FLOW NETWORKS

The solution to various design problems and analysis of the behavior of

earth dams requires the estimation of the water costs that flow through
the curtain, the foundation or certain portions of the vessel, or the
calculation of the hydrodynamic forces or the pore pressures that said
flow produces in soils and rocks.

dh
v = -k = ki ds

Darcy's law presents the flow through the soil,

Where: v is the flow velocity,
i = - dh/ds the hydraulic gradient,

Where ds is measured along the mean flow path.

Soil type k interval (cm/s)

clays 0E 0E 9
(ECC. NS3)
 Of identity: IRROTATIONAL FLOW rot v — 0
n
V “ v = grad div v - rot rot v
From the continuity equation, div v = 0, and since the flow is irrotational

SPEED POTENTIAL - FLOW NETWORKS

If the curl of a vector field v is zero, it is always possible to find a function d that generates the field v
by means of the relation

v = grad

Function 9 is called the field potential or velocity potential, ie In incompressible irrotational flows, the
velocities admit potential. Since the incompressibility condition is div v = 0, we can write:

div grad O = Vd = 0
 Laplace's equation
The continuity equation states: div V = 0, for water as an
incompressible fluid.
IRROTATIONAL FLOW.................................................................................................................................................5
rot v — 0...........................................................................................................................................................................5
div grad O = Vd = 0........................................................................................................................................................5
FLOW NETWORKS....................................................................................................................................................8
Ox...................................................................................................................................................................................8
Flow networks...............................................................................................................................................................................9
Flow network theory....................................................................................................................................................11
Flow network in isotropic soil.................................................................................................................................................13
Two-dimensional flow..............................................................................................................................................................15
^ If the network is made up of squares, then d m ≈ dl , and:.............................................................................22
q = ( m / n ) KH [ L 2 T -1 ]...............................................................................................................................................22
where:..........................................................................................................................................................................22
Infiltration below dams........................................................................................................................................................43
Flow network in two strata with compacted soil underneath......................................................................................45
radial flow................................................................................................................................................................................47
Flow network in a corner.................................................................................................................................................48
Solution.......................................................................................................................................................................................52
another example, flow network,..............................................................................................................................................53
solution....................................................................................................................................................................................54
Flow networks in the foundation.....................................................................................................................................60
Flow networks in the dam body......................................................................................................................................61
UPPER LINE OF FLOW IN DAMS HOMOGENEOUS (Dupuit 1863 Formula).................................................64
Applying Darcy's law to the figure;..............................................................................................................................65
Integrating:......................................................................................................................................................................65
d = x 2 + y 2 = x + s Ecc. 01..............................................................................................................................................80
s = A/ d 2 + h 2 -d...........................................................................................................................................................80
y = s 2 + 2 sx Ecc. 02...........................................................................................................................................................80

Where h is the hydraulic head.

 FLOW NETWORKS

In the case of two-dimensional flow there will be a potential d (X,y), for which v =

grad d, decomposes into:

O
x
 Flow networks

1. The flow linesΨ are parallel to the

impermeable (non-flow) contours.
2. The network is made up of curvilinear
squares, with orthogonal sides.
3. Each flow tube discharges the same
amount.

4. The streamlines Ψ and the equipotentials

φ are (orthogonal)
Flow network
theory Pa
ral
lel
flo
w
lin
es

Conver
ging
flow
lines
FLOW NETWORKS IN ISOTROPIC SOILS
 Flow network in isotropic soil

^ The equation of flow networks is based on Darcy's

law.

^ Solving flow in a network is equivalent to solving

Laplace's equation for an isotropic uniform aquifer
defined by its boundary and boundary conditions.
 Flow network in isotropic soil

■ The flux through a flux tube between the

equipotential lines φ 1 and φ 2 per unit
width is: ∆ q = K ( d m x 1 ) (∆ h 1 / dl )
fall between
equipotential
lines

flow
tubes
 Two-dimensional flow

• From the infinite number of equipotential lines

and streamlines, take a certain number of
curves from each family, so that between
each pair of adjacent flow lines the flow rate
is the same, and between two adjacent
equipotential lines the hydraulic head drop is
identical. .
• In this way, a network formed by flow channels and
potential drops is obtained, where q is the total flow
rate through the flow zone and h is the difference in
hydraulic head between the extreme equipotentials.
• Considering any rectangle of the resulting flow
network. By Darcy's law, the expenditure that passes
through it is:

Δh oh
Δq = ka × 1 = kb bn
and
 Where from:
na
q=n f Δ q = kh
nb e
• With q, k, h, constants for a given problem, the ratio
of sides of the rectangles a/b must be the same for all
the rectangles in the network. This is one of the basic
principles for network layout. This is one of the basic
principles for flow network layout. In case a/b = 1, all
the elements of the network will be square, and the
equation for the flow rate per unit thickness of the
flow zone will be:
 q = kh n
f
n
The coefficient is called the shape factor of the
flow network and the ratio of sides a/b is fixed;
The flow rate calculation is independent of the
number of flow channels or potential drops
used. On the other hand, the uniqueness of
the solution is guaranteed by the principle of
uniqueness of solution of equations with
boundary values.
 Flow network in isotropic soil
The flow between equipotential lines 2 and 3 is:
∆ q = K ( d m x 1)(∆ h 2 / dl )
^ The flow network has a quadrangular mesh,
where the potential drop between lines is the
same: ∆ h 1 = ∆ h 2

If there are n d such drops, then:

∆h = ( H / n )
where H is the total drop between the first and the
last equipotential line.
 Flow network in isotropic soil
^ The flow in each tube is:

∆ q = K ( d m x dl )( H/n )

^ If there are m pipes in the network, then the total

flow per unit width is:

q = ( m / n ) K ( d m /dl ) H
 Flow network in isotropic soil
^ If the network is made up of squares, then d m ≈ dl ,
and:

q = ( m / n ) KH [ L 2 T -1 ]
where:
q = flow rate or infiltration per unit width
m = number of flow tubes
n = number of falls between equipotential lines
h = total potential drop
K = hydraulic conductivity
 Drawing methodology
1. Draw a profile at a convenient scale: of the section
of the structure, water elevation, and profile of the
aquifer.
2. Establish the boundary conditions and draw one or
two streamlines Ψ and equipotential lines Φ near
the boundary.
 Drawing methodology
3. Draw the intermediate flow lines and equipotentials using
smooth curves that intersect at right angles and form
squares. Where the direction of flow is a straight line, the
lines of flow are parallel and equal distance apart.
4. Continue drawing until you have a problem with
consistency or compatibility of lines. Each problem
indicates the need to make changes to the entire network
or at least part of it. After successive tests, a reasonable
and consistent flow network will be obtained.
 Drawing methodology
5. Generally, 5 to 10 flow lines are usually sufficient.
Depending on the number of flow lines selected,
the number of equipotential lines is set by the
geometry and shape of the mesh (network).
(corresponding to the shape of squares)
6. It is equivalent to solving the equations that govern
groundwater flow in two dimensions.
 How to draw a flow network
We start with a very simple example, we want to represent the flow
between two impermeable boundaries.
 Initially we imagine the flow of a particle through the center
(looking for the equidistance between the two impermeable edges)
 We repeat the operation: we divide each of the two parts that
we had obtained This gives rise to four streets (flow tubes). can be chosen
any number
We begin to draw the equipotentials. They must be perpendicular to the flow lines and
also perpendicular to the impermeable edges (since they also constitute flow lines). It is
necessary to curve the line like this to find the perpendicular cut...
We continue drawing equipotentials without forgetting the two rules: perpendiculars
and "square" (equidimensional) holes.
In the area where the flow lines separate, to obtain "squares" we must also draw the
equipotentials further apart.
 It seems that it is already there.
But now we have to start correcting everything that is wrong,
look for elongated squares, non-perpendicular line cuts
The two boxes with a red circle are elongated horizontally, those with the green circle
are elongated vertically: Some lines need to be moved...
Although the "squares" are curved trapezoids (sometimes they become triangles), if
we imagine a circle inside, it would have to touch all the walls at the same time.

The two families of lines correct each other, and any change disrupts something
that was fine before: the use of pencil and eraser tends to infinity...
It's not perfect, but it doesn't seem to have any major errors.
This is actually a very easy example.
 Flow network for bidirectional filtration
Flow under a pile pile
Boundary Conditions
The Equipotential Lines remain normal at
Flow Lines
Critical point for siphoning: Point d
• Charge drop between equipotentials = Δ z between
points of intersection of equipotential with saturation line
• The flow on the downstream slope is neither flow line
nor equipotential.
 Infiltration below dams
Homogeneous embankment with drainage
blanket on waterproof foundation
(to
)
xx**xr*xx 732333****** Flow network for
(at-180°, Ay- ^Gravel
infiltration through
Concrete dam with cutoff wall
on permeable foundation
earthen dams
(b
) Infiltration below
Equipotential line concrete dams
flow line
The boundary
Earth dam with relatively waterproof
core on permeable foundation
conditions require a
(c
) network (mesh) of
squares for the
solution.
Sheet piling
(
d
)
eddde3flow3in1twoSestrata, , with1sandain1 laa
part9bottomr
 Flow network in two strata
with compacted soil underneath

Flow network through unified filtration) of 3 a 1 channel through 5 two different non-
isotropic layers. ■ (a)) K uu / I K l J = 1/50. ■ (b)) K uu / I K l J = 50. - Source: Todd 1 8Bear, r
or
1961.
 radial flow

Map of piezometric surface near Savannah, Georgia, 1957, showing

closed contours as a result of strong pumping of local groundwater
(after USGS ^Water-Supply Paper 1611).
 Flow network in a corner
The streamlines Ψ are orthogonal to the
Φ
equipotential lines
 Example

A dam is built on a permeable stratum

confined beneath impermeable rock. A
screen (sheet pile) is installed at the
foot of the upstream dam. If the
permeable soil has a hydraulic
conductivity of 150 ft/day, determine the
flow or infiltration rate under the dam.
POSITION TO b c d AN F g h Yo J.
Distance from point D
to front heel (in ft)

0 3 22 38 50 63 75 86 94 100
n 16,5 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1,2
The flow network is drawn with: m = 5 flow tubes and n
= 17 equipotential lines
 Solution

^ Solution for flow per unit width

q = ( m / n ) Kh

= (5/17)(150)(35)

3
= 1544 ft /day and per ft
 another example, flow network,
^ It is an earthen dam with a base of 13
meters and a height of 7.5 meters. The
dammed water has a depth of 6.2 meters,
and downstream it is 2.2 meters deep. The
dam is 72 meters wide at the base. If the
hydraulic conductivity is 6.1 x 10 -4
centimeters per second, what is the
infiltration through the dam if n = 21
K = 6.1 x 10 -4 cm/sec = 0.527 m/day
 solution
^ From the flow network we have the total
potential drop, H = 6.2 - 2.2 = 4.0 meters.

^ There are 6 flow tubes ( m ) and 21 ( n )

potential drops along each flow path:
q = (K*H*m/n) per meter of dam
= (0.527 m/day * 4m * 6/21) x meter of dam
= 0.60 m 3 /day per meter of dam
Q = 0.60 * 72 = 43.4 m 3 /day for the 72 m
width of the dam
The dam in the drawing sits on materials whose hydraulic conductivity
is 0.3 m/day. Under these materials there is a waterproof substrate.
It is requested:
a) Draw the flow network under the dam (it is suggested to draw three
flow lines)
b) I will calculate! flow per meter of dam (one meter perpendicular to the
drawing)
c) Draw a piezometric tube alert at any point on the fourth equipotential
line. Calculate how much the water would rise
 Flow network drawing
Three flow lines have been drawn, but that is subjective (denser network, more precise solution, but more
difficult, or impossible, to do by hand).

The base of the dam and the lower impermeable formation function as flow lines, therefore, equipotentials
must cut them perpendicularly.
m = 4, n = 15;
q = (m/n) K h
Q = (4/15) 0.3 m/day * 6 m = 0.48 m3/m
Flow networks in dams
 Flow networks in the foundation

When a dam is founded on permeable granular soils,

internal erosion problems may arise in the foundation soil,
due to the flow that infiltrates under the dam and emerges
downstream of it.
The infiltrated flow through the foundation soil can produce
the dragging of fine soil particles in the area downstream of
it, where said flow emerges, thus producing the
phenomenon of turification, leaving the soil cavernous (it
could cause siphoning )
 Flow networks in the dam body

The flow of water through earthen dams falls within

the scope of the theory of water flow in porous
media.
The importance of this problem in dams lies in the
need to guarantee the stability of the soil structure
configured by the compaction processes through
its sufficient impermeability, and thus maintain the
fine soil content.
 The flow of water through the body of an earthen dam
produces the following effects:

^ Water loss,

^ A state of internal pressures with effects opposite to

the stabilizing effect of weight. Saturation also
decreases its cohesion and resistance to friction,

^ Drag of fine materials producing progressive internal

erosion, which is known as turification. (siphoning)
UPPER POWER LINE
 UPPER LINE OF FLOW IN DAMS
HOMOGENEOUS (Dupuit 1863 Formula)

Dupuit proposed the solution of unconfined flow

problems under the following hypotheses:

^ That the gradient is constant throughout the

vertical section;

^ That in each vertical section, the gradient is

equal to the slope of the upper flow line .
Applying Darcy's law to the figure;
dy
q = -ky
Integrating:
and 2
qx = -k + C

With the boundary conditions:

(for x = 0, y = h 1 ), (for x = d 0 , y = h 2 ), the following is
obtained for the expenditure: Dupuit's formula.
Calculation of expenses according to Dupuit's formula
Position of top flow line
Graphical solution of the modified
Schaffernak-Van Iterson formula
Graphic solution of the formula
Approximate of A. Big house
Position of top flow line
Kozeny's parable
Casagrande method for the upper streamline in
an earthen dam α=180º
This method shows a solution for the case
illustrated in figure f01, common in earthen
dams and in which the angle α has the value of
180º.
This method consists of drawing a geometric
parabola to correct it with respect to the entry
and exit ends.
To draw the upper streamline, the guideline of
the base parabola is found. For this, the
following steps and considerations are followed:
Casagrande method for the top line of
current in an earth dam α=180º
1) The dam is drawn to scale figure f01
2) We take the beginning of drain 0 as the focus of the base parabola.
3) G is the projection of point A on the line that defines the water level.
4) EG is the projection of the upstream slope on the water surface line
5) Point B is located such that: EB = 0.3 EG
6) Then “d” is found, which is the distance from the origin “0” or focus “F”
(beginning of the drain, 0 = F), to the perpendicular that passes through
point B.
^ The dam is drawn to scale figure f01
^ We take the beginning of the drain as the focus of the
base parabola.
^ In figure f01 G is the projection of point A on the
line that defines the water level.
^ EG is the projection of the upstream slope onto the
water surface line
^ Point B is located such that EB = 0.3 EG
^ Then "d" is found, which is the distance from the
origin "O" or focus "F" (beginning of the drain, O =
F), to the perpendicular that passes through point B.
^ An arc is drawn with center at B and radius BF.
^ Intersect the horizontal that passes through B with the
arc formed previously, with this H is determined.
^ Through H passes the vertical that intersects with the
base of the dam, that is point D. The vertical that passes
through D is the directrix of the base parabola.
^ The property of the parabola is that each point is
equidistant from the focus and the directrix DH and the
distance to the directrix is “s”.
^ So: OC = CD
See fig. f02
 i base parabola

V_,

d
fig. f02
For any point on the parabola:

d = x + y = x + s Ecc. 01
2 2

The coordinates of B are

s = A/ d + h -d
2 2

Developing the Ecc. 01:

y = s + 2 sx
2
Ecc. 02
 dy = s
dx
s 2 + 2 sx

dy
The flow equation: q = ky
dx
yes
q = ks + 2 sx
1
TO
s 2 + 2 sx
q = ks Ecc.05
 Casagrande method
Another method for drawing the parabola, based on
laminar flow through porous media, is as follows:
^ According to the methodology developed by
Casagrande, the flow line in a homogeneous and
isotropic medium in relation to permeability can be
determined approximately by drawing a parabola
between points B and S in figure f03, assuming that it is
tangent at S to the downstream slope.
^ In a simplified way, equation 06 gives the distance “a”
at which the saturation line emerges with respect to the
foot of the downstream slope, it can be expressed as
equation 06
BE =| G.E.

line of
saturation

d
fig. f03
 a=d2+h2- d 2 - h 2 cotg 2 α Ecc.
06
^ The saturation line in the case of laminar flow is a parabola,
its determination is indicated below:
^ The horizontal line corresponding to the surface of the
impounded water is extended until it intercepts the slope
downstream of the dam at point R.
^ Point B is determined with the distance BE being one third of
GE.
^ Segment BR is divided into a certain number of equal parts.
In the case of the figure, it has been divided into 4 parts,
whose points are numbered sequentially, with 0 being point R
and 4 being point B.
^ The distance “a” is determined using equation 06, thus determining
point S.
^ The segment SR is divided into the same number of equal parts into
which the segment BR was divided (4 parts in the case of the figure)
and the points are numbered sequentially, with 0 being point S and 4
being point R.
^ The numbered points of the segment BR are joined by straight lines to
the point S.
^ Horizontal lines are drawn through the numbered points of the SR
segment.
^ The intersections of lines with equal numbers are points of the
parabola of the saturation line.
^ At point E it is necessary to make a small correction (by hand), since
the saturation line must pass through said point and be orthogonal to
the slope upstream of the dam, as this is an equipotential line.
2,5
 a = d2+h2 + - h 2 cot 2 ; a = 26.122 m

To find the flow line we will divide segment BR and segment SR into three and draw the
upper streamline.
AND
 fig. f04

dy
ky
α tan α
q

dx ka sin
 q = 10 m/s * 26.12 m * 0.3714 * 0.4
-6

q = 3.88 *10 - 6 m 3 /s /m = 0.335 m 3

/day /m