
stimulus involved. They are
Phototropism

Geotropism
Types of
Tropism Hydrotropism

Thigmotropism

Chemotropism
 Phototropism
• It is the growth movement of
plant parts in response to a
unilateral source of light.
• Plant shoots grow towards light
(positively phototropic) while
some roots grow away from light
(negatively phototropic).
• Most roots are insensitive to
light.
Geotropism

• It is the growth movement of plant parts

in response to the direction of the force of
gravity.
• The root grows towards the direction of
the force of gravity (positively geotropic)
while the shoot grows away from the force
of gravity (negatively geotropic)
Hydrotropism
It is the growth movement of plant parts in response to a
unilateral source of water.
The root grows towards the source of water (positively
hydrotropic) and
the shoot either grows away from the source of water (negatively
hydrotropic) or shows no response (neutral).
In roots, the hydrotropic response overrides the geotropic
response.
Thigmotropism
or haptotropism
• Thigmotropism or haptotropism is
the growth movement of certain parts
of some plants in response to the
stimulus of touch on one side.
• Positive thigmotropism is common
among climbing plants such as yams
and beans.
• Positive thigmotropism enables
some plants with weak stems to climb
and expose their leaves to sunlight
Chemotropism
• Chemotropism is the growth movement of plant parts in response to a unilateral source
of chemicals.

• For example, pollen tubes grow through the stigma and the style, towards the ovary and
finally enter the ovules.

• This is believed to be a response to a source of chemicals which form a gradient from the
ovules to the stigma.
 Tropisms and stimuli

Tropisms Stimuli
• Phototropism • Light
• Geotropism • Force of gravity
• Hydrotropism • Water
• Thigmotropism • Touch
• Chemotropism • Chemicals other than water
 Tropisms are influenced by auxin which are synthesised at the
shoot and root tip.
A shoot or root will grow straight as long as all sides receive
equal amounts of auxin.
In a seedling that has been placed in a horizontal position,
more auxin deposits on the lower half than on the upper half.
The lower half then grows faster than the upper half, in the
Mechanisms shoot, and it bends away from the force of gravity.
In the root, however, the upper half grows faster than the lower
half and it bends towards the force of gravity
of tropisms Light appears to affect the distribution of auxin in a shoot tip.
When light is directed at the tip of the shoot from one side, the
auxin is redistributed and becomes more concentrated on the
dark side.
Because high concentrations of auxin stimulate growth, the
side of the shoot away from the light grows faster than the
illuminated side.
Thus the shoot curves towards the light.
• Water has a similar effect on the
distribution of auxin in roots, with the
auxin becoming more concentrated on
the moist side of the root.
• Because low concentration of auxin
increases the rate of growth in the root,
the dry side of the root grows faster than
the moist side.
• Thus the root curves towards the
direction of the water.
Nastic and Tactic
Movement
Nastic movements
• It is the movement of certain parts of plants in response
to diffuse/non directional stimuli.
• Examples of nastic movements are:

• The sudden closure of leaflets, leaves and petioles of

Mimosa pudica in response to touch, due to sudden
changes of turgor in the cells at the base of each leaflet,
leaf and petiole.
• These cells occur in a swelling called pulvinus.
• The folding of leaves of Acalypha sp. when the transpiration rate
becomes too high, thus preventing further loss of water.

• The opening of flowers at sunrise and closing at sunset in certain

plants.

• The closure of stomata at night and opening during the day.

Tactic Movement
 It occurs when a whole cell, motile parts of
an organism or a motile organism moves
directly towards or away from a stimulus.

It occurs in organisms such as Amoeba,

Nactic Chlamydomonas, Euglena and Earthworms
Movement
In motile parts such as male sex cells