1

Tribhuvan University

Central Campus of Technology

B. Tech Food

Fourth Year

Packaging Technology

FM: 50

Lecture note

by

Prof. Dr. Dilip Subba

2073
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Contents:
 Meaning of terms
Chapter 1: Introduction to packaging (development of food packaging and definition)
Chapter 2: Principle and functions of packaging
Chapter 3: Packaging materials and their properties
• Paper and paper board
• Plastics
• Metal
• Glass
• Miscellaneous packaging materials
Chapter 4: Retail packaging forms (type, construction, use)
Chapter 5: Lid, cap, seal (type, use)
Chapter 6: Transportation containers (type, construction, use)
Chapter 7: Specialized packaging techniques
Chapter 8: Introduction to modern and advanced packaging methods
Chapter 9: Product package compatibility
Chapter 10: Testing of packaging materials; identification of packaging materials (plastics);
evaluation of performance of transport containers
Chapter 11: Quality control and legislative aspects of packaging
Chapter 12: Packaging of different foods
Chapter 13: Shelf life of packaged food and its evaluation
Chapter 14: Waste management
Suggested Readings
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Meaning of terms
Annealing is heating and holding at high temperature of 600-700°C
Anodising
Anodising is an electrochemical process used to produce durable and decorative finishes on
components made of aluminium or aluminium-based alloys. This process thickens and toughens
the naturally occurring protective oxide.
Anodizing actually makes the aluminum stronger and more durable. Anodizing involves placing
a sheet of aluminum into a chemical acid bath, quite often acetone in laboratory experiments.
The sheet of aluminum becomes the positive anode of a chemical battery and the acid bath
becomes the negative. An electric current passes through the acid, causing the surface of the
aluminum to oxidize (essentially rust). The oxidized aluminum forms a strong coating as it
replaces the original aluminum on the surface. The result is an extremely hard substance called
anodized aluminum.
Bleaching means decolourisation and whitening

Calendering is any process to make the paper dense, nonporous, smooth and glossy
Cold rolling is process of pressing metal which is at room temperature. The high force applied
during rolling decreases the thickness and increases the strength (hardness, tensile strength) of
the metal slab. Besides, the metal will have smooth, bright surface called finish.
Electrolytic coating: It is electrolysis process of coating where tin acts as anode and steel acts as
cathode. The tin is deposited on the steel plate.
Hard wood = wood of trees of broad leaves (deciduous species of plants). Trees all other than
conifers e.g. ;fn, ;v'jf, lzzf}, l;dn, not necessarily hard
Grease proofness means resistance to penetration of fats and oils
Hot dipping: Steel plate is dipped in molten tin bath
Hot rolling is process of passing molten metal (900-1200°C) between pair of rolls to transform
the slab in coil of 1.5 to 3.4 mm thickness
Kraft paper means strong paper. Kraft means strength in German language

Lamination

A laminate is a packaging material made by bonding two and more different packaging materials
in layers or webs. So, lamination is the process of addition of two and more different packaging
materials in layers or webs using adhesive material to achieve bonding of the materials.
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Lamination is done to improve the performance (strength and barrier properties) of packaging
materials. Methods of lamination:

• Lamination with water based adhesive

Water based adhesive is applied on surface and pressed by passing between two rolls; wet
type lamination process, viz. paper/al. foil

• Lamination with wax

Wax is used as adhesive viz. paper/al. foil

• Dry bonding

Organic solvent based adhesive is applied on surface, solvent evaporated in oven and
pressed between two rolls. Viz. lamination of different plastic films, plastics/al. foil.
Alternatively solid adhesive may be applied on surface, adhesion is activated by heat viz.
paper/plastic

• Extrusion lamination

Extruder with two dies is used to extrusion laminate two different packaging materials
where molten plastics is used as adhesive viz. paper or paper board/PE/al. foil laminate

Aluminium foil (al. foil) refers to very thin sheet of aluminium. It improves strength, opacity and
barrier properties.

Multiwall bag or sack: The bag or sack having a wall composed of multilayers of material,
often pressed closely together. viz. multiwall bag For example, multiwall paper bag made of
kraft paper. This type of bag or sack has high strength and carry big loads.
Parchmentizing
The paper is treated with sulphuric acid to partially hydrolyse and gelatinise some of the
cellulose of surface cellulose fibres. This closes the pores on paper surface. Parchmentizing
improves wet strength and grease resistance of paper
Pickling in bath of hot dil. sulphuric acid to remove scales or oxides formed during hot rolling
Sizing refers to process of adding additives to improve optical and performance properties of
paper.
Soft wood = wood of coniferes plants or conifers (plants or trees bearing cones) e.g ;Nnf] hft
including w'lk, not necessarily soft.
Soft wood fibrillates more and strong paper can be made from soft wood.
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Temper-rolling is light cold rolling

Triclosan is an aromatic chloro-organic compound, long used in dish-clothes and chopping
boards It is inhibitory in 1500 ppm conc. to Brochotrix thermosphacta, salmonella typhimurium,
staphylococcus, bacillus subtilis, shigella flexnerai and E. coli.
Waxing is process of coating or impregnating wax to improve water repellence (wet resistance)
of paper. (Also applied on paperboard).
Wet strength means the paper retains strength even though it is saturated with water
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Chapter 1: Introduction to packaging and development of food packaging

• Development pace in packaging
• Development in packaging of food_historical events to modern packaging; factors for
development
• Packaging evolved as complex system and evolved as science and technology
Definitions of packaging:
• Packaging is an operation that ensures delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer in the
best condition intended for their use.
• Packaging is function of enclosing products in containers to perform one or more of the
functions of containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and
performance.
• Packaging is a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, retailing
and end use i.e. a means of ensuring delivery of product to the ultimate consumer in
sound condition.

Chapter 2: Principle and functions of packaging

Packaging chain (distribution chain)
Food manufacturing ooo packing ooo warehousing ooo loading for transportation and
distribution (distributor → wholesaler→ retailer) ooo home or consumer ooo product
use/consumption
Hazards: Hazards are the agents or conditions which significantly affect the quality of food
during the packaging chain, called hazards of distribution
Type of distribution hazards
• Physical hazard
• Hazard of physical nature i.e. labour handling for loading and unloading in/from
transport vehicles, carrying, stacking, dropping, tying, etc.
• Impact and effect on product: tearing, breakage, leakage, spilling, burst, distortion or
deformation, compression, loss of food
• Mechanical hazard
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• Hazard during machine handling for packing or filling, lifting, loading, unloading,
stacking, transportation
• Impact and effect on product: piercing, puncturing and tearing by hooks, straps and
nails; bumping, bounching, vibration shock (engine of truck, rail, aeroplane),
compressive shock, etc. resulting in breakage, distortion, spilling and exposure to
adverse climate leading ultimately to loss of food.
• Biological hazard
• Pests (insects, rodents, moths, etc) and microorganisms (molds, etc) are the causing
factors
• Effects: different types of spoilage, insect infestation and loss of food.
• Climatic hazard
• Agents/factors: rain, water vapour, sunlight, oxygen and other gases, high and low
temperature, high and low humidity, high and low pressure, chemical pollutants like
sulphites, chlorides and acids
• Effects: extreme climatic conditions produce stress and results in stress crack and
other kind of damage
• Miscellaneous hazards
Caused by fire, floods, tampering, pilferage, absorption of foreign odour (tainting), corrosive
chemicals

Functions of Packaging
The primary functions of packaging are:
• Containment: to enclose the product in secured (protected) condition. Containment makes
handling and moving products easier.
• Convenience: Packaging provides convenience (comfort) in terms of carrying, storing,
handling, cooking and serving (e.g. precooked prepackaged food saves time and
resource) of foods.
• Protection: The package provides protection to food from different types of hazards
• Preservation: The package prevents spoilage of food by post-process contamination of
microbiological agents, prevents microbial growth by not providing suitable conditions
for growth, checks abiotic deterioration caused or accelerated by agents such as oxygen,
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humidity, light etc (lipid oxidation, oxidation of food constituents, maillard reaction,
texture changes, etc).
Best examples of preservation by packaging can be given of preservation of food by
canning, modern and advanced techniques (e.g antimicrobial pkgg) of packaging. The
measure for shelf life extension; make food available in times of scarcity and shortage;
buffer stock or food stored for use in time of need.
• Information (communication): The package provides information to consumer about the
product. The information includes the net weight, ingredients used, nutritional
composition, price, ideal storage conditions, name and address of manufacturer, date of
manufacture and batch number, minimum and maximum storage or shelf life etc.
• Sales promotion: An attractive package (attractive in shape and style, colour, graphics) is
by itself an advertisement of the product and enhances product sales.
Desirable features of packaging:
• Product-package compatibility: There should be no undesirable reactions between the
product and package that may cause quality loss of food and make food unsafe.
• Disposability and environment-friendly: Reuse and recycle of packaging materials as
much as possible
• Machinability: smooth filling and closing operations in high speed packaging machines
• Convenience to use in terms of opening, dispensing and re-closing

Packaging design
Design of a package refers to size, shape, style, colour, selection of packaging materials, etc.
Designing of successful packaging requires following prerequisite knowledge and must be
considered:
• Product assessment
• Nature and characteristics (solid, liquid, paste, crystal, powder etc), chemical
composition, size, shape, weight and density of product
• Type of hazard and quality loss (breakage, seepage, rancidity, moisture
absorption, insect infestation, etc)
• Hazards of distribution
• Method (road, rail, sea, air) and duration of transport
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• Type and intensity of hazard during distribution

• Kind of impact on product and package (compression, drop, vibration, puncturing
etc)
• Marketing requirement
• Size, shape, weight of package, product quantity per package for sale
• Package for enhancing product image (self advertisement)
• Convenience of carrying, opening, dispensing, storing etc.
• Price
• Selection of packaging materials and machinery considerations
• Properties of packaging materials (barrier properties, strength properties, product
package compatibility)
• Suitability of machinery to handle the packaging materials
• Efficiency of packaging line to cope with the designated size and shape of
package
• Efficiency of printing process

Levels of packaging:
• Primary package: It is in direct contact with the product. It provides initial protection to
the product. Examples are can of condensed milk, pouch of wafer, candy or sausage,
carton of juice, bottle of soft drink.
• Secondary package: It contains number of primary packages. It is distribution carrier and
transport or shipping container. Examples are box and bag.
• Tertiary package: It is made up of number of secondary packages. For example, a stretch-
wrapped pallet load of fibre board boxes of canned food.
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• Quaternary package: It is used to facilitate handling (during transportation, shipping) of

tertiary packages. For example, large container containing number of stretch-wrapped
pallets of fibre board boxes of canned food “containerization”.

Chapter 3: Packaging materials and their properties

Ancient use: leaves, bamboo, straw, leather, stoneware, clayware
Modern and main packaging materials: paper, plastics, metal, glass
Packaging materials to less use: wood, ceramics, fabrics of cotton lintre, jute, rubber

1. Paper and paperboard

Common packaging materials
Advantages:
• Light in weight
• Can be used in combination with plastics and other materials to make package of desired
properties
• Billboards the product (ex. Wrapping)
• Can be used to make package to contain products with a variety of geometric shapes
• Microwavable
Disadvantages:
• Less strong
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• Offers few barrier properties

Process of manufacturing paper:

Wood log
↓
Cutting or chipping in suitable size or length (chips with length of 15 to 20 mm)
↓
Pulping: disintegration of wood to fibrous state or cellulose fibres
• Mechanical pulping: a special machine or grinder is used to cut the wood and reduce it to
fibrous state (mechanical pulp)
• Chemical pulping: wood is digested by heating for enough time in solutions to remove all
materials other than cellulose as fibres (chemical pulp)
Sulphate pulp: wood pulp is obtained by digesting wood chips by heating in the solution of
caustic soda (NaOH) and sodium sulphate at high temp (~140 °C). Process also known as
kraft process.
Sulphite pulp: wood pulp is obtained by digesting wood chips by heating in the solution of
sulphur dioxide and calcium bisulphite at high temp (~140 °C)
Chemical pulping dissolves lignin and the resulting fibre is purely cellulose
• Semi-chemical process: wood chips are treated partly by chemicals and partly
mechanically to reduce them to fibres.
The product is used as corrugating (fluting) medium in CFB
↓
Washing: removing such as soluble lignin from chemical pulp
↓
Some type of pulp or paper is bleached. Bleaching is decolourisation of pulp to make brown pulp
white, done by treating with chemicals like calcium hypochlorite. Generally sulphite pulp is
bleached. Paper is not as strong as kraft paper.
↓
Beating of pulp
It is process of rubbing and brushing of individual cellulose fibres to split them lengthwise
(fibrillation) to form thin fibres.
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Beating improves the properties of paper such as tensile strength, bursting strength, tear strength
and grease resistance
↓
Sheeting and drying

Mechanical strength of paper is in the order of sulphate pulp › sulphite pulp › mechanical pulp.
Mechanical pulp produces paper of relatively high bulk and low strength

Processes for improving properties of paper

The physical properties and performance of paper so produced can be improved by various
processes and treatments.
• Chemical reactions
Paper is treated with different chemicals and chemical reactions occur during drying process
which improve wet strength of paper.
Chemicals like urea, melamine, resorcinol, and other phenolic and amino resins are cross-
linked with formaldehyde, and condensation products of polyalkylene amines and
decarboxylic acids are cross-linked with epichlorohydrin, which augment the hydrogen
bonding between hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on adjacent fibres. Hydrogen bonds are
formed by reactions during paper drying process.
• Parchmentizing
The paper is treated with sulphuric acid to partially hydrolyse and gelatinise some of the
cellulose of surface cellulose fibres. This closes the pores on paper surface. Parchmentizing
improves wet strength and grease resistance of paper
• Bleaching (whitening)
• Colourising
• Waxing: wax is coated to improve wet resistance or water repellence, called waxed paper
• Plastic coating: molten plastics is coated on surface to increase grease resistance property,
called plastic coated paper
• Calendering
Calendering is any process to make the paper dense, nonporous, smooth and glossy
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• Sizing
Sizing refers to process of adding additives to improve optical and performance properties of
paper.
 Addition of mineral pigments for surface coating
Mineral pigments such as China clay, calcium carbonate (chalk) or titanium oxide are
used for coating of paper surface to improve colour, appearance, smoothness, gloss
and printability.
 Addition of surface sizing additives
Surface sizing additives, for example, starch increases surface strength important for
printing, wax increases resistance to the permeation of moisture, odour and taint, and
also increases heat sealability and gloss, fluorocarbon increases grease resistance.
•Addition of fillers and internal sizing additives
Fillers are so called as they fill in the voids (pores) in the fibre structure and better
scatter the light. Fillers are white inorganic materials which are added to the stock to
improve printability, brightness, opacity and smoothness of paper. Alluminium
sulphate and rosin are used as internal sizing additives in paper sizing process.
•Addition of additives for strength
Urea and melamine formaldehyde, and several other substances are used as additives
for improving strength properties. See also above substances used in chemical
reactions.
•Chemicals used to assist the process of paper manufacture
Examples are antifoaming agents and flocculating agents.

Main type, properties and use of packaging paper

Type of paper Manufacturing process Properties and use
Kraft paper It is made from sulphate pulp of • High strength paper
(sack kraft) soft woods. (Soft wood • Used as heavy duty (high strength)
fibrillates more, with this paper, used for making paper bag
strength increases); It can be and multiwall sack e.g. grocery
natural, bleached or coloured bag, liners for corrugated board.
type;
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may be wet-strengthened or
made water-repellent.
Sulphite paper Generally made from mixture of • Clean bright paper
soft wood and hard wood; • Has excellent printing quality
normally bleached • Used for making smaller bags,
pouches, envelopes, waxed papers,
labels, paper/al. foil laminate
Greaseproof Made from heavily beaten pulp • Good grease resistance property
paper (hydration of fibres make them • Used for packing fatty foods like
almost gelatinous and baked goods, chicken roll, pizza
greaseproof)
Glassine It is supercalendered grease • Dense, nonporous, greaseproof
proof paper; made by paper
calendering process • Good odour barrier
• has high finish (gloss, smoothness)
• Used for lining bags, boxes, plastic
coated paper, laminate with paper
board and al. foil
• used for packaging fatty foods
Vegetable Made by parmentizing process • Non-toxic, high wet strength,
parchment of bleached chemical pulp grease resistant paper
• Used for packaging wet and fatty
food, e.g. butter, fatty foods, meat
steak, fish, etc.
Tissue (tissue Made from manila hemp (fibre • Light weight, porous, strong paper
paper) obtained from a Philippine • Used for making tea and coffee
plant) bag, etc.

Paperboard
Paperboard, also called cardboard, is distinguished from paper by thickness. Paper is thicker
material.
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Paper is thin material having thickness up to 0.3 mm. Paper board has thickness > 0.3 mm. The
total thickness of board is 0.80 to 2.8 mm.
Paperboard of low quality/cheaper type may also be made from straw and grass

Basically paper boards are of two types

(i) Solid fibre board (ii) Corrugated fibre board

(i) Solid fibre board (SFB)

Solid fibre board can be made of single layer of board or two and more layers of board, and are
called single ply board (made of single layer or ply of board); double-ply board (also known as
duplex board), triple-ply board (also known as triplex board) and multi-ply (board having up to 8
plies). Here, ply refers to layer.
The plies can vary in chemical composition, properties and performance
A paperboard is composed of different layers of paper and paperboard. Normally, kraft paper or
other type paper forms the top layer or liner. A paperboard is composed of layers or plies called
liners. Liner on top is called top liner and that on back is called back liner or back; plies of PB
under top liner is called under liner, PB plies in middle are called middles.

(ii) Corrugated fibre board (CFB)

Corrugated fibre board contains corrugating medium between two layers of board. CFB has thus
three layers – two flat layers glued to a middle wavy layer.
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The corrugating medium (grooved material) increases compression impact resistance

(compressive strength) of board. Height of flute (s) affects compression strength and stiffness of
board. Higher the flute height higher is the compressive strength and more stiff it is (i.e. higher
force is required to bend it).
Main types of paper board and use
Board type and construction Use
Cream lined chipboard* • Board of lowest grade and price
it has creamy top liner of chemical, mechanical or • Used for making folding box
mixed pulp and back of chipboard

White lined chipboard Used for making folding cartons for

It has white top liner (coated with a white pigment) breakfast cereals (e.g. porridge, beaten
of bleached chemical pulp/under liner of chemical rice, corn flakes)
or mechanical pulp /middles of mixed recycled
pulp/back liner of selected bleached recycled pulp
Duplex board Uses as white lined chipboard
Duplex board consists of two layers, mostly made
from waste paper pulp. It has liner and back both
made from new pulp. It has smooth and waxy feel.
White lined manila. Used for making cartons for cheese, etc.
This is triplex board made out of three different fatty foods
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pulp stocks; middle layer made from recycled pulp;

top layer is white and glossy
Solid white board/solid bleached board • Strong board
board made entirely from sulphate pulp; waxed, and • Used for making carton and box
so also called solid bleached sulphate board for frozen (wet) foods,
chocolate, and liquid foods
Liquid packaging board Used for packaging of liquid products
Its construction is similar to solid white board; extra like milk, cream, fruit juice, etc.
coating viz. plastic coating or lamination with al.
foil is done for improved barrier properties)
*chipboard is normally referred to board made by re-pulping 100% waste/recycled pulp which is
a low quality (grade) paper board with low strength (and low price)

Properties of paper and paper board

Properties are important for selection and purchasing of paper (and other packaging materials),
assure their quality for use and for package design. The desirable properties of paper and
paperboard are
• Appearance (optical) properties
Appearance properties relate to colour and visual impression
Colour
Colour is an important quality attribute of packaging material. Colour is defined as sensation
perceived by eye and brain. Papers have different colours.
Smoothness
Smoothness is state of quality of being smooth. Surface smoothness is desirable aesthetic feature
of packaging material. It is important for printing and varnishing. The opposite expression is
roughness.
Gloss
Gloss means shine and sparkle. Gloss is important for making it attractive to see and smooth to
feel. The opposite case is haze, and hazy papers are not appealing.
Clarity (transparency)
It is see-through property. It is important for making it revealing. The opposite case is opacity.
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• Physicochemical properties
Moisture content
Amount of moisture present in paper and paper board, expressed in %.
Cellulose fibres absorb moisture and expand in high humidity condition which results in increase
in thickness. Mechanical strength of paper decreases with increase in moisture content and
thickness, Also, moisture content affects the operations like coating, printing, laminating, etc.
Chloride content
The chloride content can be indicative of the strength of paper. The excessive chloride (from
calcium hypochlorite) used for bleaching of paper decreases the strength. Besides, It can be of
quality (safety) concern.
pH and ash content are other properties associated with quality of paper. Paper of neutral pH or
slightly basic (up to pH 7.5) is desirable packaging material having better storability quality and
called acid-free paper. Paper may turn acidic during storage.
Thickness (caliper)
The thickness of paper and paperboard may be defined as the perpendicular distance between
two principal surfaces.
Thickness can affect the weight, strength, barrier properties, transparency and flexibility of
paper. With increase in thickness weight (become heavier), strength, barrier properties increase
whereas transparency and flexibility decrease. It is important to know the thickness as it is
important to have uniform thickness or minimum variation in thickness for smooth running of
automatic printing and high speed packaging.
Thickness of paper and paperboard is measured in mm or mil or point.
1 mil=1 point=0.001˝=0.025 mm=100 gauge (for plastics)
Factors affecting thickness of paper are moisture and compressibility.
Basis weight (substance, grammage, gsm)
It refers to the weight of 1 m² of paper, and expressed in g/m² (lbs/3000 ft² in USA). Higher basis
weight means higher weight, strength and barrier property. However, since paper is usually sold
or purchased by weight and used on area basis any divergence from the proper weight will result
in more or less square footage (paper area) than is desired. Besides, it may also result in a
material that is too heavy or too light for the intended use.
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Yield
It is inverse expression of basis weight, expressed as m2/kg.
Yield is important as paper is usually sold or purchased by weight and used on area basis. In
commercial application it is important how many (number) packs that can be made from a unit
weight of paper.
Stiffness
Stiffness is resistance to bending caused by an externally applied force. This property is
important for printing and package development (conversion) .
Porosity
Porosity is a measure of the extent to which a paper surface allows the penetration of a gas (air
and gases) or liquid (water, ink, etc.) through tiny passages. Porosity has implication during
printing (high porosity high ink absorbency), high speed filling of fine powder products (certain
porosity desired for the air to escape from inside of package), etc. operations. Different porosity
is desired for different operations.
Creasability and foldability
Creasability is property of paper to produce crease or groove and foldability is property to bend
over or double up. These properties are desirable for the development of folding box and carton
and development of packages of different shapes and styles.
Water absorptiveness or absorbency
It indicates the susceptibility of paper and paper board to gain moisture when exposed to humid
conditions and rain. It measures the amount of water absorbed by unit area of paper or paper
board. Strength of paper and paper board is low if water absorptiveness is high.
Wax coverage: It refers to the amount in % of wax impregnated in waxed paper

• Strength properties
Performance properties relate to strength and barrier properties. Many a times, referred to as
mechanical strength.
Compression strength
It is the property of paper or paper board to offer resistance to compression. Compressive impact
causes breakage and deformation of package.
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This property has practical importance when static load is applied in palletized stock over long
period of storage or dynamic load associated with dropping of package or with transport induced
shock.
Compression strength and stiffness are positively related.
Wet strength:
It is resistance to damage by wetting (when infused with water)
Resistance to insect penetration:
It is resistance to penetration by insects which leads to loss of food.
Puncture resistance
It is the strength of paper board to resist puncture such as sharp corners of other containers, sharp
lumber (wood), hooks, nails, fork trucks etc. which can occur during transportation, handling and
storage.
Internal tearing resistance
Tearing resistance is the measured force required to initiate a tear (called edge tearing)
Internal tearing resistance is the property of paper to resist the tear already initiated.
It is measured by the force required to continue for a fixed distance a tear already started in the
paper and expressed in gm. cm. The property depends on grain direction, fibre length, degree of
beating (negative effect), density, and surface treatment.
Tensile strength
Force required to rupture a strip of material is known as tensile strength.
Static tensile strength is indicative of the resistance of paper to rupture when subjected to a
pulling force applied parallel to the plane of the sample.
This property is important where papers are subjected to direct tensile stress (pulling force) in
operations such as forming, printing, coating, lamination, etc. Important for papers like
wrapping paper and bags.
Dynamic tensile strength is measured by the energy required to break a specimen of specified
dimensions by subjecting it to an impact stress (impact in motion). This property is important for
papers used in the construction of multiwall paper bags.
Tensile strength depends on composition (of pulp), degree of fibrillation, moisture content, and
other treatments like calendaring, coating, etc. Excess fibrillation is however not desirable as the
fibres are excessively cut and the resulting paper has low strength.
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Stretch or Elongation
The strength of paper can also be expressed as % elongation. Elongation refers to the increase in
length, parallel to the direction of applied force, when paper is subjected to tensile stresses.
Higher elongation is desirable. This quality of stretch has significance in the case of tapes, bags,
lining paper, towels etc.
Bursting strength (bursting resistance):
It is resistance of paper and paper board to burst due to high internal pressure in the container
(box, carton, etc).
Abrasion resistance: It refers to resistance to surface wear by abrasion/rubbing/friction

 Barrier properties
These refer to properties of paper and paper board to permeate (pass) or offer resistance to
permeate gases and water vapour including fats and oils. They permeate through pores.
Paper and paper boards have varying permeability properties. Permeability=rate of permeation
(of permeant). Permeation can be desirable or undesirable depending on requirement. Oxygen
and moisture content have important effect on food quality and shelf life. Examples can be given
of oxygen sensitive foods (e.g fatty foods) and moisture sensitive hygroscopic foods. Sometimes
high oxygen is desirable, for example in MAP of meat. Selection of packaging materials of
suitable permeability is therefore important for shelf life and preserving the quality of food.
Testing barrier properties is of more practical significance in case of plastics than paper.
Gas transmission rate (GTR)
The gas transmission rate of a packaging material is defined as the volume of gas (oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc) flowing normal to two parallel surfaces, at steady-state conditions*,
through unit area of the material in unit time, under unit pressure differential and is under the
conditions of the test. The gas transmission rate is usually expressed as cc/sq m/24 h/atm press.
*stable, unchanged state or condition
Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR)
WVTR is defined as amount of water vapour passing through unit area of packaging material in
unit time under defined conditions of temperature and Rh. It is usually expressed as gm/sq m/day
at 37.8 ºC and 90% Rh.
Grease resistance
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It is the property of paper to resist penetration of fats and oils.

Plastic coated paper, parchment, glassine, grease proof paper have grease resistance property in
decreasing order.

2. Plastics
Introduction
Widely used packaging material
• The word "plastics" is derived from Greek word "Plastikos," and it is used to describe the
vast range of macromolecular organic compounds (polymers) built by the repeated joining of
small basic building blocks called monomers.
Example, C2H4 (ethylene) + C2H4 + C2H4 + … = (C2H4)n (polyethylene)
Many a times plastics are called “polymer”.
Homo polymer (made from single type of monomers) and heteropolymer (plastics made from
mixture of different monomers; a copolymer, viz. ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer).
• Plastic=deformable, mouldable state of material, therefore “plastics”
Based on physical property plastics can be classified as thermoplastics (softens upon heating
and becomes hard again after cooling, this allows it to be formed in desired shape) and
thermosets (heat stable; char, disintegrate upon heating) e.g. phenolic resin, melamine-
formaldehyde resin, urea-formaldehyde resin, epoxide resins; package forms are like plastic
dishes like plate and bowl
• Plastics, the polymer, also refers to plurality; the ready converted material is plastic; also
adjective
Production process
Earlier time synthetic resins (phenolic resin, melamine-formaldehyde resin, etc.) were in use.
Today, most plastics are manufactured by chemical process on fossil based raw materials (oil,
gases, sometimes coal). The constituent monomers are polymerized to synthesize plastic
polymers to which different additives are added and converted into plastics. The additives are
used to achieve desired properties in plastics. Examples are plasticizers, solvents, emulsifiers,
wetting agents, antioxidants, antiblock (anti-lump) agents, slip agents, heat and light stabilizers,
photo initiator, pigments, lubricants and adhesives.
Advantages:
 23

Easy fabrication (less manufacturing and development time), cheap, light, can be developed in
variety of geometric shapes, microwavable
Disadvantages:
• Generates non-degradable waste/environmental pollution
• Comparatively lower strength

Properties of plastics
Importance of properties
• Appearance (optical) properties
Appearance properties relate to colour and visual impression
Colour, gloss and clarity (transparency) are appearance properties of plastics.
See paper properties.
• Performance properties
Heat sealing property: Heat sealing means melting and fusing two plastics surfaces together for
closing the package or for other purpose. This property varies with plastics as some are easily
heat sealed and others difficult
Heat seal strength refers to the integrity of seal.
Softness and hardness (stiffness): plastics vary in their hardness (stiffness) and softness
Softening point: It is the temperature at which plastics softens or melts. Important for heat
sealing and moulding/forming.
Stress crack resistance: It is ability of plastics to withstand stresses such high and low
atmospheric temperature, chemical pollutants, high and low pressure which cause crack or
damage to the plastics
Chemical inertness and resistance to chemicals: This refers to softening, swelling, solubility
and reaction of plastics with food, solvent, chemical constituents in contact such as acid, alkali,
esters, aromatic hydrocarbons, higher alcohols, ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons. This property
is important for compatibility of plastics with food product, total quality protection and shelf life
of food.
 24

Other properties of plastics are thickness, basis weight, yield, sp. gr., grease reistance, resistance
to insect penetration, tensile strength, abrasion resistance, impact resistance, GTR, WVTR as
described for paper and paper board.

Common food-use plastics and their properties and uses

1. Polyethylene
Polyethylene is most widely used mass produced plastics. Polyethylenes are made by
pressure polymerization of ethylene. High pressure makes low density (low molecular
weight) polymer and low pressure produces high density polymer.
• Tough, easily heat sealed, elastic, good chemical stability (not affected by alkalies
and mineral acids)
• Low barrier to gases, aroma, fats
1.1 Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
• Accounts for the biggest proportion of plastics used in packaging due to its versatility
(possess multiple properties)
• Soft, easily heat sealed, relatively inert chemically, almost insoluble in all solvents at
room temperature, some softening and swelling can occur with chlorinated
hydrocarbons, low water vapour permeability, high gas permeability
• Coated on paper to make it grease resistant
• Used as adhesive (layer) between paper and aluminium foil to make laminate
• Used in the production of films, bottles, closures, dispensers, shopping bags, shrink
films
1.2 High density polyethylene (HDPE)
• Hard (due to high density)
• gives higher rigidity (stand up property) to bottles than LDPE for same wall thickness
• Has fat and aroma barrier properties superior to LDPE
1.3 Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)
• Properties similar to LDPE
• Stronger and tougher than LDPE

2. Polypropylene (PP)
 25

Normally biaxially oriented* (BOPP) is used than normal PP

*Note: Orientation is process of stretching the film under melting point. Orientation improves
shrink characteristics.
• PP is harder than LDPE and HDPE and has chemical stability similar to both
• Good water vapour barrier, excellent grease resistance, high stress crack resistance,
steam-sterilizable
• Used for the production of bottle, shrink-film

Polyolefin: refers to a family or class of plastics made based on ethylene and propylene e.g.
LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE, PP, olefin meaning "oil-forming" and constituting "thermoplastics"

3. Ionomer (a family of polymers which contain apart from usual covalent bonds between the
atoms in each polymer chain ionic bonds between the polymer chains). Pressure induced process
to improve stiffness like properties.
- High water vapour permeability, excellent grease resistance, good adhesion property
- Surlyn has properties similar to polyethylene
- TPX has good impact strength
Ionomers are marketed by their trade names such as Surlyn (DoPoint) and TPX.

4. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

• PVC has slight polar nature and it is resistant to nonpolar (hydrocarbons) and strongly
polar substances (water, inorganic acids). Middle polarity compounds either swell or
dissolve PVC. It is easily degraded by heat, light and mechanical energy.
• Good gas barrier, moderate barrier to water vapour, excellent resistance to fats and oils,
resistant to acid and alkali
• Used for packaging of liquid products (beverage, edible oils), fatty foods (e.g. wrapping
cheese in oxygen free atmosphere), making soft films (plasticized, low micron) with high
gas permeability for overwrapping of fresh meat

5. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)

 26

• Very low permeability to water vapour and gases, good resistance to water, solvents and
fats and oils, good flexibility
• Used as film as barrier layer in laminate or as dispersion coating on paper and plastics,
PVDC heat shrink film is used for skin-tight wrapping of poultry, ham, cheese and other
similar items to keep freshness, used for vacuum packaging and gas packaging (pouches)
• Oriented PVDC is called "saran"
8. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
Soluble in water
9. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA)
• Has high transparency, flexibility, impact resistance, stress crack resistance and good
resilience.
• Permeability to water vapour and gases is higher than LDPE
• Due to good resilience property it is used for making snap-on caps (the cap is fixed in
mouth of container and fit tightly/tight fitting cap) and stretch wrapping of deep frozen
poultry
10. Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
 Has very low GTR.
 Used for gas packaging
10. Polystyrene (PS)
• Colourless, transparent, hard, brittle, sensitive to stress crack, resistant to strong acids and
alkalies, soluble in esters, aromatic hydrocarbons, higher alcohols, ketones and
chlorinated hydrocarbons, high permeability to gases and water vapour,
• Used for making packages which are stored at low temperature (refrigerated) and contain
foods with low fat content, impact resistant PS dishes (HIPS cups)
11. Polycarbonate (PC)
• Hard, strong, resistant to high and low temperatures
• Used for manufacturing strong kitchen dishes and food containers
12. Cellulose acetate (CA)
• Sensitive to moisture and not dimensionally stable (lacks rigidity)
• Tensile strength and impact strength are comparable to PS
13. Polyamide or nylon
 27

• Tough (hard) material, high tensile strength, good resistance to abrasion, high softening
point and resist steam sterilization, slightly hygroscopic, fairly high water vapour
permeability, good gas and odour barrier property, excellent transparency
• Used in laminates e.g. PE/PA, for vacuum packaging and inert gas packaging of meat,
fish, cheese, coffee, milk powder, bag for bag in box type packaging of liquid foods
14. Polyester/Polyethylene terephthalates (PET)
• Good gas, aroma and fat barrier/resistant, low barrier to water vapour, high softening
point, not easily heat-sealable, good impact resistant
• Used for making boil-in-bag, microwave oven dishes
• BOPET (biaxially oriented PET)

Some important properties of plastics:

Plastics Sp. Soften Yield Tensil WVTR O2TR CO2 TR N2 TR
gr. ing (m2/ e str. (g/m2/d/a (cc/m2/d/ (ml/m2/d/ (ml/m2/d/
point Kg) (kg/c tm) at atm) MPa) at 30 MPa) at 30
2
(ºC) 25 µ m) 90% Rh, at 25 ºC ºC, 25 µ ºC, 25 µ
38 ºC 25 µ

25 µ
Low 0.92- 85-87 42 80- 14-18 7000- 2300 120
density 0.94 (low) 240 (high) 8000
polyethyle (low) (fairly
ne (LDPE) high)
High 0.95- 120- 41 220- 5-7 1500- 230 18
density 0.96 130 350 2000
polyethyle (high (high)
ne er)
(HDPE)
Cast 0.91 150 44 300- 7-9 2000- 610
polypropyl (high) 400 (v. low) 3000
ene (CPP)
 28

Biaxially 0.91 44 500- 4 2000-

oriented 550 (v. low) 2500
polypropyl
ene
(BOPP)
Polyester 1.34- 250 28 800- 21 50-90 10 0.33
(PET) 1.39 1700 (v. low)
(high)
Polyvinyl 1.3- 82 28 460- 30-40 300-400 6.7 2.7
chloride 1.6 560 (high)
(PVC)
Polyvinyli 1.5- 80 24 500- 2-4 5-25 1.9 0.07
dene 1.7 850 (v. low) (v. low)
chloride (high)
(PVDC)
(saran)
Ionomer 0.94 68-76 42 350 20-30 7000-
8000
Polystyren 1.05 78-103 37 360- 100-150 4000- 590 19
e (PS) 530 (v. high) 5000
Polycarbo 1.20 165 32 680- 50-150 3000
nate (PC) (high) 720
Ethylene 1.14- 33 400- 20-50 0.5-20
vinyl 1.21 1600 (v. low)
alcohol (high)
(EVOH or
EVAl)
Ethylene 0.93 95 155- 20-50 10000
vinyl 280 (high)
acetate
(EVA)
 29

Cellulose 1.23- 70 42 100-300 2000- 450 19

Acetate 1.33 3000
Nylon 11 1.04 216 34 700- 60-100 400
(high) 1000
1 atmosphere (standard) = 1 bar = 760 mm Hg = 0.10 MPa

3. Metal packaging material

• Widely used packaging material
• advantages are high strength (strong material), excellent barrier properties, collectible
image
• Disadvantages are corrosion (corrosive reactions with food) affecting shelf life, quality
and taste; not microwavable
Type
• Tin
• Steel (tin free steel, tinless steel, aluminized steel)
• Aluminium- pure aluminium and aluminium alloy, anodised aluminium

Tin
• Most widely used metal container
• Advantages: light in weight, easy machinability and to fabricate into containers, strong to
withstand processing conditions (temperature, pressure)
• Tin plate is mild steel plate (low carbon steel) coated both sides by tin.
Outline of manufacturing of tin plate
Iron ore is heated (smelting) in blast furnace to high temperature to produce pig iron (iron ingot
of high carbon content)
▼
Pig iron is heated in oxygen steel furnace to transform it into low carbon steel
▼
casting of hot liquid steel into steel slab (~235 mm thickness)
▼
 30

hot steel slab (900-1200°C) is passed between pair of rolls to transform the steel slab in
thin coil (1.5 to 3.4 mm thickness) called hot rolling
▼
Pickling in bath of hot dil. sulphuric acid to remove scales or oxides formed during hot
rolling and produce plate with bright surface
▼
Plate is passed through rollers at room temperature applying high force that decreases the
thickness of metal plate to ~0.2 mm (0.15-0.50 mm) and increases the strength (hardness,
tensile strength) of the metal plate (process called cold rolling). Besides, the metal will
have smooth, bright surface called finish.
▼
Annealing: annealing increases strength properties
▼
Temper-rolling to give required surface hardness and finish
▼
Mild steel plate (carbon content 0.04-0.12%), and is used as base plate for tin plate
manufacturing
Type of steel base plate:
Based on machinability, strength and corrosion resistance the steel
plate is classified as type L, type MR, type MC, etc.. These properties
depend on the content of phosphorous (0.01-0.1%) and copper (0.02-
0.6%). Phosphorous gives strength and the steel containing higher
amount of copper are more corrosive.
Type L: It is high purity steel; used for highly acidic/corrosive
products
Type MR: moderately acidic/corrosive products
Type MC: used for making high strength tinplate
▼
The steel plate is coated on its both faces by tin to produce tin plate. Tin coating thickness
is 0.4 -2.5 µm (2.8-17 gsm)
 31

Methods of tin coating:

1. Hot dipping
Steel base plate is dipped in molten tin bath
2. Electrolytic coating
Tin acting as anode is deposited on steel base plate acting as cathode
Electrolytic coating method gives thinner coating with the substance as low as 5.6 gsm
when it is minimum of 22 gsm by hot dipping method (11 gsm on each side).

Differential tin coating: it refers to the coating method with different amounts of tin
deposit on the two sides of steel plate. Nomenclature, for example D 100/50.

2. Tin free steel

It is mild steel plate coated electrolytically with chromium (chrome and chromium oxide). It may
be lacqured to improve corrosion resistance.

3. Tinless steel (black plate)

Tinless steel (plate) It is mild steel plate coated with phosphate, and then laacquered
The phosphate is coated by dipping the plate in hot phosphate solution called bonderizing
(bonderizing produces good adherend surface for subsequent paint coating). After bonderizing,
cleaning and drying the sheet is lacquered and baked.
4. Aluminized steel: The steel plate is coated with aluminium by hot dipping process or vapour
coating (vapour deposition coating).
5. Aluminium
Advantages:
 32

• Light in weight
• Good gas and light barrier properties
• Non-corrosive for large number of food products
Aluminium is expensive metal
6. Aluminium alloy: It is Al-Mn alloy and contains 1% manganese as alloying agent.
Manganese increases strength and corrosion resistance. Without manganese to have the same
strength as tin the thickness of aluminium has to be 20% greater.
7. Anodized aluminium
Anodized aluminium is hard and strong metal
Anodising is electrochemical process used to produce hard, strong and durable aluminium with
good finish.

Lacquer and lacquering

Lacquer (UK) or enamel (US) is a coating/painting substance made up of resin and other
materials (solvent, drying oil, etc.) applied on metal plates to prevent corrosive reaction between
metal container and content (food). It is difficult to completely coat the steel plate and always
there can be naked microscopic spaces available for corrosion reaction. Hence, lacquer is applied
(process called lacquering) to cover this exposed space of steel base plate.
Type:
1. Natural lacquer
It is made from natural resin,* oleoresin lacquer and gold coloured. It is used for metal plates
used for canning of fruits of the acid group rich in soluble red pigment anthocyanin e.g. blue
grapes, strawberry, cherry, raspberry, red plum and called acid resistant lacquer (A.R. lacquer).
*Resin is an inflammable, water insoluble adhesive substance. Natural resin is a gummy material
exuding naturally or upon incision by plants like fir and pine
2. Synthetic lacquer
It is made from synthetic resin
2.1 Phenolic lacquer: It is made by the acid of alkaline condensation of a phenol with
formaldehyde.
2.2 Vinyl lacquer: It is made by copolymerzation of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate. It is used
for beer and soft drink cans which are not processed at high temperature.
 33

2.3 Epoxy lacquer: It is made from eiphlorohydrin and bis-phenol. It has fair resistance to
sulphide staining. It is sulphur resistant (S.R.) lacquer and used for sulphur containing foods like
meat, fish, poultry
2.4 Epoxy phenolic lacquer: It is made from polybutadienes and resins based on diphenolic acid.
It is also called general purpose lacquer and used for high acid foods and condensed milk.

Properties of metal
• Resistance to fracture on sharp bending
• Chemical inertness
• Continuity of tin coating (in case of tin container)
It is important to ensure that no localised corrosion occurs with food in the exposed steel
leading to pinholing and ultimately leakage and loss of shelf life.

4. Glass
The principal ingredient of glass is silica (sand) and flint or quartz (similar materials). Other
materials may be mixed in small quantities. Cullet (broken returned bottles) can be mixed. Very
common soda glass contains apart from silica other minerals like CaO, Na 2O etc in small
amounts. The main raw material is molten at very high temperature (~1500 °C) during
fabrication of glass containers.
Advantages:
• Offers tremendous barrier properties
• Chemical inertness. Reinforces consumer security.
• Conveys the “feel” of crystal, and creates a good impression. Good psychological
attribute.
Disadvantages:
• Heavy in weight: weighs more than any other packaging material.
• Breakage problem: can break in filling, shipping, palletizing, storage or use.

Properties
• Mechanical properties
 34

1.1 Rigidity: It is desirable property of glass container and is advantageous in operations like
filling, stacking and distribution.
1.2 Internal pressure resistance: This is the property to resist pressure exerted by the filling
or filled products such as soft drink and beer.
1.3 Impact strength: This is the property of glass container to resist the impact (impact
causes breakage) encountered during falling of container on floor or when a moving object
contacts the glass in filling line.
1.4 Resistance to scratches and abrasion: This is the property to resist scratch and abrasion as
scratch and abrasion can reduce the overall strength of glass container. This property is important
specially in thin walled glass.
1.5 Verticle load strength: It is the strength to resist compression and is important during high
speed filling.
• Optical properties
Clarity: It is important for making the product revealing. However, products requiring
protection from light need to be packed in coloured containers.
Gloss:
• Thermal properties
Heat resistance: It is the ability of glass containers to withstand high processing temperature
such as hot filling, cooking or sterilization of product in the container.
Thermal shock resistance: It is the property of glass container to withstand shock
(consequently breakage) due to sudden temperature change. The glass container experiences
thermal shock when one surface only is rapidly chilled or heated (high temperature gradient).
Note: In modern glass manufacturing annealing has prevented breakage due to thermal shock
whereby glass is held at high temperature for structural relaxation i.e. alignment of molecules
and slowly cooled.

• Chemical properties
4.1 Chemical inertness: Glass is regarded to be chemically inert and it is a desirable property.
4.2 Alkalinity

5. Miscellaneous packaging materials

 35

Wood and timber (plywood) pkgg materials

Advantages:
• Withstands tremendous pressure and keeps its shape
• Offers good impact strength
• Highly appealing gift boxes can be made
Disadvantges:
• In general it can only be used for solids
• More expensive than other raw materials
• Inappropriate for high speed packaging
Textile and jute
Includes cotton and linen packaging materials and gunny bags
Rubber
 36

Chapter 4: Packaging forms (type, construction, use)

List of packaging forms from different types of packaging materials
Packaging forms from paper and paper board:
Wrapping paper, bag, box, sachet, pouch, case, carton, fitments in board, body of composite
container, fittings in case, multiwall sack, fibre drum, tray, tub
Packaging forms from plastics:
Film, laminate and sheet, bag, pouch and sachet, sack, bottle, tray, tub, cup, blister pack, fitment,
cushioning material, cap and closure, drum, crate, box
Packaging forms from metal:
Can, crate, box, pallet, tube, closure, drum, keg, metal strapping and banding, foil, laminate and
label (aluminium)
Packaging forms from glass:
Bottle, jar, tray, tube, ampoule, vial
Packaging forms from wood:
Box, crate, cask, keg, case, drum, pallet, basket and punnet
Packaging forms from textile and jute:
Sack, bag (gunny bag)

Type of retail pack type based on rigidity:

Rigid, semi rigid, flexible types
Semi-rigid and rigid type containers have stand up rigidity (self-standing) and they have
advantages of speedy filling and stacking

Retail packs
1. Can
Type of can
1.1 Three-piece can: It is made of three pieces of top side (lid), bottom side (lid) and body.
It is open top sanitary (OTS) can, so called because the top side only is open while filling the can.
It involves the operations like reforming, making side seam, flanging, seaming, etc and so called
built up can. The can is not reclosable.
 37

Shape of can are cylindrical or round, rectangular, oval, pullmon, etc.

Lid has lining compound of rubber composition in curled edges to serve as gasket or seal

Fig.: Three piece can of different shapes (round or cylindrical (short and tall), oval, spherical,
rectangular)

Type of side seam:

• Locked side seam: The edges are notched (and curled) and hooked; molten solder (98%
lead and 2% tin) is applied in the lock.
Soldering is the process of joining two metals together with the aid of an additive
material called solder which is usually mixture of tin and lead.
• Cemented side seam: The lap joint is bonded by heated thermoplastic cement (nylon)
followed by rapid cooling.
• Welded side seam: The lap joint is bonded by welding under application of heat.
Welding is the process of fusing (joining) two metals in molten state and the joint of the
surfaces of two metals is fixed.
Can size nomenclature and dimension:
Examples: A2½, A1 Tall etc.
A2½ (American system) → 401 (dia) x 411 (ht) (ISO) → 41/16" (dia) x 411/16" (ht)
 38

1.2 Two-piece can: It has body and lid.

Type and manufacturing method of two-piece can:

• Drawn and wall ironed (DWI):
Body blank; Cup with dies of gradually decreasing diameter; punch, press. Sometimes
called single drawn.
• Drawn and redrawn (DRD):
A series of cups; decreasing diameters; taller cans of smaller diameters. It is multi-drawn
can.

Advantages of two-piece can:

• Elimination of side seam and bottom seam (as three piece can has) reduces the possibility
of leakage from the seams and lead contamination in food from solder.
• Has smooth profile and streamline appearance and so better aesthetic appeal.
 39

• Un-interrupted print decoration on the external surface (side and bottom seams interrupt
with printing process).
• Bottom of the can be designed and formed (with heels) for better stackability.
• Due to the elimination of overlap of end edges for locking for seam formation the
material is saved and so less metal is used in the construction of can.
Type of can based on type of lid
i. Collar can: It contains a removable tear strip (as shown in figure) fitted in the collar of
can. The removable tear strip is removed when can is opened. The lid can then be replaced.

ii. Lever lid can: It is usually round built-up can. The removable lid fits tightly into the ring
of can (as inverted hat when pressed). The edge of lid extends over the ring of can to provide a
flange for lever opening tool.

iii. Slip lid can: The body is usually seamless (side seam is absent). The lid fits over the mouth
(slip and close).
 40

Type of aluminium can based on manufacturing technology

i. Built up can: It is built up can like three piece can but reclosable.
ii. Shallow formed can: It is shallow (small height) can

iii. Deep drawn can: It is tall can. Height is somewhat greater than diameter.

iv. Impact extruded can: Small diameter tall cans

 41

Composite can
A composite can has body and lid of different type of packaging materials. Originally composite
container was paperboard tube with metal lids and called paper board composite. Its body or side
wall is composed of paper board made by winding plies of paper board or kraft paper spirally or
convolutely and glued together. The ends of the can can be metal, plastic etc materials.

2. Bag, pouch, sachet, envelope

- Bags, pouches, sachets and envelopes are similar type of packages made from flexible
packaging materials having closable opening on top.
Bag type:
- Film bag is made from LDPE and HDPE. PP, PET, vinyl and saran (oriented PVDC) coated
films.
- paper bag, net bag
- Pouch and sachet are normally made from plastics and laminate
 42

Sachets and pouches

Paper bag and envelope as consumer pack carries up to 5 kg weight

Envelope bag bags

 43

Fried chips in paper bag Nylon net bag

Design of bag and pouch

Flat bag, Gusseted bag, Self-opening bag, Rose bottom bag

Flat bag Gusseted bag Self-opening bag

 44

- Flat bag has simple construction

- Gusseted bag has folding sides
- Self-opening bag (SOS) (bottom is folded, has heel, by crimping the top opening or jaws
or zip the bag is reclosed/ “zipper bag”)
- Rose bottom bag has bottom in design of rose leaves
Pillow pouch: Pillow pouch or bag is preferentially used for the packaging of fragile foods and
extensively used for snacks (chips, crackers, crisps). The package when filled with food takes the
form of pillow hence called pillow pouch. The gas packaging expands the pack to look like
pillow, is light, and protects food from breakage by compressive impact and oxidative
deterioration.

3. Box and carton

Box (as retail pack) and carton are similar containers. Boxes have usual shape with small height.
Cartons are box like containers with height greater than box.
Type of box
i. Folding box and carton
Folding box and carton are made of paperboard capable of being scored and bending without
fracture. They are made from light paperboard (thickness 300-1100 um); solid bleached and
unbleached sulphate board, and recycled board used. Coating and laminating may be done to
improve barrier (water vapour, grease) properties.
The paper board sheets are cut and scored for bending into desired shape and delivered in
collapsed (flat) state for assembly at packing point
 45

Snacks folding box

ii. Set up box
The set up type of box or carton is manufactured and delivered in fixed form

wooden tea set up box

Type of carton by design

i. Brick (liquid) carton
Brick liquid carton viz. Tetrabrik® carton has brick shape or can even have square shape. They
come in a range of sizes from portion packs of 200 ml or 250ml for milk and juice, to 1 litre
standard family packs to larger sizes of 1.5 and two litres. They come with or without closure
having sides “ears” tucked inside (to be cut to open the carton).
Beverage carton:
Beverage cartons are so called special cartons impermeable to liquid and used for packaging of
liquid food such as fruit juice, milk, wine etc; can have different designs as above. The cartons
are made from wax and PE coated paper board.
 46

Brick cartons, without closure (left), with closure (right)

ii. Gable top (liquid) carton
Gable top carton has square cross section and is distinct from other liquid carton types by the
specific gable shape at the top of the pack; and can come with or without a closure.
Gable top liquid cartons are typically used for fresh juices and liquid food products,
e.g. fresh milk, drinking yoghurt, fresh soups and fresh fruit juice.

iii. Tetrahedron carton

 47

Aseptic packaging carton:

Aseptic packaging cartons are special type of beverage cartons used for aseptic packaging of
liquid foods. The sterilized food is filled aseptically in liquid tight pre-sterilized carton under
aseptic condition and hermetically sealed. The product is shelf stable.
The packaging system is called form-fill-seal, and the machine called form-fill-seal machine.
Construction of carton:
The carton is multilayer (normally 6) laminate of plastics, paper, paper board and aluminium foil
(6.3 um)
PE (outermost layer)/unbleached paper/bleached paperboard/PE/Al. foil/PE
PE: heat sealing; Bleached paperboard: mechanical rigidity & printing; PE: binds al foil to PB;
Al. foil: gas and light barrier; PE (2 layers of different grammage): liquid barrier.

4. Moulded pulp container:

This is made by pressure injection and suction moulding of cardboards called moulded pulp tray,
carton having cavities and used for eggs and fruits, etc.

Moulded pulp egg tray

5. Tube
Used for filling products of creamy and viscous consistency like tomato ketchup, paste and
mustard
Type of tube:
i. Metal tube
 48

ii. Plastic tube

Coloured PE granules are mixed, blended and hot-extruded in continuous tubing; the tubing is
cut to desired length; shoulder and nozzle are formed; bottom is crimped and sealed; after colour
printing lacquering is done to give glossy finish; drying by UV light
Advantages:
• Does not collapse but retains its shape and length on bending and squeezing
• Rust proof unlike metal tube
• Strong seals (the seal does not open easily)
iii. Laminated tube:
It is made of laminate of plastic/al. foil/paper
Complete ply composition: LDPE with antistat (outermost layer)/LDPE/printing ink/pigmented
white LDPE/paper/LDPE/ethylene acrylic acid copolymer/al. foil/EVA/LDPE (innermost layer)
Advantages:
Far better barrier properties than plastic tube
Easily squeezable and eliminates waste
Resistant to cracking, creasing and denting
Superior appearance
Corrosion free

6. Wrap and wrapper

Paper and film wrapper used to wrap small individual food items such as a confection to give
protection.
 49

An overlay on food item in a package (e.g. tray) is called overwrap.

Fig.: overwrap in a meat tray

7. Tray, tub and cup

Tray is a shallow and wide container, can be made up of fibre board, plastic (e.g. meat, biscuit)
and metal; may be plain and portioned type. Portioned tray is suitable for assorted (classified)
items e.g. biscuits. Aluminium tray is commonly used for ready meals and chilled foods.

Tray, plain type Al. tray Portioned plastic tray

 50

Tub is deeper container with lid. Both lid and body of plastic tub are made of laminates, e.g. lid
(PET/Al. foil/PP), and body (PP/EVOH or PVDC/PP)

Fig.: Fruit cocktail, ice cream, ready chicken meals in plastic tub

Cup is a small size deep container

Type of cup:
Polyethylene cups (simple plastic cups for beverages), HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene) cups (are
special high impact strength plastic cups for ice cream, yoghurt, etc.), wax coated paperboard
cups (for wet food e.g. ice cream, hot beverages, etc.).
 51

Ice cream in wax coated paper board cup Fruit pudding in HIPS cup

8. Blister pack
Blister pack is a term for several types of pre-formed plastic packaging used for small consumer
goods. The primary and important component of a blister pack is a cavity or pocket made usually
from a thermoformed plastic.

9. Bottle
Made from glass or plastic (LDPE, HDPE, PET, PVC) bottles

Manufacturing process:
• Silica and cullet (returns) are mixed and heated in furnace (T~1500 °C) to melt and
remove gases like CO2, SO2 and water vapour (refining)
 52

• Forming is done to give desired shape and size

• Annealing (heating the glass to high temp. ~540°C, holding for enough time and slow
cooling). Annealing improves thermal shock resistance of glass
• Surface treatment with different additives to increase mechanical properties

Chapter 5: Bottle closure (cap and seal)

Functions of container closures
• Prevent passage of solid, liquid or gas into or out of the container; exposure of content to
atmosphere

• Facilitate opening, dispensing and reclosing of container

• Provide evidence of tampering (damage). Caps and seals are used for this purpose.
• Provide protection from pilferage (stealing)
Tampering and pilferage are unauthorized and unlawful acts
Type of cap, seal
• Normal seal: inside and outside pressure are equal.
• Pressure seal: the content is filled under pressure e.g. carbonated beverages.
• Vacuum seal: inside pressure is lower than outside
Material of construction: metal (tin, aluminium), plastics (resins, PS, LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC),
wood pulp
Type of closure: screw cap, lug cap, roll-on (spin-on) cap, cork, crown or crown cap
 53

Fig.: Bottle parts

• Screw cap
A screw cap is a metal cap that screws onto threads on the neck of a bottle. It is opened and
reclosed by screwing. Has tell-tale ring around the bottom of the neck of bottle.
A liner of plastic (often PVDC), cork, rubber, or other soft material is used inside the cap as wad
to make a seal with the mouth of the bottle and protect from impact breakage.
 54

• Lug cap
Lug cap is a twist-off type metal cap. This has projections (hinge) for gripping the finish. A
kind of vacuum seal.

• Roll-on (spin-on) cap

 55

This type of cap has metal skirt down the neck. The cap metal is pressed against the finish
and neck of bottle and forms the cap threads to match that of bottle thread. Also the base of
cap is deformed around the bottle’s retaining ring. Any damage to the cap is evident of
tamper. This type of cap is called roll-on tamper evident and roll-on pilfer proof (ROPP)

• Crown cap or crown cork

A pressure seal type of cap.

Crown cap is so named as it has tinplate cap with corrugated skirt to look like crown with
cork liner or wad. The skirt of the cap is crimped into the groove under the finish to resist
high internal pressure.
• Cork
Cork made from bark of cork tree is used as stopper in bottles, popular for wine bottles. Cork
has good compressibility and deformability to fit tight as good seal in bottle mouth. Plastic corks
are also in use.
• Ring pull beer bottle cap
 56

Chapter 6: Shipping containers

Also called transportation containers, used for distribution of goods. They are secondary package
forms
Type, construction and use:
• Bag and sack
Bag and sack are made from paper, textile, jute, plastic and hessian (jute fabric). Jute or gunny
bag can be plain or PE lined (better protection from moisture for rice, flour, etc. cereals).

Jute sack Hessian sack Plastic sack Multiwall paper sack

 57

M
Multiwall paper sack
Can also be a consumer pack to carry up to 5 kg weight.
Transport MW sack carries up to 50 kg, made of 2-6 layers (plies) of kraft paper for high
strength. Sizing and lamination may be given for extra performance. The ends are sewn or
pasted. Type are open mouth (one entire end is open for filling) and valved sack (has a small
opening on top for filling). Design can be flat, gusseted etc.
Open mesh bag: ventilated bag made from yarn (threads) of plastics (PE), hessian and kraft
paper. Used for transporting fruits and vegetables.

• Box and case

 58

Wooden box, fibre board box. Soild and corrugated paper boards. Square, rectangular and
other shapes.

• Barrel, cask and keg

Barrel or cask are made of wood. Wood plies are joined and tied by metal bands for better
handling and make liquid tight. Widely used for filling, storage and transportation of liquid foods
and beverages like wine, whiskey, etc. Keg may be called small size cask, made up of metal to
contain 5, 20, 30 L volume beverage; carbonated beverage like beer can be pressure filled in keg;
widely used by pubs and bars for filling beer in glass.

Barrel Cask Keg

B Crate
Wooden and plastic (PP and HDPE) crates.
Plain (for fruits, vegetables, milk pouches, etc.) and portioned type for collating bottles
 59

Plastic crate (plain type) for fruits and Plastic crate (portioned type) for beer
vegetables bottles

• Drum
Metal drum, plastic drum (PE, expanded PET), fibre drum.
Fibre drum
Mostly cylindrical shaped, also rectangular. Side wall is made by winding and gluing together
plies of paper and paper board. It is open top type. Lid is of wood, fibre, steel or plastic. The
drum is strong, resists compression, and used for filling and transporting solid, granular, powder
and semi-liquid and liquid products.

Metal drum Fibre drum

• Bag in box, Bag in drum

 60

Bag in box (shipping container) Bag in box (consumer/retail pack)

Wrapping and strapping of shipping containers

Wrapping, strapping, tying, netting are done for unitization (bundling) and offers advantage of
easy, efficient and economic handling, reduced warehousing costs.
In stretch wrapping, flat films (e.g. of EVA) are held under mechanical tension and wound
around the objects to be wrapped.
Stretch-films, metal straps or bands, rope (nylon), etc. materials are used for wrapping and tying

stretch wrapping pallet

 61

Pallet and palletization: A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows
handling and storage efficiencies. Goods or shipping containers are often placed on a pallet
(palletization) secured with strapping or stretch-wrapped and shipped.
Stacking refers to placing one load (secondary package) above another normally to great height.
 62

Chapter 7: Specialized packaging techniques

Introduction to specialized packaging methods (technique of packaging, benefit, packaging
materials)
1. Vacuum packaging
The package (retail pack) is filled with food and evacuated fully mechanically (vacuum pump)
and sealed
- oxygen free system provides longer shelf life
- Type of food: normally applied to meat, fish, poultry, cheese, fatty foods e.g. nuts
- pkgg materials and package: plastics with very low GTR e.g. PVDC, EVOH. Nylon may be
used in laminate for extra strength, pouch and bag
Method: batch and continuous process
2. Gas packaging
Package is first evacuated, and then filled with inert gases, CO2 or N2
- Keeps longer freshness of food, protects food from deleterious effect of oxygen and
impact breakage
- Pkgg material and package type: Metal containers, plain plastics (PVDC, EVOH) pouch
and nylon laminated pouch for extra strength, pillow pouch
- Application: fatty and oxygen sensitive foods (example milk powder, deep fried foods),
light and fragile foods (example potato chips)
3. Shrink packaging
Heat shrinkable film (e.g. PVDC) is wrapped around the food and it is either immersed briefly in
hot water or exposed to hot air to shrink the film fitting tightly on the food.
- Keeps longer freshness of food
- Application: normally irregular shaped foods. Examples dressed poultry, cheese
- Shrink packaging is also used to wrap several objects tightly together e.g. collating cans,
bottles, etc.
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4. Stretch wrapping
In stretch wrapping, stretchable films (e.g. EVA) are held under mechanical tension and wound
around the objects to be wrapped.
- Stretch wrapping gives close contour wrap on the object like shrink wrapping
- Application: deep frozen poultry and other irregular shaped foods
5. Aseptic packaging
It refers to filling food in package in contamination free (asepsis/sterile) condition.
• Most cases: filling pre-sterilized food in sterilized container under sterile environment
• Rare case: filing un pre-sterilized product (e.g., yoghurt and similar products) in sterile
container under aseptic condition
Process:
• Product sterilization by heat. Heat exchangers: tubular, plate, scrap film
• Sterilization of packaging materials by irradiation, heat (superheated steam, saturated
steam or hot air) and chemicals (H2O2), in singles or combination
• Sterilization of packaging atmosphere by superheated steam
Advantages:
• Application of HTST process - efficient heat transfer, superior product quality
(nutritional, sensory)
• Filling irrespective of container size
• Product is stable at normal temperature (shelf stable product)
Packaging materials: metal, glass, plastic or laminate (PE/paper board/PE/foil/PE); bulk and
retail packaging
 64

Package type: carton, can, bottle, bag, pouch, sachet, cup

Filling in pouch, sachet and carton is by form-fill-seal system

Chap 8: Modern and advanced packaging methods

Introduction to modern packaging methods (definition and technique, benefits, principle of shelf
life extension)
1. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
It is enclosure of food in a package in which the atmosphere (concentration of different gases O2,
CO2, N2) surrounding the food is modified or altered to desired optimum composition.
Principle of preservation of food by use and control of gases
• Deleterious effect of oxygen on quality and shelf life of food. It is displaced or removed.
• Beneficial effect of oxygen is utilized
• CO2 has antimicrobial activity; markedly greater at temperatures below 10°C
• Nitrogen is nonreactive gas
Benefits:
- Extension of shelf life of food. For example, protection of cheese from oxygen,
- Extension of shelf life and maintain the quality (say, bright colour) of food, for example,
meat
- Slow down metabolic process of fruits and vegetables and delay their spoilage

Shelf life of food is increased by 40-50% by MAP. MAP is normally used in combination with
low temperature
Type of MAP
i. Active MAP (active modification): It involves displacing the air with a controlled,
desired mixture of gases (gas flushing). For example, meat, fish, poultry, cheese,
etc.
ii. Passive MAP (passive modification):
The desired atmosphere (generally in practice an atmosphere high in CO2 and low
in O2) is created as a consequence of respiration or metabolic process of food
and/or the microorganisms associated with the food over the time of storage. For
example, fruits and vegetables
 65

The selection of packaging material is important for passive MAP. The permeability of the
packaging film is selected such a way that O2 can enter the package to avoid anoxic condition
and anaerobic respiration at the same time excess CO2 can diffuse from the package (avoids
injurious effect).
Pkgg material and package:
- Plastics are commonly used in MAP. They are PE, PP, polyamide (nylons), PET, PVC,
PVDC, EVOH
- Bag, pouch, tray, tub

2. Active Packaging
Special technique of packaging that provides antimicrobial, antioxidative and other quality
improving functions besides providing barrier to external environment. This packaging
technique dynamically changes the environment (gaseous composition, humidity) inside the
package. Active packaging may include Active MAP. Sometimes antimicrobial packaging
is separately treated.
The effect is obtained by introducing different materials called “active substances” in the
package which act by adsorption, absorption and reaction. The active substances are introduced
by adding in constituent packaging materials, coated on polymer surface, impregnated between
layers of packaging materials, inserted as bag of active substance, etc. methods.
2.1 Oxygen scavenging (removing)
• Control rate of respiration in fresh produce
• Control discolouration in meat
• Control detrimental effects (lipid oxidation, quality deterioration) of oxygen on food
• Substitution (technique) of synthetic antioxidants in food viz. meat products
Oxygen scavenger and oxygen scavenging systems
Iron, oxygen scavenging enzyme, ascorbic acid, organic reactions
• Iron as iron powder or fine aggregates in sachet put in the package reacts with oxygen
(oxidised to ferrous oxide)
• Oxygen scavenging enzyme. Oxidase enzyme utilizes oxygen in the reaction in e.g. oxidation
of ethanol to acetaldehyde.
• Ascorbic acid on oxidation to dehydroascorbic acid utilizes oxygen.
 66

• Light activated scavenger: Coil of ethyl cellulose film contains photosensitive dye and
oxygen acceptors. On illumination of the film with light the oxygen acceptors react with
oxygen and thereby consumed.
2.2 Ethylene (C2H4) scavenging
Ethylene produced during ripening process accelerates ripening of fruits; ethylene accelerates
maturing and yellowing of leafy vegetables
Example of ethylene scavenger: KMNO4, it oxidises ethylene to acetate and ethanol.
2.3 Carbon dioxide scavenging
Fresh fruits and vegetables, fermented pickled fruits and vegetable products like pickles, Kimchi
and Sauerkraut, and some dairy products continue respiring after packaging. High CO 2 can have
detrimental effect on produce and can cause package bursting.
Example of CO2 scavenger: Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3
2.4 Carbon dioxide emitting
CO2 displaces oxygen and retards autooxidation of fat
Examples of carbon dioxide emitting substances: Ferrous carbonate, mixture of ascorbic acid and
sodium bicarbonate
2.5 Humidity regulation and humidity buffering
Humidification: humectant system contains alcohol, propylene glycol
Dehumidification: In-package desiccants e.g. silica gel, CaO
Humidity buffering: It is maintaining desired humidity without condensation or drying of
packed goods. For instance, different inorganic salts packed in microporous bag is placed in PE
lined FB carton packed with fruits absorb excess humidity without permitting condensation and
releases the humidity (water vapour) when it is low in the box.

3. Antimicrobial packaging
A special technique of active packaging
• This allows minimal processing of food and its fresh look
• Takes care of recovered injured microbial cells during storage of food
Antimicrobial packaging is mostly used for meat, fish, poultry, cheese, fruits and vegetables and
bakery products.
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Techniques of antimicrobial packaging

Impregnation of antimicrobial substance in the packaging material
- direct use of antimicrobials
 Natural antimicrobials (e.g. bacteriocins) like nisin, pediocin, and lysozyme.
 Organic acids such as propionic acid, benzoic acid, sorbic acid, lactic acid, their salts and
respective anhydrides.
 Metals and metal ions, e.g. silver ions
Zeolite-silver is coated as a thin layer (3-6 µm) on the surface where silver ion silver (< 0.001%)
is antimicrobial agent. Silver (ions), which inhibit a wide range of metabolic enzymes, and have
strong antimicrobial activity with a broad spectrum are released as food (aqueous phase of food)
enters cavities of the porous structure of the zeolite-silver coating.
 Other antimicrobials are ethanol (to inhibit mold and yeast in bread and other high moisture
bakery products, cheese), SO2 (grapes, etc fruits), triclosan, fungicides (benomyl and
imazalil).
- Localized removal of a specific constituent from food e.g. a vitamin essential for microbial
growth.
- Modification of surface composition of polymer by electron radiation and UV radiation,
whereby the modification will have antimicrobial effect.

4. Protective Edible Coating

Definition
Protective edible coatings are thin films of edible material on food which provide a barrier to
moisture, oxygen (can be even barrier to aroma or taint) and solute movement in food and further
protect food from microbiological spoilage and oxidative rancidity. The coating can be disposed
as a contineous layer between food components. Protective edible coating has shelf life and
quality improving functions.
Edible coating and films are being traditionally used to improve the appearance of foods.
Examples are, wax coating for fruits, cheese and liver sausage, chocolate coating for
confectionery and ice cream, batter coating for of peanuts, gelatin coating for cooked sausage.
Advantages of edible coating
 68

• It is edible, and forms a part of product to be consumed

• Improves and enhances eye appeal, organoleptic and nutritional quality of food
• Biodegradable, reduction in waste and environmental pollution (packaging itself is
consumed)
• Low cost
Desirable properties of edible coating

• It should have good mechanical properties i.e good impact strength, flexural strength,
peel strength, resistance to crack during handling, flexibility, stability to temperature change
and resistance to many different environmental and physical stresses.
• Solubility. Solubility in water, oil, alcohol and other solvents
• Barrier to moisture, oxygen and solute movement
Materials for edible coating
Composed of base material, plasticizer and additives
The base materials are proteins (gelatin, casein, zein, soy protein, egg protein), carbohydrates
(starch, dextrins, carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose,
hydroxypropylcellulose and other cellulose ester), gums (vegetable gums e.g. agar, carrageenan,
gum Arabic, microbial gums e.g. dextran, scleroglucan, curdlan) for meat, poultry, fish, shrimps,
dried fruits, cheese, butter and frozen foods, alginates, pectin, wax and lipids (paraffin wax,
beewax, fatty acids (C16-C18), acetylated tri or diglycerides, oil-in-water emulsion) for fruits
(paraffin wax) and multicomponent system
Solvents: water, alcohol, oil, etc.
Plasticizers improve mechanical property and strength and barrier properties. Plasticizers
increase flexibility, toughness and tear resistance, and reduce brittleness, etc. Denaturing agents
(e.g. organic acids like lactic acid, calcium chloride), tanning agent (tannic acid) or cross-linking
agents are used as plasticizers., etc
Additives enhance the protective function of edible coating, and they are antimicrobial agents
(e.g. sorbic acid), antioxidants (e.g. tocopherol and ascorbyl palmitate), colour and flavour.

Process: Aqueous solution, emulsion or colloidal dispersion of edible coating is prepared and
applied as thin film on food by various methods as paint brushing, pan coating (distributing in a
 69

revolving pan), dipping, spraying, falling film enrobing and bed fluidising (air brushing). After
coating drying or cooling is done to set the coating.
 70

Chapter 9: Total quality protection and Product package

compatibility
Introduction:
Total quality protection is an important issue in food packaging.
It is often seen that the constituents of packaging materials, processing aids and additives are
transferred from packaging materials to food during storage. Many a times there are interactions
between food constituents and packaging material. These phenomena can cause unacceptable
changes in composition, and organoleptic properties (odour, color) of food, decrease the shelf
life of packaged food and/or cause toxic effects. Also, changes in strength property of packaging
material can also occur. This phenomena is called migration. Migration occurs by leaching
(migratory process by contact) or diffusion (evaporation, volatilization) process.

Migration in plastic packaging

The migrants from plastics can be constituent monomers (free and residual monomers),
processing aids and additives used during processing of plastics.
Solvents (used for dissolving or dispersing printing inks e.g. toluene, hexane, isopropanol),
emulsifiers, wetting agents (are surface active agents used to achieve better performance of
pigments and lacquers), antioxidants, antiblock (anti-lump) agents, slip agents (e.g. fatty acid
amide), heat and light stabilizers, photoinitiator, plasticizers (used to make plastics soft, elastic
and flexible (e.g. phthalate, acetyltributyl citrate, epoxidized soybean oil), pigments, lubricants,
adhesives, etc.
Cases of migration and its effects:
1.1 Migration of toxic monomers and additives from plastic
Vinyl chloride, vinyledene chloride, acrylonitrile, styrene are toxic monomers. Additives such as
amides (slip agents), ink (ink components), mineral hydrocarbons (liquid paraffin, white oil,
petroleum jelly, hard paraffin and microcrystalline wax), plasticizers e.g. pthalate are toxic. The
type of toxic effect can be carcinogenic (e.g. liver cancer), mutagenicity, neurological
impairment, psychological disorders, depressant on central nervous system, etc.
1.2 Tainting (absorption of foreign odour, normally unpleasant)
 71

• Styrene taint: migration of styrene (from PS) in foods leads to the development of off-flavour
(characteristic, unpleasant, plastic-like chemical odour or taste). This is observed in
chocolate, lemon cream cookies, cocoa powder.
• Migration of acetaldehyde (produced as degradation product during melting of PET) from
PET (bottles) in cola-type beverages adversely affects their flavor (sweet, “apple” taint).
• PE on hot processing of food in PE container produces wax-like odour in food
• Migration of fatty acid amide (slip agent) in food causes odour problem in food over long
storage time
• Residual solvents cause off-flavour in fruity soft drinks filled in laminated pouches
1.3 Flavour scalping (flavor loss)
This refers to removal of aroma compounds from food and loss of flavor. Flavour scalping can
result by chemical solubilization (absorption) of aroma compounds in plastics and permeation
(diffusion) through the plastics which occurs through voids (or called free volume) and pores.
1.4 Scalping (removal) of food constituents
A case of scalping: limonene present in fruit juice reacts with polyethylene (used in aseptic
packaging) and is lost (limonene scalped). This increases ascorbic acid degradation and
decreases the shelf life of fruit juice (browning).
1.5 Tinting
Leaching of printing inks in food causes change in its colour called tinting
1.6 Diffusion of BHT (antioxidant) from HDPE in milk powder
1.7 Change in mechanical properties of plastics
1.8 Migration of water vapour from food to plastic and solvent vapour can cause decreased
mechanical strength of the plastics
1.9 The reaction of oleoresin (from spice products) with plastics causes plasticizer to be
dissolved which results in decreased mechanical strength of the plastics

Migration in metal packaging

1. Can-food interaction
1.1 Canning of acid fruits containing anthocyanin pigment e.g. blue grapes, cherries, plums
results in bleaching (loss of colour) due to reduction of anthocyanin by Sn⁺ ⁺ from tin can
Anthocyanin + Sn⁺ ⁺ → bleaching (loss of colour)
 72

Use of AR lacquered can is the solution

1.2 Canning of sulphur containing compounds e.g. meat, poultry, fish and vegetables like peas,
cabbage, cauliflower give rise to following discolouration reactions:
i liberated sulphur + Sn⁺ ⁺ → stannous sulphide (purple colour)
“sulphur staining”
ii liberated sulphur + Fe⁺ ⁺ → ferrous sulphide (black spots)
Use of SR lacquered can is the solution
• Canning of oxalate containing vegetables e.g. spinach, asparagus in lacquered can causes
detinning and product discolouration.
Use of tin fillet in can is the solution
2. Dissolution of tin in food (corrosion)
In food-packed tin container food can react with tin and it gets dissolved in the food.
The iron exposed from microscopic pores of tin plate and tin act as electrode system. First the
iron acts as anode and is dissolved in food. When a metal reacts with acid hydrogen gas evolves
and this gas makes complex with tin. Due to this tin becomes sluggish and there will be change
in polarity. Hence, tin becomes anode and iron cathode. Now tin goes into solution. High amount
of tin in food causes tin toxicity and altered unacceptable taste of food.
This reaction in course of time leads to localised corrosion. This is the phenomena of sacrificial
corrosion. This process of localised corrosion leads to pinholing and perforation in tin plate
(development of tiny holes in tinplate) and subsequently leakage and contamination leading
ultimately to product spoilage.
3. Lead from solder material of side seams of three-piece can migrates into the canned food. The
lead contamination particularly in baby foods can be toxic to babies (encephalopathy,
convulsions, mental retardation).
• Migration of aluminium from aluminium cans, al. cookware,
• Migration of lacquer e.g. bis-phenol (toxic)

• Migration in paper packaging

1. Paper pkgg materials can contain health hazardous substances as following and they migrate
to food.
 73

Dioxins (from bleached paperboard), Benzophenone (used as photoinitiator for inks and
lacquers, wetting agent for pigments etc), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), nitrosamines,
TCA (trichloroanisole).
2. Tainting problem e.g. due to chlorophenols,
A reported case: in 2010, potentially harmful mineral oils were found in recycled cardboard
packaging material used for packaging of breakfast cereals. The news headline read- "Cornflakes
Cancer Scare" scandal !

• Migration in glass packaging

Glass packaging has least migration cases. Metal oxides can be the possible migrants.

Factors controlling migration process are

• Concentration/quantity of migrant (residual monomer) present in pkgg material
Higher the concentration of toxic substance in the packaging material higher will be the
probability of its migration and accumulation in food
• Storage time and temperature
The concentration of toxic residue in food increases with storage time (time of contact between
food and package). Migration is also affected by storage temperature as higher temperature
accelerates the migration process.
• Surface area for contact
• Nature of food
Migration is higher in case of aggressive (reactive) foods
Factors affecting toxic effect of migration
• Concentration of migrant in food
Concentration levels (tolerance) for toxicity: toxic effect is concentration (of toxic residue)
based.
For example, tin > 250 ppm causes nausea, diarrhoea etc. Normally, tin is poorly absorbed in
body (it is excreted out) and so its toxicity is low. Normally, aluminium toxicity can occur in
case of excess ingestion
 74

• Ingestion period: accumulation of toxic residue in body increases with time or

frequency of ingestion. Hence, its intake should be within the maximum tolerable
limit
Conclusion
It is desirable that the packaging gives best desired performance. This is called product-package
compatibility.
The packaging material should be selected such a way that it causes no toxicity and undesirable
changes in sensory quality and composition of food packed (food grade packaging materials).
The product and package should be compatible (suitable) with each other. Furthermore,
processing method should be compatible one. At worst, the migration should be within the limit.

Chapter 10: Testing of packaging materials and evaluation of

performance of transport containers
Principle and outline of tests of packaging materials, package performance and product package
compatibility

Purpose of testing:
• Check the specifications and assure quality
• Selection of packaging material based on its suitability to use
• Comparison of two or more different packaging materials in offer
• Help package designing
• Check and assure package performance during distribution

1. Testing of paper and paper board

Appearance (optical) properties
1.1 Colour
Colour is measured as the amount of reflected light emitted from a standard light source (D65) in
a reflectance spectrophotometer and calculating colour values which are CIE colour coordinates,
L*, a*, b*.
1.2 Surface smoothness
 75

Surface smoothness is measured as surface roughness as determined by rate of air leakage.

Rough surfaces have higher rate of air leakage.
1.3 Gloss
Gloss is measured as the amount of reflected light and expressed as fraction of original incident
light. Gloss meter equipped with photosensitive cell is used to measure the amount of reflected
light. Gloss of paper and paper board is measured at angle of 75 ° and in case of printed and
varnished surface at an angle of 60°. A high reading on the meter indicates a high degree of
reflected light and high gloss.
Performance properties
2.1 Moisture content:
Hot air oven and infrared moisture meter methods are used for moisture estimation.
2.2 Chloride content:
The aqueous extract of sample is neutralized with very dilute nitric acid or chloride free sodium
hydroxide and estimated as % sodium chloride following the standard sodium chloride
estimation method by titrating against standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate
as indicator.
2.3 pH
An aqueous extract of packaging material is prepared and its pH is determined by a pH meter.
2.4 Alkali staining
This test is intended to qualitatively assess the degree of staining of paper by alkali (used in
chemical pulping process). The tint of alkaline extract of paper is matched against standard
reference coloured solution of mixture of potassium dichromate and congo-red.
2.5 Wax Coverage
This test is used to determine the amount of wax impregnated in waxed paper. The wax is
removed by extraction with suitable solvent like 1,1,1 trichloroethane and after evaporation of
the solvent the residue wax is weighed and the wax content is expressed in %.
2.6 Thickness

Any suitable instrument paper guage, vernier caliper and micrometer screw guage can be used to
directly measure the thickness of paper and paper board.

2.7 Basis weight

 76

The term basis weight refers to weight in grams of 1 m² of paper or paper board, and expressed
in g/ m² or in USA in lbs/3000 ft².
There is a specially constructed sheet weighing balance which shows the weight in g per sq m
when a sheet of paper of given size is weighed. Any accurately weighing analytical balance may
also be used to measure the weight of sample of area as prescribed by the test method.
Following 3 tests are done on board
2.8 Flute height:
The height of the fluting (corrugating) medium of corrugated fibre board is measured by
traveling microscope.
2.9 Flat crush test
It is measure of compression strength. It is the measure of resistance of flutes in corrugated fibre
board to a crushing force as a measure of resistance to compression impact applied perpendicular
to the surface.
2.10 Static Bending Test
It is the measure of stiffness of board and gives indication of the quality of board components
and adhesive bond.
Test procedure:
The load is placed on test material in increments and deflection noted. (Less stiff material has
high deflection angle). From the data, the load - deflection curve is plotted and bending stiffness
is computed with the help of a graph.
Highly stiff – less angle of deflection
2.11 water absorptiveness (water absorbency)

There are several methods such as bloat method, water droplet method, water drop absorption
method, float curl method, edge wick method and Cobb method.

Cobb test is one of the most widely used methods. It determines the quantity in gram of water
absorbed by one square meter of test sample when subjected to specified water head for specified
time. In the Cobb test, a metal cylinder of 10 cm inner diameter is clamped tightly over the
specimen which in turn is supported underneath by a rubber mat placed over a flat metal base.
Water as measured by measuring cylinder is poured in the cylinder and water column of 0.5 to 1
cm is made and allowed to stand on the specimen for 2 min (ASTM test method). The free water
 77

is removed by blotter and the weight of water in gram absorbed in one square meter area is found
out.
2.12 Grease resistance
This test finds the rate at which ordinary oils and fats found in foods penetrate the paper.
The grease resistance of paper is determined by Turpentine Test. It gives an accelerated
comparison of relative rates at which fats and oils commonly found in food stuffs can diffuse or
penetrate through the papers like grease proof, glassine and vegetable parchment paper.
Test procedure:
The sample of paper is placed on a sheet of book paper which is rested on smooth glass surface,
below which an adjustable mirror is provided. A 1 inch glass capillary is allowed to stand on the
sample and filled with sand (5 gm). The capillary is removed after it has been filled with the
sand. With a dropping pipette 1.1 ml coloured terpentine (red) is poured over the sand and noted
the time (called transudation time) required to observe the first stain appearing on the book paper
as seen from the mirror
2.13 Static Tensile Strength
Static tensile strength test gives an indication of the resistance of paper to rupture when a pulling
force applied parallel to the plane of the sample.
Specimen of 2" length and 15 mm width is clamped between two jaws and pulling force is
applied in the tensile tester. The force at which the specimen breaks is noted as Kg/15 mm.
Elongation is measured direct on the elongation scale and % elongation is calculated as
elongation on scale x 100
2"
Example: elongation=0.2, then % elongation = 0.2 x 100 = 10%
2
2.14 Dynamic tensile strength
The specimen is clamped between the jaws in sigmoid shape (Van der Korput Baarn Tensile
Tester). The pendulum is released which falls swinging and cuts (break) the specimen. The
impact (kg cm) that breaks the specimen as registered on the scale is noted.
2.15 Internal tear resistance
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A tear is made in the specimen of standard dimensions and is fixed in Elmendorf tearing tester.
Pulling force is then applied that continues the tear for a fixed distance and the force (gm cm) is
measured.
2.16 Puncture resistance test (Beach Puncture Test)
The test measures the energy required to make a puncture in fibre board. The test gives a
combined assessment of stiffness and tearing resistance of the sample board.
The testing equipment T.M.I. Beach Puncture Tester is provided with different scales containing
weights. The specimen is clamped between the jaws and the pendulum with sharp edge pointer
or head is released. The pointer is allowed to clearly and completely puncture and pass through
the specimen and the energy required is measured as inch-ounce per inch of tear or as joule per
meter as shown on the scale.
2.17 Abrasion resistance
This test is designed to measure the ability to withstand surface wear during rubbing and friction.
The procedure consists in abrading the sample with a wheel of standard abradant for a definite
number of revolutions and the volume loss of sample is found as volume loss = weight loss/sp.
gr.
2.18 Bursting Strength Test
The test is usually done for paper board used for fabricating box, carton etc. The bursting test
gives an indication of tensile strength and stretch of paper.
BST is also known as Mullen Test.
The specimen is fixed in the testing equipment (Burst Tester or Mullen) and the pressure
(hydraulic or pneumatic) is applied. The pressure (ksc or psi) at which the specimen ruptures is
recorded.
Pressure is applied through the fixed specimen and the pressure at which the specimen ruptures
is recorded.

2.19 Resistance to insect penetration

Place 5 gm food in a petri dish (14.5 cm dia) and cover it with the test packaging material. Put
100 test insects on it and place the lid of dish. Place the dish under the test conditions of (a) 25-
28 ºC & 50 % Rh (b) room temperature & 25 % Rh (c) 21.1 ºC & 70 % Rh (d) 37.8 ºC & 95 %
 79

Rh for three weeks. The test material is examined every day for any penetration or chewing by
the insects. The insects either die or reach the food after chewing the packaging material.
2.20 Gas transmission rate (GTR)
The test uses a permeability cell that consists of two stainless steel discs and the depression in
each disc form a cylindrical cavity when the discs are superimposed. The packaging material is
clamped airtight between two discs. Test gas is passed through gas inlet at constant, over-
atmospheric pressure from the bottom of the cell and the permeated gas is allowed to expand on
the opposite side against atmospheric pressure. A short plug of mercury contained in a glass
graduated glass capillary connected in a vertical position in the centre of the upper disc is
displaced upward by the permeating gas. Displacements at different time intervals are recorded.
This displacement is used to calculate the gas transmission rate.
2.21 Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR)
An aluminium WVTR disc is filled with desiccant (CaCl2) and the sample paper (50 sq cm) is
fixed on the rim of disc. After the weight is noted it is placed in test chamber at 37.8 ºC (100 °F)
and 90% Rh for 24 hr. The weight is taken and returned to the test chamber. The weight is taken
for some successive days. Weight gain in gm versus number of days are plotted and slope is
found.
WVTR is found by calculating as :
WVTR = av. slope x 104
50

2. Testing of plastics and laminates

2.1 Optical properties
2.1.1 Test for gloss
Gloss is measured as the amount of reflected light and expressed as fraction of original incident
light when it falls at an angle of 45° on the surface of the test material. Gloss is measured by
gloss meter equipped with photosensitive cell which measures the amount of reflected light. A
high reading on the meter indicates a high degree of reflected light and high gloss.
2.1.2 Test for clarity
It is transparency or see-through property.
 80

• In subjective method the clarity of test material is evaluated by comparing with the
standard photographs.
• In objective method light is passed through the sample in spectrophotometer and its
specular transmittance* is measured, using the expression:
*Specular transmittance is one when unidirectional beam of light is not scattered
when it passes from one medium to another.

Ts = 100 Is
Io
where,
Ts = specular transmittance
Is = Ts with specimen
Io = Ts without specimen (blank)
Higher the transmittance more is the clarity of plastics
2.2 Performance properties
2.2.1 Test for ink adhesion:
The test assesses the strength of ink adhesion on printed plastic materials, e.g. pouches.
Figure:
A cello-tape is applied on printed surface by pressing firmly and removed after some time by
pulling slowly at 90° angle. There should be no significant removal of ink and the printed
material shall be still readable, in case of good ink adhesion.
2.2.2 Test for tinting:
The test is performed for tinting of oil by printing ink of packaging material like plastic pouch
(migration). The test oil is smeared on printed portion and after one hour rubbed firmly with
tissue paper for 10 times. There shall be no significant removal of print and the printed material
shall still be readable (negative test).
2.2.3 Heat Seal Strength:
Heat seal strength test measures the strength of the welding of sealed joints of heat sealable films
and laminates. It is the test of efficiency of sealing.
The same instrument of tensile tester can be used to find heat seal strength. The test procedure is
same. The pulling force is applied and the force (load) at which the seal gives away is noted.
 81

Note: test methods for other properties of plastics have been described under paper and paper
board
3. Test for identification test of plastics
Tentative identification of plastics by Burn test
Burn test is simple and rapid test for tentative identification (unconfirmed, guide test) of plastics.
Many complex plastic compounds require a rigorous spectral or destructive chemical analysis for
a positive identification. Also, additives may affect results. For example: flame retardants can
mask the polymer material's normal flame & smoke burning characteristics. In burn test, the test
plastics is ignited by a flame source and the burning characteristics such as burning tendency of
the material (flame produces rapidly or not), colour of flame, sample drips while burning or not,
smell of fume, are observed.

3. Testing of metal containers

Tests: Jenkin's bend test, thickness of tin coating, lacquer coating weight, Iron solution test,
estimation of tin in canned food, grain structure and size
3.1 Jenkin's bend test:
This test assesses the resistance of metal to fracture on sharp bending. This property varies
usually exhibiting a directional effect and perpendicular to the direction of rolling. In the test, the
forces in these two directions are applied and the forces at which the specimen breaks are
measured. There should not be large difference between these two forces and effects. Too much
difference in these two forces directions is not considered good as there will be tendency to split
during flanging.
Figure:
3.2 Thickness of tin coating:
This test determines the thickness and weight of tin coating on either side of plate. This test is
also useful to determine thickness of tin coating in differential tinplate.
The tin is selectively extracted from base steel plate by a detinning solution and weighed,
expressed as g/m2 (Clarke’s method)
3.3 Lacquer coating weight:
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It is found by the difference in weight after delacquering the sample. The lacquer is extracted
with a suitable solvent and weighed, expressed as g/m2.
3.4 Estimation of tin in canned food:
This test estimates the amount of tin dissolved in canned food due to corrosion. This test can be
used to test the suitability of a tin container for a particular food.
Tin in canned food can be estimated by any standard method.
3.5 Iron solution test (porosity test):
This test estimates porosity (extent of exposed microscopic pores in tin plate) and degree of
localized corrosion (reaction between food and iron) in tin plate. The localized corrosion leads to
pinholing and further to leakage and contamination.
Test procedure:
Sample with exposed area of 3 sq inch is dipped in a 50 ml test solution (mixture of sulphuric
acid, hydrogen peroxide and ammonium thiocyanate) for two hours at 80 ºF. The red colour
complex formed from reaction of iron and solution is treated with hydrogen peroxide for final
oxidation and the intensity of red colour complex is measured spectrophotometrically at 485 nm.
The result is expressed as the amount of iron (µg) dissolved when 3 sq in (19.35 sq cm) of tin
plate surface is exposed to 50 ml of test solution for two hours at 80 ºF.
3.6 Test for grain structure and size:
This is a qualitative test which determines the method and quality of tin coating.
The sample is rubbed with cotton swab soaked in ferric chloride solution and the revealed grain
structure and size are studied.
Inferences:
1. Hot dip plate shows platelets whereas electroplate shows crystalline (crystal like grains)
structure.
2. Smaller the grain size, lower the quality of tinplate when compared with standard
photographs.
3. If black spots of corrosion are seen they are indicative of inadequate tin coating (underweight
tin coating) and lower quality.

4. Testing of glass containers

 83

Tests: clarity, rigidity, chemical inertness, alkalinity, heat resistance, thermal shock resistance,
impact strength, vertical load strength, internal pressure resistance.

Thermal shock resistance: To determine the thermal shock resistance of a given glass container
the specimen (put in a basket) is immersed in a hot or cold water tank, held for some time and
quickly transferred (immersed) in cold or hot water tank. The glass container having poor
thermal shock resistance breaks with sudden change in temperature.

Tests for product-package compatibility

Test for tainting, tinting, migration of packaging material constituents in food, estimation of tin
in canned food, test for retention of volatiles in the package etc.
Testing techniques: instrumental quantitative measurement, panel testing.

Tests for package performance

These tests assess the performance of package against journey/distribution hazards…
Drop test (vertical impact by dropping), horizontal impact test, vibration test, compression test,
stacking test, climatic testing
1. Vibration test: The test package is subjected to vibration in vibration testing equipment in
variable frequency (number of oscillation per unit time), amplitude (disturbance in oscillation)
and time (test time), and the fatigue and resonance effects (oscillation with high amplitude) on
package, fittings etc are evaluated.
2. Compression test: In this test, force of compression is applied on the package (variable
weights are placed) and deflection in package due to the load in different times is noted.
3. Stacking test: The test measures the capacity of package to bear vertical stack load as
affected by the height of stack.
4. Drop test: This test evaluates the damage (breakage, burst, distortion, etc) caused by
dropping. A drop recorder is used to note the height of drop and the damage caused due to
dropping.
5. Climatic testing: In this test, the container is exposed to different conditions of temperature,
relative humidity and pressure, and observed for any damage caused to it.
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Chapter 11: Quality control and legislative aspects of

packaging

Aspects of consideration:
• Quality control of packaging material and package
Meet standards and specifications for quality (or material) and performance, measurements (e.g.
size) and properties, minimize faults in fabrication, check lowering of quality, meet performance
requirements, win and retain customer goodwill.
Defects, critical, major and minor defects, tolerances and critical limits, elimination of
substandard products, manufacturer-user dialogue
• Safety

Chapter 12: Packaging of different foods

This topic describes product characteristics, deteriorative factors and type of deterioration and
spoilage, packaging needs, packaging materials and package forms, and packaging methods for
different foods.
Packaging most importantly provide protection and preservation functions. So before the
selection of packaging materials and package forms one should have pre-information about the
composition of food, nature of food, type of spoilage and quality deterioration and hazards of
distribution.
1. Fruits and vegetables
General characteristics and protection required:
• High moisture content (85-90%)
• High perishability due to over-ripening, maturing, shriveling, microbial rot. Maturation is
undesirable in vegetables.
• Easily damaged by mechanical hazards (bruising, puncturing, etc.) and by climatic conditions
(heat and cold)
Postharvest physiology:
 85

• Respiring organisms; main metabolic process involves respiration (utilization of oxygen) with
breakdown of large organic molecules and liberation of energy in form of heat, carbon dioxide
and water
• Factors affecting metabolic process and respiration rate: temperature, level of oxygen, carbon
dioxide and other gases

Packaging materials and packages

Packaging of whole fruits
• Retail packaging
Fibre board (moulded pulp tray) or plastic tray of foamed PS or PVC or PP with stretch-
overwrap or shrink overwrap, ventilated LDPE (25-40 μ) or HDPE (12.5 μ) bag, net bag.
The soft-textured fruits like cherries, grapes, strawberries, plums are highly perishable and
easily damaged. They require special protection and so packed in semi-rigid containers with a
cover of CA and PS
• Bulk packaging and transport container
Gunny bags*, bamboo baskets, wooden cases and boxes, sacks (with cushioning), CFB boxes,
plastic corrugated boxes (PP or HDPE), plastic crate
• Cushioning: it refers to using soft material either as divider or wrap or internal filler to protect
product from mechanical injury* in forms of impact bruising caused by drop on hard surface
or vibration impact or abrasion bruising. Cushioning is normally used for packaging of fruits
and vegetables. The cushioning materials are expanded PP, straw, waste paper shreds, etc.
*Mechanical injury of fruits and vegetables
Mechanical injuries like bruises, cuts, abrasion, puncture) give easy access for infection;
damaged fruits (increased contact with oxygen, increased surface are for reaction) respire at
higher rate (do not pack damaged with undamaged ones); enzymatic browning, and thereby
cause easy loss of fruits and vegetables.

Packaging of fresh cut fruits (convenience, custard pudding and vegetables for
salad):
• Higher respiration rate
 86

• Easy microbiological spoilage

• Enzymatic browning
• High moisture loss
The undesired processes can be prevented by washing treatment containing antimicrobial agent
and use of antioxidants
• Packaging: Pillow pouch (prevents mechanical injury) of oriented PP used for vegetable salad
cuts like lettuce, green pepper, chopped onion, carrot sticks; PS with high GTR for lettuce and
tomato

Methods of packaging of fruits and vegetables

• Oxygen scavenging (active packaging)
• High oxygen concentration → high respiration rate → early ripening → early decay;
• V. low O2 conc. → anaerobic respiration (liberation of ethanol, acetaldehyde, CO2)
damages plant tissue. Desired O2 concn: 2-3 %
• CO2 emitting and CO2 scavenging (active packaging)

• High CO2 depresses respiration, delays ripening, competitive inhibition of C2H4

production.
• However, very high CO2 conc. ( > 20%): acceleration of respiration rate of root and bulb
type vegetables; ethanol, acetaldehyde produced during anaerobic respiration are toxic to
plant tissue and damage them; pressure build up inside package results in bulging and
bursting
• Desired CO2 concn: 10% (acceptable for many fruits); range 1-10%

• Ethylene scavenging (active packaging)

• Humidity control and humidity buffering (active packaging)

• Fruits and vegetables have high moisture content; leafy vegetables > 90%, and larger surface
area, other vegetables and fruits 85-90%
• Transpiration →loss of moisture → weight loss, wilting, shriveling, shrinkage
• Condensation leads to spoilage (soft rot, mold growth, etc)
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4.1 humidification
• humidification by use of humectants and like alcohol, propylene glycol, carbohydrate, etc.
impregnated between the layers of water vapour permeating plastic films (active packaging)
• use of waxed carton or fibre board carton with inside liner of LDPE

• Dehumidification: In-package desiccants e.g. silica gel, CaO

• Humidity buffering
See in active packaging chapter

• MAP and CA storage of fruits and vegetables

Note: MAP is sometimes considered as active packaging method
Packaging
• Pkgg materials: normally plastics of selected gas (O2) permeability; normally high GTR
is desired to allow O2 to enter the package and there is no anoxic condition and anaerobic
respiration; Commonly used plastics: PVC, PS, PE, PP
• ventilated LDPE (25-40 μ) or HDPE (12.5 μ) bag, tray of tub with overwrap of high
GTR property to maintain desired atmosphere
The storage structure has appropriate level of gases and humidity.

2. Cereal and pulse products

Packaging of whole grains:
General characteristics, deteriorative factors and protection required:
Cereals are respiring entities; respiration rate increases with moisture content and
temperature, evolution of heat, CO2, water
• Moisture increase by respiration and absorption → attack by molds then bacteria,
caking
• Control: storage at 70% ERH (0.70 aw); mold growth at > 0.75 aw, bacterial
growth at 30%
 88

• Brown rice stored under high humidity and warm conditions: lipolysis of fat →
free fatty acids formation due to the activity of lipase present in bran layer of
damaged grain and microbial lipase
• Heat of respiration e.g. heap of wheat → charing and other hazards
• Factors of hazards: moisture, oxygen, temperature, heat, humidity, respiration,
microorganism, pests (weevils, borers, moth, rats and rodents)
Packaging requirement:
• Good moisture barrier
• Protection from insect infestation
Packaging:
Plastic bag, jute and hessian bag with PE lining, multiwall paper sack, bin and sack

Packaging of milled gains (wheat flour, atta (whole wheat flour), bengal gram flour, semolina):
General characteristics, deteriorative factors and protection required:
• Fat breakdown by endogenous lipase
• hydrolytic rancidity and oxidative rancidity of fat
• Moisture pick up and caking (>13% moisture content)
• Microbial spoilage
• Insect damage

• Protective packaging and storage conditions: Protection from moisture ingress

and insect damage, and storage in cool and dry environment

Packaging of processed products:

Breakfast cereals:
Deteriorative factors:
• Moisture gain and loss of crispness
• Lipid oxidation (2% fat content in cereals like rice, wheat, maize, higher fat
content in other cereals like oats)
• Development of rancidity/off flavor
• Loss of vitamins
 89

• Breakage
• Loss of aroma
• Insect infestation

Protection required:
• Protection against moisture ingression
• Good gas barrier property
Packaging materials and package forms:
Pkgg materials: HDPE, HDPE-EVA copolymer, fibre board box or carton with liner of waxed
paper or glassine (good odour barrier), duplex board carton overwrapped with cellophane (corn
flakes), oxygen scavenging package
• Storage at cool and dry place
High moisture bakery products (bread, cake, pastry, bun, doughnut, roll etc):
Deteriorative factors:
• High moisture products like bread, bun, cake:
• Mold growth/microbial spoilage
• Staling (hardening of crumb and loss of freshness etc)

Packaging:
Plastic packaging, CO2 packaging in EVOH package, pkgg with alcohol vapour (bacteriocide)
in paper-EVA bag, oxygen scavenging system

Low moisture bakery products (biscuit and similar products):

General characteristics and protection required:
• Moisture gain and loss of crispness
• Microbial spoilage at high moisture content
• Rancidity
• Flavor staling
• Grey discolouration (fat bloom)
 90

Packaging material: plain OPP (economical) or coextruded OPP (superior heat sealing) or
acrylic coated OPP (superior O2 barrier property), acrylic coated OPP-PVDC copolymer
(superior aroma/volatile barrier)

Expanded extruded snacks (cheese balls, popcorn etc) and fried snacks e.g. potato chips:
Deterioration:
• Loss of crispness (critical aw 0.36)
• Rancidity
• Breakage

Packaging:
Composite container lined with al. foil, OPP-LDPE, PVC, HDPE-EVA copolymer plus a UV
absorbent, HDPE-EVA copolymer with titanium oxide light barrier lining

3. Dairy products
Fluid milk, market milk, pasteurized milk:
Characteristics of cow milk: High moisture content (~87%), fat (4%), protein, lactose, minerals,
vitamins
Type of spoilage:
• Microbiological spoilage
• Light induced flavor changes: fat oxidation, flat taste. Wavelength based effects of light
• Destruction of vitamins (riboflavin), ascorbic acid
• Oxygen in milk during filling and fat oxidation
Storage and pkgg requirement:
• Storage at low temp. ≤ 4°C
• Protection from O2 and light
Retail pkgg: Glass bottle (preferably coloured), plastic pouch (coextruded LDPE/LLDPE ~70 u)
filled by FFS machine, TetraPak aseptic pkgg carton (gable top, TetraBrik),
Bulk packaging and transportation: metal containers (aluminium cans, tinned steel cans)

Fermented milk products (yoghurt, kefir etc.):

 91

Retail plgg:
• Plastic (HIPS) cup and tub covered with aluminium foil heat-sealed to the rim of container
• Glass bottle with foil cap, PE coated carton (gable top paperboard container)
Fat rich products (cream, butter and ghee):
Characteristics: Cream (12-16% fat), butter (~80% fat, ~18% moisture), ghee (100% fat)
Type of spoilage:
• Fat oxidation
• Fat seepage
• Microbial and enzymatic spoilage, desiccation and discoloration
• Tainting
Pkgg requirement:
Barrier to O2, fat, moisture, foreign odour (gas), light
Pkgg materials:
Butter:
• vegetable parchment paper, grease proof paper
• Laminate of al. foil (0.009 u)/veg. parchment paper or grease proof paper (40 gsm); superior
O2 and light barrier properties than paper alone
• Plastic tub of HIPS or PVC
Ghee:
• Retail packaging: LDPE/HDPE pouch, glass bottle
• Bulk pkgg and long term storage: SS or tin containers
Cheese:
Characteristics and type of spoilage
• High fat and moisture content
• Microbial spoilage
• Moisture loss causing drying
• Oxidative rancidity
Properties required in pkgg material: grease proofness, barrier to oxygen, moisture and light
Pkgg materials and package: OPA-LLDPE copolymer (low O2 transmission rate) for hard
cheese, MAP with CO2 flushing, PVC, PET, PP, PVC-PVDC or EVOH for processed cheese, al.
foil for wrapping of small size individual processed cheese cubes
 92

Milk powder:
Characteristics and type of spoilage
• Low moisture content, hygroscopic, high fat content (20-30%) in WMP
• Fat oxidation
• Moisture uptake
Properties required in pkgg material:
Moisture, light, O2 barrier properties
Pkgg materials, package forms and packaging methods:
• Inert gas packaging in metal can with al. foil diaphragm (metal can containing slip lid or ring-
pull lid made of aluminium for easy opening and al. foil diaphragm sealed to rim of container
to give gas-tight seal. Air is drawn out and inert gas (N2) is flushed in).
• Laminate pouch of al. foil (~9 u)/ paper (5 gsm)/ LDPE (25 u) filled with inert gas. Low cost,
light weight
• Paper/PE/foil/PE laminate for small portion pack (sachet)
• Laminate pouch of PET (17 u)/LDPE (9 u)/foil (9 u)/LDPE (70 u) on FFS machine
• Composite can with foil (5 u) and nitrocellulose lacquer for WMP and SMP
• Vacuum pkgg
• Bulk pkgg: multiwall paper sack with PE liner, bag in box
•
• Ice cream
• Property required in pkgg material: Moisture proofness
• Retail packing: HIPS cups with plastic (LDPE, PS), wax coated paperboard cup and lid
• Bar ice cream: veg. parchment paper
• Transport container: carton made of bleached sulphite board coated with wax or blend of wax
and PE
4. Fats and oils
Characteristics and type of spoilage
• High oil containing commodities
• Oxidative rancidity
• Hydrolytic rancidity
 93

• Light induced colour degradation

• Absorption of foreign odour
• Microbial spoilage

Pkgg requirement: Maintain low ERH, light and odour barrier property
Retail pkgg: plastic pouch (HDPE, PET, PVC), semi-rigid type (carton with inside liner of
laminate of paper/met PET/PE or paper/al. foil/PE),
Bulk container (rigid type): tin container

5. Spices and spice products

Characteristics and type of spoilage
• Loss of aroma due to evaporation and oxidation of volatile compounds
• Light induced loss of colour
• Loss of free flowing characteristics and clump formation due to moisture uptake
• Microbial spoilage at 70% ERH
• Insect infestation
• Tainting
• Ground spices have larger surface area for reaction and so they are more prone to spoilage
Pkgg and storage requirement
• Pkgg material of low WVTR and GTR, barrier to oxygen and light, grease resistance
• Storage at low Rh and temperature
• Bulk pkgg: jute sacks and bags (plastic lined), multiwall paper bags, cotton bags, drums
• Oleoresins and essential oils require air-tight pkgg

6. Meat and poultry

Characteristics and type of spoilage
• High moisture content and nutrient density.
• Highly susceptible to microbial growth and highly perishable product
• Desiccation
• Loss of bloom and brown discolouration
• Rancidity
 94

Packaging requirement and packaging materials and packages for meat and meat products
and poultry:
SN Product Packaging requirement Packaging materials, package form, packaging
system
1. Fresh meat High gas (Oxygen) PS foamed tray and other plastic trays with
cuts (cut permeability to maintain overwrap film of 25 µ PE, plasticized 20 µ
pieces & bright (red) colour PVC, Or. PS, with absorbent pad
retail cuts)
Moisture barrier to Shrink films wrap of PVC, PP, PVDC
prevent desiccation
Extend shelf-life by Laminates of cellophane/PE, PET/PE, PET/al.
vacuum packaging with foil/PE, PVDC coated PE
good barrier and
mechanical properties
Maintain bright (red) MAP (60-80% 02 and 20-40% CO2 or 70%
colour and shelf-life oxygen, 20% CO2, 10% N). PVC/PE tray with
extension lid of PVDC coated PET/PE or PP, metallized
PET or PE
Extend shelf-life Hypobaric storage (press=10 mm Hg, T=-1°C,
Rh=95%)
Active packaging: chitosan based flexible
packaging coated with organic acids such as
Scavenge oxygen lactic, propionic acid followed by vacuum
Protect from desiccation pkgg
and oxygen Active Packaging: use of iron and ascorbic
acid systems
Protective Edible Coating: use of edible wax
base
2. Frozen Prevent freezer-burn and PVC-PVDC copolymer for stretch or shrink
meat oxidative rancidity, wrapping, laminate of PET/PE, Nylon/PE,
property to expand and vacuum skin packaging
 95

contract during freezing

and thawing, prevent
brown discolouration by
light
3. Cured Prevent discolouration Coloured or opaque PE, PVC, plastic tray with
meats by oxidation of cured shrinkable overwrap, vacuum packaging
pigments (metmyoglobin
formation) and activated
by light, moisture loss
4. Sausages Protect from oxidative Vacuum packaging
colour changes, bacterial
spoilage, dehydration,
light Coating with gelatin
Prevent drip loss
5. Fresh Prevent desiccation, Cellulose acetate tray or PS foamed tray with
poultry oxidative rancidity PVC/PVDC copolymer overwrap film and
(whole through good moisture absorbent pad, stretch film of PVC or laminate
dresssed and gas barrier of LDPE/EVA
bird, cut up properties
parts)

6. Frozen Very high puncture Shrink wrap in PE film for short storage
poultry resistance, skin-tight Shrink wrap in PVC-PVDC copolymer film
(whole) wrapping to prevent Vacuum packaging in shrink film followed by
freezer-burn and dipping in hot water (90.5ºC) to make skin-
oxidative rancidity tight wrap (packaging materials among others
is EVA copolymer-PVC/PVDC copolymer-
EVA copolymer

7. Dried meat Prevent oxidative Nitrogen flushed large cans, al. cans, foil
rancidity, moisture topped glass jars, composite containers
 96

uptake
Currently, CO2 concentration in MAP packaging reaches up to 40%. With a device developed in
Spain CO2 conc. in MAP can reach up to 80%. This technology consists in a pre-absorption of
CO2 in food (meat, fish etc) allowing an increase of CO2 content in packed food, thus products
can be better preserved.
Notes:
• Active Packaging and Protective Edible coating systems can be used equally for all meat
products to protect from oxygen and desiccation
• Vacuum packaging squeezes meat and gives drip which is eliminated in MAP. MAP
maintains bright meat colour.
• Vacuum skin packaging is accomplished by vacuum packaging and immersing the
package in hot water to make skin-tight pack (shrink wrap)
• Cans, bottles and retortable pouch made of PET/al. foil/cast PP or modified HDPE
(flexible type) and PP/EVOH or PVDC/PP (semi-rigid type) are used for shelf-stable
products

7. Egg and egg products

11.1 Whole (shell) eggs
Characteristics: High moisture content (~65%), High protein content (~12%), high fat content
(~10%)
Type of spoilage: breakage, moisture loss through shell, liquefaction and mixed rot, absorption
of foreign odour, hollow egg, microbiological spoilage
Packaging requirement: prevent breakage, prevent moisture evaporation, prevent diffusion of
gas
Pkgg materials properties: shock absorption, cushioning, low water vapour and gas
permeabilities
Packaging materials and package: moulded pulp tray, moulded pulp box, tray and box made
up of expanded plastic, shrink wrapping in low GTR and WVTR flexible pkgg material e.g
PVDC, shrink overwrap on tray, chemical coating to plug shell pores e.g calcium carbonate or
sodium silicate
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11.2 Liquid egg and frozen egg: Packaging requirement and packaging are similar to whole
milk and evaporated milk and that of dried egg similar to dried milk

8. Fish and sea foods

Chemical composition, spoilage and packaging requirements are similar to meat and poultry
Packaging type
MAP:
• MAP (50% CO2 and 50% O2 or 40% CO2, 30% N2 and 30% O2) and storage at 0-2°C
Shelf life 9 days at 0°C and 5 days at 2°C
• Fatty fish: MAP (60% CO2 and 40% N2) and storage at 0-5°C
Vacuum packaging:
• Vacuum pkgg and storage at ≤ 3°C
• Low temperature controls Cl. botulinum

Chapter 13: Shelf life of packaged food and its evaluation

• Definition of shelf life of packaged food:
Every packaged food has a shelf life. Shelf life of a packaged food can be defined as time
elapsed between the production of a packaged food and the point of time at which it becomes
unacceptable due to objectionable quality failure. Shelf life is stated under defined environmental
conditions.
• Indices of quality failure
There can be different indices of quality failure of packaged foods. Type of quality failure and
examples are
Microbiological spoilage viz. of meat, milk, egg; Rancidity viz. of butter, ghee, oils; Loss of
aroma and flavor staling viz. of coffee, spice products, biscuit; Tainting; Swelling of canned food
Loss of crispness viz. of cracker type snacks; Wilting and shrinkage viz. of vegetables; Loss of
vitamins viz. loss of ascorbic acid in lemon products; Discoloration viz. brown discolouration of
food by non-enzymatic browning; Clump formation in powder products; Separation of oil from
emulsion; Elevated concentration of toxic compounds viz. tin in canned food, plastic monomers
and additives
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• Factors affecting shelf life of packaged food:

• Nature of food (perishable, semi-perishable, non-perishable) and its composition (intrinsic
factors: concentration of reactive compounds, pH, aw, enzymatic activity, microbial load etc)
• Environmental or storage conditions such as temperature and Rh
• Properties of packaging materials
• Packaging methods
• Type and intensity of hazards
• Processing and preservation methods e.g. dehydration, canning, refrigeration
• Product-package interaction

Shelf life is normally expressed as “maximum shelf life”, “expiry date”, ” best before” etc.
• Criteria for evaluation of shelf life of packaged food
The main deteriorative change or quality failure is taken into account for the determination of
shelf life of the packaged foods. The criterion selected must be measurable. For instance,
microbial load or count of specific spoilage organisms (SSOs) in meat, milk or fruit juice, extent
of non-enzymatic browning in intermediate aw products, degradation of chlorophyll in leafy
vegetables, loss or degradation of ascorbic acid in fruit juice concentrate, concentration of
hydrogen gas in canned food, aw in hygroscopic, dry foods, extent of lipid oxidation in fats and
oils, etc. are determined. Beyond acceptable limit the shelf life is expired.
• Situations for shelf life determination:
• Determine the shelf life of existing products (regular production) to check the production
process
• Study the effect of factors affecting the shelf life of packaged food product
• Determine the shelf life of newly developed product as affected by new processing or
packaging
Methods of estimating and predicting shelf-life
• Literature study of analogous product
• Monitoring of turnover time: that is, average time the product spends on retail shelf
• End point study: random samples are periodically collected from retail outlets and tested
in the laboratory until expiry
• Laboratory test for shelf life
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• Testing shelf life in lab (plant) under actual and normal conditions of packaging and
environmental conditions of temperature and relative humidity. Samples are drawn from
time to time and tested by objective method or sensory test panel by differentiation tests.
• Accelerated Shelf Life Testing (ASLT) is conducted under accelerated condition of
extrinsic factors such as temperature, relative humidity and oxygen partial pressure
present in package headspace such that product deteriorates early. It specially implies to
storage temperature since high temperature accelerates the reaction rate many folds (Q 10
effect). This test saves time and gives quick results (say, 1 month in stead of 1 year by
increasing storage temperature by 20°C) and thus much shorter time is needed to meet
product launch schedules.
It is essential that the results obtained by chemical and instrumental analysis closely correlate
with sensory test results (human judgement)
Limitation of ASLT: Temperature change (high and low) can cause phase change in foods
which can ultimately give erroneous results. Therefore, ASLT results must be confirmed by
conducting shelf life testing under actual environmental conditions and the relationship between
two tests established.

Examples of shelf life evaluation:

• Shelf life estimation of pre-packed vegetables
The pre-packed vegetables may deteriorate in quality and spoil due to unfavourable conditions of
concentration of different gases, humidity and microbial infection
Procedure:
• Selection of sound vegetables, washing, draining and air drying
• Packaging in test package and weighing (net wt recorded)
• Store under specified test conditions (Temp, Rh)
• Record weight and observe for wilting, microbial decay every two days
• Interpret the observations and results and draw inference

• Predicting shelf life of packaged food by half value period: product equivalent method
Dry and hygroscopic foods often deteriorate and spoil due to increase in moisture content. This is
a simple and widely used method of shelf life determination of food.
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Procedure:
• Determine the weight and moisture content of food sample
• Find the weight of packaging material
• Pack the sample in the test packaging material in few replicates
• Note total weight (initial weight)
• Store in humidity chamber at 38° C and 92 % Rh
• Weigh every alternative days
• Calculate average moisture pick up
• Calculate average initial effective weight of package
Average initial effective weight of package = av. initial weight of package – av. initial weight of
empty package + product equivalent of package
Product equivalent of package = amount of product that absorbs an equal amount of moisture
absorbed by the empty package when it is in equilibrium with given storage condition
• Find moisture content at given time
Moisture content at given time = MW + 100 x L/W
M= moisture content, W= weight, L= av. moisture pick up
• Calculate half value period graphically
• Calculate shelf life at the test storage condition of temperature and relative humidity
• Calculate shelf life at actual storage condition of temperature and relative humidity

Chapter 14: Waste management of packaging materials

This chapter provides general concept about the management of waste packaging materials . This

briefly describes the options and techniques of waste management.

• Pkgg materials constitute 20-35% of municipal solid waste in effluent industrial societies
• Produced as waste and garbage materials, and cause environmental pollution (as litter in
streets, foul air), disease, and vision pollution
Therefore it is important to properly manage the waste

Benefits of waste management

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• Minimization of waste itself

• Pollution control
• Conservation of resource for future generations
• Economic gain

Options and methods for waste management

• Waste minimization
Less production of waste packaging materials
• Resource reduction or resource conservation
This can be done by
• Reuse of packaging materials or containers as such or after necessary treatment
Examples:
• Filling in postconsumer returned bottles
• Use of postconsumer metal container with reclosable lids (instead of seamed lid)
2.2 Recycling of packaging materials
Recycling is diversion of materials from waste material stream for use as raw material in the
manufacture of new products of similar type e.g. use of cullet (broken or used returned glass)
in bottle manufacturing or different types e.g. used PET in manufacturing carpet for
automobiles
• Incentives to recycled paper
Recycling can be done with and without composting
Benefits of recycling:
• Conservation of resources
• Prevention of greenhouse gases and water pollution
• Saving of energy
• Job creation
• Reduction of need of new landfill sites and incinerators

Techniques of recycling
• Closed-loop recycling:
“Recycling of a particular material back into product”
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Example: collection of cullet and manufacturing glass bottles

• Collection and sorting:
Collection (mixed waste) at MRF (Materials Recovery Facility)
▼
sorting in individual type pkgg materials e.g. paper, plastic, glass, metal etc
▼
processing

or
segregated collection of waste material i.e. separate collection of different types of packaging
materials

Processing methods:
waste materials
▼
separation of lighter materials (e.g. paper, plastic) by air sifting
▼
separation of steel (Fe) by magnetic separator
▼
separation of glass by hand picking or machine

Paper
▼
hydro-pulping
▼
removal of ink and other additives
▼
clean pulp

Metal cans
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Tin containers
▼
detinning by dissolution in suitable solvent → steel → steel mills
▼
tin
▼
washing
▼
tin ingot

Aluminium , aluminized steel

▼
crushing & shredding
▼
removal of steel
▼
removal of ink & enamel
▼
melting
▼
clean aluminium

Glass
▼
crushing
▼
air shifting to remove light materials like paper & plastic

Plastics
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▼
sorting
▼
washing
▼
grinding in flakes
▼
washing
▼
new products

• Composting:
Pkgg materials containing organic materials (excepting plastic, leather and rubber) → aerobic
microbial decomposition → humus (compost, agriculture manure)

4. Incineration
It is mass burning, normally in furnace
• Incineration for destruction of waste material
Note: open incineration of plastic like PVC, PVDC produce toxic dioxine (gas)
3.2 Incineration with energy production
For example, production of refuse derived fuel (RDF) used as burning fuel for boiler for steam
generation and electricity generation
Note: fuel can be derived from plastics
5. Landfill
• Land filling by waste pkgg materials for land improvement
• Production of landfill gas, the biogas produced by microbial decomposition

Introduction to degradable plastics

Plastic type of composition which can degrade when subjected to microbial action, sunlight, etc,
and of the nature dissolvable in water.
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They are starch based, polylactate (PLA made by polymerization of lactic acid monomers),
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) (produced by microorganisms) polymers.

Suggested readings:
• R. Coles. Food packaging technology. Blackwell Publishing. CRC Press. 2003.
Topics for reading: metal packaging, glass packaging, paper and paperboard packaging,
plastic packaging, modified atmosphere packaging
• F.A. Paine and H.Y. Paine. A handbook of Food Packaging. 2nd edition, Blackie Academic,
1992.
Topics for reading: Plastics and other packaging materials
• Gordon L Robertson. Food Packaging -Principles and Practice. 2nd edition, CRC Press, 2006.
Topics for reading: Deteriorative process in food and packaging of different foods for shelf
life extension
• Gordon L Robertson. Food Packaging and Shelf Life. CRC Press, 2010.
Topics for reading: Shelf life testing, packaging and shelf life extension of different foods,
active packaging
• A.S. Athalye. Plastics in Packaging. Tata McGraw, 1992.
• K.A. Barnes, C.R. Sinclair and D.H. Watson (eds.). CRC Press, 2007.
Topics for reading: Chemical Migration and Food Contact Materials.
• Charles L. Wilson. Intelligent and Active Packaging for Fruits and Vegetables. CRC Press,
2007.
Topics for reading: Modified atmosphere packaging, active packaging
• O.G. Piringer and A.L. Baner. Plastic Packaging. Wiley-VCH, 2008.
Topics for reading: Manufacturing, structure and characteristics of plastics
• Mark J Kirwan. Handbook of Paper and Paperboard Packaging Technology. Blackwell
Publishing. 2013.
Topics for reading: Manufacturing, type and of paper and paperboard; paper and paperboard
based packages