Chapter 1

Introduction
Definition:
The term of Graphics comes from Greek “graphikos” which means 'something written' e.g. autograph.
So, graphics are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or
stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain.
Computer Graphics is a field that is concerned with all aspects of producing pictures or images using
a computer with the help of data structure, graphics algorithm and programming. i.e.
Computer graphics = Data Structure + Graphics Algorithm + Language
Computer Graphics includes the creation; storage and manipulation of images of objects those come
from diverse fields such as physical, mathematical engineering, architectural abstract structures and
natural phenomenon.
We use different input and display devices to generate & perform the modification on the digital
images. Some such devices are keyboard, mouse, or touch sensitive panel, monitors etc.
Some considerable terminologies on the computer graphics are:
✗ Modeling: creating and representing the geometry of objects in the 3D world
✗ Rendering: generating 2D images of the 3D objects
✗ Animation: describing how objects change in time
History of Computer Graphics
The history of the computer graphics illustrates a acute development of hardware and software. The
past principals and techniques are still applicable in present and future computer graphics
technology. The evolutions of graphics can be explained under following points.
Year Major Achievements
1950 First Graphics Images were created
1951 CRT monitors on Main Frame computer were instroduced
1959 CAD was used to design cars
1961 First video game named “Space War”developed
1963 First Hidden Line and Hidden surface removal algorithms developed.

1965 DDA algorithm developed by Jack Bresenham

1973 First use of 2D animations
1982 AutoCAD was released.
2001 First digital film name “The Spirits Within”with digital actors
2006 Google acquired sketechup
2015 “Big Data” used for constructing animation
2016 With enough preparation, Real Time source can be animated

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 Differentiate between Computer Graphics and Image Processing

Computer Graphics Image Processing

Computer G r a p h i c s i n v o l v e s in Image Processing involves in analyzing
generating images from standard graphical the images to generate standard graphical
models models.
It includes the creation storage and It is the part of computer graphics that
manipulation of images or objects. handles image manipulation or interpretation.

E.g., drawing a picture Eg: Making blur image visible

Interactive and Non-Interactive Computer Graphics

Interactive Computer Graphics:
Interactive Computer Graphics involves a two-way communication between computer and user. The
observer is given some control over the image by providing him with an input device for example the
video game controller of the ping pong game.
Different parts of Interactive Computer Graphics are:
✗ Inputs
✗ Processing
✗ Outputs
Non-Interactive Computer Graphics:
Non-interactive computer graphics or passive computer graphics is the computer graphics in which user
does not have any kind of control over the image. Image is simply the product of static stored program
and the image is totally under the control of program instructions not under the user. Example: screen
savers.
Application of Computer Graphics
There is no area in which graphical displays can’t be used to some advantage. Today almost every
computer can do some graphics, and people have even come to expect to control their computer
through icons and pictures rather than just by typing.
We can classify applications of computer graphics into four main areas:
• Display of information
• Design
• User interfaces
• Simulation

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1. Computational Biology: Computational biology is a field that applies the techniques of computer
science, applied mathematics and statistics to address biological problems. The main focus lies on
developing mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques.
2. Computational Physics: Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical
algorithm to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.
3. Information of Graphics: Information graphics are visual representations of information, data or
knowledge. These graphics are used where complex information needs to be explained quickly and
clearly, such as in signs, maps, journalism, technical writing, and education.
4. Scientific Visualization: Scientific visualization focuses on the use of computer graphics to create
visual images which aid in understanding of complex, often massive numerical representation of
scientific concepts or results.
5. Graphic Design: Graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines
which focus on visual communication and presentation. Various tools like Coral Draw, In Design,
photo shop are used.
6. Computer-aided Design: Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology for
the design of objects, real or virtual. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for
special effects in movies, advertising, technical manuals.
7. Web Design: The process of designing Web pages, Web sites, Web applications or multimedia for
the Web may utilize multiple disciplines, such as animation, communication design, corporate
identity, graphic design, interaction design, marketing, photography, search engine optimization
etc.
8. Digital Art: The impact of digital technology has transformed traditional activities such as painting
and drawing.
9. Video Games: A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface
to generate visual feedback on a raster display device. The electronic systems used to play video
games are known as platforms. This platform creates through graphics.
10. Virtual Reality: Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a
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 computer-simulated environment. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world, for
example, simulations for pilot or combat training, or it can differ significantly from reality, as in
VR games.
11. Computer Simulation: A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a
computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a
particular system.
12. Education: Different computer graphics and images are used in schools and many training centers
for the better understanding the subject of interest.
13. Information Visualization: Information visualization is the study of the visual representation and
the use of graphical techniques to help people understand and analyze data

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 Chapter 2
Graphics Hardware
Input and Input Devices
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Light Pen
• Touch panel
• Barcode Readers
• Data Gloves
Output and Output Devices
1. Hard Copy Devices
2. Display Devices
Basic Terms:
➢ Image
An image is a visual representation of something. It is a 2 dimensional light intensity function f(x,y)
where (x,y) are the spatial co-ordinate and f(x, y) is proportional to brightness or intensity or gray value
of the image at that point.
Types of Images:
- Raster Image
- Vector Image
➢ Pixel (or Pel)
Computer graphics consists pictures or images which are collection of discrete picture elements called
pixels.
➢ Frame (or Refresh) Buffer
➢ It is a large piece of memory into which the intensity values for all pixels are placed.
➢ At a minimum there is
one memory bit for each
pixel called a bit plane
which stores the internal
representation of image
called frame buffer.
Figure given above
illustrates a system with
N=3 bit planes for a total
of 8 (23) intensity levels.
The frame buffer is a
digital device and the
CRT is an analog device.
Therefore, a conversion
from a digital
representation to an analog signal must take place when information is read from the frame
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 buffer and displayed on the raster CRT
graphics device. For this we can use a
digital to analog converter (DAC). This
is converted into an analog voltage
between 0 and the maximum voltage of
the electron gun by the DAC. Each pixel
in the frame buffer must be accessed and
converted before it is visible on the
raster CRT.
Because there are three primary colors,
a simple color frame buffer is
implemented with three bit planes, one
for each primary color. Each bit plane
drives an individual color gun for each of the three primary colors used in color video. These
three primaries (red, green, and blue) are combined at the CRT to yield eight colors.
➢ Aliasing
➢ Aliasing is distortion that appear in any display system when the sampling the continuous object
to discrete integer pixel position.
➢ This is because, lines, polygon, circle etc. are continuous but a raster device is discrete.
➢ Bit Map and Pixel Map
➢ If a pixel has only two-color values (i.e. black and white), it can be encoded by a 1 bit of
information. On a black and white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is called
bitmap.
➢ An image of more than two colors is called pix map.
➢ Bit Depth (Or Color Depth)
It is defined as number of bits assigned to each pixel in the image.
➢ Resolution
➢ It is defined as the ratio of width and height of output of the display device. So the number of
pixels in horizontal direction and vertical direction on the screen is called resolution.
➢ Example: For a resolution of 1024 * 768, 1024 pixels are going horizontally and 768 pixels are
going vertically.
➢ Aspect Ratio
➢ It is defined as the ratio of horizontal points to the vertical points required to produce equal
length lines in both the direction of the screen.
➢ It is given by the following formula.
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
Aspect Ratio =
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
➢ For example: (800 * 600) pixels in the display has the aspect ratio 800/600 = 4/3 i.e. 4:3
➢ The main difference between resolution and aspect ratio is that aspect ratio is the shape that the
picture takes while the resolution is the number of pixels in that shape.
➢ Phosphorescence
It is a process in which energy absorbed by a substance is released relatively slowly in the form of light.
➢ Persistence

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 A phosphor’s persistence is the time for the emitted light to decay to 10 % of the initial intensity. The
persistence may be varied with different phosphors. The phosphors used for graphics display usually
have persistence of 10 to 60 microseconds
➢ Refresh Rate
➢ It is defined as the number of times per second the pixels are recharged so that the image doesn’t
flicker. It is measured in hertz(hz).
➢ It is also called as frame rate, horizontal scan rate, vertical frequency or vertical scan rate.
➢ Normally the refresh rate varies from 60 to 80hz.
➢ A refresh rate of 75 hz means that the image is redrawn 75 times a second.
Cathode Ray Tube(CRT)

Fig: CRT Block diagram

The image on a CRT display is created by firing electrons from the back of the tube to phosphors
located towards the front of the display. Once the electrons hit the phosphors, they light up and are
projected on the screen. The color you see on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue, and green
light, often referred to as RGB.
➢ Types of CRT
a) Beam Penetration Method
The beam penetration method is for the
random scan monitor display where two
different layers of phosphor coating are used,
Red (outer) and Green (inner) coated on the
CRT screen.
In this method, only four colors possible and
hence the poor picture quality
i. A beam of slow electrons excites only the
outer red layer
ii. A beam of very fast electrons penetrates through the red phosphor and
excites the inner green layer.
iii. Intermediate is a combination of red and green so two additional colors
orange and yellow color.
- When quantity of red is more than green then color appears as orange
- When quantity of green is more than red then color appears as yellow
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 b) Shadow Mask Method
The shadow mask CRT, instead of using one electron gun, uses 3 different guns
placed one by the side of the other to form a triangle or a "Delta" as shown. Each
pixel point on the screen is also made up of 3 types of phosphors to produce red,
blue and green colors. Just before the phosphor screen is a metal screen, called
a "shadow mask".
This plate has
holes placed
strategically, so
that when the
beams from the
three electron
guns are focused
on a particular
pixel, they get
focused on
particular color
producing pixel
only

Raster and Vector Graphics

A raster image is made of up pixels, each a different color, arranged to display an image where as a vector
image is made up of paths, each with a mathematical formula (vector) that tells the path how it is shaped
and what color it is bordered with or filled by.
Raster Graphics Vector Graphics
Raster Graphics are composed of pixels Vector graphics are composed of paths.
Raster image pixels do not keep on their Vector images keep on appearance regardless of
appearance as size increases - when you blow a size, since the mathematical formulas dictate how
photograph up, it becomes blurry for this reason the image is rendered
Normally they have the file extension They have the extension of .eps
of .gif, .jpg

Refresh or Raster Scan Display System

➢ A raster consists of pixels organized into
rows and columns (or a grid) where each
cell contains a value of information. In this
display system, raster points are used as
basic drawing primitives.
➢ Home television (CRT) and printers are
example of systems using raster scan
method.

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 ➢ In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to
bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create
a pattern of illuminated spots.
➢ Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This memory
area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved
from the refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row (scan line) at a time as shown in the
following illustration.
➢ Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second. Refreshing
must be done because light emitted by phosphor fades very rapidly, so to keep the drawn picture
glowing constantly, it is required to redraw the picture repeatedly and quickly directing the electron
beam back over some point. The no of times/sec the image is redrawn to give a feeling of non-
flickering pictures is called refresh-rate.

➢ Each scan line in display device consists of two retrace

i. Retrace procedure
At the end of each scan line in raster scan
display, the electron beam returns to the
left side of the screen to begin displaying
the next scan line. The return to the left
of the screen, after refreshing each scan
line is called the horizontal retrace of the
electron beam. And at the end of each
frame the electron beam returns to the
top left corner of the screen to begin the
next frame which is called vertical
retrace.

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 ii. Interlaced refresh procedure
On some raster scan systems each frame is displayed in two passes using an interlaced
refresh procedure so that the whole picture should displaced in half time. Here, the first
scan does the even lines 0, 2, 4,... then the second scan does the odd lines 1, 3, 5,....

➢ Architecture of Raster Scan Display System

- A special purpose processor, called video controller or display controller is used to control the
operation of the display device.
- The below figure shows the commonly used raster system organization.

- When a particular command is called by the application program, the graphics subroutine package sets
the appropriate pixels in the frame buffer. The video controller then cycles through the frame buffer,
one scan line at a time, typically 50 times per second. It will bring a value of each pixel contained in
the frame buffer and uses it to control the intensity of the CRT electron beam. So there exists a one to
one relationship between the pixel in frame buffer and that on the CRT screen.
- Frame buffer locations, and the corresponding screen position are referenced in Cartesian co-
ordinates. For most of the system, the coordinate origin is referenced at the lower left corner of the
screen, with positive X value increasing to the right and positive y value increasing from bottom to top.
However, in some PC, the coordinate origin is referenced at the upper left corner of the screen.

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Video Controller

Two registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels; x register is used to store x coordinate and
y register is used to store y-coordinate.
The raster scan generator produces the deflection signals that generates the raster scan and also controls x and
y registers. Initially, the x-axis is incremented by 1 up to xmax. Each pixel value is fetched and used to control
the intensity. After the first scan line, the x-address is set to 0 and y address is incremented by 1 and the process
continues till ymax.
Vector Display System or Random Scan
➢ In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture is to
be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan. It is also called
vector display, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display.

➢ Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as

the refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of
commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all the line-drawing
commands are processed, the system cycles back to the first line command in the list.

➢ Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each
second.
➢ Architecture for Random Scan System

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 - The graphics command in the application program are translated by the graphics package into a
display list stored in system memory. The display list is accessed by the display processor to
refresh the screen. The display processor cycles through each command in the display list once
during each refresh cycle.
- Graphics pattern are drawn by directing the electron beam along the component lines of the picture.
Lines are defined by the values for their co-ordinate endpoints.
-A scene is then drawn one line at a time by positioning beam to fill in the line between specified
endpoints.

Raster Model Vector Model

Advantages: Advantages:
➢ Simple data structure ➢ Compact data structure
➢ Easy and efficient overlaying ➢ Efficient for network analysis
➢ Compatible with Remote Sensing images ➢ Efficient projection transformation
➢ High spatial variability is efficiently ➢ Accurate map output
represented
Disadvantages Disadvantages
➢ Inefficient use of computer storage ➢ Difficult overlay operations
➢ errors in perimeter, area, and shape ➢ High spatial variability is inefficiently
➢ Difficult network analysis represented
➢ Less accurate maps ➢ Not compatible with RS imagery

Flat Panel Display

The term flat–panel displays refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight, and power
requirements compared to a CRT. A significant feature of flat-panel displayed is that they are thinner than
CRTs, and we can hang them on walls or wear them on our wrists.
We can separate flat panel displays into two categories
1. Emissive Display
2. Non-Emissive Display

Emissive Display
Emissive display or emitter change electrical energy into light energy. Plasma boards and light
discharging diode are cases of emissive display.
➢ Plasma Display:
Plasma Display is a emissive display common to large
TV displays beyond 30 inches or larger. They are called
plasma displays because they use small cell containing
electrically charged ionized gas.
Plasma Panel are developed by filling area between two
glass plates with a blend of gas.
Advantages:
- Wider viewing angles than of LED.

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 - Less visible motion blur.
Disadvantages:
- does not work at high altitude above 2km due to pressure differential between gas.
- Radio Frequency Interface can be irritating.
➢ Light Emitting Diodes
A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel
positions in the display, and picture definition is stored in
refresh buffer. As in scan- line refreshing of a CRT,
information is read from the refresh buffer and converted
to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce
the light patterns in the display. a. Seven Segment Display b. Matrix of diode
Q. How does the Light Emitting Diode work?
LEDs are diodes. A diode has a P-N junction across which charge carriers like electrons and holes pass
when current flows through the diode. When forward biased, the electrons from N region flows to the
P region and holes from P region towards N region. Some of the electrons recombine with the holes at
the junction and their energy is radiated outward. By proper design using suitable materials like indium
phosphide or gallium arsenide, we can create a junction that radiates maximum energy as visible light.
The wavelength of the radiation and hence the color of the light depends on the materials used
Non-Emissive Display
Non-emissive displays (or no emitters) use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. The most important example of a non-emissive flat-panel display is a
liquid- crystal device.
➢ LCD
Standing for "Liquid Crystal Display”, it is a flat panel display technology commonly used in
TVs and computer monitors. It is also used in screens for mobile devices, such as laptops,
tablets, and smart phones.
How LCD works
✗ A very small electric field is required to excite the crystals into their liquid state.
✗ Most of the energy used by an
LCD display system is due to the
back lighting.
✗ Thus the crystals spend most of
their time in intermediate states,
being neither "On" or "Off".
This behavior is indicative of
passive displays
✗ An LCD has back light that
provides light to individual
pixels arranged in a rectangular
grid. Each pixel has a red, green,
and blue RGB sub-pixel that can
be turned on or off. When all of
a pixel's sub-pixels are turned off, it appears black. When all the sub-pixels are turned
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 on 100%, it appears white. By adjusting the individual levels of red, green, and blue
light, millions of color combinations are possible.
Advantage:
✗ Low power utilization.
✗ Low weight
✗ LCD’s are level.
✗ Small size.
Disadvantages:
✗ LCD’s can be seen just from a restricted point
✗ LCD’s are temperature subordinate (0-70oC).
✗ LCD’s don’t transmit light
Q. Difference between LCD and plasma
LCD Plasma
Cost Expensive than Plasma Cheaper than LED
Viewing Upto 165o, Picture suffer from the Looks same from almost any
side angle
Backlight Yes No

Solved Problems
1. There is a system with 24 bits per pixel and resolution of 1024 by 1024. Calculate the size of frame
buffer (in Megabytes)
8bit= 1 byte
Solution: 1024byte = 1 kilobyte
Resolution = 1024 * 1024 1024kilobyte= 1Megabyte
Total number of pixel = 1024 * 1024 = 1048576 pixels 1024Megabyte= 1 Gigabyte
Bits per pixels storage = 24 bits
Therefore, total storage required in frame buffer = 1048576 * 24
= 25165824bits
=25165824 / 8 Byte
= 25165824 / (8 * 1024) Kb
= 25165824 / (8 * 1024 * 1024) Mb
= 3 Mb
2. How Many k bytes does a frame buffer needs in a 600 x 400 pixel?
Suppose, n bits are required to store 1 pixel. Then,
the size of frame buffer = Resolution * bits per pixel
= (600 * 400) * n bits
= 240000 n bits
= 240000 n kb / (8 * 1024)
= 29.30 n k bytes.

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 3. Consider a RGB raster system is to be designed using 8 inch by 10-inch screen with a resolution
of 100 pixels per inch in each direction. If we want to store 8 bits per pixel in the frame buffer,
how much storage in bytes do we need for the frame buffer?
Solution:
Size of screen = 8 inch * 10 inch
Pixels Per inch (Resolution) = 100
Then total number of pixels = 8 * 100 * 10 * 100 = 800000 pixels
Bits per pixels’ storage =8
Therefore, total storage required in frame buffer = 800000 * 8 bits
= 6400000bits
= 6400000/8 bytes
= 800000Bytes
4. Find out the aspect ratio of the raster system using 8 x 10 inches’ screen and 100 pixels/inch.
Solution:
We know that, Aspect ratio = Width / Height
= (8 x 100) / (10 * 100)
=4/5
So, aspect ratio = 4: 5

5. What is the time required to display a pixel on the monitor of size 1024 * 768 with refresh rate of
60 Hz?
Solution:
Refresh Rate = 60Hz → 60 frames per second
Total number of pixel in one frame = 1024 * 768 = 786432 pixels.
60 frames need 1 second
1 frame need 1 / 60 second → 786432 pixels need 1/ 60 second
→ 1 pixels need 1 / (60 * 786432 ) second
→ 109 / (60 * 786432) ns
→ 21.19 ns
6. If the total intensity achievable for a pixel is 256 and the screen resolution is 640 * 480. What will
be the size of frame buffer?
Solution:
1 pixel = 256 different intensity level
Let; x be the number of bits required to represent 256 different intensity level
Then, 2X = 256
Therefore, x= 8 bits
Resolution = 640 * 480
Hence, number of bits required for the screen = 640 * 480 * 8 = 2457600 bits.

7. If a pixel is accessed from the frame buffer with an average access time of 300ns then will this
rate produce an un-flickering effect for the screen size of 640 * 480.
Solution:
Size of screen = 640 * 480
Total Number of pixels = 640 * 480 = 307200

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 Average access time of one pixel = 300ns
Therefore, total time required to access entire pixels of image in the screen
= 307200 * 300
= 92160000 ns
= 92160000/109
= 0.09216 seconds
i.e. 1 cycle take 0.09216 second
Now, Number of cycles per second i.e. Refresh Rate =?
0.09216 seconds = 1 cycle
1 second = 1/ 0.09216
= 10.86
Therefore, Refresh Rate= 10.86 cycles per second
Since the minimum refresh rate for unflicker image is 60 frames per second, hence we can say the
monitor produces flickering effect.
8. Consider a raster scan system having 12-inch by 12-inch screen with a resolution of 100 pixels
per inch in each direction. If display controller of this system refreshes the screen at the rate of
50 frames per second, how many pixels could be accessed per second and what is the access time
per pixel of the system.
Solution:
Size of Screen = 12 inch * 12 inches
Resolution = 100 pixels per inch
Therefore, total number of pixels in one frame = 12 * 100 * 12 * 100
Refresh Rate = 50 frames per second → 50 frames can be accessed in 1 second
Therefore, total number of pixels accessed in 1 second = 50 * 12 * 100 * 12 * 100
= 72000000 pixels.
Again,
Since, 50 frames can be accessed in 1 second
1 frame can be accessed in 1/50 second
(12 * 100 * 12 * 100) pixels can be accessed in 1/50 second
then 1 pixel can be accessed in 1 / (50 * 12 * 100 * 12 * 100) second
= 109 / (50 * 12 * 100 * 12 * 100) ns
=13.88 ns
Hence, Access time per pixel = 13.88ns/pixel.
9. How much time is spent scanning across each row of pixels during screen refresh on a raster
system with resolution 1280 * 1024 and refresh rate of 60 frames per second?
Solution:
Resolution = 1280 * 1024 i.e. One frame contains 1024 scan line and each scan line consists of
1280 pixels.
Refresh Rate = 60 frames per second
i.e. 60 frame take 1 second
1 frame take 1/60 second
i.e. 1024 scan line take 1/60 second i.e. 0.0166 second
1 scan line take 0.0166/1024 = 0.016 Ms.

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 Chapter 3
Two Dimensional Algorithms
Output Primitives
Output primitives are the geometric structure such as straight-line segments and polygon areas
used to describe the shapes and color of the objects.
In case of the two-dimensional algorithm, we mostly deal with the line, circle, ellipse etc. as they
are the basic output primitives.
Line Scan Conversion
The slope-intercept equation of a straight line is: 𝑦 = mx + 𝑏
where m = slope of line and, b = y-intercept.
For any two given points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
𝑦 −𝑦
slope (m) = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1
𝑦 −𝑦
∴𝑏=𝑦 − 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥 from above equation
2 1

At any point (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 )

𝑦𝑘 = mx𝑘 + 𝑏 ………………………..1
At (𝑥𝑘+1 , 𝑦𝑘+1 ),
𝑦𝑘+1 = mx𝑘+1 + 𝑏…………….2
subtracting 1 from 2 we get-
𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 )
Here (𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 ) is increment in y as corresponding increment in x.
∴ 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑚.𝛥𝑥 ………………3
𝛥𝑦
or 𝑚 = 𝛥𝑥 ………………….4
When the value of m is calculated using equation 4, test for three cases can be performed as
Case I: For |m| < 1,
△x can be set to small increment (Generally 1) and the corresponding △y
calculated from equation 3.
Case II: For |m| > 1,
△y can be set to small increment (Generally 1) and the corresponding △x
calculated from equation 3.
Case III: For |m| = 1,
△y=△x, x and y pixels both are equal.

DDA Algorithm(Digital differential analyzer)

It is a scan conversion line algorithm based on calculation either △x or △y using equation
m=△y/△x.
We sample the line at unit interval in one direction (x if △x is greater than △y, otherwise in
y direction) and determine the corresponding integer values nearest the line path for the
other coordinate.
➢ Algorithm
Consider a line with positive slope as shown in the figure below

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The equation of the line is given,
y = mx+b …………….……………….(i)
m = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) ………………….(ii)
For any interval △x, corresponding interval is given by △y = m.△x.
Case I:
If |m| ≤ 1, we sample at unit x interval i.e △x = 1.
xk+1 = xk+1
Then we compute each successive y-values, by setting △y = m
yk+1 = yk + m
The calculated y value must be rounded to the nearest integer
Case II:
If |m| > 1, we sample at unit y-interval i.e △y = 1 and compute each successive x-values.
yk+1 = yk + 1
Therefore, 1 = m.△x, and △x = 1/m (since, m=△y/△x and △y=1).
xk+1 = xk + 1/m

The above equations are under the assumption that lines are to be processed from left endpoints
(xk, yk) to right endpoints (xk+1, yk+1).
➢ Advantage of DDA
a. It is simple to understand.
b. It is faster method than direct use of line equation y=mx+c.
(Removes multiplication operation and only involve increments operation of x or y
direction)
c. It requires no special skills for implementation
➢ Disadvantages of DDA
a. A floating point addition is still needed in determining each successive point which is time
consuming.
b. The accumulation of round off error in successive addition of the floating-point
increments may cause the calculated pixel position to drift away from the true line path
for long line segment.
➢ The other possible combinations can be as:

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 2

Numerical Examples for DDA
Q. Consider a line from (2,1) to (8,3). Using simple DDA algorithm, rasterize this line.
Given,
Starting Point :(x1, y1)= (2,1)
Ending Point: (x2,y2) = (8,3)
Now,
Slope m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)= (3-1)/(8-2) =(1/3) = 0.333
Since |m|<1, From DDA algorithm we have
Xk+1 = Xk + 1
Yk+1 = Yk + m
X Y X-Plot Y-Plot (X,Y)
2 1 2 1 (2,1)
3 (2+1) 1.33 (1+0.33) 3 1 (3,1)
4 (3+1) 1.66 (1.33+0.33) 4 2 (4,2)
5 1.993 5 2 (5,2)
6 2,326 6 2 (6,2)
7 2.659 7 3 (7,3)
8 2.999 8 3 (8,3)

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 3

Q. Digitized the line with end points (0,0) and (4,5) using DDA.
Given Starting Point :(x1, y1)= (0,0) and Ending Point: (x2,y2) = (4,5)
Now Slope m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)= (5-0)/(5-0) =(5/4) = 1.25
Since |m|>1, From DDA algorithm we have
yk+1 = yk + 1
xk+1 = xk + (1/m)

X Y X-Plot Y-Plot (X,Y)

0 0 0 0 (0,0)
0.8 1 1 1 (1,1)
1.6 2 2 2 (2,2)
2.4 3 2 3 (2,3)
3.2 4 3 4 (3,4)
4 5 4 5 (4,5)

Q. Digitized the line with end points (3,7) and (8,3) using DDA.
Given Starting Point :(x1, y1)= (3,7) and Ending Point: (x2,y2) = (8,3)
Now Slope m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)= (3-7)/(8-3) =(-4/5) = -0.8
Since |m|<1, From DDA algorithm we have
Xk+1 = Xk + 1
Yk+1 = Yk + m

X Y X-Plot Y-Plot (X,Y)

3 7 3 7 (3,7)
4 7-0.8=6.2 4 6 (4,6)
5 5.4 5 5 (5,5)
6 4.6 6 5 (6,5)
7 3.8 7 4 (7,4)
8 3 8 3 (8,3)

Q. Consider a line from (0,0) to (5,5). Using simple DDA algorithm, rasterize this line.
Solution:
Given Starting Point :(x1, y1)= (0,0) and Ending Point: (x2,y2) = (5,5)
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 4
 Now Slope m=(y2-y1)/(x2-x1)= (5-0)/(5-0) =(/55) = 1
Since |m|<=1, From DDA algorithm we have
Xk+1 = Xk + 1
Yk+1 = Yk + m
X Y X-Plot Y-Plot (X,Y)
0 0 0 0 (0,0)
1 1 1 1 (1,2)
2 2 2 2 (2,2)
3 3 3 3 (3,3)
4 4 4 4 (4,4)
5 5 5 5 (5,5)

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

An accurate and efficient line generating algorithm, developed by Bresenham that scan converts
lines only using integer calculation to find the next (x,y) position to plot. It avoids incremental error
accumulation.

Line with positive slope less than 1 (|m| ≤ 1)

Pixel position along the line path are determined by sampling at unit x intervals. Starting from left
end point, we step to each successive column and plot the pixel
closest to line path.

Assume that (xk,yk) is pixel at kth step then next point to plot may
be either (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 ) or (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 + 1)

At sampling position xk+1, we label vertical pixel separation from

line path as d1 and d2 as in figure. The y-coordinate on the
mathematical line path at pixel column xk+1 is y=m(xk+1)+b
Then d1 = y - yk
= m(xk + 1) + b - yk
d2 =( yk + 1) - y
= (yk + 1)-m ( xk + 1 ) - b
Now d1 - d2 = [m(xk + 1) + b –yk ] - [(yk + 1) - m ( xk + 1 ) - b]
= m(xk + 1) + b –yk - (yk + 1) + m ( xk + 1 ) + b
= 2m ( xk + 1 ) - ( yk + 1 ) - yk + 2b
= 2m (xk + 1) - 2yk + 2b – 1

A decision parameter pk for the kth step in the line algorithm can be obtained by substituting 𝑚 =
𝛥𝑦
𝛥𝑥
in above eqn and defining
𝑝𝑘 = 𝛥𝑥(𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )
𝛥𝑦
= 𝛥𝑥[2 𝛥𝑥 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1]
= 2𝛥𝑦.𝑥𝑘 − 2𝛥𝑥.𝑦𝑘 + 2𝛥𝑦 + 𝛥𝑥(2𝑏 − 1)
= 2𝛥𝑦.𝑥𝑘 − 2𝛥𝑥.𝑦𝑘 + 𝑐
Where the constant 𝑐 = 2𝛥𝑦 + 𝛥𝑥(2𝑏 − 1) which is independent.

If decision parameter pk is negative i.e. d1 < d2, pixel at yk is closer to the line path than pixel at
yk+1 . In this case we plot lower pixel ( xk + 1 , yk) other wise plot upper pixel (xk+1,yk+1).

At step k+1, pk+1 is evaluated as:

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 5
 𝑝𝑘+1 = 2𝛥𝑦.𝑥𝑘+1 − 2𝛥xy𝑘+1 + 𝑐
We get,
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2𝛥𝑦(𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 ) − 2𝛥𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 )

Since we are sampling at X-direction, we have 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1

∴ 𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2𝛥𝑦 − 2𝛥𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 )
The term yk is either 0 or 1 depending upon the sign of 𝑝𝑘 .
So,
if pk is negative
yk+1 = yk and Pk+1 = pk+ 2𝛥𝑦
otherwise
yk+1 = yk+1, then pk+1 = pk+ 2𝛥𝑦-2𝛥𝑥

Q. If the starting point is (x0 , y0 ), then what will be the value of initial decision parameter
(P0) when |m| ≤ 1?
We have Pk = ∆x(d1 - d2)
Pk = ∆x (2m(xk +1) - 2yk + 2b -1)
Pk = ∆x (2mxk +2m + 2b - 2yk -1)
Pk = ∆x {2(mxk + b - yk )+2m -1)
The line y = mx + b must passes through the initial point (x0, y0) , (mxk+b - yk) = 0,
we have
P0 = ∆x (2m -1)
P0 = ∆x (2 ∆y/∆x - 1)
P0 = 2∆y - ∆x, which is the initial decision parameter.

Conclusion for Bresenham’s Line drawing Algorithm for slope, |m| ≤ 1

a) Calculate the starting value of the decision parameter: P 0 = 2∆y - ∆x.
b) At each xk along the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test.
If Pk >0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆y - 2∆x, and y k+1 = y k + 1 & x k+1 = x k +1
Else If Pk<0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆y , and y k+1 = yk & x k+1 = x k +1

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 6

Like wise,
Conclusion for Bresenham’s Line drawing Algorithm for slope, |m| >1
a) Calculate the starting value of the decision parameter: P0 = 2∆x - ∆y
b) At each yk along the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test.
If Pk >0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆x - 2∆y, and xk+1 = xk + 1 & yk+1 = y k +1
Else If P k <0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆x , and x k+1 = x k & y k+1 = y k +1

Q. Digitize the line with end points (20, 10) and (30, 18) using BLA.
Solution
Here, Starting point of line = (x1, y1) = (20, 10)
Ending point of line = (x2, y2) = (30, 18)
Thus, slope of line,
m = ∆y / ∆x = y2-y1 / x2-x1 = (18-10) / (30-20) = 8/10
As the given points, it is clear that the line is moving left to right,
|m| = 0.8 ≤ 1
Thus,
The initial decision parameter (P0) = 2∆y - ∆x = 2*8 – 10 = 6
Since, for the Bresenham’s Line drawing Algorithm of slope, |m| ≤ 1, we have
If Pk >0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆y - 2∆x, and y k+1 = y k + 1 & x k+1 = x k +1
Else If Pk<0,
P k+1 = P k + 2∆y , and y k+1 = yk & x k+1 = xk +1

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 7

Q. Apply Bresenham’s algorithm to draw a line from (20,15) and end point is (30,30)
Solution
Starting Point (x0,y0) = (20, 15)
Ending Point (xn, yn) = (30, 30) such that scanning takes place from left to right
Slope m = (30-15)/ ( 30-20) = 1.5 i.e. |M|>1
Here: Δx= 30-20 = 10
Δy= 30-15 = 15
2Δx = 2 * 10 = 20
2Δy = 2 * 15 = 30
Now from Bresenhams Algorithm for |M|>1, and scanning from left to right
Initial Decision Parameter:
p0 = 2Δx – Δy = 20-15= 5
if(pk<0) then
Xk+1 = Xk
Yk+1 = Yk+1
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx
otherwise
Xk+1 = Xk+1
Yk+1 = Yk+1
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx - 2Δy
K Pk (Xk+1, Yk+1)
0 5 (21,16)
1 -5 (21,17)
2 15 (22,18)
3 5 (23,19)
4 -5 (23,20)
5 15 (24,21)
6 5 (25,22)
7 -5 (25,23)
8 15 (26,24)
9 5 (27,25)
10 -5 (27,26)
11 15 (28,27)
12 5 (29,28)

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 8

 13 -5 (29,29)
14 15 (30,30)

Q. Apply Bresenham’s algorithm to draw a line from (-3,0) and end point is (4,4)
Solution
Starting Point (x0,y0) = (-3, 0)
Ending Point (xn, yn) = (4,4) such that scanning takes place from left to right
Slope m = (4-0)/ ( 4+3) = 4/ 5 = 0.57 i.e. |M|<1
Here:
Δx= 4 + 3 = 7
Δy= 4 - 0 = 4
2Δx = 2 * 7 = 14
2Δy = 2 * 4 = 8
Now from Bresenhams Algorithm for |M|<1, and scanning from left to right
Initial Decision Parameter: P0 = 2Δy – Δx
if(pk<0) then
Xk+1 = Xk + 1
Yk+1 = Yk
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy
otherwise
Xk+1 = Xk+1 and
Yk+1 = Yk+1 and
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy - 2Δx
K Pk (Xk+1, Yk+1)
0 1 (-2,1)
1 -5 (-1,1)
2 3 (0,2)
3 -3 (1,2)
4 5 (2,3)
5 -1 (3,3)
6 7 (4,4)

Advantage of BLA over DDA

➢ In DDA algorithm each successive point is computed in floating point, so it requires more
time and more memory space. While in BLA each successive point is calculated in integer
value or whole number. So it requires less time and less memory space.
➢ In DDA, since the calculated point value is floating point number, it should be rounded at
the end of calculation but in BLA it does not need to round, so there is no accumulation of
rounding error.
➢ Due to rounding error, the line drawn by DDA algorithm is not accurate, while in BLA line
is accurate.
➢ DDA algorithm cannot be used in other application except line drawing, but BLA can be
implemented in other application such as circle, ellipse and other curves.

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 9

Symmetry in circle scan conversion
Symmetry simply means the exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane , center or axis.
In circle, we can reduce the time required for circle generation by using the symmetries. e.g. 4-way or 8-
way symmetry. So we only need to generate the points for one quadrant or octants and then use the
symmetry to determine all the other points.

Mid-point circle Algorithm

Let us consider a circle centered at origin. Assume that (x, y) is any point on the circle we can easily
compute other seven points on the circle. We can generate all pixel positions around a circle by calculating
only the points within the first octants & positions in the other seven octants are obtained by symmetry.
For a given radius r, we have to calculate all the pixel position from (0, r).
To apply the midpoint method, we define a circle function:
fcircle(x, y) = x 2 + y 2 –r 2
The relative position of any point (x, y) can be
determined by checking the sign of the circle function
as: -
i. fcircle(x, y) < 0, the point (x, y) is inside the
circle boundary.
ii. fcircle(x, y) = 0, the point (x, y) is on the circle
boundary.
iii. fcircle(x, y) > 0, the point (x, y) is outside the
circle boundary.
Suppose, (xk,yk) is the pixel plotted, then the next pixel
(xk+1, yk+1) will be either (xk+1 , yk) or (xk+1 ,yk-1 ).
Here,
the mid-point (m) = (xk+1, yk-1/2).
Now, decision parameter (Pk) = fcircle(xk+1, yk-1/2) = (xk+1)2 + (yk-1/2)2 – r2, is the circle function evaluated
at midpoint.
Also, the next pixel to plot will either be (x k+1 +1, yk+1 ) or (x k+1 +1, y k+1 -1)
Also, the midpoint here is (xk+1 +1, y k+1 -1/2)
And the next decision parameter Pk+1 = fcircle(xk+1 +1, yk+1 -1/2)
Pk+1 = (x k+1 +1)2 + (y k+1 -1/2)2 –r2
P k+1 = {(x k +1) +1}2 + (y k+1 -1/2)2 –r 2
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 10
 P k+1 = (x k +1)2 + 2(x k +1) + 1 + (yk+1 -1/2)2 –r2
Now, subtracting Pk+1 and Pk , we have
P k+1 - P k = {(x k +1)2 + 2(x k +1) + 1 + (yk+1 -1/2)2 –r2} - {(xk+1)2 + (yk-1/2)2 – r2}
2
= 2(x k +1) + 1+ yk+12 – yk+1 + ½ – yk2+ yk - ½ 2
= 2(x k +1) + (y k+12- y k2 ) - (yk+1 - y k ) +1
If Pk< 0, the midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on the scan line yk closer to the circle boundary.
Otherwise, the midpoint is outside or on the circle boundary, and we select the pixel on scan line yk -1.
Case Pk< 0:
x k+1 = x k +1
y k+1 = y k
P k+1 = P k + 2(x k +1) + 1
P k+1 = P k + 2 x k+1 + 1
Case Pk >= 0:
xk+1 = xk +1
yk+1 = yk - 1
Pk+1 = Pk + 2(x k +1) + [(y k -1) 2 - y k2 )] - (y k - 1 - y k ) +1
= Pk + 2(x k +1) + [(y k 2 - 2y k +1 - y k2 )] - (y k -1- y k ) + 1
= Pk + 2(x k +1) - 2y k +1 +1 + 1
= Pk + 2(x k +1) - 2y k +2 + 1
= Pk + 2(x k +1) – 2(y k -1) +1
= Pk + 2x k+1 – 2y k+1 +1
Q. Calculate the initial decision parameter (P0) for circle
The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at the start position (x 0 , y 0 ) =
(0, r).
Here, the next pixel will either be (1, r) or (1, r-1) where the midpoint is (1, r- ½ ). Thus, the initial decision
parameter is given by:
P 0 = f circle (1, r- ½ )
= 1 2 + (r – ½ )2 – r 2
= 5/4 – r
≈1–r
Thus, P 0 =1 – r
Conclusion:
1. Calculate the initial decision parameter (P 0 ) =1 – r
2. If P < 0
Plot (x k +1, y k )
P k+1 = P k + 2x k+1 + 1
Else (P >= 0)
Plot (x k +1, y k - 1)
P k+1 = P k +2x k+1 – 2y k+1 +1

Q. Digitized the circle with radius 10

Solution:
Initial Point = (Xo,Yo)= (0,r) = (0,10) and origin = (0,0)
Initial decision parameter (p0) = 1 – r
= 1 – 10
= -9
From midpoint circle algorithm we have
If P < 0
Plot (x k +1, y k )
Pk+1 = P k + 2x k+1 + 1
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 11
 Else (P >= 0)
Plot (x k +1, y k - 1)
P k+1 = P k +2x k+1 – 2y k+1 +1
Now, the successive decision parameter values and position along the circle path are determined as
follow.

K Pk Xk+1 YK+1 (XK+1, Yk+1)

0 -9 1 10 (1,10)
1 -9*2*1+1=-6 2 10 (2,10)
2 -6 + 2*2+1=-1 3 10 (3,10)
3 -1 + 2 * 3 + 1 = 6 4 9 (4,9)
4 6 + 2 * 4 – 2 * 9 + 1 =-3 5 9 (5,9)
5 -3 + 2 * 5 + 1= 8 6 8 (6,8)
6 8+2*6–2*8+1=5 7 7 (7,7)
7 5+ 2 * 7-2 * 7 + 1 =6 8 6 [stop and discard this point since x>y

(0,0)

Q. Digitized a circle with radius r=12 and centered at (250,300)

Solution:
Note: When center is not origin, we first calculate the octants points of the circle in the same way as
the center at origin then add the given circle center on each calculated pixels.

Here, Initial Point (x0,y0) = (0,r) = (0,12) and origin=(0,0)

Initial decision parameter (p0) = 1 – 12 = 1 – 12 = -11
From midpoint circle algorithm we have
If P < 0
Plot (x k +1, y k )
Pk+1 = P k + 2 x k+1 + 1
Else (P >= 0)
Plot (x k +1, y k – 1)
P k+1 = P k +2x k+1 – 2y k+1 +1
Now, the successive decision parameter values and position along the circle path are
determined as follow.
K Pk Xk+1 Yk+1 (Xk+1, Yk+1) at (Xk+1, Yk+1) at (250,300)
(0,0)
0 -11 1 12 (1,12) (250+1, 300+12)=(251,312)
1 -11 + 2* 1 + 1 = -8 2 12 (2,12) (250+2,300+12) =(252,312)
2 -8 + 2 * 2 + 1 = -3 3 12 (3,12) (250+3,300+12) =(253,312)
3 -3 + 2 * 3 + 1=4 4 11 (4,11) (250+4,300+11) =(254,311)
4 4 + 2 * 3 – 2 * 11 + 1= -9 5 11 (5,11) (250+5,300+11) =(255,311)
5 -9 + 2 * 5 + 1 = 2 6 10 (6,10) (250+6,300+10) =(256,310)
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 12
 6 2 + 2*6 – 2* 10 + 1 = -5 7 10 (7,10) (250+7,300+10) =(257,310)
7 -5 + 2 * 7 + 1 = 10 8 9 (8,9) (250+8,300+9) =(258,309)
8 10+ 16 – 18 + 1= 9 9 8 (Discard and stop since X>Y)

Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm

Our approach here is similar to that used in displaying a raster circle but the ellipse has 4-way symmetry.
The midpoint ellipse method is applied throughout the first quadrant in two parts or region as shown in
figure.
The region-1 just behaves as the circular property and the region-
2 is slightly straight curve.
We have,
The equation of ellipse, whose centre at (0, 0) is
x2 / a2 + y 2/ b 2 = 1
Hence, we define the ellipse function for centre at origin (0, 0) as:
F ellipse (x, y) = x 2b 2 + y 2a 2 – a 2 / b 2
This has the following properties:
< 0, if (x, y) is inside the ellipse boundary
Fellipse (x, y ) = 0, if (x, y) is on the ellipse boundary
> 0, if (x, y) is outside the ellipse boundary
Starting at (0, b), we take unit steps in the x direction until we reach the boundary between region 1 and
region 2. Then we switch to unit steps in the y direction over the remainder of the curve in the first quadrant.
At each step, we need to test the value of the slope of the curve. The ellipse slope is calculated by
differentiating the ellipse function as:
2 x b2 + 2 y a 2 * dy / dx = 0
Or
dy / dx = - 2xb 2 / 2ya 2
At the boundary between region 1 and region 2, dy / dx = - 1 and 2 x b2 = 2 y a2 . Therefore, we move out
of region 1 whenever 2xb 2 >= 2ya2
For Region – 1: Condition (2xb2< 2ya2)
Assuming that the position (x k , y k ) has been plotted, we determine next position (xk+1 , yk+1 ) as either
(xk+1 , yk ) or (x k+1 , yk-1 ) by evaluating the decision parameter P1k as:
P1 k = F ellipse (x k +1, yk – ½ )
= b2(x k +1) 2 + a 2 (y k – ½ ) 2 –a2b 2
At next sampling position, the decision parameter will be
P1k+1 = Fellipse(xk+1 +1, yk+1 – ½ )
= b2(xk+1 +1) 2 + a 2 (yk+1 – ½ ) 2 – a2b 2
= b2{(xk +1) +1} 2
+ a2(yk+1 – ½ ) 2 – a2b 2
= b 2 {(xk +1) 2 + 2(xk +1) + 1} + a 2(yk+1 – ½ ) 2 – a 2b 2
Now, P1k+1 – P1k = (b {(x
2
k ) - (b (x
+1) 2 + 2(xk +1) + 1} + a 2(yk+1 – ½ ) 2 – a 2b 2 2
k +1) 2 + a 2 (y k – ½ ) 2 – )
a2b 2

= (b 2 (xk +1) 2 + 2b 2 (xk +1) + b 2+ a 2(yk+1)2 – a 2 yk+1 + a 2 ¼ – a 2b 2) - (b2(x k +1) 2 + a 2 y k2 – a 2y k+a 2

¼ – a2b 2 )
= 2b 2 (xk +1) + b 2 + a 2{((yk+1)2 – y k2) -(y k+1 – y k )}
If P1k < 0, the midpoint is inside the ellipse and the pixel on the scan line yk closer to the ellipse boundary.
Otherwise, the midpoint is outside or on the ellipse boundary, and we select the pixel on scan line y k -1.
Case: P1k < 0
x k+1 = x k +1
y k+1 = y k
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 13
 P1k+1 = P1k + 2b 2(x k+1) + b 2
Case I: P1k >=0
x k+1 = x k +1
y k+1 = y k - 1
P1 k+1 = P1 k + 2b 2 (xk +1) + b 2 + a 2{((yk+1)2 – y k2) -(y k+1 – y k )}
= P1 k + 2b 2 (xk +1) + b 2 + a 2(( y k - 1)2 – y k2) -a 2( y k - 1 – y k )}
= P1 k +2b 2 (x k +1) + a2 [(y k 2 - 2y k +1 - y k2 )] – a 2 (y k -1- y k ) + b 2
= P1 k +2b 2 (x k +1) – 2a2 y k + a 2 + a 2 + b 2
= P1 k +2b 2 (x k +1) – 2a 2 (y k -1) + b 2
= P1 k +2b 2 x k+1 – 2a 2 y k+1 + b 2
Initial decision parameter (P10 ) for region-1 of ellipse
The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the ellipse function at the start position (x0,y0 )=(0,
b).
Here, the next pixel will either be (1, b) or (1, b-1) where the midpoint is (1, b- ½). Thus, the initial decision
parameter is given by:
P10 = F ellipse (1, b- ½)
= b 2 + a 2 (b- ½) 2 – a 2 b 2
= b 2 – a 2 b + a 2/4
For Region – 2: Condition (2xb2 >= 2ya2)
Assuming that the position (xk ,yk ) has been plotted, we determine next position (xk+1, yk+1 ) as either (xk+1
, yk-1 ) or (xk, yk-1 ) by evaluating the decision parameter
P2 k as:
P2k = Fellipse (x k + ½ , y k -1)
= b2(x k + ½ )2 + a2(yk -1)2 – a2b2
At next sampling position, the decision parameter will be
P2 k+1 = F ellipse (xk+1 + ½ , y k+1 -1)
= b2(x k+1 + ½ )2 + a 2(y k+1 -1) 2 – a2b2

Now, subtracting P2k from P2K+1, we have

P2k+1 – P2k = {b2(xk+1 + ½ )2 + a 2 (yk+1-1)2 - a2b2 } - {b2(x k + ½ )2 + a2(yk -1)2 – a2b2}

= {b2(xk+1 + ½ )2 + a 2 (yk+1-1)2 - a2b2 - b2(x k + ½ )2 - a2(yk -1)2 + a2b2}

= {b2(xk+1 + ½ )2 + a2 (yk+1-1)2 - b2(x k + ½ )2 - a2(yk -1)2}

= b2(xk+1 + ½ )2 + a2 {(yk-1)-1}2 - b2(x k + ½ )2 - a2(yk -1)2
= b2xk+12+ b2xk+1 + b2/4 + a2(yk -1)2 - 2a2(yk -1) +a2 - b2xk2 – b2xk - b2/4 -a2(yk -1)2
= a2 + b2(xk+12 -xk2) - 2a2(yk -1) + b2(xk+1 -xk)

If P2k<0, the midpoint is inside the ellipse and the pixel on the scan line xk is closer to the ellipse boundary.
Otherwise, the midpoint is outside or on the ellipse boundary, and we select the pixel on scan line x k +1.
Case : P2 k ≤ 0
x k+1 = x k +1

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 14

 y k+1 = y k -1

P2 k+1 = P2 k + b 2 [(xk+12 -xk2 ) + ( xk+1 -xk )] - 2a2(yk -1) + a2

= P2 k + b 2 [(x k2 + 2 x k + 1 - x k2 )]+ (x k +1 - x k )] – 2a 2 (y k -1) + a 2

= P2 k + b 2 [2x k +1+1] – 2a 2 (y k -1) + a 2
= P2 k + 2b2(x k +1) – 2a 2 (y k -1) + a 2
= P2 k + 2b 2 x k+1 – 2a 2 y k+1 + a 2
Case P2k > 0
x k+1 = x k
y k+1 = y k - 1

P2 k+1 = P2 k + b 2 [(xk+12 -xk2 ) + ( xk+1 -xk )] - 2a2(yk -1) + a2

= P2 k – 2a 2 (y k -1) + a 2
= P2 k – 2a 2 y k+1 + a 2
Initial decision parameter (P20) for region-2 of ellipse
When we enter region 2, the initial position (xo, y 0 ) is taken as the last position selected in region 1 and
the initial derision parameter in region 2 is given by:
P2 0 = F ellipse (x 0 +1/2, y 0 -1)
= b 2 (x0 +1/2) 2 + a 2 (y 0 -1) 2 –a 2 b 2
Q. Example: Given input ellipse parameters rx = a = 8 and ry = b = 6, we illustrate the
steps in the midpoint ellipse algorithm by determining raster positions along the
ellipse path in the first quadrant.
Solution:
Given a = 8 and b= 6
For Region 1
The initial point for the ellipse on the origin (xo, yo) = (0, b) = (0,6)
Calculation the initial decision parameter
P10 = b 2 – a 2 b + a 2/4
= 62 - 6 * (8)2+(82 / 4)
= -332
From midpoint algorithm, for Region 1 we know,
If(P1k<0) then
x k+1 = x k +1
y k+1 = y k
P1 k+1= P1k + 2b 2x k+1+ b 2
Else (i.e. P1k >=0)
x k+1 = x k +1
y k+1 = y k - 1
P1 k+1= P1 k +2b 2 x k+1 – 2a 2 y k+1 + b 2
And stop when 2xk+1b2 >= 2yk+1a2
Now successive decision parameter values and positions along the ellipse path are calculated
using midpoint method as
K P1k (Xk+1, YK+1) 2b 2(x k+1) 2a 2 y k+1
0 -332 (1, 6) 72 768
1 -224 (2, 6) 144 768
2 -44 (3, 6) 216 768
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 15
 3 208 (4, 5) 288 640
4 -108 (5, 5) 360 640
5 288 (6, 4) 432 512
6 244 (7, 3) 504 384
Since 2xk+1b2 >= 2yk+1a2 so we stop here for region 1.
[note: (7, 3) is the starting point for region 2]

Now for Region-2,

From midpoint algorithm, for Region 2 we know,
Initial Decision Parameter:
P2 0 = b 2 (x0 +1/2) 2 + a 2 (y 0 -1) 2 –a 2 b 2
If(Pk<0) then
Xk+1 = Xk + 1
Yk+1 = Yk - 1
P2 k+1 = P2k + 2b 2 x k+1 – 2a 2 y k+1 + a 2
Else (i.e. Pk >=0)
Xk+1 = Xk
Yk+1 = Yk -1
P2K+1 = P2k – 2a 2 y k+1 + a 2
So, the initial point for region 2 is (x0, y0) = (7, 3) and the initial decision parameter is
P20 = b 2 (x0 +1/2) 2 + a 2 (y 0 -1) 2 –a2b 2
= 36 * (7 + 0.5)2 + 64 * (3-1)2 – 64 * 36
= -23
The remaining pixels in region two for first quadrant are than calculated as
K P2k (Xk+1, YK+1)
0 -23 (8,2)
1 361 (8,1)
2 297 (8,0)
So remaining points in other quadrants can be calculated using the symmetry property of
ellipse.

Filled Area Primitive

A standard output primitive in general graphics is solid color or patterned polygon area. Other kinds of
area primitives are sometimes available, but polygons are easier to process since they have linear
boundaries. The main idea behind the 2D or 3D object filling procedure is that it provides us more realism
on the object of interest.
There are two basic approaches to area filling in raster systems.
➢ One way to fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan lines that crosses the area.
➢ Another method for area filling is to start from a given interior position and point outward from this
until a specified boundary is met.

SCAN-LINE Polygon Fill Algorithm:

In scan-line polygon fill algorithm, for each scan-line crossing a polygon, it locates the intersection points
of the scan line with the polygon edges. These intersection points are then sorted from left to right, and
the corresponding frame-buffer positions between each intersection pair are set to the specified color.

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 16

In this method, the scan line must be even. At two edge
connecting point called the vertex, we count the scan line two to
handling the problem for scan line passing through vertex, but
this consideration also may create problem for some instant as
shown in figure. To handle such problem shown by count-5, we
keep the vertex blank and hence the count become 1, so that
overall count in that scan line become even as shown in figure

Boundary-fill Algorithm:
In Boundary filling algorithm starts at a point called seed pixel inside a region and paint the interior outward
the boundary. If the boundary is specified in a single color, the fill algorithm proceeds outward pixel by
until the boundary color is reached.
Starting from (x,y), the procedure tests neighboring positions to determine whether they are of boundary
color. If not, they are painted with the fill color, and their neighbors are tested. This process continues until
all pixel up to the boundary color area have tested.
The neighboring pixels from current pixel are proceeded by two
method:
✗ 4-connected if they are adjacent horizontally and
vertically.
✗ 8- connected if they adjacent horizontally, vertically and
diagonally.

Algorithm for Boundary fill 4- connected: 4- Connected 8- Connected

void Boundary_fill4(int x,int y,int b_color, int fill_color)
{
int value=getpixel (x,y);
if (value ! = b_color && value != fill_color)
{
putpixel (x,y,fill_color);
Boundary_fill4(x-1,y, b_color, fill_color);
Boundary_fill4(x+1,y, b_color, fill_color);
Boundary_fill4(x,y-1, b_color, fill_color);
Boundary_fill4(x,y+1, b_color, fill_color);
}
}
Algorithm for Boundary fill 8- connected:
void Boundary-fill8(int x,int y,int b_color, int fill_color)
{
int current =getpixel(x,y);
if (current != b_color && current != fill_color)
{
putpixel (x,y,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x-1,y,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x+1,y,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x,y-1,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x,y+1,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x-1,y-1,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x-1,y+1,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x+1,y-1,b_color,fill_color);
Boundary_fill8(x+1,y+1,b_color,fill_color);
}
}
Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 17
Recursive boundary-fill algorithm not fill regions correctly if some interior pixels are already displayed in
the fill color. Encountering a pixel with the fill color can cause a recursive branch to terminate, leaving
other interior pixel unfilled. To avoid this we can first change the color of any interior pixels that are initially
set to the fill color before applying the boundary fill procedure.

Flood-fill Algorithm:

Flood_fill Algorithm is applicable when we want to fill an area that is not defined within a single-color
boundary. If fill area is bounded with different color, we can paint that area by replacing a specified
interior color instead of searching of boundary color value. This approach is called flood fill algorithm.

We start from a specified interior pixel (x,y) and reassign all pixel values that are currently set to a given
interior color with desired fill_color.

Using either 4-connected or 8-connected region recursively starting from input position, the algorithm
fills the area by desired color.
Algorithm:
void flood_fill4(int x,int y,int fill_color,int old_color)
{

int current;
current = getpixel (x,y);
if (current == old_color)
{

putpixel (x,y,fill_color);
flood_fill4(x-1,y, fill_color, old_color);
flood_fill4(x,y-1, fill_color, old_color);
flood_fill4(x,y+1, fill_color, old_color);
flood_fill4(x+1,y, fill_color, old_color);
}
}

Boundary Fill Algorithm Flood Fill Algorithm

Area filling is started inside a point with in a Area filling is started from a point and it replaces the
boundary region and fill the region with in the old color with the new color
specified color until it reaches the the boundary.
It is used in interactive packages where we can It is used when we cannot specify the region
specify the region boundary boundary
It is less time consuming It consumes more time
It searches for boundary. It searches for old color

Compiled by: Mohan Bhandari 18

 Chapter 4
Two Dimensional Transformation
In many cases a complex picture can always be treated as a combination of straight line, circles, ellipse
etc., and if we are able to generate these basic figures, we can also generate combinations of them. Once
we have drawn these pictures, the need arises to transform these pictures.
Transformation means changing some graphics into something else by applying rules. We can have
various types of transformations such as translation, scaling up or down, rotation, shearing, etc. When a
transformation takes place on a 2D plane, it is called 2D transformation.

Transformations play an important role in computer graphics to reposition the graphics on the screen and
change their size or orientation.

The three basic transformations are

a) Translation

b) Rotation

c) Scaling.

Other transformation includes reflection and shear.

For each cases of transformation, we consider the reference / pivot point is origin, so if we have to do
these transformations for a point P(x, y) about any arbitrary point (xr, yr), then we have to first shift the
given point to the origin and then perform required transformation and finally shift to that arbitrary point
position.

Geometric transformations involve taking a preimage and

transforming it in some way to produce an image.
There are three basic classes of transformations:
1. Rigid body
- Preserves distance and angles.
- Examples: translation and rotation.
2. Conformal
- Preserves angles.
- Examples: translation, rotation, and uniform scaling.
3. Affine
- Preserves parallelism. Lines remain lines.
- Examples: translation, rotation, scaling, shear, and reflection
a) Translation:
Repositioning of object along a straight-line path from one coordinate
location to another is called translation. We translate a two-
dimensional point by adding translation distances tx , and ty , to the
original coordinate position (x, y) to move the point to a new position
(x ' , y') as:

x'=x+t𝑥
y'=x+t𝑦

The translation distance pair (tx,ty) is known as translation vector or

shift vector. We can express translation equations as matrix representations as
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 𝑥 x' 𝑡𝑥
P= [𝑦] P'= [ ] T= [𝑡 ] ∴P'=P+T
y' 𝑦

For Example:

Given a point P with original position (2,2). Then after performing translation operation with tx = 6 and ty
= 4, we get new transformed coordinate P’ with coordinate (8,6).

b) Rotation
A two-dimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a circular path in the xy plane.
To generate a rotation, we specify a rotation angle ‘θ’ and the position (x r , y r ,) of the rotation point (or
pivot point) about which the object is to be rotated.
➢ + Value for ‘θ’ define counter-clockwise rotation
about a point
➢ - Value for ‘θ’ defines clockwise rotation about a point
Let (x, y) is the original point, ‘r’ the constant distance from
origin, & ‘Φ’ the original angular displacement from x-axis.
Now the point (x, y) is rotated through angle ‘θ’ in a counter
clock wise direction
we can express the transformed coordinates in terms of ‘Φ’
and ‘θ’ as
x’ = r cos( Φ + θ) = r cosΦ . cosθ - r sin Φ. sinθ ....(i)
y’ = r sin( Φ + θ) = r cosΦ . sinθ + r sinΦ . cosθ ....(ii)
We know that original coordinates of point in polar
coordinates are
x = r cos Φ
y = r sin Φ
Substituting these values in (i) and (ii), we get,
x’ = x cosθ - y sinθ
y’ = x sinθ + y cosθ
So using column vector representation for coordinate points the matrix form would be P’ = R . P

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Rotation of a point about an arbitrary pivot position

− Translate the point (xr,yr) and P(x,y) by translation vector (-xr , -yr) which translates the pivot to origin
and P(x,y) to (x-xr , y-yr).
− Now apply the rotation equations when pivot is at origin to
rotate the translated point (x-xr , y-yr) as:
𝑥1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑟 )cos𝜃 − (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑟 )sin𝜃
𝑦1 = (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑟 )sinθ+(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑟 )cos𝜃
− Re- translate the rotated point (𝑥1 ,y1 ) with translation vector
(xr,yr) which is reverse translation to original translation.
Finally we get the equation after successive transformation
as
x'=x𝑟 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑟 )cos𝜃 − (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑟 )sin𝜃…………1
y'=y𝑟 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑟 )sinθ+(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑟 )cos𝜃…………2
Which are actually the equations for rotation of (x,y) from the pivot point (xr,yr)

c) Scaling
A scaling transformation alters the size of an object. This operation can be carried out for polygons by
multiplying the coordinate values (x, y) of each vertex by scaling factors sx and sy to produce the
transformed coordinates (x', y').

➢ sx scales object in ‘x’ direction

➢ sy scales object in ‘y’ direction
Thus, for equation form,

x' = x. sx and y’ = y. sy

➢ Values greater than 1 for sx and sy produce enlargement

➢ Values less than 1 for sx sy reduce size of object
➢ sx = sy = 1 leaves the size of the object unchanged
➢ When sx , sy are assigned the same value sx = sy = 4 then a Uniform Scaling is produced.

- Scaling About arbitrary point

If p(x,y) be scaled to a point p’(x’, y’) by sx time in X-units and sy times in y-units about arbitrary point (xf,
yf) then the equation for scaling is given as
x’ = xf + sx .(x-xf )
y’ = yf + sy .(y-yf )

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

d. Shearing
A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that the transformed
shape appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that had been
caused to slide over each other is called shear.

X-direction Shear:
An X-direction shear relative to x-axis is produced with transformation matrix
equation.

Y-direction Shear:
An y-direction shear relative to y-axis is produced by following transformation
equations.

Both direction Shear:

Both directions share relative to x-axis and y-axis is produced by following
transformation equations

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

e. Reflection
A reflection is a transformation that produce a mirror image of an object. In
2D-transformation, reflection is generated relative to an axis of reflection.
The reflection of an object to an relative axis of reflection , is same as 180 o
rotation about the reflection axis.

i. Reflection about x axis or about line y = 0

Keeps ‘x’ value same but flips y value of coordinate points

x’ = x
y’= - y

ii. Reflection about y axis or about line x = 0

Keeps ‘x’ value same but flips y value of coordinate points

x’ = - x
y’= y

iii. Reflection about origin

Flip both ‘x’ and ‘y’ coordinates of a point

x’ = - x
y’ = -y

Q. What is Arbitrary axis?

Arbitrary axis simply means the axis chosen in any way we like within the co-ordinate system.
We choose any line in space, and then put a pin into our object along that line, and transform
the object around the pin.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 iv. Reflection on an arbitrary axis
The reflection on any arbitrary axis of reflection can be achieved by sequence of transformation
and co-ordinate axes reflection matrices.

Example:

Reflection about line y = x (θ=450)

- Rotate about origin in clockwise direction by 45

degree which rotates line y = x to x-axis

- Take reflection against x-axis

- Rotate in anti-clockwise direction by same angle

Here, we have multiple transformation at once, So when more than one transformations are
applied for performing a task then such transformation is called composite transformation.

So the composite transformation required for reflecting the given object about y=x axis is

T = Rθ= 45RxRθ= -45

Forming products of transformation matrices is often referred to as a concatenation, or
composition, of matrices.

Q. What is the basic purpose of composite transformation?

The basic purpose of composing transformations is to gain efficiency by applying a single
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 composed transformation to a point, rather than applying a series of transformation, one after
another.

Q. Translate the given points (2,5) by the translating value (3,3).

Solution:
Given Point P (2, 5) and translation distance Tx= 3, and Ty= 3
We have From Translation Matrix

i.e.

Therefore, P(2,5) is translated to new point P’(5,8).

Q. Translate the given square having coordinate A (0,0), B (3,0), and C (3,3) and D ( 0, 3) by the
translating value 2 in both directions.

Solution:
Given points A (0,0), B (3,0), and C (3,3) and D ( 0, 3) and translating value 2 (t x=ty=2)
We have From Translation Matrix

i.e.
0 2 2
A’= [ ]+ [ ]= [ ]
0 2 2

3 2 5
B’= [ ]+ [ ]= [ ]
0 2 2
3 2 5
C’= [ ]+ [ ]= [ ]
3 2 5

0 2 2
D’= [ ]+ [ ]= [ ]
3 2 5
Hence the final co-ordinate are A’ (2,2), B’(5,2), C’(5,5) and D’(2,5)

Homogeneous Co-ordinates
To perform a sequence of transformation such as translation followed by rotation and scaling, we need
to follow a sequential process −

• Translate the coordinates,

• Rotate the translated coordinates, and then
• Scale the rotated coordinates to complete the composite transformation.

To shorten this process, we have to use 3×3 transformation matrix instead of 2×2 transformation matrix.
To convert a 2×2 matrix to 3×3 matrix, we have to add an extra dummy coordinate. So, we can represent
the point by 3 numbers instead of 2 numbers, which is called Homogenous Coordinate system.
In this system, we can represent all the transformation equations in matrix multiplication.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Any Cartesian point P(X, Y) can be converted to homogenous coordinates by P’ (X h, Yh, h). The ‘h’ is
normally set to 1. If the value of ‘h’ is more the one value then all the co-ordinate values are scaled by this
value.

Coordinates of a point are represented as three element column vectors; transformation operations are
written as 3 x 3 matrices.
For translation

With T (tx, ty) as translation matrix, inverse of this translation matrix is obtained by
representing t x, t y with -t x, -t y.

For rotation

a. Counter Clock Wise (CCW):

b. Clock Wise (CCW):

For Shearing

Inverse shearing matrix is obtained with 1 / shx and 1 / s hy.

For Reflection
a) Reflection about x-axis

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 b) Reflection about y-axis

c) Reflection about y=x-axis

d) Reflection about y=-x-axis

e) Reflection about any line y=mx+c

Q. Derive the composite matrix for reflecting an object about any arbitrary line
y=mx+c.

In order to reflect an object about any line y=mx+c, we need

to perform composite transformation as below
T = T(0,c) . R Θ. R x . R - Θ. T(0,-c)
And
Slope m= tan Θ,
Also we have,
cos2Θ = tan21θ+1
= 𝑚21+1
cosΘ = √𝑚12+1

Also we have,
sin2Θ + cos2Θ =1
sin2Θ = 1- cos2Θ
2
sin2Θ = 1 - 𝑚21+1= 𝑚𝑚+1−1
2 +1

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 sinΘ = √𝑚𝑚2+1
So,
T = T(0,c) . R Θ. R x . R - Θ. T(0,-c)
1 0 0 cosθ −sinθ 0 1 0 0 cosθ sinθ 0 1 0 0
= [0 1 𝑐 ] [ sinθ cosθ 0] [0 −1 0] [−sinθ cosθ 0] [0 1 −𝑐]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 cosθ −sinθ 0 1 0 0 cosθ sinθ −𝑐sinθ

= [0 1 𝑐 ] [ sinθ
cosθ 0] [0 −1 0] [−sinθ cosθ −𝑐cosθ]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 cosθ −sinθ 0 cosθ sinθ −𝑐sinθ

= [0 1 𝑐 ] [ sinθ cosθ 0] [ sinθ −cosθ 𝑐cosθ ]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 −𝑚 1 𝑚 −𝑐𝑚
0
1 0 0 √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1)
= [0 1 𝑐 ] −𝑚 1
0
𝑚 −1 𝑐
0 0 1 √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1) √(𝑚2 +1)
[ 0 0 1] [ 0 0 1 ]

1−𝑚2 2𝑚 −2𝑐𝑚
1 0 0 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1
= [0 1 𝑐] 2𝑚 𝑚2 −1 𝑐−𝑐𝑚2
0 0 1 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1
[ 0 0 1 ]
1−𝑚2 2𝑚 −2𝑚𝑐
𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1
= 2𝑚 𝑚2 −1 2𝑐
𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1 𝑚2 +1
[ 0 0 1 ]

Q. Rotate a triangle A(0,0) , B(2,2) , C(4,2) about the origin by the angle of 45 degree.

Solution:
The given triangle ABC can be represented by a matrix, formed from the homogeneous coordinates
of the vertices.

Also, we have

So the coordinates of the rotated triangle ABC are

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Hence the final co-ordinate points are A’(0,0), B’(0, 2√2) and C’( √2, 3√2).

Q. Rotate the triangle (5, 5), (7, 3), (3, 3) about fixed point (5, 4) in counter clockwise
(CCW) by 90 degree.
Solution
The required steps are:
1. Translate the fixed point to origin.

2. Rotate about the origin by 90

degree.

3. Reverse the translation as

performed earlier.

Thus, the composite matrix is given by

Com = T (xf, yf) R θ T (-xf, -yf)

Now, the required co-ordinate can be calculated as:

P’ = Com * P

Hence, the new required coordinate points are (4, 4), (6, 6) & (6, 2).

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Q. Reflect an object (2, 3), (4, 3), (4, 5) about line y = x +1.
Here,
The given line is y = x +1.
Thus,
When x = 0, y=1
When x = 1, y=2
When x = 2, y=3
Also,
The slope of the line (m) = 1
Thus, the rotation angle (θ) = Tan-1(m) = Tan -1(1)=450
Here, the required steps are:

1. Translate the line to origin by decreasing the y-

intercept with one.

2. Rotate the line by angle 45 0 in clockwise

direction so that the given line must overlap x-
axis.

3. Reflect the object about the x-axis.

4. Reverse rotate the line by angle -45 0 in counter-clockwise direction.

5. Reverse translate the line to original position by adding the y-intercept with one

Thus, the composite matrix is given by:

Com = T’ Rθ’RxRθT

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Now, the required co-ordinate can be calculated as:

P’ = Com * P

Hence, the final coordinates are (2, 3), (2, 5) & (4, 5)

Note: Composite Matrix can also be calculated as:

where m= 1, c=1.

Q. Rotate triangle ABC by 450 clockwise about origin and scale it by (2,3) about
origin.
Here,

The steps required are:

1. Rotate by 45 clockwise

2. scale by tx= 2 and ty= 3

Thus the composite matrix is given by

com = S(2,3).R-45

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Now, the required co-ordinate can be calculated as:

A’ = com * A

B’ = com * B

C’ = com * C

Hence, the final co-ordinates are A’( ), B’ ( ) and C’( ).

Q. Rotate the △ABC by 90° anti clockwise about ( 5,8) and scale it by (2,2) about
(10,10)
Q. A mirror is placed such that it passes through (0,10) (10,0). Find the mirror image
of an object (6,7), (7,6), (6,9).
Q. Show that Successive translations are additive
If two successive translations are applied then they are additive.
Proof:
If two successive translation vectors (tx1, ty1) and (tx2, ty2) are applied to a coordinate
position P, the final transformed location P‘ is calculated with the following composite
transformation as:
T’ = T(x2,y2) . T(x1,y1)

1 0 𝑇𝑥2 1 0 𝑇𝑥1
= [0 1 .
𝑇𝑦2] [0 1 𝑇𝑦1]
0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 𝑇𝑥1 + 𝑇𝑥2
= [0 1 𝑇𝑦1 + 𝑇𝑦2]
0 0 1

Hence, T(tx2, tx2).T(tx1,ty1)= T(tx1+ty1, tx2+ty2) which demonstrates that two successive
translation are additive
Q. Show that Successive rotation are additive
If two successive rotations are applied, then they are additive.
Proof:
Let P be point anticlockwise rotated by angle θ1 to point P’ and again let P’ be rotated by
angle θ2 to point P’’, then the combined transformation can be calculated with the following
composite matrix as:
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 T = R(θ2) R(θ1)

cos𝜃2 −sin𝜃2 0 cos𝜃1 −sin𝜃1 0

= [ sin𝜃2 cos𝜃2 0] [ sin𝜃1 cos𝜃1 0]
0 0 1 0 0 1
cos𝜃2 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − sin𝜃2 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 −cos𝜃2 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 0
= [sin𝜃2 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 −sin𝜃2 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 0]
0 0 1

cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) − sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) 0

= [ sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2) 0]
0 0 1

i.e. Rθ2. R θ1 = R (θ1 + θ2), which demonstrates that two successive rotations are additive.

Q. Show that Successive Scaling are multiplication

If two successive Scaling are applied, then they are multiplicative/commutative.
Proof:
Let point P is first scaled with scaling factor Sx1, Sx2 to Point P’ and again let P’ be scaled by
scaling factor Sx2,Sy2 to Point P’’, then the combined transformation can be calculated with
the following composite matrix
T = S (Sx2, Sy2) S(Sx1, Sy1)

i.e. S (sx2,sy2) S(sx2,sy2) = S(sx1.sx2, sy1.sy2), which demonstrates that two successive
scaling are multiplicative.
Multiple Coordinate Systems in a Graphics Program
A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the object along with its features within a
common co-ordinate framework.

In a typical graphics program, we may need to deal with a number of different coordinate systems, and a
good part of the work is the conversion of coordinates from one system to another. The list of some of the
coordinate systems are:
a) Modeling co-ordinate system
The Model Coordinate System is simply the coordinate system where the model was created. It is used
to define coordinates that are used to construct the shape of individual parts (objects) of a 2D scene
b) World co-ordinate system
A Model Coordinate System is the unique coordinate space of the model. Two distinct models, each with
their own coordinate systems can’t interact with each other. There needs to be a universal coordinate
system that allows each model to interact with each other. This universal system is called World
Coordinate System. For interaction to occur, the coordinate system of each model is transformed into the
World Coordinate System

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Fig: Modeling Coordinate Fig: World Coordinates

c) Viewing co-ordinate system

A world coordinate area selected for display is called window. Window is an area of picture that
is selected for viewing. An area on display device to which a window is mapped is called view
port. View port is the part of computer screen.
Viewing co-ordinate system are used to define particular view of a 2D scene. Translation, scaling,
and rotation of the window will generate a different view of the scene.
For a 2-D picture, a view is selected by specifying a sub area (window) of the total picture area.

d) Normalized Viewing Co-ordinates

NVC‘s are used to make the viewing process independent of the output device (monitor, mobile,
hard copy devices). Normally, the value of NVC is 0 to 1.
e) Device Co-ordinates
Device co-ordinate are used to define coordinates in an output device. They are integers within
the range (0, 0) to (xmax, ymax) for a particular output device.
Two Dimensional Viewing
The process of mapping the world co-ordinate scent to device co-ordinate is called viewing transformation
or window to view port transformation or windowing transformation.

Fig: Mapping of picture section falling under rectangular Window onto a designated rectangular view port

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

The window defines what is to be viewed whereas the view port defines where it is to be displayed. Window
can have any shape (circle, polygon) however some graphics package provide window and view port
operations on standard rectangle only. Window deals with object space whereas view port deals with
image space.
Transformations from world to device coordinates involve translation, rotation and scaling operations, as
well as procedures for deleting those parts of the picture that are outside the limits of a selected display
area i.e. clipping.
To make the viewing process independent of the requirements of any output device, graphics systems
convert object descriptions to normalized coordinates.

Fig: The 2D Viewing Transformation Pipeline

Procedure for to transform a window to the view port we have to perform the following steps:
Step1: The object together with its window is translated until the lower left corner of the window
is at the origin
Step2: The object and window are scaled until the window has the dimensions of the view port
Step3: Again translate to move the view port to its correct position on the screen
(Setup Window,Translate window, Scale to normalize, Scale to view port, Translate to View port)

Application
i. By changing the position of the view port, we can view objects at different positions on the
display area of an output device.
ii. By varying the size of view ports, we can change size of displayed objects.
iii. Zooming effects can be obtained by successively mapping different-sized windows on a
fixed-sized view port
iv. Panning effects (Horizontal Scrolling) are produced by moving a fixed-size window across
the various objects in a scene.
Window to View port Coordinate Transformation
A window can be specified by four world coordinates: xwmin, xwmax, ywmin and ywmax. Similarly, a view
port can be described by four device coordinates: xvmin, xvmax, yvmin and yvmax

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

The following proportional ratios must be equal.

Solving these expressions, we get

xv= xvmin + (xw - xwmin)Sx
yv= yvmin + (yw- ywmin)Sy
where,

Q. Window port is given by (100,100,300,300) and view port is given by (50,50,150,150).

Convert the window port coordinate (200,200) to the view port coordinate.
Solution:
(xwmin, ywmin) = (100, 100)
(xwmax, xwmax) = (300, 300)
(xvmin, yvmin) = (50, 50)
(xvmax, xvmax) = (150, 150)
(xw,yw)=(200,200)
Then, we have

= (150- 50)/ (300 - 100) = 0.5

= (150- 50)/ (300 - 100) = 0.5

The equations for mapping window co-ordinate to view port coordinate is given by
xv= xvmin + (xw - xwmin)Sx
yv= yvmin + (yw- ywmin)Sy

Hence,
xv= 50 + (200 -100)* 0.5 = 100
yv= 50 + (200 -100)* 0.5 = 100
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 The transformed view port coordinate is (100,100).

Q. Find the normalization transformation matrix for window to view port which uses the rectangle
whose lower left corner is at (2,2) and upper right corner is at (6,10) as a window and the view port
that has lower left corner at (0,0) and upper right corner at (1,1)

The composite transformation matrix for transforming the window co-ordinate to viewport coordinate is
given as
T = S(sx, Sy)T(-2, -2)
Now we know,

Sx = (1-0 )/ (6 – 2) = 0.25
Sy = (1-0 )/ (10 – 2) = 0.125

Then, transformation matrix,

𝑆𝑥 0 0 1 0 𝑡𝑥
T=[ 0 𝑆𝑦 0] [ 0 1 𝑡𝑦]
0 0 1 0 0 1

0.25 0 0 1 0 −2
=[ 0 0.125 0] [0 1 −2]
0 0 1 0 0 1

0.25 0 −0.5
=[ 0 0.125 −0.25]
0 0 1

Clipping
The process of discarding those parts of a picture which are outside of a specified region or window is
called clipping. The procedure using which we can identify whether the portions of the graphics object is
within or outside a specified region or space is called clipping algorithm.
The region or space which is used to see the object is called window and the region on which the object
is shown is called view port.
Clipping is necessary to remove those portions
of the objects which are not necessary for
further operation’s. excludes unwanted
graphics from the screen. So there are three
cases
i. The object may be
completely outside the
viewing area defined by the window port.
ii. The object may be seen partially in the window port.
iii. The object may be seen completely in the window port
For case i and ii, clipping operation is necessary but not for case iii.
Applications of Clipping
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 i. Extracting part of a defined scene for viewing.
ii.Identifying visible surfaces in three-dimensional views.
Anti aliasing line segments or object boundaries.
iii.
iv.Drawing and painting operations that allow parts of a picture to be selected for copying,
moving erasing, or duplicating.
Types of Clipping
i. Point Clipping
ii. Line Clipping (straight-line segments)
iii. Area Clipping (polygons)
iv. Curve Clipping
v. Text Clipping

Point Clipping
Point clipping is the process of removing all those points that lies
outside a given region or window. Let xwmin and xwmax be the edge
of the boundaries of the clipping window parallel to Y axis and ywmin
and ywmax be the edge of the boundaries of the clipping window parallel to X axis as shown in figure below.
So any point P(x,y) of world coordinate can be saved for display if the following conditions are satisfied

Line Clipping
In line clipping, a line or part of line is clipped if it is outside the window port. All the line segment falls into
one of the following clipping cases.
a. The line is totally outside the window port so is directly clipped.
b. The line is partially clipped if a part of the line lies outside the window port.
c. The line is not clipped if all whole line lied within the window port.

So in the above figure, line FE require total clipping, CD, GH, IJ require partial clipping and
AB requires no clipping.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping
Algorithm

➢ Divide 2D space into 3x3 = 9-regions.

➢ Middle region is the clipping window.
➢ Each region is assigned a 4-bit code.
➢ Bit 1 is set to 1 if the region is to the left of
the clipping window, otherwise.
Similarly we deal for bits 2, 3 and 4.

➢ Any point inside the clipping window has a region code 0000.
➢ Any endpoint (x, y) of a line segment, the code can be determined as follows:
- If x < xw min, first bit is 1, (Point lies to left of window(Left)) (0th bit) Otherwise 0.
- If x > xw max, second bit is 1, (Point lies to right of window(Right)) (1st bit), otherwise 0.
- If y < yw min, third bit is 1, (Point lies to below window(Bottom)) (2nd bit), otherwise 0.
- If y > yw max, fourth bit is 1, (Point lies to above window(Top)) (3rd bit), otherwise 0.

Example:

Algorithm:
a) Given a line segment with end points P1=(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2), compute 4 bit region code
for each end point.
b) To clip a line, first we have to find out which regions its two endpoints lie in.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Case I:

If both end point code is 0000, then the line

segment is completely inside the window.
i.e. if bitwise OR of the codes yields 0000,
then the line segment is accepted for
display.

Case II:

If the two end point region code both have a

1 in the same bit position, then the line
segment lies completely outside the window,
so discarded. i.e. if bitwise AND of the codes
not equal to 0000, then the line segment is
rejected.

Case III:
If lines cannot be identified as completely inside or outside we have to do some more
calculations.
Here we find the intersection points with a clipping boundary using the slope intercept form
of the line equation
Here, to find the visible surface, the intersection points on the boundary of window can be
determined as:
y-y1= m (x-x1)
where m = (y 2 -y 1 )/ (x 2 -x 1 )

i. If the intersection is with horizontal boundary

x = x 1 + (y – y 1 )/m
Where y is set to either yw min or yw max

ii. If the intersection is with vertical boundary

y = y 1 + m (x – x 1 )
Where x is set to either xwmin or xw max
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 c) Assign a new four-bit code to the intersection point and repeat until either cas1 or case2 are
satisfied.

Q. Use the Cohen –Sutherland algorithm to clip the line P1(70,20) and P2(100,10) against
a window lower left hand corner (50,10) and upper right hand corner (80,40)

Solution:

Assigning 4 bit binary code to the two end point

P1 = 0000
P2 = 0010

Finding bitwise OR:

P1 | P2 = 0000 | 0010 = 0010
Since P1 | P2 ! = 0000,hence the two point doesn’t lie completely inside the window.
Finding bitwise AND:
P1 & P2 = 0000 & 0010 = 0000
since P1 & P2 = 0000, hence line is partially visible.

Now, For finding the intersection of P1 and P2 with the boundary of Window,
We have,
P1(x1,y1) = (70,20)
P2(x2,y2) = (100,10)
Slope m = (10-20)/(100-70) = -1/3
We have to find the intersection with right edge of window, here x=80, y=?
We have
y = y2 + m(x-x2)
= 10 +(-1/3)(80-100)
= 10 + 6.67
= 16.67
Thus the intersection point P3 = (80,16.66), So discarding the line segment that lie outside the
boundary i.e P3P2, we get new line P1P3 with co-ordinate P1(70, 20) and P3(80,16.67)

Polygon Clipping: Sutherland – Hodgeman

The Sutherland–Hodgeman algorithm is used for clipping polygons. A single polygon can actually be split
into multiple polygons. The algorithm clips a polygon against all edges of the clipping region in turn.
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
This algorithm is actually quite general — the clip region can be any convex polygon in 2D, or any convex
polyhedron in 3D.
There are four possible cases for any given edge of given polygon against clipping edge.
1. Both vertices are inside :
Only the second vertex is added to the output list
2. First vertex is outside while second one is inside :
Both the point of intersection of the edge with the clip boundary and the second vertex are added to the
output list
3. First vertex is inside while second one is outside :
Only the point of intersection of the edge with the clip boundary is added to the output list
4. Both vertices are outside :
No vertices are added to the output list

Example:

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Chapter 5
3D Graphics System
Three-dimensional Space
Three-dimensional space is a geometric 3-parameters model of the physical universe in which all known matter
exists. These three dimensions can be labeled by a combination of
length, breadth, and depth. Any three directions can be chosen, pro-
vided that they do not all lie in the same plane.
3-Dimensional Object
An object that has height, width and depth, like any object in the
real world is a 3-dimensional object.
Types of objects: Trees, terrains, clouds, rocks, glass, hair, furni-
ture, human body, flowers, rubber etc

3D Graphics
3D computer graphics or three-dimensional computer graphics are
graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric
data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing
calculations and rendering 2D images.
2D is "flat", using the horizontal and vertical (X and Y) dimensions, the image has only two dimensions. 3D adds
the depth (Z) dimension. This third dimension allows for rotation and visualization from multiple perspectives. It is
essentially the difference between a photo and a sculpture.
We can perform different transformation by specifying the three-dimensional transformation vector, however the 3d
Transformation is more complex than 2D transformation.
Q. What are the issue in 3D that makes it more complex than 2D?
When we model and display a three-dimensional scene, there are many more considerations we must
take into account besides just including coordinate values as 2D, some of them are:
➢ Relatively more co-ordinate points are necessary.
➢ Object boundaries can be constructed with various combinations of plane and curved surfaces.
➢ Consideration of projection (dimension change with distance) and transparency.
➢ Many considerations on visible surface detection and remove the hidden surfaces.
Pseudo-3D and true 3D
Pseudo-3D is a term used to describe either 2D graphical projections and similar techniques used to cause images or
scenes to simulate the appearance of being three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not.
By contrast, games using 3D computer graphics without such restrictions are said to use true 3D.
3D display method
Three-dimensional viewing coordinates must
be transformed onto two-dimensional device
coordinates to view the scene.
To obtain a display of a three-dimensional
scene that has been modeled in world
coordinates, we must first set up a coordinate
reference for the "camera". This coordinate
reference defines the position and orientation
for the plane of the camera film, which is the
plane we want to use to display a view of the
objects in the scene. Object descriptions are then transferred to the camera reference coordinates and projected onto
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
the selected display plane.
We can then apply lighting and surface-rendering techniques to shade the visible surfaces.
3D Geometric Transformation
Methods for geometric transformations and object modeling in three dimensions are extended from two-dimensional
methods by including considerations for the z coordinate. We now translate an object by specifying a three-
dimensional translation vector, which determines how much the object is to be moved in each of the three coordinate
directions.
2D transformations can be represented by 3 x 3 matrices using homogeneous coordinates, so 3D transformations can
be represented by 4 x 4 matrices, providing we use homogeneous coordinate representations of points in 2 spaces as
well. Thus instead of representing a point as (x, y, z), we represent it as (x, y, z, H), where two these quadruples
represent the same point it one is a non-zero multiple of the other the quadruple (0, 0, 0, 0) is not allowed. A standard
representation of a point (x,y, z, H) with H not zero is given by (x/H, y/H, z/H, 1). Transforming the point to this
form is called homogenizing.
1. Translation
A point is translated from position P=(x, y, z) to position P’= (x’, y’, z’) with the matrix operation as:

Parameters t x , t y , t z specify translation distances for the

coordinate directions x, y and z. This
matrix representation is equivalent to three equations:
x’ = x + t x
y’ = y + t y
z’ = z + t z
2. Scaling
Matrix expression for scaling transformation of a position P = (x, y, z) relative to the coordinate origin can
be written as :

Scaling with respect to a selected fixed point (x f , y f , z f )

➢ Translate fixed point to the origin
➢ Scale object relative to the coordinate origin
➢ Translate fixed point back to its original position
i.e T (x, y, z) . S (x, y, z) . T (-x, -y, z)

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 1 0 0 𝑥𝑓 𝑠𝑥 0 0 0 1 0 0 −𝑥𝑓
0 1 0 𝑦𝑓 0 𝑠𝑦 0 0 0 1 0 −𝑦𝑓
= [ ]
0 0 1 𝑧𝑓 0 0 𝑠𝑧 0 0 0 1 −𝑧𝑓
[0 0 0 1] 0 0 0 1 [0 0 0 1 ]

𝑠𝑥 0 0 (1 − 𝑠𝑥 )𝑥𝑓
0 𝑠𝑦 0 (1 − 𝑠𝑦 )𝑦𝑓
=
0 0 𝑠𝑧 (1 − 𝑠𝑧 )𝑧𝑓
[0 0 0 1 ]

3. Shearing
Shearing transformations are used to modify object shapes.
a) Z axis Shearing
This transformation alters x and y co-
ordinate values by amount that is
proportional to the z value while leaving z
co-ordinate unchanged.
x’ = x + Shx.Z
z’ = y + Shy.Z
z’ = z

Parameters Shx and Shy can be assigned any real values

b) X axis Shearing
This transformation alters Y and Z coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the X
value while leaving the X value unchanged i.e.
x’= x
y’= y + Shyx
z’= z + shzX
c) Y axis shearing
This transformation alters Y and Z coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the X
value while leaving the X value unchanged i.e.
x’= x + Shx.y
y’= y
z’= z +ShyX

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

4. Reflection
In 3D-reflection the reflection takes place about a plane. The matrix in case of pure reflections, along basic
planes, viz. X-Y plane, Y-Z plane and Z-X plane are given below:
a) X-Y plane
This transformation changes the sign of the z
coordinates, leaving the x and y coordinate
values unchanged.

b) Y-Z plane
This transformation changes the sign of the x
coordinates, leaving the y and z coordinate values
unchanged.

c) Z-X plane
This transformation changes the sign of the y
coordinates, leaving the x and z coordinate values
unchanged.

d) Reflection about any axis parallel to one of the coordinate axes

Steps:
- Translate object so that reflection axis coincides with the parallel coordinate axis.
- Perform specified reflection about that axis
- Translate object back to its original Position
P’ = [ T -1 . R . T ] . P
e) Reflection about an arbitrary axis
A reflection matrix for any axis that does not coincide with a
coordinate axis can be set up as a composite transformation
involving combinations of translation, the coordinate-axes
rotation and reflection.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Step-1: Translate the arbitrary axis so that it passes through origin.

Step-2: Rotate the object so that the arbitrary axis coincides with one of the coordinate axes.
Usually the z axis is preferred

To coincide the axis of rotation to z axis we have to first perform rotation about x axis to
bring it into X-Z plane and then perform rotation about y axis to coincide it with z axis.

a) Rotation about x-axis by angle ‘k’ in clockwise direction so that the arbitrary axis
lies on X-Z-plane

Here,

Sin k = B / V Where, V=√(B2 +C2)

Cos k = C / V

Now, the translation matrix is given by:

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 b) Rotation about y-axis by angle ‘α’ in clockwise direction so that the arbitrary axis
align with z-axis

Here,

Sin α= A / W &

Cos α= C / W

Now, the translation matrix is given by:

Step-3: Reflect the object about xy-plane or z-axis

RFZ =

Step-4: Perform inverse rotation about y-axis & then x-axis

Step-5: Perform inverse translation

Hence,
Composite matrix = T’ R x ’R y ’ RFZ R y R x T
f) Reflection about any arbitrary plane in 3D Space
The reflection about any arbitrary plane perform same operation as the reflection about any arbitrary
line, the only difference is that we have to characterize the rotation by any normal vector ‘N’ in that
plane.

Step 1: Translate the reflection plane to the origin of the coordinate system

Step 2: Perform appropriate rotations to make the normal vector of the reflection plane at the origin
until it coincides with the z-axis.

Step 3: After that reflect the object through the z= 0 coordinate plane.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Step 4: Perform the inverse of the rotation transformation

Step 5: Perform the inverse of the translation

5. Rotation
To generate a rotation transformation for
an object in 3D space, we require the
following:
➢ Angle of rotation.
➢ Pivot point
➢ Direction of rotation
➢ Axis of rotation

Cyclic permutation of the coordinate parameters x, y and z are used to get transformation equations for
rotations about the coordinates:

Taking origin as the center of rotation, when a point P(x, y, z) is rotated through an angle about any one of
the axes to get the transformed point P’(x’, y’, z’), we have the following equation for each.
a) 3D x-axis rotation (P’ = Rx(θ) . P)
x’ = x
y’ = y cosθ – z sinθ
z’ = y sinθ + z cosθ

b) 3D y-axis rotation (P’ = Ry(θ) . P)

x’ = z sinθ + x cosθ
y’ = y
z’ = z cosθ – x sinθ

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 c) 3D z-axis rotation (P’ = Rz(θ) . P)
x’ = x cosθ – y sinθ
y’ = x sinθ + y cosθ
z’ = z

d) Rotation about an axis parallel to one of the coordinate axes

Steps:
- Translate object so that rotation axis coincides with the parallel coordinate axis.
- Perform specified rotation about that axis
- Translate object back to its original Position
P’ = [ T -1 . R (θ) . T ] . P

e) Rotation about an arbitrary axis

A rotation matrix for any axis that does not coincide with a coordinate axis can be set up as a composite
transformation involving combinations of translation and the coordinate-axes rotations.
Step-1: Translate the arbitrary axis so that it passes through origin.

Step-2: Align the arbitrary axis on any major co-ordinate axis (z-axis)

Step-3: Rotate the object about yz-plane or z-axis

Step-4: Perform inverse rotation about y-axis & then x-axis

Step-5: Perform inverse translation

Hence,
Composite matrix = T’ R x ’R y ’ R Z R y R x T

f) Rotation about any arbitrary plane in 3D Space

The rotation about any arbitrary plane perform same operation as the rotation about any arbitrary line,
the only difference is that we have to characterize the rotation by any normal vector ‘N’ in that plane.

Step 1: Translate the rotation plane to the origin of the coordinate system

Step 2: Perform appropriate rotations to make the normal vector of the rotation plane at the origin
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 until it coincides with the z-axis.

Step 3: After that rotate the object through the z= 0 coordinate plane.

Step 4: Perform the inverse of the rotation transformation

Step 5: Perform the inverse of the translation

3D Representation
Graphics scenes can contain many different kinds of objects like trees, flowers, clouds, rocks, water etc. These cannot
be describe with only one methods but obviously require large precisions such as polygon & quadratic surfaces,
spline surfaces, procedural methods, volume rendering, visualization techniques etc.
Representation schemes for solid objects are often divided into two broad categories:
➢ Boundary representations (B-reps): Often abbreviated as B-rep or BREP, boundary representation is
a method for representing shapes (a set of surfaces that separate the object interior from the environment)
using the limits.
A solid is represented as a collection of connected
surface elements, the boundary between solid
and non-solid.
For examples: polygon surfaces and spline
patches.
Boundary representation of models are
composed of two parts: topology and geometry
(surfaces, curves and points). The main
topological items are: faces, edges and
vertices. A face is a bounded portion of a
surface; an edge is a bounded piece of a curve
and a vertex lies at a point.
Other elements are the shell (a set of connected faces), the loop (a circuit of edges bounding a face) and
loop-edge links (also known as winged edge links or half-edges) which are used to create the edge
circuits. The edges are like the edges of a table, bounding a surface portion.
➢ Space-partitioning representations: are used to describe interior properties, by partitioning the spatial
region containing an object into a set of small, non-overlapping, contiguous solids (usually cubes).
Space-partitioning systems are often
hierarchical, meaning that a space (or a
region of space) is divided into several
regions, and then the same space-
partitioning system is recursively
applied to each of the regions thus
created. The regions can be organized
into a tree, called a space-partitioning
tree.
For example: Octree representation.
The visual realism in 3D object can be maintained by maintaining the transparency, projection, lighting & shading
effect on each portion. The representation of 3D object include following three stages:
1. Represent the objects with multiple polygons i.e. wired-frame representation.
2. Fill all the polygons either with flat filling or smooth filling.
3. Give the lightning or shading effect and the coloring effect.

Polygon Surfaces
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
A set of polygon surfaces are used to represent object boundary that enclose the object interior in 3D graphics. This
simplifies and speeds up the surface rendering and display of objects, since all surfaces are described with linear
equations of plane: Ax + By + Cz + D = 0. For this reason, polygon descriptions are often referred to as "standard
graphics objects."
The wire frame representations are common in design & solid modeling application because they can be displayed
quickly to of a give a general indication of the surface structure.
A. Polygon Tables
To specify a polygon surface, a set of vertex coordinates and associated attribute parameters are placed into tables
& that are used in the subsequent processing, display, error checking and manipulation of the objects in a scene.
Polygon data tables can be organized into two groups:
a) Geometric tables
Geometric data tables contain vertex coordinates and
parameters to identify the spatial orientation of the
polygon surfaces. A convenient organization for
storing geometric data is to create three lists: a vertex
table, an edge table, and a polygon table.
➢ Coordinate values for each vertex in the
object are stored in the vertex table.
➢ The edge table contains pointers back into
the vertex table to identify the vertices for
each polygon edge.
➢ The polygon table contains pointers back
into the edge table to identify the edges for
each polygon.
b) Attribute tables
Attribute information for an object includes parameters specifying the degree of transparency of
the object and its surface reflectivity and texture characteristics. The above three table also include the
polygon attribute according to their pointer information.
B. Plane Equations
Plane equation method is the method for representing polygon surface for 3D object. The information about spatial
orientation of object is described by its individual surface which is obtained by vertex coordinate values & equation
of each plane gives a description of each surface. The equation for plane surface can be expressed in the form of:
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
Where (x,y,z) is any point on plane, & A, B, C, D are constants describing spatial properties of the plane. The
values of A, B, C, D can be obtained by solving set of 3 plane equations using coordinate values of three non-
collinear points on plane.
Let (x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2) , (x3,y3,z3) are three such points on points on the plane. Then

Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0 …………… (1)

Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + D = 0 …………… (2)

Ax3 + By3 + Cz3 + D = 0 …………… (3)

The solution of these equations can be obtained in the determinant form using Cramer's rule as:

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

C. Polygon Meshes
A polygon mesh is a collection of edges, vertices and polygons connected such that each edge is shared by at most
two polygons & hence bounding the planer surface.
One type of polygon mesh is the triangle strip that
produces n–2 connected triangles, given the
coordinates for n vertices.
Another similar functions the quadrilateral mesh that
generates a mesh of (n-1).(m-1) quadrilaterals, given
the coordinates for an n by m array of vertices.
Cubic Spline and Bezier Curve
Splines are the smooth curves passing through a set of given points. By varying the number and position of the lead
weights, the shape of the spline is changed so that it passes through some designated set of points.
In computer graphics, continuous curve that are formed with polynomial section with certain boundary conditions
are called spline curve.
Splines are of two types
a. Closed Splines: the generated curve will touch the first and last legs of the control
b. Open Splines : the generated curve will not touch the first and last legs of the control

A cubic spline is a spline constructed of piecewise third-order polynomials which pass through a set m of control
points.
Splines are used:
➢ To design curve and surface shapes in graphics applications,
➢ To digitize drawings for computer storage
➢ To specify animation paths for the objects or image.
➢ Typical CAD applications for splines include the design of automobile bodies, aircraft and spacecraft
surfaces, and ship hulls.
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
A. Control points
We specify a spline curve by giving a set of coordinate positions, called control points, which indicates the general
shape of the curve These, control points are then fitted with piecewise continuous parametric polynomial functions
in one of two ways.
➢ Interpolation curve: The polynomial sections are fitted by passing the curve through each control
points. Interpolation curves are commonly used to digitize drawings or to specify animation paths.
➢ Approximation curve: The
polynomials are fitted to the
general control-point path without
necessarily passing through any
control point. Approximation
curves are primarily used as design
tools to structure object surfaces.
B. Convex hulls
The convex polygon boundary that encloses the set of control
points is called convex hull. Convex hulls provide the measure
for deviation of a curve or surface from a region bounding the
control points.
Some splines are bounded by convex hull, thus ensuring that
polynomials smoothly follow control points
C. Natural Cubic Splines
One of first spline curves to be developed for graphics
applications is a natural cubic spline. This interpolation
curve is the mathematical representation of a original
drafting spline. We formulate natural cubic spline by
requiring that 2 adjacent curve sections have same first
& 2nd parametric derivatives at their common boundary.
Thus, natural cubic splines have C-2 continuity.
Although natural cubic splines are the mathematical
model for drafting spline, they have major disadvantage.
If a position of any one control point is altered, then the
entire curve is affected. Thus, natural cubic splines allow
for no "local control", so that we cannot restructure part
of curve without specifying an entirely new set of control
points.

D. Hermite Curves
Hermite form is defined by 2 endpoints & 2 tangent vectors at
these endpoints. Hermite spline is an interpolating piece-wise
cubic polynomial with specified tangent at each control point.
Unlike natural cubic splines, Hermite splines can be adjusted
locally because each curve section is only dependent on endpoint
constraints.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

E. Parametric Cubic Curve
A parametric cubic curve is defined as
P(t) = ∑3𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑡 𝑖 0<= t <=1 ------ (i)
Where, P (t) is a point on the curve
Expanding equation (i) yield
P (t) = a 3t3 + a 2t2 + a1t + a0 --------------------(ii)
This equation is separated into three components of P (t)
x(t) = a3xt3 + a2xt2 + a1xt + a0x
y(t) = a3yt3 + a2yt2 + a1yt + a0y
z(t) = a3zt3 + a2zt2 + a1zt + a0z -----------------(iii)

F. Bezier Curve
A Bezier curve is a mathematically defined curve used in two-
dimensional graphic applications. The curve is defined by four points:
the initial position and the terminating position (which are called
"anchors") and two separate middle points (which are called "handles").
The shape of a Bezier curve can be altered by moving the handles. The
mathematical method for drawing curves was created by Pierre Bézier
in the late 1960's for the manufacturing of automobiles.

Fig: Bezier curve with four control points

In general, a Bezier curve can be fitted to any number of control points. The number of control points to be
approximated and their relative position determine the degree of the Bezier polynomial. As with the interpolation
splines, a Bezier curve can be specified with boundary conditions, with a characterizing matrix, or with blending
functions.
The Bezier curve has two important properties:
a) It always passes through the first and last control points.
b) It lies within the convex hull (convex polynomial boundary) of the control points.

Let, P be the control points and Nseg is number of segments in a curve segment.
𝑖
i.e u = 𝑁 ; where i = 0 to Nseg i.e 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
𝑠𝑒𝑔

we have,
x(u) = ∑𝑛𝑗=0 𝑥𝑗 𝐵𝑒𝑍(𝑗,𝑛) (𝑢) where n= no. of control points.
= x0BeZ0,3(u) + x1BeZ1,3(u)+ x2BeZ2,3(u)+ x3BeZ3,3(u)

y(u) = ∑𝑛𝑗=0 𝑦𝑗 𝐵𝑒𝑍(𝑗,𝑛) (𝑢)

= y0BeZ0,3(u) + y1BeZ1,3(u)+ y2BeZ2,3(u)+ y3BeZ3,3(u)
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 The blending function BeZj,n(u) is defined as a Bernstein polynomial
𝑛!
BeZj,n(u) = uj (1-u)n-j
𝑗!(𝑛−𝑗)!

Also we have
Q(u) = P0 BeZ0,3(u) +P1 BeZ1,3(u) +P2BeZ2,3(u) +P3 BeZ3,3(u)
Calculating
3!
BeZ0,3(u) =
0!(3−0)!
u0 (1-u)3-0 = (1-u)3
3!
BeZ1,3(u) = u1 (1-u)3-1 = 3u(1-u)2
1!(3−1)!
3!
BeZ2,3(u) = 2!(3−2)!u 2 (1-u)3-2 = 3u2(1-u)
3!
BeZ3,3(u) = 3!(3−3)!u 3 (1-u)3-3 = u3

Substituting the values, we get

Q(u) = P0 (1-u)3 +P1 3u(1-u)2 +P23u2(1-u) +P3 u3
Q. Calculate the co-ordinates of Beizer curve described by 4 control points P0(0,0), P1(1,2), P2(3,3), P3(4,0)
and approximate with 5 lines segments.

G. B-Spline
While drawing the bezier curve, each section of the curve is connected to the next section at a sample point but the
slopes of these two sections need not match at this point. This means that there can be corners at the sample points
and that we may not have a complete smooth curve. To solve this problems, we force the curve to pass through the
sample point but rather pull it to the neighborhood of the sample point. A set of blending functions which take this
approach are called B-Splines
H. Bezier Non-planar Surfaces
Like Bezier curve, Bézier surface is defined by a set of control points.
Similar to interpolation in many respects, a key difference is that the surface
does not pass through the central control points; rather, it is "stretched"
toward them as though each were an attractive force.
A two-dimensional Bézier surface can be defined as a parametric surface
where the position of a point p as a function of the parametric coordinates u,
v is given by:

evaluated over the unit square, where

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Fractal Geometry Method

A fractal is a mathematical set that typically displays self-similar

patterns or recursive operations, which means it is "the same
from near as from far”.
Natural objects, such as mountains and clouds, have irregular or
fragmented features, and these are described with fractal-
geometry methods.
Fractional object describes and explains the features of natural
phenomena with procedures or function in various dimensions
that theoretically repeat an infinite number of times but finite
number of steps for graphics display.
For fractional-Generation procedure, If P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a selected initial point, each iteration of a transformation
function F generates successive levels of detail with the calculations are:
P1 = F(P0 ),
P2 = F(P2 ), …
We can describe the amount of variation in the object detail with a number called the fractal dimension.

3D Viewing Transformation
The basic idea of the 3D viewing transformation is similar to the 2D viewing transformation. That is, a viewing
window is defined in world space that specifies how the viewer is viewing the scene. A corresponding view port is
defined in screen space, and a mapping is defined to transform points from world space to screen space based on
these specifications. The view port portion of the transformation is the same as the 2D case.
Specification of the window, however, requires additional information and results in a more complex mapping to be
defined. Defining a viewing window in world space coordinates is exactly like it sounds; sufficient information needs
to be provided to define a rectangular window at some location and orientation. The usual viewing parameters that
are specified are:
Eye Point The position of the viewer in world space
Look Point The point that the eye is looking at
View Distance The distance that the window is from the eye
Window Size The height and width of the window in world space coordinates Up
Vector which direction represents “up” to the viewer, this parameter is
sometimes specified as an angle of rotation about the viewing axis

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 3D Viewing Pipeline
The following figure shows general processing steps for modeling and converting a world-coordinate
description of a scene to device coordinates. Once the scene has been modeled, world-coordinate positions
are converted to viewing coordinates. The viewing-coordinate system is used in graphics packages as a
reference for specifying the observer viewing position and the position of the projection plane, which we
can think of in analogy with the camera film plane. Next, projection operations are performed to convert the
viewing-coordinate description of the scene to coordinate positions on the projection plane, which will then
be mapped to the output device. Objects outside the specified viewing limits are clipped from further
consideration, and the remaining objects are processed through visible-surface identification and surface-
rendering procedures to produce the display within the device view port.

Projection
3D projection is any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane. In general, a
projection transforms a N-dimension points to N-1 dimensions. Ideally, an an object is projected by projecting each
of its endpoints. But an object has infinite number of points. So we cannot project all those points. What we do is
that we project only the corner points of an object on a 2D plane and we will join these projected points by a straight
line in a 2D plane.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Basic points in projection:
➢ Center of projection: Point from where projection is taken.
➢ Projection plane: the plane on which the projection of the object is formed.
➢ Projectors: Lines emerging from the center of projection and hitting the projection plane
➢ Parallel projection: In this projection, the co-ordinate positions are transformed to the view plane
along parallel lines.
➢ Perspective Projection: In this projection, the co-ordinate positions are transformed to the view
plane along lines that converges to a point called as center of projection.

The two types of projections are:

a) Parallel projection
➢ In this projection, the co-ordinate positions are transformed to the view plane along parallel lines.
➢ Preserves relative proportions of objects so that accurate views of various sides of an object are obtained
but doesn’t give realistic representation of the 3D object.
➢ Can be used for exact measurements so parallel lines remain parallel
➢ There are two different types of parallel projections
a. Orthographic parallel projection
In orthographic projection, the center of projection
lies at infinity and the projections are
perpendicular to the view plane. So, a true size
and shape of a single face of object is obtained.
In orthographic projection the direction of
projection is normal to the projection of the
plane. There are three types of orthographic
projections −
➢ Front Projection
➢ Top Projection
➢ Side Projection

b. Oblique parallel Projection

A projection in which the angle between the projectors and the plane of plane of projection is not
equal to 900 is called oblique projection.
An oblique projection is formed by parallel
projections from a center of projection at infinity
that intersects the plane of projection at an oblique
angle.
There are two types of oblique projections −
Cavalier and Cabinet.
The Cavalier projection makes 45° angle with the
projection plane. The projection of a line perpendicular to the view plane has the same length as the
line itself in Cavalier projection. In a cavalier projection, the foreshortening factors for all three
principal directions are equal.
The Cabinet projection makes 63.4° angle with the projection plane. In Cabinet projection, lines
perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at ½ their actual length.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 ➢ Point (x, y, z) is projected to position (x p , y p) on the view plane.
➢ Orthographic projection coordinated on the plane are (x, y). Oblique projection line from (x, y,
z) to (xp , yp ) makes an angle with the line on the projection plane that joins (xp , yp ) and (x , y).
This line of length L is at an angle Φ with the horizontal direction in the projection plane.
➢ Expressing projection coordinates in terms of x, y, L and Φ as
x p = x + L cosΦ
y p = y + L sinΦ
L depends on the angle α and z coordinate of point to be projected
tan α = z/L
Thus,
L = z / tan α
= z L1, where L1 is the inverse of tanα
So the oblique projection equations are:
x p = x + z ( L 1 cosΦ )
y p = y + z ( L 1 sinΦ )
➢ The transformation matrix for producing any parallel projection onto the x v y v -plane can be
written as:

Orthographic projection is obtained when L1 = 0 (occurs at projection angle α of 90 degree) Oblique

projection is obtained with non-zero values for L1.
b) Perspective Projection
In this projection, the co-ordinate positions are transformed to the view plane along lines that converges to a point
called as center of projection.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

The projection is perspective if the
distance is finite or has fixed
vanishing point or the incoming rays
converge at a point. Thus the viewing
dimension of object is not exact i.e.
seems large or small according as the
movement of the view plane from the
object.
The perspective projection perform
the operation as the scaling (i.e. zoom
in & out) but here the object size is
only maximize to the size of real
present object i.e. only size reduces not enlarge. This operation is possible here only the movement of the view plane
towards or far from the object position.
➢ We can write equations describing co-ordinates positions along this prospective projection line in
parametric form as
x'=x − xu
y'=y − yu
z'=z − (𝑧 − 𝑧prp )𝑢
Where u= 0 to 1.
If u=0,we are at position P=(x,y,z).If u=1, we have projection reference point (0,0,𝑧prp ) . On the view
plane, z'=zvp then
𝑧 −𝑧
u= 𝑧 vp −𝑧
prp

Substituting these value in eq𝑛 for𝑥',y'.

𝑧 −𝑧 𝑧 −𝑧vp dp
𝑥𝑝 =x − 𝑥(𝑧 vp −𝑧)=x( 𝑧prp )=x(𝑧 )
prp prp −𝑧 prp −𝑧

➢ Similarly,
𝑧
prp −𝑧vp dp
𝑦𝑝 =y( 𝑧−𝑧 )=y(𝑧 )
prp prp −𝑧

Where dp=zprp − 𝑧vp is the distance of the view plane from projection reference point.
Clipping in 3D
Clipping in three dimensions can be accomplished using extensions of two-dimensional clipping methods. Instead
of clipping against straight-line window boundaries, we now clip objects against the boundary planes of the view
volume. (The view volume defines the three-dimensional volume in space that, once projected, is to fit within the
view port. There are two parts to the view volume: the view plane
rectangle and the near and far clipping planes)
An algorithm for three-dimensional clipping identifies and saves
all surface segments within the view volume for display on the
output device. All parts of objects that are outside the view volume
are discarded. View-volume clipping boundaries are planes whose
orientations depend on the type of projection, the projection
window, and the position of the projection reference point.
To clip a polygon surface, we can clip the individual polygon
edges. To clip a line segment against the view volume, we would
need to test the relative position of the line using the view volume's
boundary plane equations. An endpoint (x, y, z) of a line segment
is
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
 ➢ Outside a boundary plane: Ax + By + Cz + D > 0,
where A, B, C, and D are the plane parameters for that boundary.
➢ Inside the boundary if Ax + By + Cz + D < 0
Lines with both endpoints outside a boundary plane are discarded, and those with both endpoints inside all boundary
planes are saved.
The intersection of a line with a boundary is found using the line equations along with the plane equation. Intersection
coordinates (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) are values that are on the line and that satisfy the plane equation Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D =
0.
To clip a polygon surface, we can clip the individual polygon edges.
As in two-dimensional viewing, the projection operations can take place before the view-volume clipping or after
clipping. All objects within the view volume map to the interior of the specified projection window. The last step is
to transform the window contents to a two-dimensional view port, which specifies the location of the display on the
output device.

Z-clipping
Z-clipping, or depth clipping, refers to techniques that selectively render certain scene objects based on their depth
relative to the screen. Most graphics toolkits allow the programmer to specify a "near" and "far" clip depth, and only
portions of objects between those two planes are displayed.
Importance of clipping in video games
➢ Maximize the game's frame rate and visual quality
➢ Speed up the rendering of the current scene
➢ Economizing the use of renderer time and memory within the hardware's capability

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Chapter 6
Visible Surface Detection
Visible surface detection or Hidden surface removal is major concern for realistic graphics for identifying
those parts of a scene that are visible from a chosen viewing position. Several algorithms have been
developed. Some require more memory, some require more processing time and some apply only to
special types of objects.
Visible surface detection methods are broadly classified according to whether they deal with objects or
with their projected images.
➢ Object-Space Methods (OSM):
An object-space method compares objects and parts of objects to each other within the scene definition
to determine which surfaces, as a whole, we should label as visible.
E.g. Back-face detection method
➢ Image-Space Methods (ISM):
In an image-space algorithm, visibility is decided point by point at each pixel position on the projection
plane. Most visible-surface algorithms use image-space methods.
E.g. Depth-buffer method, Scan-line method, Area-subdivision method
➢ List Priority Algorithms
This is a hybrid model that combines both object and image precision operations. Here, depth comparison
& object splitting are done with object precision and scan conversion (which relies on ability of graphics
device to overwrite pixels of previously drawn objects) is done with image precision.
E.g. Depth-Sorting method, BSP-tree method

A. Back Face Detection Method (Plane Equation method)

In a solid object, there are surfaces which are facing the viewer (front faces) and there are surfaces which
are opposite to the viewer (back faces). These back faces contribute to approximately half of the total
number of surfaces. Since we cannot see these surfaces anyway, to save processing time, we can remove
them before the clipping process with a simple test.
Each surface has a normal vector. If this vector is pointing in the direction of the center of projection, it is
a front face and can be seen by the viewer. If it is pointing away from the center of projection, it is a back
face and cannot be seen by the viewer.
The test is very simple, if the z component of the normal vector is positive, then, it is a back face. If the z
component of the vector is negative, it is a front face.
Principle:
➢ Remove all surfaces pointing away from the
viewer
➢ Eliminate the surface if it is completely
obscured by other surfaces in front of it
➢ Render only the visible surfaces facing the
viewer
Back facing and front facing faces can be identified using the sign of V • N where V is the view vector and
N is normal vector.

➢ If V • N > 0, back face

➢ if V • N < 0 front face
➢ if V • N= 0 on line of view

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Numerical
Q. Find the visibility for the surface AED where an observer is at P (5, 5, 5).
Here,
AE = (0-1) i + (1-0) j + (0-0) k = - i + j
AD= (0-1) i + (0-0) j + (1-0) k = - i + k

Step-1: Normal vector N for AED

Thus, N = AE x AD =

Step-2: If observer at P(5, 5, 5) so we can construct the view vector V from view point A(1,0, 0) as:
V = PA = (1-5) i + (0-5) j + (0-5) k = -4i - 5j - 5k
Step-3: To find the visibility of the object, we use dot product of view vector V and normal vector N as:
V • N = (-4i - 5j – 5k) • (i + j + k) = -4-5-5 = -14< 0
This shows that the surface is visible for the observer.
Q. Find the visibility of n1 and n2 from V.

n1 • v = (2, 1, 2) ·(-1, 0, -1) = -2 – 2 = -4,

i.e n1 • v< 0
So, n1 front facing polygon

n2 • v = (-3, 1, -2) ·(-1, 0, -1) = 3 + 2 = 5

i.e n2 • v > 0
so n2 back facing polygon

B. Depth Buffer (Z-Buffer) Method

This method is developed by Edwin Catmull and is an image-space approach. The basic idea is to test
the Z-depth of each surface to determine the closest (visible) surface.
In this method each surface is processed separately one pixel position at a time across the surface. The
depth values for a pixel are compared and the closest (smallest z) surface determines the color to be
displayed in the frame buffer.
It is applied very efficiently on surfaces of polygon. Surfaces can be processed in any order. To override
the closer polygons from the far ones, two buffers named frame buffer and depth buffer, are used.
➢ Depth buffer is used to store depth values for (x, y) position, as surfaces are processed (0 ≤ depth
≤ 1).
➢ The frame buffer is used to store the intensity value of color value at each position (x, y).
The z-coordinates are usually normalized to the range [0, 1]. The 0 value for z-coordinate indicates back
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
clipping pane and 1 value for z-coordinates indicates
front clipping pane.
Algorithm
Step-1 − Set the buffer values −
➢ Depthbuffer (x, y) = 0
➢ Framebuffer (x, y) = background color
Step-2 − Process each polygon (One at a time)
➢ For each projected (x, y) pixel position of a
polygon, calculate depth z.
➢ If Z > depthbuffer (x, y)
- Compute surface color,
- set depthbuffer (x, y) = z,
- framebuffer (x, y) = surfacecolor (x, y)
Advantages
• It is easy to implement.
• It reduces the speed problem if implemented in hardware.
• It processes one object at a time.
Disadvantages
• It requires large memory.
• It is time consuming process.

C. Scan-Line Method
This image-space method for removing hidden surfaces is an extension of the scan-line algorithm for filling
polygon interiors where, we deal with multiple surfaces rather than one. Each scan line is processed with
calculating the depth for nearest view for determining the visible surface of intersecting polygon. When
the visible surface has been determined, the intensity value for that position is entered into the refresh
buffer.
To facilitate the search for surfaces
crossing a given scan line, we can set up
an active list of edges from information in
the edge table that contain only edges
that cross the current scan line, sorted in
order of increasing x. In addition, we
define a flag for each surface that is set
on or off to indicate whether a position
along a scan line is inside or outside of the
surface. Scan lines are processed from
left to right. At the leftmost boundary of a
surface, the surface flag is turned on; and
at the rightmost boundary, it is turned off.

The active list for scan line -1 contains

information from the edge table for edges
AB, BC, EH, and FG. For positions along this scan line between edges AB and BC, only the flag for
surface S1 is on. Therefore, no depth calculations are necessary, and intensity information for surface S1
, is entered from the polygon table into the refresh buffer. Similarly, between edges EH and FG, only the
flag for surface S2 is on. NO other positions along scan line-1 intersect surfaces, so the intensity values
in the other areas are set to the background intensity.
For scan lines 2 and 3, the active edge list contains edges AD, EH, BC, and FG. Along scan line 2 from
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
edge AD to edge EH, only the flag for surface S1 , is on. But between edges EH and BC, the flags for both
surfaces are on. In this interval, depth calculations must be made using the plane coefficients for the two
surfaces. For this example, the depth of surface S1 is assumed to be less than that of S2 , so intensities
for surface S1 are loaded into the refresh buffer until boundary BC is encountered. Then the flag for
surface S1 goes off, and intensities for surface S2 are stored until edge FG is passed.

D. Area-Subdivision Method
The area-subdivision method takes advantage by locating those view areas that
represent part of a single surface.
Divide the total viewing area into smaller and smaller rectangles until each small
area is the projection of part of a single visible surface or no surface at all.
Continue this process until the subdivisions are easily analyzed as belonging to
a single surface or until they are reduced to the size of a single pixel. An easy
way to do this is to successively divide the area into four equal parts at each
step. There are four possible relationships that a surface can have with a
specified area boundary.
• Surrounding surface − One
that completely encloses
the area.
• Overlapping surface − One
that is partly inside and
partly outside the area.
• Inside surface − One that is
completely inside the area.
• Outside surface − One that
is completely outside the area.

The tests for determining surface visibility within an area can be stated in terms of these four
classifications. No further subdivisions of a specified area are needed if one of the following conditions is
true −
• All surfaces are outside surfaces with respect to the area.
• Only one inside, overlapping or surrounding surface is in the area.
• A surrounding surface obscures all other surfaces within the area boundaries.

E. A-Buffer Method
The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer method. The A-buffer method is a visibility
detection method developed at Lucas film Studios for the rendering system Renders Everything You Ever
Saw (REYES).
The A-buffer expands on the depth buffer method to allow transparencies. The key data structure in the
A-buffer is the accumulation
buffer.

Each position in the A-buffer has

two fields −
• Depth field − It stores a
positive or negative real
number
• Intensity field − It stores
surface-intensity

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 information or a pointer value

➢ If depth >= 0, the number stored at that position is the depth of a single surface overlapping the
corresponding pixel area.

➢ If depth < 0, it indicates multiple-surface contributions to the pixel intensity. The intensity field then
stores a pointer to a linked list of surface data.

➢ The surface buffer in the A-buffer includes −

• RGB intensity components
• Opacity Parameter
• Depth
• Percent of area coverage
• Surface identifier
The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm. The depth and opacity values are used to
determine the final color of a pixel.

F. Depth Sorting Method

Depth sorting method uses both image space and object-space operations. The depth-sorting method
performs two basic functions −
• First, the surfaces are sorted in order of decreasing depth.
• Second, the surfaces are scan-converted in order, starting with the surface of greatest depth.
The scan conversion of the polygon surfaces is performed in image space. This method for solving the
hidden-surface problem is often referred to as the painter's algorithm.
The algorithm begins by sorting by depth.
➢ Sort all surfaces according to their distances
from the view point.
➢ Render the surfaces to the image buffer one
at a time starting from the farthest surface.
➢ Surfaces close to the view point will replace
those which are far away.
➢ After all surfaces have been processed, the image buffer stores the final image.
Example:
Assuming we are viewing along the z axis. Surface S with the greatest depth is then compared to other
surfaces in the list to determine whether there are any overlaps in depth. If no depth overlaps occur, S
can be scan converted. This process is repeated for the next surface
in the list. However, if depth
overlap is detected, we need
to make some additional
comparisons to determine
whether any of the surfaces
should be reordered.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

G. BSP Tree Method
A binary space partitioning (BSP) tree is an efficient method for determining object visibility by painting
surfaces onto the screen from back to front as in the painter's algorithm.
The BSP tree is particularly useful when the view reference point changes, but object in a scene are at
fixed position.
Applying a BSP tree to visibility testing involves identifying surfaces that are "inside" or "outside" the
partitioning plane at each step of space subdivision relative to viewing direction. It is useful and efficient
for calculating visibility among a static group of 3D polygons as seen from an arbitrary viewpoint.
In the following figure,

Here plane P1 partitions the space into two sets of objects, one set of objects is back and one set is in
front of partitioning plane relative to viewing direction. Since one object is intersected by plane P 1, we
divide that object into two separate objects labeled A and B. Now object A&C are in front of P1, B and D
are 4 back of P1.
We next partition the space with plane P2 and construct the binary free as fig (a). In this tree, the objects
are represented as terminal nodes, with front object as left branches and behind object as right branches.
When BSP tree is complete, we process the tree by selecting surface for displaying in order back to front.
So fore ground object is painted over back ground objects.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Chapter 7
Illumination and Shading
Illumination, an observable property and effect of light. The illumination of the subject of a drawing or
painting is a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable
method. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that
is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and
give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to
highlight any texture or interesting features.
An illumination model, also called a lighting model and sometimes referred to as a shading model, is used
to calculate the intensity of light that we should see at a given point on the surface of an object.
Surface rendering means a procedure for applying a lighting model to obtain pixel intensities for all the
projected surface positions in a scene. A surface-rendering algorithm uses the intensity calculations from
an illumination model to determine the light intensity for all projected pixel positions for the various
surfaces in a scene. Surface rendering can be performed by applying the illumination model to every visible
surface point.
Light Sources
When we view an opaque non-luminous object, we see
reflected light from the surfaces of the object. The total
reflected light is the sum of the contributions from a
single light source or illuminated nearby objects.
a) Point source:
All light rays originate at a point and radially
diverge
b) Parallel source
Light rays are all parallel. May be modeled as a
point source at infinite distance (the sun)
c) Distributed source
All light rays originate at a finite area in space. It models a nearby source, such as a fluorescent
light.

Illumination models:
Illumination models are used to calculate light intensities that we should see at a given point on the surface
of an object. Lighting calculations are based on the optical properties of surfaces, the background lighting
conditions and the light source specifications. All light sources are considered to be point sources, specified
Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari
with a co-ordinate position and an intensity value (color).
Some illumination models are:
1. Ambient Light
Ambient light means the light that is already present in a scene, before any additional lighting is added. It
usually refers to natural light, either outdoors or coming
through windows etc. It can also mean artificial lights such as
normal room lights.

The equation expressing this simple model is

𝐼 = 𝐾𝑎

Where I is the resulting intensity and 𝐾𝑎 is the object's

intrinsic intensity.
If we assume that ambient light impinges equally on all surface from all direction, then
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎 𝐾𝑎

Where 𝐼𝑎 is intensity of ambient light. The amount of light reflected from an

object's surface is determined by𝐾𝑎 , the ambient-reflection coefficient, ranges
from 0 to 1.
2. Diffuse reflection:
Objects illuminated by ambient light are uniformly illuminated across their surfaces even though light are
more or less bright in direct proportion of ambient intensity. . The object's brightness varies form one part
to another, depending on the direction of and distance to the light source.
Diffuse reflections are constant over each surface in a scene, independent of the viewing direction.

Diffuse lighting of an object approximates how photons will bounce off

of the object's surface in many different directions. Assuming diffuse
reflections from the surface are scattered with equal intensity in all
directions, independent of the viewing direction (surface called. "Ideal
diffuse reflectors") also called Lambertian reflectors and governed by
Lambert's cosine law.
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝑑 𝐼𝑙 cosΘ

Where 𝐼𝑙 is the intensity of the point light source.

If N is unit vector normal to the surface & L is unit vector in the direction to the point slight source then
𝐼𝑙 ,diff = 𝐾𝑑 𝐼𝑙 (𝑁.𝐿)

In addition, many graphics packages introduce an ambient reflection coefficient 𝐾𝑎 to modify the ambient-
light intensity 𝐼𝑎
Idiff = 𝐾𝑎 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐾𝑑 𝐼𝑙 (𝑁.𝐿)

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

3. Specular reflection

Specular reflection, also known as regular reflection, is the mirror-

like reflection of waves, such as light, from a surface. In this process,
each incident ray is reflected at the same angle to the surface normal
as the incident ray, but on the opposing side of the surface normal in
the plane formed by incident and reflected rays. The result is that an
image reflected by the surface is reproduced in mirror-like (specular)
fashion
Light refraction
Refraction occurs when light travels through transparent or semi-transparent objects of different densities
(for example, from air to glass).

Surface Shading Method

In computer graphics, shading refers to the process of altering the color of an object/surface/polygon in the
3D scene, based on things like (but not limited to) the surface's angle to lights, its distance from lights, its
angle to the camera and material properties (e.g. bidirectional reflectance distribution function) to create a
photo realistic effect. Shading is performed during the rendering process by a program called a shader.

Rendered image of a box. This is the same image with the This is the same image
This image has no shading on edge lines removed. rendered with shading of the
its faces, but uses edge lines faces to alter the colors of the
to separate the faces. 3 faces based on their angle
to the light sources.

A shading model is used in computer graphics to simulate the effects of light shining on a surface. The
intensity that we see on a surface is dependent upon

- The type of light sources.

- The surface characteristics (eg. Shining, matte, dull, and opaque or transparent).

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Types of Shading

1. Constant Intensity Shading (Flat Shading)

➢ The intensity value for the whole polygon is calculated once

and the whole polygon will be shaded with the same intensity
value.

➢ Each rendered polygon has a single normal vector; shading for

the entire polygon is constant across the surface of the polygon.

➢ Fast and simple but cannot model specular reflection.

2. Gouraud Shading

➢ The intensity value is calculated once for each vertex of a polygon.

➢ Each polygon has one normal vector per vertex, the color of each vertex is computed and then
interpolated across the surface of the polygon.
➢ The interpolation of color values can cause bright or dark intensity streaks, called the Mach-bands,
to appear on the surface
➢ Calculation for each polygon surfaces

- Determine the average unit normal vector at each

vertex. At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal
vertex by averaging the surface normals of all polygons
sharing the vertex as:
𝑁 +𝑁 +𝑁 +𝑁
𝑁𝑣 = |𝑁1 +𝑁2 +𝑁3 +𝑁4 |
1 2 3 4
Where Nv is normal vector at a vertex sharing Four
surfaces as in figure.

- Apply illumination model to calculate each vertex

intensity.
- Linearly interpolate the vertex intensity over the surface of the polygon.

Once Nv is known, intensity at the vertices

can obtain from lighting model.

- Here in figure, the intensity of vertices I1 ,

I2, I3 are obtained by averaging normals of
each surface sharing the vertices and
applying a illumination model.

- For each scan line , intensity at intersection

of line with Polygon edge are linearly
interpolated from the intensities at the edge
end point.

So Intensity at intersection point A, Ia is

obtained by linearly interpolating intensities of I1 and I2 as`
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
𝐼𝑎 = 𝑦𝑎−𝑦2 𝐼 1 + 𝑦1 −𝑦𝑎 𝐼2
1 2 1 2

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Similarly, the intensity at point B is obtained by linearly interpolating intensities at I2 and I3 as
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
𝐼𝑏 = 𝑦𝑎−𝑦2 𝐼 3 + 𝑦3 −𝑦𝑎 𝐼2
3 2 3 2

The intensity of a point P in the polygon surface along scan-line is obtained by linearly interpolating
intensities at Ia and Ib as,
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
𝐼𝑝 = 𝑥𝑝−𝑥𝑎 𝐼 𝑏 + 𝑥𝑏 −𝑥𝑝 𝐼𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎

Advantages: Removes intensity discontinuities at the edge as compared to constant shading.

Disadvantages: Highlights on the surface are sometimes displayed with anomalous shape and linear
intensity interpolation can cause bright or dark intensity streak called mach-bands.

3. Phong Shading
➢ Each rendered polygon has one normal vector per vertex; shading is performed by interpolating the
vectors across the surface and computing the color for each point of interest.
➢ Interpolating the normal vectors gives a reasonable approximation to a smoothly-curved surface
while using a limited number of polygons
➢ This method greatly reduces the Mach-band problem but it requires more computational time
➢ A polygon surface is rendered with Phong shading by carrying out following calculations.
- Determine the average normal unit vectors at each polygon vertex.
- Linearly interpolate vertex normals over the
surface of polygon.
-Apply illumination model along each scan line to
calculate the pixel intensities for the surface point.

In figure, N1, N2, N3 are the normal unit vectors at

each vertex of polygon surface. For scan-line that
intersect an edge, the normal vector N can be
obtained by vertically interpolating normal
vectors
of the vertex on that edge as.
𝑦−𝑦2 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑁=𝑦 𝑁1 + 𝑦 1−𝑦 𝑁2
1 −𝑦2 1 2

4. Fast Phong Shading:

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Fast Phong shading approximates the intensity calculations using a Taylor series expansion and Triangular
surface patches. Since Phong shading interpolates normal vectors from vertex normals , we can express the
surface normal N at any point (x,y) over a triangle as
N = Ax + By + C
Where A,B,C are determined from the three vertex equations.
Nk = Axk + Byk + C, k = 1,2,3 for (xk , yk ) vertex.
Omitting the reflectivity and attenuation parameters
𝐿.𝑁 𝐿.(Ax+By+𝐶) (𝐿.𝐴)𝑥+(𝐿.𝐵)𝑦+(𝐿.𝐶)
𝐼diff (𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝐿|.|𝑁| = =
|𝐿|.|Ax+By+𝐶| |𝐿|.|Ax+By+𝐶|

Mach bands
Mach bands are an optical illusion where a band of gradients will appear in places to be lighter or darker
than they actually are.
When looking at Mach bands, one sees a central band of a light to dark gradient surrounded on one side by
the lightest color and on the opposite side by the darkest color.

Mach bands, as well as numerous other visual and perceptual illusions, help scientists study the way the eye
and brain process visual information.

Depth Cueing

It is the process of rendering distant objects at a lower intensity than near ones, hence giving them the
appearance of depth.
Depth cuing indicates
the process in which
the lines closest to the
viewing position are
displayed with the
highest intensities,
and lines farther away
are displayed with
decreasing intensities.
Depth cueing is
applied by choosing
maximum and minimum intensity (or color) values and a range of distances over which the intensities are
to vary.
Computer Color Models

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

A color model is simply a way to define color. A model describes how color will appear on the computer
screen or on paper. Three popular color models are:

1. RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

2. CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black)

1. RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

The RGB model is used when working with screen based designs. A value between 0 and 255 is assigned
to each of the light colors, Red, Green and Blue. So for example, if we wanted to create a purely blue color,
Red would have a value of 0, Green would have a value of 0 and Blue would have a value of 255 (pure
blue). To create black, Red, Green and Blue would each have a value of 0 and to create white, each would
have a value of 255. RGB is known as an “additive” model and is the opposite of the subtractive color
model.

2. CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black)

The CMYK model is used for print work and it describes colors based on their percentage of Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow and Black. These four colors are used by commercial printers and bureaus and you may
also find that your home printer uses these colors too. These four colors are needed to reproduce full color
artwork in magazines, books and brochures. By combining Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black on paper in
varying percentages, the illusion of lots of colors is created.
CMYK is known as a “subtractive” color model. White is the natural color of the paper or other background,
while black results from a full combination of colored inks.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 Chapter 8
Graphical Language

Machine languages are the first generation of programming languages.

A machine language is a machine-dependent, low-level language that uses binary code to interact with a
specific computer system. A machine-dependent language works only on a specific computer system and
its components.

A Machine Independent language is one that can run on any machine. An example of this would be Java.

Machine Independent language can take the compiled code for any given machine and run it on the
machine we are attempting to run it on. A TRULY machine-independent language would produce exactly
the same output no matter which computer it was run on.

Graphics Software
Graphics software refers to a program or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate images
or models visually on a computer.

There are two general classifications for graphical Softwares.

A. General Programming Packages:

General programming packages provides an extensive set of graphics functions that can be used
in a high-level programming language, such as C or FORTRAN. E.g. GL (Graphics Library) system
on Silicon Graphics equipment, which includes basic functions for generating picture components
(straight lines, polygons, circles, and other figures), setting colors and intensity values, selecting
views, and applying transformations

B. Special Purpose Application Packages:

Special purpose applications packages are, in contrast designed for non programmers, so that
users can generate displays without worrying about how graphics operations work.

The interface to the graphics routines in such packages allows users to communicate with the
programs in their own terms. For example: the artist’s painting programs and various business,
medical, and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems.

There are many graphics software available in market; they can be categories as:

1) Paint program: Paint program works with bit map images.

2) Photo manipulation program: It works with bit map images and is widely used to edit
digitized photographs.

3) Computer Aided Design program: CAD software is used in technical design fields to
create models of objects that will be built or manufactured. CAD software allows user to
design objects in 3 dimensions and can produce 3-D frames and solid models.

4) 3-D Modelling Programs: It is used to create visual effects. 3-D modeling program works
by creating objects like surface, solid, polygon etc.

5) Animation: Computer are used to create animation for use in various fields, including
games, and movies composing to allow game makers and film makers to add characters
and objects to scenes that did not originally contain them.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

Software standards
The primary goal of standardized graphics software is portability. When packages are designed with
standard graphics functions, software can be moved easily from one hardware system to another and
used in different implementations and applications. Without standards, programs designed for one
hardware system often cannot be transferred to another system without extensive rewriting of the
programs.

A) General Kernel System (GKS)

The Graphical Kernel System (GKS) was the first ISO standard for low-level computer graphics,
introduced in 1977. The main purpose of GKS is the production and manipulation of 2D pictures in a way
that does not depend on the system of graphical device used.

In GKS, pictures are constructed from a number of basic building blocks. These basic building blocks are
called as primitives. There are five types of primitives in GKS.

- Polyline – draws sequence of connected lines

- Polymaker – marks a sequence of points with same symbol

- Fill Area – displays a specificed area

- Text – draws a string of characters

- Cell Array – displays an image composed of a variety of colors or gray scales.

B) PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System)
PHIGS, short for the Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System, is basically a library of about
400 functions that allow the user to display and interact with 2-D and 3-D graphics. It is an international
standard, being created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). PHIGS hides
hardware-dependent details from the user; so, for example, it allows an application draw on a plotter the
same way it draws on a computer screen.
PHIGS provides a set of familiar graphics objects called primitives, each with attributes that control its
location, orientation, color, and appearance.
PHIGS Primitives
- polyline: which draws a sequence of connected line segments;
- polymarker: which marks a sequence of points with a symbol;
- fill area: which defines the boundary of an area to be displayed;
- fill area set: which defines the boundaries of a set of areas to be displayed as one;
- text: which draws a sequence of characters;
- annotation text: which draws a sequence of characters to annotate a drawing;
- cell array: which displays an image;

Over View of Graphical File Formats

A) JPEG
Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a lossy compression method; JPEG-compressed images are
usually stored in the JFIF (JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. The JPEG/JFIF filename
extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format,
which supports eight-bit grayscale images and 24-bit color images (eight bits each for red, green,

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari

 and blue). JPEG applies lossy compression to images, which can result in a significant reduction of
the file size.
B) TIFF
The TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) format is a flexible format that normally saves eight bits or
sixteen bits per color (red, green, blue) for 24-bit and 48-bit totals, respectively, usually using either
the TIFF or TIF filename extension. TIFF image format is not widely supported by web browsers.
C) GIF
GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is in normal use limited to an 8-bit palette, or 256 colors (while
24-bit color depth is technically possible). GIF is most suitable for storing graphics with few colors,
such as simple diagrams, shapes, logos, and cartoon style images, as it uses LZW lossless
compression, which is more effective when large areas have a single color, and less effective for
photographic images.
D) BMP
The BMP file format (Windows bitmap) handles graphic files within the Microsoft Windows OS.
Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, and therefore large and lossless; their advantage is their
simple structure and wide acceptance in Windows programs.
E) PNG
The PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created as a free, open-source alternative
to GIF. The PNG file format supports eight-bit palleted images (with optional transparency for all
palette colors) and 24-bit true color (16 million colors) or 48-bit true color with and without alpha
channel - while GIF supports only 256 colors and a single transparent color.

Data structure in Computer Graphics

A) Triangle mesh: A triangle mesh is a type of polygon mesh in computer graphics. It comprises
a set of triangles (typically in three dimensions) that are connected by their common edges or
corners. The data structure representing the mesh provides support for two basic operations,
inserting triangles and removing triangles.

B) Quad-edge: A quad-edge data structure is a computer representation of the topology of

a two-dimensional or three-dimensional map, that is, a graph drawn on a (closed) surface. It
represents simultaneously both the map, its dual and mirror image

C) Polygon Mesh: A polygon mesh is a collection of vertices, edges and faces that defines the
shape of a polyhedral object in 3D computer graphics and solid modeling. The faces usually
consist of triangles (triangle mesh), quadrilaterals, or other simple convex polygons, since this
simplifies rendering, but may also be composed of more general concave polygons, or
polygons with holes.

D) Octree: An octree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly
eight children. Octrees are most often used to partition a three-dimensional space by
recursively subdividing it

Open GL
OpenGL is a low-level graphics library specification. It makes available to the programmer a small set of
geometric primitives - points, lines, polygons, images, and bitmaps. OpenGL provides a set of commands
that allow the specification of geometric objects in two or three dimensions, using the provided primitives,

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together with commands that control how these objects are rendered (drawn).

Since OpenGL drawing commands are limited to those that generate simple geometric primitives (points,
lines, and polygons), the OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) has been created to aid in the development of
more complicated three-dimensional objects such as a sphere, a torus, and even a teapot. GLUT may not
be satisfactory for full-featured OpenGL applications, but it is a useful starting point for learning OpenGL.

Rendering Pipeline

Most implementations of OpenGL have a similar order of

operations, a series of processing stages called the OpenGL
rendering pipeline.

Although this is not a strict rule of how OpenGL is implemented, it

provides a reliable guide for predicting what OpenGL will do.
Geometric data (vertices, line, and polygons) follow a path through
the row of boxes that includes evaluators and per-vertex
operations, while pixel data (pixels, images and bitmaps) are
treated differently for part of the process. Both types of data
undergo the same final step before the final pixel data is written to
the frame buffer

Libraries

OpenGL provides a powerful but primitive set of rendering

command, and all higher-level drawing must be done in terms of
these commands. There are several libraries that allow you to
simplify your programming tasks, including the following:

• OpenGL Utility Library (GLU) contains several routines that

use lower-level OpenGL commands to perform such tasks as setting up matrices for specific
viewing orientations and projections and rendering surfaces.

• OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) is a window-system-independent toolkit, written by Mark Kilgard, to

hide the complexities of differing window APIs.

Compiled By: Mohan Bhandari