1 EXCELLENCE

BIOLOGY
BOOK I
For FSC. INTER BOARD (FEDERAL/ SINDH)
MCAT
BSC (BOTANY, ZOOLOGY)
ANILA ATEEQ

A SERIES OF TWO BOOKS

BOOK 1 : BIOLOGY I (XI YEAR)
BOOK 2: BIOLOGY I (XII YEAR)
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BOOK I COMPRISES OF ALL CHAPTERS OF BIOLOGY I.

THIS BOOK IS EQUALLY CAPABLE OF CATERING NEEDS OF STUDENTS FOR

BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION FINAL EXAMS
MCAT APPTITUDE TEST
BSC BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY

This book is especially designed and compiled to provide best knowledge and information not only for board
examination but for assistance to appear for MCAT. After final inter part II board examination , it is not
possible for students to complete preparation for aptitude test in short time available due to this fact only
thousands of students fail to complete whole syllabus as well as to secure a high score . That is why this is
highly recommended that students take initiative right from the start of working session to avoid such
problems at the end.
This compilation is first of its kind to contain all the information available, the best concepts ever developed
and a language to be understood easily. With all these tools, this book provides best opportunity to master
subject of BIOLOGY.
With regards and best wishes
ANILA ATEEQ
Assistant professor
Khatoon e Pakistan Girls Degree college, Karachi

ABOUT AUTHOR

Educational qualification PROFESSIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS

F-7/2 FG postgraduate College Islamabad Oxford High School Islamabad
FSC. Pre Medical Lighthouse School Islamabad
BSc.(Botany, Zoology, Chemistry) IMCG F-!)/2 Islamabad
QAU Islamabad Shaheen Public School Karachi
MSc. Animal Sciences Almurtaza Boys section
MPhil. (contd.) KU HappyHome School
F.G. Inter college KHI Cantt.
Khatoon e Pakistan college (To date)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SERIAL CHAPTERS PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY 6

2. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES 12

3. ENZYMES 36

4. THE CELL 43

5. BIODIVERSITY 65

6. KINGDOM MONERA 74

7. KINGDOM PROTISTA 85

8. KINGDOM FUNGI 95

9. KINGDOM PLANTAE 105

10. KINGDOM ANIMALIA 160

11. NUTRITION 246

12. GASEOUS EXCHANGE 287

13. TRANSPORT 366

NEW EXAMINATION POLICY FOR XI

is devised according to latest scientific needs.
It emphasizes over
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PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

To assess habit of rational and scientific thinking

To analyze scientific learning skills
To assess understanding of scientific information
To assess interpretation skills

SPECIFICATION CONTENTS

Proposed scheme for paper setting

ZOOLOGY I
Topic Sub SLO’s %age Marks MCQs Short Qs Long
topics of Qs
SLO’s
Introduction 5 8 5.34 2 1 1
Biological molecules 9 29 19.5 8 2 2 1
Enzymes 6 11 7.4 3 2 1
Kingdom Protista 1 6 4 1.6 1 1
Kingdom Animalia 10 45 30 12 4 5 2
Nutrition 3 15 10 4 2 1 1
Gaseous exchange 3 13 9 3.5 2 2
Transport 4 22 15 6 2 2 1
Total 41 149 100 40 16 15 2/5

BOTANY I
Topic Sub SLO’s %age Marks MCQs Short Qs Long
Topic of Qs
SLO’s
The cell 7 20 18 8 2 2 1
Variety of cell 4 8 7 3 1 1
Kingdom Monera 4 9 8 4 1 1
Kingdom Protista 2 5 4.5 2 1 1
Kingdom Fungi 6 11 10 4.5 2 2 1
Kingdom Plantae 10 21 19 8.5 4 4 2
Bioenergetics 6 15 13.5 6 3 2 1
Nutrition 3 7 6.3 3 1 1
Gaseous exchange 2 3 2.7 1 1
Transport 6 12 11 5 2 2 1
Total 50 11 100 45 18 16 2/5
(SLO’s: Students learning object
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MCAT APPTITUDE TEST

PATTERN OF PAPER
No. of MCQs 200
Biology 80
Chemistry 60
Physics 40
English 20
Time allowed: 2 hrs. 30 minutes

Approved syllabus for MCAT

Column I Column II
The cell Cell division
Biological Molecules Chromosome and DNA
Varity of life Homeostasis
Bioenergetics Muscles and Movement
Gaseous exchange Communication
Transport in plans Genetics
Transport in humans Biotechnology
Immunity Evolution

Column I comprises of the content in Biology I while Column II comprises of content covered in Biology II.
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INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

This whole universe exhibits variety of structures. Everything that occupies a space and has some weight is termed
as MATTER. Matter is composed of smallest particles called ATOMS, which combine together to form
MOLECULES.

Matter takes up space. Space is measured in volume, and volume is measured in liters (L).
Matter has mass. Mass is the term for describing the amount of matter that a substance has. It’s measured in grams (g). Earth’s
gravity pulls on your mass, so the more mass you have, the more you weigh.
Matter can take several forms. The most familiar forms of matter are solids, liquids, and gases. Solids have a definite shape and
size, Liquids have a definite volume but they take the shape of the container that they fill. Gases have no definite shape and
volume.
We are aware of two categories of matter around us,
NON-LIVING LIVING THINGS
Living things are part of the natural world
They’re made of the same chemicals studied in chemistry and geology
They follow the same laws of the universe as those studied in physics.
What makes living things different from the nonliving things in the natural world is that they’re alive. Granted with life, that is
why they share some common characters. All organisms share eight specific characteristics that define the presence of life:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
M Movement Ability to change position of body
R Respiration To get enegy, metabolism of food material is termed respiration
S Sensitivity Respond to signals in the environment, living things have systems to sense and respond to signals.
G Growth Have ability to increase in size and develop special modifications in cells to give rise to different
types of tissues
R Reproduction living things make copies of themselves, they pass copies of their DNA onto their offspring, ensuring
that the offspring have some of the traits of the parents
E Excretion Waste toxic materials of body are thrown out of body
N Nutrition Process of getting food material from external environment to inside of body
A Adaptability When the environment around living things changes, they tend to modify structure or function to
improve chance of survival

Since all these processes are not random or onetime event, they need to be performed in highly synchronized and
ORGANISED manner, that is why living things are termed as ORGANISM

O Maintain order inside their cells and bodies

R
Attempt to maintain their internal conditions, regulate their systems, maintain their internal conditions in a way that
G
A supports life
N Transfer energy among themselves and between themselves and their environment. Considering sun as the ultimate source
I of energy, every organism has developed different method of either directly trapping solar energy or getting it form of
S
M
food from other organisms
S
Biology revolves around seeking
 The structure and function of organisms on planet Earth
information on relationship between  Type of variety and diversity exhibited by these organisms
 Methods to regulate all these processes
organisms and their whereabouts  The connections between organisms among themselves as well as the
connection to their environment
focusing on  How organisms change over time

LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
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 Tissues are made of cells, which are made of

molecules. The foundation of physiology
rests upon the function of cells, but to
understand the function of cells, or the
details of a physiological process, you need to
be able to follow the interactions of
molecules within the cell.
 Organisms are made of organ systems,
which are made of organs, which are made
of tissues.
In order to understand the function of an
organism, you need to understand the
functions of the organ systems and organs
that make up the organism. And the
functions of the organs depend upon the
function of their tissues, which are groups of
similar cells.
 Organisms multiply to form populations,
which interact with other populations to
form communities, which interact with their
environment to form ecosystems. An
organism’s interaction with the living and
nonliving things in its environment can
influence its physiology.
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The true heart of science isn’t a Discovery science Making useful scientific observations involves writing detailed
bunch of facts — it’s the method notes about the routine of the animal for a long period of time (usually years) to be sure
that scientists use to gather those that the observations are accurate. Discovery science continues today as biologists
attempt to identify all the tiniest residents of planet Earth (bacteria and viruses) and
facts. Science is about exploring the
explore the oceans to see the strange and fabulous creatures that lurk in its depths.
natural world, making observations
Hypothesis-based science: scientists test their understanding of the world through
using the five senses, and attempting experimentation They focus on experimentation to verify observations. Modern
to make sense of those observations. biologists are using hypothesis-based science to try and understand many things. There
Scientists, including biologists, use are two important elements of hypothesis-based science: scientific method and
two main approaches experiment design.
The scientific method is basically a plan that is followed while performing scientific experiments and writing up the
results. It allows experiments to be duplicated and results to be communicated uniformly. A general process of the
scientific method involves:
1. OBSERVATION:
Make observations and record carefully with every minute detail. Observations are made to collect relevant
information.
EXAMPLE: Malaria has been killer disease for centuries; a possible reliable cure was needed on must basis. In 1878, French
physician, Laveran studied blood sample of malarial patient and observed some tiny creatures under microscope.
2. HYPOTHESIS:
In the perspective of available facts and detailed information, intelligent guesses are made
Think about possible reasons or predictions for the above Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning
observation.
Hypothesis must be testable or falsifiable. Derives general Reasoning flows from general to
It has to be an idea that can be supported or rejected through principles from specific specific
experimentation. observations
It always is stated in the form of, “if ………………… then”
EXAMPLE: Plasmodium was confirmed to be present in blood samples of many malarial patients, so an intelligent guess could
be, “Plasmodium is the cause of malaria”
As experiments are conducted, results need to be recorded carefully and regularly. Observations are made using planned
measurements. Every major or minute qualitative and quantitative detail is recorded
This recorded result is called data
Quantitative data is numerical data, such as height, weight, and number of individuals who showed a change. It can be analyzed
with statistics and presented in graphs.
Qualitative data is descriptive data, such as color, health, and happiness. It’s usually presented in paragraphs or tables.
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EXAMPLE: All malarial patients confirm presence of plasmodium in their blood and control group shows no plasmodium in
their blood.
Conclusions
Results have no meaning unless they are interpreted, processed and analyzed carefully,
either to support or reject hypothesis

Results verify that plasmodium is the cause of malaria.

Communication
Results need to be conveyed through scientific paper in scientific journals or
conferences. Today’s scientists are connected to scientists of the past because new
scientific ideas are built upon the foundations of earlier work. Some scientific ideas are
very old but still applicable today.

THEORY: When many lines of research support a particular hypothesis, the

Hypothesis becomes a scientific theory.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Scientists have worked curiously and tirelessly by applying different techniques and have established a relation between
geological events and origin of organisms.
Geologists have divided span of time into Geological time chart is the authentic record of the geological events
bigger units(billions of years), each further devised by researchers to understand relate:
divided into smaller units(millions of years), Origin of earth
EON Important changes in earth structure and atmosphere till date
EPOCH Origin of first life form on earth
ERA Evolution of life forms till date
PERIOD Trace ancestors of organisms
Relation of organisms to each other
Effect of earth atmosphere on organisms
Extinction of organisms

EON Largest time unit of geological time refers to duration of 1 billion years.
ERA Eon is subdivided into eras, Longest geological era had been Precambrian era
PERIOD Era is further subdivided into periods and epochs. One epoch may last up to 3 million years.
Holocene is the current epoch where we exist
542 Ma – present The Phanerozoic Eon, literally the "period of well-displayed life," marks the appearance in the fossil
record of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making organisms. It is subdivided into three eras,
the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic

ERA PERIOD Millions ORGANISM

of years
CINOZOIC ERA Quaternary 70
Tertiary
MESOZOIC ERA Cretaceous 135
Jurassic 180 Dinosaurs on peak
Triassic 225 Early dinosaurs
PALEOZOIC ERA Permian 270 Early reptiles
Gymnosperms
Mammals
Carboniferous 350 Diversification of amphibians
Devonian 400 Amphibian
Silurian 440
Ordovician 500 Most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in
580 the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion
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Cambrian 600 The accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the

formation of an ozone layer.
Jawless fishes
750 Trilobites
First protozoa

1300 Earliest land fungi

1850 Eukaryotic cells appear
PROTEROZOIC ERA 2000
3900 Cells resembling prokaryotes appear
4280 Earliest possible appearance of life on Earth
4400 First appearance of liquid water on Earth.
4600 The planet Earth forms

Fossil plant remains that clearly show features of true plants date back to at least 475 million years ago (Fig. 4). The fossil record
provides small windows into the past, and it aids scientists in approximating what life forms existed during a certain period in
time. Because it can take millions of years for evolutionary changes to become established and because it is more rare than
common for fossilization to occur, scientists estimate that the earliest plants began to evolve prior to the first evidence of plants in
the fossil record. In fact, some molecular evidence indicates that land plants could have appeared as early as 600 million years ago

It is generally agreed that all life today evolved by common descent from a single primitive life form. In biology, evolution is any
change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to
diversity at every level of biological organization, from kingdoms to species, and individual organisms and molecules, such
as DNA and proteins. The similarities between all present day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which
all known species, living and extinct, have diverged through the process of evolution.

More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.
Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, [4] of which about 1.2 million have been
documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. However, recent scientific report estimates that 1 trillion species are
currently on Earth, with only one-thousandth of one percent described.
Species go extinct constantly as environments change but due to human activities extinction rate has got immensely accelerated.
Occasionally biodiversity on Earth faces rapid and furious environmental changes that result into mass extinction in which the
extinction rate is much higher than usual. Researchers have identified five major extinction events in earth's history since

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Biology is widely categorized into:
ZOOLOGY: Covers study related to animals
BOTANY: Study related to plants
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Overall, each branch is further divided into many fields. Of which few conventional and modern fields are being listed as
following
TAXONOMY Deals with methods and systems for naming organisms
ENVIRONMENTAL Study of effects of environment on organisms, impact on their lives , human activities
BIOLOGY/ ECOLOGY generated impact on environment and their consequences
LIMNOLOGY: Study of life and inter relations of organisms living in freshwater systems, their
impact on environment and contribution towards energy production
MARINE BIOLOGY Study of organisms living in sea and ocean and impact of physical and chemical
properties of environment on their lives
ENTOMOLOGY Deals with study of insects, their inter relations, impact on environment and human
life
PARASITOLOGY Study of organisms living as parasites either outside or inside of body of other
organisms, their adaptations, mode of transmission and effect of parasites on life of
their hosts and diseases
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Deals with study of cells at molecular level
GENETICS Study of cells at genetic level, laws of inheritance and transmission of information in
organisms
MICROBIOLOGY Deals with study of microorganisms including viruses and bacteria.
Their beneficial and harmful impact on human life
HISTOLOGY Study of organism on tissue level, their characteristics ,latest laboratory techniques
and culture methods
EMBRYOLOGY Study of embryo formation right including fertility, gamete formation, conception and
prenatal as well as postnatal abnormalities.
CYTOLOGY Study of types of cells structurally and functionally including microscopy and latest
techniques of fixation and mounting
PHYSIOLOGY Study of functions and mechanism of action related to organism, including their
effect on anatomy of organism
ANATOMY Closely related to physiology ,works in interaction with physiology, deals with study
of structural aspects of organisms
MODERN SCIENCES/APPLICATIONS:
With advanced techniques and increasing awareness focus has been to improve quality of life,
Help promote better health for man, maintenance, protection and conservation of healthy environment and to reduce problems
faced by man. This has opened doors to many new fields of Biology, never known before including:
BIOTECHNOLOGY Deals with application of new techniques on microorganisms and other organisms to get
benefit for mankind
GMO’s: Genetically Modified Organisms are widely available in market to fulfil global
demand including rice, wheat, vegetables, chickens etc.
Focuses on cloning
SOCIAL BIOLOGY Deals with study of social behavior and interactions within population specially human
population, their transmission from population to population and their impact on environment
HYDROPONICS Propagation of plant production in unconventional conditions consuming less space, less water
and soilless situation, to overcome problem of agricultural yield for increasing population.
IMMUNOLOGY Focuses on harmful impact of microorganisms on human body, response of the body to
particular microbe, mechanism of protection and to build powerful medicines (vaccines and
antibiotics) to recover from disease.
CHEMOTHERAPY Focuses on treatment of abnormal cells with effective chemicals ,mostly employed in cancer
and tumor
RADIOTHERAPY Focuses on diagnosis or treatment of a disease with energy rays.
This tool is mostly used in treatment of cancer and tumor
WILDLIFE BIOLOGY Deals with study of organisms in danger or near extinction
Focuses on maintenance and protection of environment
Device programs for conservation of nature
Emphasizing on biological control for treatment of pathogens and pests to recover natural
equilibrium
BIOINFORMATICS As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines biology, computer science,
information engineering, mathematics and statistics to analyze and interpret biological
data. Bioinformatics has been used for in silico analyses of biological queries using
mathematical and statistical techniques.
PHOTOBIOLOGY Photobiology is the scientific study of the interactions of light and living organisms.
STRUCTURAL Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics dealing with
BIOLOGY the molecular structure of biological macro-molecules.🔊
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Theoretical Biology
THEORETICAL Theoretical biology (aka Mathematical biology) is an interdisciplinary scientific research field
BIOLOGY with a range of applications in biology, biotechnology, and medicine.
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY Synthetic biology is a field of science that involves redesigning organisms for useful purposes
by engineering them to have new abilities. Synthetic biology researchers and companies
around the world are harnessing the power of nature to solve problems in medicine,
manufacturing and agriculture
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BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

The living matter is composed of mainly six elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
These elements together constitute about 90% of the dry weight of the human body. Several other functionally important
elements are also found in the cells. These include Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, I, Zn, F, Mo and Se.
Carbon is the most predominant and versatile element of life. It possesses a unique property to form infinite number of
compounds. This is attributed to the ability of carbon to form stable covalent bonds and C- C chains of unlimited length. It is
estimated that about 90% of compounds found in living system invariably contain carbon. The macromolecules (proteins,
lipids, nucleic acids and polysaccharides) form supramolecular assemblies (e.g. membranes) which in turn organize into
organelles, cells, tissues, organs and finally the whole organism.
Complex biomolecules
The organic compounds such as amino acids, nucleotides and monosaccharides serve as the monomeric units or building blocks
of complex biomolecules—proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and polysaccharides, respectively. Lipids are not
biopolymers in a strict sense, but majority of them contain fatty acids
.
MAJOR MINOR Protein Amino acids Fundamental basis of
ELEMENTS ELEMENTS structure and
carbon, Ca, Function of cell (static and
K, dynamic functions).
hydrogen, Na, Deoxyribonucleic nucleotides of hereditary information
Cl, acid (DNA)
oxygen, Mg, Ribonucleic acid Ribonucleotides protein biosynthesis
Fe, (RNA)
nitrogen, Cu, carbohydrates Monosaccharides Storage form
Co, structural components of
phosphorus I, Zn, membranes
F, Mo and Se. lipids Fatty acids Energy production
sulfur glycerol

A single human chromosome is composed of about a million During the process of cell fractionation, rough ER is disrupted
nucleosomes. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic to form small vesicles known as microsomes. It may be noted
feature of the species. Humans have 46 chromosomes, that microsomes as such do not occur in the cell
compactly packed in the nucleus.

Composition of macromolecules
Cell membrane %age
Protein 60-80
Carbohydrate traces
lipid 20-40
% composition by mass (Human) Comparison of chemical composition
FORMULA elements % Chemical compounds % Total cell weight
Oxygen 65 type Bacterial Mammal
Carbon 18 cell cell
OCHNCaP Hydrogen 10 1 Water 70 70
Nitrogen 03 2 Protein 15 18
Calcium 02 3 carbohydrate 3 4
phosphorus 01 4 Lipids 2 3
Magnesium 0.05 5 DNA 1 0.25
Sulphur 0.25 6 RNA 6 1.1
MSSFeClK Sodium 0.15 7 Organic molecules 2 2
Iron 0.004 8 Inorganic ions 1 1
Chlorine 0.15
potassium 0.35
Zinc
ZIMCu Iodine traces
Manganese
Copper
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Water
The most abundant inorganic component of the cytosol is the water . Water constitutes about 65 to 80 per cent of the matrix. In the
matrix the water occurs in two forms, viz., free water and bound water. The 95 per cent of the total cellular water is
used by the matrix as the solvent for various inorganic substances and organic compounds and is known as free water. The
remaining 5 per cent of the total cellular water remains loosely linked with protein molecules by hydrogen bonds or other forces
and is known as bound water.
The water contents of the cellular matrix of an organism depend directly on the age, habitat and metabolic activities. For instance,
the cells of the embryo have 90 to 95 per cent water which decreases progressively in the cells of the adult organism. The cells of
lower aquatic animals contain comparative high percentage of the water than the cells of higher terrestrial animals. Further the
percentage of water in the matrix also varies from cell to cell according to the rate of the metabolism. Molecular structure of
water. The special physical properties of water are found in its molecular structure. Water is formed by the combination of
hydrogen and oxygen through the formation of covalent bonds, in which atoms by sharing pairs of electrons, become linked
together.
Covalent bonds are strong chemical bonds between atoms and contain a relatively large
amount of chemical energy (110.6 kilocalories/Mole or 462 kilojoules/Mole). In water hydrogen shares its one electron with an
oxygen atom. Each oxygen atom has two electrons which it may share with two hydrogen atoms. Unique physical properties of
water and their biological utility. There are several extraordinary properties of water that make it especially fit for its essential
role in the protoplasmic systems (i.e., cytosol or matrix). Some of the unique properties of water are the following :
1. Water as a solvent.
Water is most stable yet versatile of all solvents. Water’s properties as a solvent for inorganic substances as mineral ions, solids, etc.,
and organic compounds such as carbohydrates and proteins, depend on water’s dipole nature.
Because of this polarity, water can bind electrostatically to both positively and negatively charged groups in the protein. Thus, each
amino group in a protein molecule is capable of binding 2.6 molecules of water. The solvency is of great biological importance
because all the chemical reactions that take place in the cells do so in aqueous solution. The water also forms the good dispersion
medium for the colloidal system of the matrix.
2. Water’s thermal properties.
Water is the only substance that occurs in nature in the three phases of solid, liquid and vapors within the ordinary range of earth’s
temperatures. Water has a high specific heat: it requires 1 calorie (4.185 joules) to elevate the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1ºC (such as from 15 to 16º C). Such a high thermal capacity of water has a great moderating effect on environmental temperature
changes and is a great protective agent for all life.
Water also has a high heat of vaporization. It requires more than 540 calories (2259 joules) to change 1 gram of liquid water into
water vapor. Thus, water tends to have a remarkably high boiling point (100º C) for a substance of such low relative molecular
mass. Were it not for this lucky accident, it is likely that liquid water would never have existed on earth and would have been lost to
outer space
For terrestrial plants and animals, cooling produced by the evaporation of water is an important means of getting rid of excess heat.
Moreover, at the other temperature extreme, large amounts of energy (335 joules or 80 cal per gram) must be lost for water to be
converted from the liquid to the solid state. This is called heat of fusion. Water’s melting point being 0º C.
Another important property of water from a biological standpoint is its unique density behavior during change of temperature.
Most liquids become continually more dense with cooling. Water, however, reaches its maximum density at 4º C and then becomes
lighter with further cooling. Therefore, ice floats rather than settling on the bottom of lakes and ponds. This protects the aquatic life
from freezing.
3. Surface tension.
Water has a high surface tension. This property, caused by the great cohesiveness of water molecules, is important in the
maintenance of protoplasmic form and movement. Despite its high surface tension, water has low viscosity, a property that
favors the movement of blood through minute capillaries and of cytoplasm inside cellular boundaries.
Molecules dissolved in water, lower its surface tension and tend to collect at the interface between its liquid phase and
other phases. This is important in the development of the plasma membrane, and certainly plays an important role in the
movement of molecules across it.
4. Transparency.
The water is transparent to light, enabling the specialized photosynthetic organelles, the chloroplast, inside the plant cell to
absorb the sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.

Substances Increasing
pH Buffers
Normal rainwater 5.5 Buffers
Urine 6 In organisms, blood or cytoplasm are the “solutions” in
Saliva, milk 6.5 which the required ions (for example, electrolytes) are
Water, tears 7 (neutral) floating. That’s why most substances in the body hover
Human blood 7.5 around the neutral pH of 7. However, nothing’s perfect, so
Seawater, eggs 8 the human body has a backup system in case things go awry.
Baking soda, antacids 9 A system of buffers exists to help neutralize the blood if
Great Salt Lake 10 excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions are produced.
Ammonia 11 Buffers keep solutions at a steady pH by combining with
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Bicarbonate of soda, soapy 12 excess hydrogen (H+) or hydroxide (OH–) ions. Think of
water 13 them as sponges for hydrogen and hydroxide ions. If a
Oven cleaner, bleach 14 (most substance releases these ions into a buffered solution, the
liquid drain cleaner basic) buffers will “soak up” the extra ions.
The most common buffers in the human body are
bicarbonate ion (HCO3 –) and carbonic acid (H2CO3).
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CARBOHYDRATES CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Most abundant organic molecules in nature.  classified into three major group (based on the
Primarily composed of the elements carbon, number of sugar units)
hydrogen and oxygen.  Monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
 Called ‘Hydrates of carbon’ polysaccharides.
 Possess the empirical formula (C.H2O)n  Mono- and oligosaccharides are sweet to taste,
 Carbohydrates may be defined as crystalline in character and soluble in water, hence
polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones they are commonly known as sugars.
 The term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates
soluble in water and sweet to taste.
 Often referred to as saccharides (Greek:
sakcharon–sugar)

Monosaccharides Empirical Aldose Ketose

formula
Trioses C3H6O3 Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Found in all cells Found in all cells
Tetroses C4H8O4 Erythrose Erythrulose
Used in
carbohydrate
metabolism
Pentoses C5H10O5 Ribose Ribulose
constituent of Used in
RNA carbohydrate
metabolism
Hexoses C6H12O6 Glucose Fructose
constituent of constituent
polysaccharides of sucrose and
and inulin
disaccharides
Heptoses C7H14O7 Glucoheptose
Sedoheptulose
Found in plants
TABLE : Chemical composition of a normal man (weight 65 kg)
Constituent Percent (%) Weight (kg)

Water 61.6 40
Protein 17.0 11
Lipid 13.8 9
Carbohydrate 1.5 1
Minerals 6.1 4

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Composition linkage

 Monosaccharides (Greek: mono- maltose glucose + glucose alpha (1 - 4)
one) are the simplest group of
carbohydrates
 Often referred to as simple sugars. sucrose glucose + fructose Alpha glucose and beta fructose (1 - 2)
 They have the general formula
Cn(H2O)n lactose galactose + glucose Beta(1 - 4)
 Cannot be further hydrolyzed.
 They are either
 Aldoses: with aldo group e.g.
glyceraldehyde, glucose.
 OR Reducing sugars:
 Ketoses: With keto group e.g. If the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon of a cyclized sugar is not linked to
dihydroxyacetone, fructose. another compound by a glycosidic bond, the ring can open. The sugar can act as
 Based on the number of carbon a reducing agent and is termed a reducing sugar. Such sugars can react with
atoms, the monosaccharides are chromogenic agents (for example, the Benedict reagent) causing the reagent to
regarded as be reduced and colored, with the aldehyde group of the acyclic sugar becoming
 Trioses (3C), Tetroses (4C), oxidized.
pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and All monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
Heptoses (7C). Sucrose is non reducing.
Lactose and maltose are reducing.
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Poly saccharides are non-reducing.

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Cyclization of monosaccharides
Less than 1% of each of the monosaccharides with five or more carbons exists
in the open-chain (acyclic) form in solution. Rather, they are predominantly
found in a ring (cyclic) form, they prefer to undergo cyclization in presence of
water to form furanoses and pyranoses.

The hydroxyl group of monosaccharides can react

with its own aldehyde or keto functional group to
form hemiacetal and hemiketal. Thus, the aldehyde
group of glucose at C1 reacts with alcohol group at
C5 to form two types of cyclic hemiacetals namely
alpha and beta forms. When a sugar cyclizes, an
anomeric
Carbon is created from the aldehyde group of an
aldose or keto group of a ketose. The alpha and beta
cyclic forms are based upon position of OH group in
cyclic form. In case of alpha anomer, the OH group
held by anomeric carbon is on the opposite side of the
group CH2OH of sugar ring. The reverse is true for
beta anomer. The anomers differ in certain physical
and chemical properties only.

Polymer formation
Monosaccharides can join together to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The process of condensation
of monosaccharides together results into formation of covalent link between the units called glycosidic bond.

Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo-few) Polysaccharides (Greek: poly-many) are polymers of
Contain 2-10 monosaccharide molecules which are monosaccharides
liberated on hydrolysis. Usually tasteless (non-sugars) and form colloids with water
Based on the number of monosaccharide units
Polysaccharides (or simply glycans) consist of repeat units of
present, the oligosaccharides are further subdivided to
Disaccharides and tri or tetra saccharides. monosaccharides or their derivatives,
Among the oligosaccharides, disaccharides are the held together by glycosidic bonds
most common. Disaccharide consists of two They are primarily concerned with two important functions-
monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar) held structural, and storage of energy. Polysaccharides are linear as
TYPES OFbyPOLYSACCHARIDES
together a glycosidic bond. They are crystalline,
Polysaccharides are sweet
of twototypes well as branched polymers. The occurrence of branches in
water-soluble and taste. The disaccharides
1.are
Homopolysaccharides on hydrolysis yield only a single typepolysaccharides is due to the fact that glycosidic linkages can be
of monosaccharide.
of two types
Ex: glucans are polymers of glucose
1. Reducing disaccharides with free aldehyde or keto formed at any one of the hydroxyl groups of a monosaccharide.
Fructosans are polymers of
group e.g. maltose, lactose.fructose.
2.2.
Heteropolysaccharides on hydrolysis
Non-reducing disaccharides with no yield a mixture of a few monosaccharides or their derivatives.
free aldehyde
Homopoly components Heteropolysacch
or keto group e.g. sucrose, trehalose. components tissue distribution
saccharide arides
s
Starch Amylose (15- Hyaluronic acid Glucuronic acid and Connective tissue, synovial fluid,
20%) glucosamine. vitreous humor
amylopectin
(80-85%).
Cellulose Chondroitin D-glucuronic acid and Cartilage, bone, skin, blood vessel walls
sulfates N-acetyl
D-galactosamine
Chitin glucosamine Heparin sulfo glucosamine 6- Blood, lung, liver, kidney, spleen
sulfate and glucuronate
2-sulfate
Inulin fructose Dermatan sulfate D-glucuronic acid to Blood vessel valves,
24

form L-iduronic acid heart valves

Glycogen Glucose
The plant cells besides containing starch and the cellulose contain other polysaccharides such as xylan, alginic acids (algae),
pectic acids, inulin, agar-agar and hemicellulose. Of these, some polysaccharides provide mechanical support to the cell, while
others are used as
stored food material.
IMPORTANT HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES

Starch. Cellulose. Cellulose is most common and abundant biological product

Starch is storage polysaccharide of plant cells (e.g., on earth. It is a major component of cell walls of plants and is also found
potato tubers). in the cell walls of algae and fungi. Cellulose is an unbranched (straight)
It usually occurs in cells in the form of grains or structural polysaccharide of glucose in which the neighboring
granules (plastids). monosaccharides are joined by -1→4 glycosidic bonds. Chain lengths
Starch granules contain a mixture of two different vary from several hundred to several thousand glycosyl units In a
polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin composed cellulose molecule successive pyranose rings are rotated 180º relative to
of glucosyl units. one another so that the chain of sugars takes on a “flip-flop “appearance.
Amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide Due to this, the OH groups of sugar molecules stick outwards from the
containing many 1→4- and few 1→6- linked glucosyl chain in all directions which can form hydrogen bonds with OH groups
units. of neighboring cellulose chains, thereby establishing a kind of three-
Amylose is an unbranched 1→4 polymer of glucose dimensional lattice. Thus, in plant cell walls 2000 cellulose molecules
and may be several thousand glucosyl units long. are organized into cross-linked, parallel micro fibrils (having 25 nm
diameter), whose long axis is that of the individual glucose chain.
Glycogen. Chitin.
Glycogen or animal starch is a branched, nutrient, Chitin is an extracellular structural polysaccharide found in the cell
storage homopolysaccharides Of all animal cells, walls of fungal
certain protozoa and algae. It is particularly abundant Hyphae and the exoskeleton of arthropods. The chemical structure of
in liver cells and muscle cells of man and other chitin is closely related to that of cellulose; the difference is that the
vertebrates. Glycogen is more soluble than starch and hydroxyl group of each number 2 carbon atom is replaced by an
exists in the cytoplasm as tiny granules. Glycogen acetamide group. Hence, chitin is an unbranched polymer of N-
molecules exist in a continuous spectrum of sizes, acetylglucosamine containing several thousand successive amino sugar
with the largest molecules containing many thousands units linked by 14
(e.g., 30, 000) of glucose or glycosyl units. Each Glycosidic bonds.
glycogen molecule Consists of long, profusely
branched (‘bush’-or ‘tree-like’ structure) chains of -
glucose molecules. The glycosidic bonds are
established between carbon 1 and 4 of glucose (i.e.,
14 linkages) except at the branching points, which
involve linkages between carbon 1 and 6, 16
Linkages).

Nutritional importance of carbohydrates in human diet:

Primary source of energy
Food storage form
Fiber content
Secondary source for biosynthesis of proteins
Contribute 70% of total caloric count
Two categories of dietary carbs
Utilizable carbs Unutilizable carbs
Digestible carbohydrates are absorbed into These include complex carbohydrates that cannot be digested by human GIT, are
blood stream and assimilated for further referred to as fiber. Dietary fiber is important for health because:
processes. These include Prevents constipation
Glucose Improve bowl movement
Fructose Eliminate bacterial toxins
Galactose Decrease GIT cancer
Sucrose Improve body glucose tolerance
Maltose Reduce plasma cholesterol level
Galactose Increases satiety value(fullness of stomach)
Starch
Glycogen
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
1. They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4 Cal/g) for all organisms.
2. Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids).
25

3. Carbohydrates (as glycoproteins and glycolipids) participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular functions such as
cell growth, adhesion and fertilization.
4. They are structural components of many organisms. These include the fiber (cellulose) of plants, exoskeleton of some insects
and the cell wall of microorganisms.
5. Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy demands of the bod
PROTEINS

Protein is derived from a Greek word proteios, meaning holding Each amino acid has a central CARBON called alpha
the first place. carbon
Berzelius (Swedish chemist) suggested the name proteins attached to four groups ( containing two functional groups
Mulder (Dutch chemist) in 1838 used the term proteins. — amino and carboxyl)l
Proteins are the most abundant and functionally diverse molecules The amino group (—NH2) is basic while the carboxyl
in living systems group (—COOH) is acidic in nature.
They occur in every part of the cell and constitute about 50% of  a carboxyl group
the cellular dry weight. Although more than 300 different amino  an amino group
acids have been described in nature, only 20 are commonly found  a H corner
as constituents of proteins a distinctive side chain (“R group”)

At physiologic pH (approximately 7.4), the carboxyl group is dissociated, forming the negatively charged carboxylate ion (–
COO–), and the amino group is protonated (–NH3+). All of these carboxyl and amino groups are combined through peptide
linkage and proteins are the polymers of amino acids. Amino group nullifies charge of acidic group and alpha group appears to
be neutral in nature. Thus, it is the nature of the side chains that ultimately dictates the role an amino acid plays in a protein. It
is, therefore, useful to classify the amino acids according to the properties of their side
Chains

Types of protein in human body 10,000

Amino acids in insulin 51
Amino acids in lysozyme 129
Amino acids in myoglobin Amino 54
acids in hemoglobin 574
Threonine Leucine
Isoleucine Lysine
Methionine Phenylalanine
Histidine Valine
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Arginine Tryptophan
TIM HALL PVT

Peptide bond
The amino acids are held together in a protein by covalent peptide bonds or linkages.

Formation of a peptide bond : When the amino group of an amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another amino acid,
a peptide bond is formed (Fig.4.5). Note that a dipeptide will have two amino acids and one peptide (not two) bond. Peptides
containing more than 10 amino acids are referred to as polypeptides.
26

Essential or indispensable amino acids :

The amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, need to be supplied through the diet are called essential
amino acids. They are required for proper growth and maintenance of the individual.
Proteins are predominantly constituted by five in the following proportion.
DENATURATION
The phenomenon of disorganization of native protein structure is known as denaturation. It results in
 loss of secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins
27

 primary structure remains unchanged

 involves a change in physical, chemical and biological properties of protein molecules
 Denaturing agents include heat, organic solvents, strong acids or bases, detergents, and ions of heavy metals such as lead.

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS Alpha helix

Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids which Each turn contains 3.6 amino acids with length of 0.54 nm. The
is determined by the genes contained in DNA. The spacing of each amino acid is 0.15 nm.
primary structure of a protein is largely responsible for Helix is a stable conformation formed spontaneously with the lowest
its function. energy. keratins

1. Primary structure: The linear sequence of BETA Pleated sheet

amino acids forming the backbone of proteins composed of two or more segments of chain turned over itself, the
(polypeptides).It is formed as a result of peptide hydrogen bonds are formed between the neighboring segments of
bonds between amino acids. Primary structure polypeptide chain(s).
exhibits:
 Number of amino acids 3. Tertiary structure: The three dimensional structure of a functional
 Type of amino acids protein. The three-dimensional arrangement of protein structure is
 Sequence of amino acids referred to as tertiary structure. It is a compact structure with
 No. of peptide bonds hydrophobic side chains held interior while the hydrophilic groups
are on the surface of the protein molecule. This type of arrangement
2. Secondary structure: The spatial arrangement of ensures stability of the molecule. Tertiary structure is held by:
protein by twisting of the polypeptide chain. The  Peptide bonds
conformation of polypeptide chain by twisting or folding  Alpha amino and acid hydrogen bonds
is referred to as secondary structure. The amino acids are  disulfide bonds ( S S)
located close to each other in their sequence. Secondary  inter layer hydrogen bonds due to side chain involvements
structure is stabilized by
 Peptide bonds 4. Quaternary structure: Some of the proteins are composed of two
 Extensive hydrogen bonding formed between H or more polypeptide chains. The spatial arrangement of more than 1
atom attached to peptide N, and O atom attached chains with tertiary structure is known as quaternary structure.
to peptide C.

 Two types of secondary structures, alpha-helix

and beta-sheet, are mainly identified
specialized group of proteins named chaperones is required for the proper folding of proteins

Nutritional classification of proteins

The nutritive value of proteins is determined by the composition of
essential amino acids.

1. Complete proteins :
all the ten essential amino acids present in the required proportion by
the human body
E.g. egg albumin, milk casein.
2. Partially incomplete proteins : partially lack one or more essential
amino acids
E.g. wheat and rice proteins (limiting Lys, Thr).
3. Incomplete proteins :
Completely lack one or more essential amino acids.
E.g. gelatin (lacks Trp), zein (lacks Trp, Lys).

1. Simple proteins 2. Conjugated proteins

(a) Globular proteins. (a) Nucleoproteins
(i) Albumins (b) Glycoproteins
(ii) Globulins (c) Lipoproteins
(iv) Prolamines (d) Phosphoproteins
(v) Histones (e) Chromoproteins
(vi) Globins (f) Metalloproteins

(b) Fibrous proteins: These are fiber like in shape, insoluble in 3. Derived proteins: The derived proteins are of two types.
water and resistant to digestion. Albuminoids or scleroproteins The primary derived is the denatured or coagulated or first
are predominant group of fibrous proteins. hydrolyzed products of proteins. The secondary derived are
(i) Collagens are connective tissue proteins lacking tryptophan. the degraded (due to breakdown of peptide bonds) products of
28

Collagens, on boiling with water or dilute acids, yield gelatin proteins.

which is soluble and digestible.
(ii) Elastins: These proteins are found in elastic tissues such as
tendons and arteries.
(iii) Keratins: These are present in exoskeletal structures e.g.
hair, nails, horns. Human hair keratin contains as much as 14%
cysteine.

Functional classification of proteins major elements %age

Based on the functions they perform, proteins are classified Carbon 50 – 55%
into the following groups Hydrogen 6 – 7.3%
1. Structural proteins: Keratin of hair and nails, collagen Oxygen 19 – 24%
of bone. Nitrogen 13 – 19%
2. Enzymes or catalytic proteins: Hexokinase, pepsin. Sulfur 0 – 4%
3. Transport proteins: Hemoglobin, serum albumin. Non protein amino acid function
4. Hormonal proteins: Insulin, growth hormone. Ornithine Urea cycle
5. Contractile proteins: Actin, myosin. Citrulline
6. Storage proteins: Ovalbumin, glutelin. Argininosuccinic acid
7. Genetic proteins: Nucleoproteins. Thyroxine Thyroid hormones
8. Defense proteins: Snake venoms, Immunoglobulins. Triiodothyronine
9. Receptor proteins: for hormones, viruses. Homocysteine metabolism
Homoserine
Dihydroxy phenylalanine neurotransmitters
(DOPA)
Ovothiol antioxidant
Creatinine Muscle product

Functions of proteins
Proteins perform a great variety of specialized and essential functions in the living cells. These functions may be broadly grouped as
static (structural) and dynamic.
Structural functions : Certain proteins are primarily responsible for structure and strength of body. These include collagen and
elastin found in bone matrix, vascular system and other organs and keratin present in epidermal tissues.
Dynamic functions : The dynamic functions of proteins are more diversified in nature. These include proteins acting as enzymes,
hormones, blood clotting factors, immunoglobulins, membrane receptors, storage proteins, as genetic control, muscle contraction,
respiration etc. Proteins performing dynamic functions are appropriately regarded as the working horses of cell.
Amino acids Hydroxyl group Sulfur Acidic amino Basic amino Aromatic amino acids
with aliphatic containing containing acids acids
side chains amino acids amino acids
glycine,alanine, Serine, threonine Cysteine Aspartic acid lysine, arginine Phenylalanine,
valine, leucine tyrosine methionine and glutamic and histidine tyrosine and tryptophan
and isoleucine

LIPIDS
LIPIDS
(Greek: lipos–fat)
Lipids are the organic substances which are
 Greasy, oily, soapy
 Extracted from biological source
 Relatively insoluble in water
 Soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether
etc.)

Classification of lipids
Lipids are broadly classified into
1. Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with alcohols. These are mainly of two types
(a) Fats and oils (triacylglycerol): These are Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oil is a liquid while fat is a solid at room
temperature.
(b) Waxes: Esters of fatty acids (usually long chain) with alcohols other than glycerol. These alcohols may be aliphatic or
alicyclic. Cetyl alcohol is most commonly found in waxes. Waxes are used in the preparation of candles, lubricants, cosmetics,
ointments, polishes etc.
29

TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids. The fats and oils that are widely distributed in
both plants and animals are chemically triacylglycerols. They are insoluble in water and non-polar in Character and commonly
known as neutral fats. They are of two types
Simple triacylglycerols contain the same type of fatty acid residue at all the three carbons e.g., tristearoyl glycerol or tristearin.
Mixed triacylglycerols are more common. They contain 2 or 3 different types of fatty acid residues.

FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chain. They are the simplest form of lipids.

Most of the fatty acids that occur in natural lipids are of even carbons (usually 14C – 20C). This is due to the fact that biosynthesis
of fatty acids mainly occurs with the sequential addition of 2 carbon units.
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids do not contain double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds. Both saturated
and unsaturated fatty acids almost equally occur in the natural lipids. Fatty acids with one double bond are monounsaturated, and
those with 2 or more double bonds are collectively known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).

Nomenclature of fatty acids

The naming of a fatty acid (systematic name) is based on the hydrocarbon from which it is derived. The saturated fatty acids end
with a suffix -anoic (e.g., octanoic acid) while the unsaturated fatty acids end with a suffix –enoic acid. Carboxyl carbon is taken
as number 1. The terminal carbon containing methyl group is known omega (􀁚) carbon. Starting from the methyl end, the carbon
atoms in a fatty acid are numbered as omega 1, 2, 3 etc. The numbering of carbon atoms in two different ways is given below
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH
w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7

Omega 3 series ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS (EFA)

Linolenic acid (18 : 3; 9, 12, 15) The fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by the body should be supplied in the
Omega 6 series diet
Linoleic acid (18 : 2; 9, 12) and EXAMPLES:
Arachidonic acid (20 : 4; 5, 8, 11, 14) Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Omega 9 series Linoleic acid (18 : 2; 9, 12)
Oleic acid (18 : 1; 9) Vegetable oils, sunflower, cottonseed, corn oil, soybean
Linolenic acid (18 : 3; 9, 12, 15)
Plant oils, such as flaxseed and canola,
Arachidonic acid (20 : 4; 5, 8, 11, 14)

Common Name No.of Systematic name Abbrevi Structure

C ation
Saturated fatty acids
Acetic acid 2 Ethanoic acid 2:0 CH3COOH
Propionic acid 3 Propanoic acid 3:0 CH3CH2COOH
Butyric acid 4 Butanoic acid 4:0 CH3(CH2)2COOH
Valeric acid 5 Pentanoic acid 5:0 CH3(CH2)3COOH
Caproic acid 6 Hexanoic acid 6:0 CH3(CH2)4COOH
Caprilyc acid 8 Octanoic acid 8:0 CH3(CH2)6COOH
Capric acid 10 Decanoic acid 10 : 0 CH3(CH2)8COOH
Lauric acid 12 Dodecanoic acid 12 : 0 CH3(CH2)10COOH
Myristic acid 14 Tetradecanoic acid 14 : 0 CH3(CH2)12COOH
Palmitic acid 16 Hexadecanoic acid 16 : 0 CH3(CH2)14COOH
Stearic acid 18 Octadecanoic acid 18 : 0 CH3(CH2)16COOH
Arachidic acid 20 Eicosanoic acid 20 : 0 CH3(CH2)18COOH
Behenic acid 22 Docosanoic acid 22 : 0 CH3(CH2)20COOH
Lignoceric acid 24 Tetracosanoic acid 24 : 0 CH3(CH2)22COOH
Unsaturated fatty acids
Palmitoleic acid 16 Hexadecenoic acid 16 : 1; 9 CH3(CH2)5CH = CH(CH2)7COOH
Oleic acid 18 Octadecenoic acid 18 : 1; 9 CH3(CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)7COOH
Linoleic acid 18 9,12–Octadeca 18 : 2; 9, 12 CH3(CH2)4CH = CHCH2CH = CH(CH2)7COOH
dienoic acid
30

Linolenic acid 18 9,12,15 –Octa 18 : 3; 9, 12, CH3CH2CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH

decatrienoic acid 15 = CH(CH2)7COOH
Arachidonic acid 20 Eicosatetraenoic 20 : 4; 5, 8, CH3(CH2)4CH = CHCH2CH = CHCH2CH= CHCH2CH
acid 11, 14 = CH(CH2)3COOH

Functions of EFA: Saturated fatty acids with carbon chain lengths of 14 (myristic) and 16
 Essential fatty acids are required for (palmitic) are most potent in increasing the serum cholesterol. Stearic
 the membrane structure and function, acid (18 Carbon, found in many foods including chocolate) has little
 transport of cholesterol effect on blood cholesterol.
 formation of lipoproteins
 Prevention of fatty liver etc.
 synthesis of eicosanoids

2. Complex (or compound) lipids: These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols containing additional groups such as phosphate,
nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, protein etc. They are further divided as follows
(a)PHOSPHOLIPIDS
These are complex or compound lipids containing phosphoric acid, in addition to fatty acids, nitrogenous base and alcohol there
are two classes of phospholipids
1. Glycerophospholipids (or phosphoglycerides) that contain glycerol as the alcohol. are the major lipids
that occur in biological membranes. They consist of glycerol 3-phosphate esterified at its C1 and C2 with fatty acids. Usually, C1
contains a saturated fatty acid while C2 contains an unsaturated fatty acid.
2. Sphingophospholipids (or sphingomyelins) that contain sphingosine as the alcohol and phosphoric acid. Glycerol is absent.
Phosphatidic acid: This is the simplest phospholipid. It occurs in low concentration in the tissues. Basically,
Phosphatidic acid is an intermediate in the synthesis of triacylglycerol and phospholipids. The other Glycerophospholipids
containing different nitrogenous bases or other groups may be regarded as the derivatives of phosphatidic acid.

MOST COMMON PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Serine + PA → phosphatidylserine (PS)

Ethanolamine + PA → phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) 4. Cephalins (phosphatidylethanolamine) : Ethanolamine is the
(cephalin) nitrogenous base present in cephalins
Choline + PA → phosphatidylcholine (PC) (lecithin)
Inositol + PA → phosphatidylinositol (PI)
Glycerol + PA → phosphatidylglycerol
5. Cardiolipin: It is so named as it was first isolated from heart
2. Lecithins (phosphatidylcholine): These are the most muscle. Structurally, a Cardiolipin consists of two molecules of
abundant group of phospholipids in the cell membranes. phosphatidic acid held by an additional glycerol through phosphate
groups.
3.. Phosphatidylinositol: The steroisomer myo-inositol is
attached to phosphatidic acid to give phosphatidylinositol 6 . Plasmalogens: When a fatty acid is attached by an ether linkage
(PI). This is an important component of cell membranes. at C1 of glycerol in the Glycerophospholipids, the resultant
The action of certain hormones (e.g. oxytocin, vasopressin) compound is plasmalogen, e.g. Phosphatidalethanolamine ,Choline,
is mediated through PI. inositol

glycolipids: These lipids contain a fatty acid, carbohydrate Lipoproteins: Lipoproteins are molecular complexes of lipids
and nitrogenous base. The alcohol is sphingosine not glycerol with proteins. They are the transport vehicles for lipids in the
hence they are also called as glycosphingolipids. Glycerol and circulation. There are five types of lipoproteins, namely
phosphate are absent e.g., cerebrosides, gangliosides.Most chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low
common glycolipids are density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL) and
Sphingomyelins:has an amino alcohol called Sphingosine. free fatty acid albumin complexes. 3. Derived lipids: These are
the derivatives obtained on the hydrolysis of group 1 and group
2 lipids which possess the characteristics of lipids. These
include glycerol and other alcohols, fatty acids, mono- and
diacylglycerols, lipid (fat) soluble vitamins, steroid hormones,
hydrocarbons and ketone bodies.

Steroids Carotenoids
Steroids are the compounds containing a cyclic steroid A large family of natural phytochemicals, accessory pigments
nucleus (or ring) namely cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene found in plants (in chloroplasts) and animals that are
(CPPP). It consists of a phenanthrene nucleus (rings A, B and composed of two small six-carbon rings connected by a
C) to which a cyclopentane ring (D) is attached. There are carbon chain that must be attached to cell membranes.
31

several steroids in the biological system. These include Carotenoids color fruits and vegetables and give them their
cholesterol, bile acids, vitamin D, sex hormones, characteristic red, orange, and yellow colors and serve as
adrenocortical hormones, sitosterols, cardiac glycosides and antioxidants in human nutrition. Over 600 carotenoids are
alkaloids. known. There are about 70 carotenoids occurring in both
Alcohols of the steroids are called sterols. The common types of cells. The important carotenoids of cells are the
examples of the sterols are cholesterol found in animals and α, β and γ carotenes, retinene, xanthophylls, lactoflavin in
ergosterol and stigmasterol found in plants. Cholesterol is milk, riboflavin (vitamin
found in the plasma membrane of many animal cells and also B2), xanthocyanins, coenzyme Q, anthocyanins, flavones,
in blood, bile, gallstone, brain, spinal cord, adrenal glands and flavonols and flavonones, etc. Chemically all carotenoids are
other cells. It is the precursor of most steroid sex hormones long-chain isoprenoids having an alternating series of double
and cortisones. bonds. In plant cells they are located in the chloroplast
lamellae to help in light absorption during photosynthesis. In
animal cells,
Carotenoids serve as precursors of vitamin A.

Eicosanoids Terpenoids:
Prostaglandins, and the related compounds thromboxanes and The terpenes include certain fat-soluble vitamins (e.g.,
leukotrienes, are collectively known as eicosanoids to reflect vitamins A, E and K), carotenoids (e.g., photosynthetic
their origin from polyunsaturated fatty acids with 20 carbons pigments of plants), and certain coenzymes (such as
(eicosa = 20). Eicosanoids differ from endocrine hormones in coenzyme Q or ubiquinone). All the terpenes are synthesized
that they are produced in very small amounts in almost all from various numbers of
tissues rather than in specialized glands. Prostaglandins (PGs) A five-carbon building block, called isoprene unit The
, thromboxanes (TXs), and leukotrienes (LTs) are produced in isoprene units are bonded together in a head-to-tail
very small amounts in almost all tissues. They serve as organization. Two isoprene units form a monoterpene, four
mediators of the inflammatory response. Arachidonic acid is forms a diterpene, six a triterpene, and so on. The
the immediate precursor of the predominant class of PGs in monoterpenes are responsible for the characteristic odours
humans (those with two double bonds). It is derived by the and flavours of plants (e.g., geraniol from geraniums,
elongation and desaturation of the essential fatty acid linoleic menthol
acid and is stored in the membrane as a component of a from mint and limonene from lemons).
phospholipid, generally PI.

Terpenoids Carotenoids
32

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotides
DNA was discovered in 1869 by Johann Friedrich Miescher, a are composed of a
Swiss researcher. The demonstration that DNA contained genetic nitrogenous
information was first made in 1944, by Avery, Macleod and base
33

MacCary. pentose sugar and a

Phosphate.
The nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides (and, therefore, Purines are numbered in the anticlockwise direction
nucleic acids) are aromatic heterocyclic compounds. The DNA and RNA contain the same purines namely adenine (A) and
bases are of two types—purines and pyrimidines guanine (G)
Pyrimidines are numbered in the clockwise direction.
DNA has thymine and cytosine
RNA has thymine and uracil

The bases of animals such as hypoxanthine, xanthine and Sugars of nucleic acids
uric acid are present in the free state in the cells. The The five carbon monosaccharides (pentoses) are found in the
former two are the intermediates in purine synthesis while nucleic acid structure. RNA contains D-ribose while DNA
uric acid is the end product of purine degradation. contains D-deoxyribose. Ribose and deoxyribose differ in
structure at C2. Deoxyribose has one oxygen less
at C2 compared to ribose .

Nucleosides
The addition of a pentose sugar to a base through a glycosidic
bond produces a nucleoside. If the sugar is ribose, a
Ribonucleoside is produced, and if the sugar is 2- deoxyribose,
a Deoxyribonucleoside is produced. The Ribonucleoside of
A, G, C, and U are named adenosine, guanosine, cytidine, and
uridine, respectively. The Deoxyribonucleoside of A, G, C, and
T have the added prefix, “deoxy-”
Nucleotides
The addition of one or more phosphate groups to a nucleoside
produces a nucleotide.
The first phosphate group is attached by an ester linkage to the
5 -OH of the pentose, forming a nucleoside 5 -phosphate or a 5
-nucleotide.
The type of pentose is named as the names “5 -ribonucleotide”
and “5 -deoxyribonucleotide.”
If one phosphate group is attached to the 5 -carbon of the
pentose, the structure is a nucleoside monophosphate, like
adenosine monophosphate [AMP] . Addition of a second
phosphate to nucleoside makes a nucleoside diphosphate (for
example, adenosine diphosphate [ADP] and addition of third
phosphate results into triphosphate (for example, adenosine Chargaff’s rule of DNA composition
triphosphate [ATP]). (Erwin Chargaff) 1940s
DNA has equal numbers of adenine and thymine residues
(A = T) and equal numbers of guanine and cytosine
residues (G = C).
34

Single-stranded DNA, and RNAs which are usually single-

stranded, do not obey Chargaff’s rule.

The pentoses are bound to nitrogenous base by -N-glycosidic bonds. The N9 of a purine ring binds with C1of a pentose sugar to
form a covalent bond in the purine nucleoside.
In case of pyrimidine nucleosides, the glycosidic linkage is between N1 of a pyrimidine and C1 of a pentose.
The hydroxyl groups of adenosine are esterified with phosphates to produce 5- or 3-monophosphates. 5-Hydroxyl is the most
commonly esterified, hence 5􀁣 is usually omitted while writing nucleotide names.

DNA DOUBLE HELIX

The double helical structure of DNA was proposed by James Watson and Francis
Crick in 1953 (Nobel Prize, 1962). The elucidation of DNA structure is considered as
a milestone in the era of modern biology. The structure of DNA double helix is
comparable to a twisted ladder.
MEASUREMENT OF DNA/RNA

For the measurement of lengths, DNA double stranded structure is expressed as

1 kb = 1000 bp(base pairs)
1 Mb = 1000 kb = 1,000,000 bp
1 Gb = 1000 Mb = 1,000,000,000 bp
Lengths of RNA molecules (like DNA molecules) cannot be expressed in bp, since
most of the RNAs are single-stranded.

DENATURATION OF DNA STRANDS

35

The two strands of DNA helix are held together by hydrogen bonds. Disruption of hydrogen bonds (by change in pH or increase
in temperature) results in the separation of polynucleotide strands. This phenomenon of loss of helical structure of DNA is
known as denaturation. The phosphodiester bonds are not broken by denaturation

The length of DNA varies from species to species

Lambda phage virus —4.8 * 104 bp — length 16.5 micron.

E. coli — 4.6 * 106 bp — length 1.5 micron.

l Diploid human cell (46 chromosomes) —

6.0 * 109 bp — length 2 meters.

Base Ribonucleoside Ribonucleotide(5-monophosphate) Abbreviation

Adenine (A) Adenosine Adenosine 5-monophosphate or adenylate AMP

Guanine (G) Guanosine Guanosine 5-monophosphate or guanylate GMP

Cytosine (C) Cytidine Cytidine 5-monophosphate or cytidylate CMP

Uracil (U) Uridine Uridine 5-monophosphate or uridylate UMP

Base Deoxyribonucleoside Deoxyribonucleotide(5-monophosphate) Abbreviation

Adenine (A) Deoxyadenosine Deoxyadenosine 5-monophosphate or deoxyadenylate dAMP

Guanine (G) Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanosine 5-monophosphate or deoxyguanylate dGMP

Cytosine (C) Deoxycytidine Deoxycytidine 5-monophosphate or deoxycytidylate dCMP

Thymine (T) Deoxythymidine Deoxythymidine 5-monophosphate or deoxythymidylate dTMP

Comparison of DNA and RNA.

36

CHARACTER DNA RNA

SUGAR Pentose sugar known as deoxyribose. Pentose sugar called the ribose.
PHOSPHDIESTER BOND The molecule contains the phosphoric acid The molecule contains the phosphoric acid
(phosphate) molecule which connects various (phosphate) molecule which connects various
sugars with one another. sugars with one another.
BASES The nitrogen bases are :
(i) Purines Adenine and guanine. Adenine and guanine.
(ii) Pyrimidine Cytosine and thymine. Cytosine and uracil.
NUCLEOSIDES Molecules have four nucleosides as Molecules have four nucleosides as
deoxyadenosine, Deoxyguanosine, and adenosine, guanosine, Cytidine and uridine
STRUCTURE deoxycytidine and thymidine. The molecules consist of single chain of
The molecule contains a double stranded helix polynucleotides.
structure in which many nucleotides remain
FUNCTION arranged in pair. RNA involved in protein synthesis.
LOCATION DNA is a genetic material It mostly occurs in nucleolus, nucleoplasm
Found in chromosomes, nucleoplasm and and cytoplasm.
TYPES mitochondria, etc. 3 types, mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
REGULATION Only one type Regulated by DNA
STRAND Self-regulated Single strand
Double strand

ENZYMES
Enzymes may be defined as Berzelius 1836 Used the term catalysis
(Greek : to dissolve)
biocatalysts Kuhne 1878 used the word enzyme
synthesized by living cells (Greek : in yeast)
protein in nature (exception – RNA acting ribozyme), Buchner 1883 Isolated enzyme
colloidal and thermo labile in character Sumner 1926 Enzyme isolation (urease)
specific in their action crystallization

Some RNAs can act like enzymes, usually Catalyzing the cleavage and
Enzymes are biocatalysts – the catalysts of life. A synthesis of phosphodiester bonds. RNAs with catalytic activity are called
catalyst is defined as a substance that increases the ribozymes
velocity or rate of a chemical reaction without itself The optimum temperature for most human enzymes is
undergoing any change in the overall process. between 35°C and 40°C. Human enzymes start to denature at
temperatures above 40°C, but thermophilic bacteria found in
the hot springs have optimum temperatures of 70°C.

ENZYMES SERVE AS FACILITATOR / INSTRUCTOR

The students often find it difficult to learn from a text-book on their own. The teacher explains the subject to the students and
increases their understanding capability. certain difficult things which the students take days together to understand, and sometimes do
not understand at all – are easily learnt under the guidance of the teacher. Here, the teacher acts like a catalyst in enhancing the
understanding ability of students. A good teacher is always a good catalyst in students’ life

NAMING ENZYMES: Common enzymes confused together

Each enzyme is assigned two names.
The first is its short, recommended name, convenient for everyday synthetase (requires ATP) synthase (no ATP required)
use. phosphatase (uses water phosphorylase (uses Pi to
The second is the more complete systematic name, which is used to remove phosphoryl break a bond and generate
when an enzyme must be identified without ambiguity. group) a phosphorylated product)
Most commonly used enzyme names have the suffix “-ASE”
attached oxidase (O2 is the oxygenase (one or both
To the substrate (glucosidase and urease) acceptor, and oxygen oxygen atoms are added)
To a description of the action performed (lactate dehydrogenase atoms are not added into
and adenylyl cyclase). substrate)
Some enzymes retain their original trivial names, which give no
hint of the associated enzymic reaction, for example, trypsin and
pepsin
SYSTEMATIC NAME
In the systematic naming system, enzymes are divided into six
37

major classes

CHEMICAL NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES The enzyme lysozyme has 129
All the enzymes are invariably proteins. amino acids. The active site is
Each enzyme has its own tertiary structure and specific conformation which is very essential formed by the contribution of
for its catalytic activity. The functional unit of the enzyme is known as holoenzyme made up amino acid residues numbered
of Apo enzyme (the protein part) and a coenzyme (non-protein organic part). 35, 52, 62, 63 and 101.
Holoenzyme ---------------Apo enzyme + Coenzyme
(Active enzyme) (Protein part) (Non-protein part)
The term prosthetic group is used when the
Non-protein group tightly (covalently) binds with the Apo enzyme
Monomeric enzyme (single polypeptide) e.g. ribonuclease, trypsin.
Oligomeric enzymes (more than one polypeptide chain) e.g. lactate dehydrogenase,
aspartate transcarbamoylase etc.

Enzyme class with examples* Reaction catalyzed

1. Oxidoreductases
transfer the electrons and hydrogen ions from the substrates,
Dehydrogenases, reductases, oxidases Oxidation / Reduction
cytochrome oxidase, amino acid oxidases AH2 + B - A + BH2
2. Transferases
Group transfer of one carbon, aldehydic or ketonic residues, acyl, glycosyl, alkyl, nitrogenous,
Phosphorus containing groups and sulphur containing groups.
transaminases, transmethylases, phosphorylase A – X + B - A + B – X
3. Hydrolases
hydrolyse a complex molecule into two compounds by adding the element of the water
choline esterase, acid and alkaline phosphatases, pepsin, urease, lipases
A – B + H2O -AH + BOH
4. Lyases
Addition / Elimination add or remove group to or from the chemical compounds containing the double bonds.
fumarase, histidase , aldolase A – B + X – Y -AX – BY
5. Isomerases
Interconversion of isomers
ketoisomerase, retinol isomerase, phosphohexose isomerase A-A’
6. Ligases
Addition/ Condensation linkage of the molecules by splitting a phosphate bond (usually dependent on ATP)
acetyl CoA carboxylase, succinate thiokinase A + B---ATP- ADP + Pi

A. Active sites
Enzymes are big in size compared to substrates which are relatively smaller.
a small portion of the huge enzyme molecule is directly involved in the substrate binding and catalysis
The existence of active site is due to the tertiary structure of protein resulting in three dimensional native conformations.
Active site composed of binding site (to which substrate binds)
And catalytic site (to which prosthetic group attaches)
The active site is made up of amino acids (known as catalytic residues) which are far from each other in the linear sequence of
amino acids (primary structure of protein).
Active sites are regarded as clefts or crevices or pockets occupying a small region in a big enzyme molecule.
38

The active site is not a passive receptacle for binding the substrate but, rather, is a complex molecular machine to facilitate the
conversion of substrate to product.
The active site often acts as a flexible molecular template that binds the substrate and initiates its conversion to the transition state
(with bonds different from reactant and product)By stabilizing the transition state, the enzyme increases the concentration of the
enzyme substrate complex.
The active site is not rigid in structure and shape. It is rather flexible to promote the specific substrate binding.
Generally, the active site possesses a substrate binding site and a catalytic site.
The coenzymes or cofactors on which some enzymes depend are present as a part of the catalytic site.
The substrate(s) binds at the active site by weak noncovalent bonds.
Enzymes are specific in their function due to the existence of active sites.
The commonly found amino acids at the active sites are serine, aspartate, histidine, cysteine, lysine, arginine, glutamate, tyrosine
etc. Among these amino acids, serine is the most frequently found.
The substrate[S] binds the enzyme (E) at the active site to form enzyme-substrate complex (ES). The product (P) is released after
the catalysis and the enzyme is available for reuse.
E + S ----ES--- E + P

The transition state cannot be isolated.

The active site can provide catalytic groups that enhance the probability that the transition state is formed.
B. Catalytic efficiency
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are highly efficient, proceeding from 103–108 times faster than uncatalyzed reactions. The number of
molecules of substrate converted to product per enzyme molecule per second is called the turnover number, or k cat, and typically
is 102–104s-1.
C. Specificity
Enzymes are highly specific, interacting with one or a few substrates and catalyzing only one type of chemical reaction. The set of
enzymes made in a cell determines which reactions occur in that cell.
D. Holoenzymes, Apo enzymes, cofactors, and coenzymes
Some enzymes require molecules other than proteins for enzymic activity. The term Holoenzymes refers to the active enzyme
with its nonprotein component, whereas the enzyme without its nonprotein moiety is termed an Apo enzyme and is inactive. Non
protein part is called prosthetic group.
If the prosthetic group is a metal ion, such as Zn2+ or Fe2+, it is called a cofactor.
If it is a small organic molecule, it is termed a coenzyme. Coenzymes commonly are derived from vitamins. For example, NAD+
contains niacin, and FAD contains riboflavin.

COENZYMES
The non-protein, organic, low molecular weight and dialyzable substance associated with enzyme function is known as
coenzyme. The term activator is referred to the inorganic cofactor (likeCa2+, Mg2+, Mn2+ etc.) necessary to enhance enzyme
activity co-substrates. Coenzymes participate in various reactions involving transfer of atoms or groups like hydrogen,
aldehyde, keto, amino, acyl, methyl,
Carbon dioxide etc. Coenzymes play a decisive role in enzyme function.
Coenzymes from B-complex vitamins : Most of the coenzymes are the derivatives of water
Soluble B-complex vitamins.
Non-vitamin coenzymes: Not all coenzymes are vitamin derivatives. There are some other organic substances, which have no
relation with vitamins but function as coenzymes. e.g. ATP, CDP, UDP etc.
Nucleotide coenzymes: Some of the coenzymes possess nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphate. Such coenzymes are, therefore,
regarded as nucleotides e.g. NAD+, NADP+, FMN, FAD, coenzyme A, UDPG.
Protein coenzymes: Thioredoxin is a protein that serves as a coenzyme for the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase
.E. Regulation
Enzyme activity can be regulated, that is, increased or decreased, so that the rate of product formation responds to cellular need.
F. Location within the cell
Many enzymes are localized in specific organelles within the cell. Such compartmentalization serves to isolate the reaction
39

substrate or product from other competing reactions. This provides a favorable environment for the reaction and organizes the
thousands of enzymes present in the cell into purposeful pathways.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION

Two ideas have been presented:
1. Enzymes provide an alternate, energetically favorable reaction pathway different from the Uncatalyzed reaction.
2. The second perspective describes how the active site chemically facilitates catalysis.
All chemical reactions have an energy barrier separating the reactants and the products.
This barrier, called the free energy of activation, is the energy difference between that of the reactants and a high-energy intermediate
that occurs during the formation of product.
For molecules to react, they must contain sufficient energy to overcome the energy barrier of the transition state.
In the absence of an enzyme, only a small proportion of a population of molecules may possess enough energy to achieve the
transition state between reactant and product.
The rate of reaction is determined by the number of such energized molecules
An enzyme allows a reaction to proceed rapidly under conditions prevailing in the cell by providing an alternate reaction pathway
with a lower free energy of activation.
The enzyme does not change the free energies of the reactants or products and, therefore, does not change the equilibrium of the
reaction.
It only accelerates the rate by which equilibrium is reached.
Induced fit theory or Koshland’s model Lock and key model
or Fischer’s template theory
Koshland, in 1958, proposed a Proposed by a German biochemist, Emil Fischer.
 More acceptable and realistic model for enzyme  Very first model proposed to explain an enzyme
substrate complex formation. catalyzed reaction.
 The active site is not rigid and pre-shaped.  The structure or conformation of the enzyme is
 The interaction of the substrate with the enzyme rigid.
induces a fit or a conformation change in the  The substrate fits to the binding site (now active
enzyme, resulting in the formation of a strong site) just as a key fits into the proper lock or a hand
substrate binding site. into the proper glove.
 The appropriate amino acids of the enzyme are  Active site of an enzyme is a rigid and pre-shaped
repositioned to form the active site and bring about template where only a specific substrate can bind.
the catalysis.  This model does not give any scope for the flexible
 This model has sufficient experimental evidence nature of enzymes,
from the X-ray diffraction studies. Koshland’s model  The model totally fails to explain many facts of
also explains the action of allosteric modulators and enzymatic reactions, the most important being the
competitive inhibition on enzymes. effect of allosteric modulators.

ENZYME INHIBITION
Enzyme inhibitor is defined as a substance which binds with the enzyme and brings about a decrease in catalytic activity of that
enzyme. The inhibitor may be organic or inorganic in nature. There are three broad categories of enzyme inhibition
1. Reversible inhibition.
2. Irreversible inhibition.
3. Allosteric inhibition.
1. Reversible inhibition
The inhibitor binds non-covalently with enzyme and the enzyme inhibition can be reversed if the inhibitor is removed. The
reversible inhibition is further sub-divided into
I. Competitive inhibition
II. Non-competitive inhibition
I. Competitive inhibition:
The inhibitor (I) which closely resembles the real substrate (S) is regarded as a substrate analogue. The inhibitor competes with
substrate and binds at the active site of the enzyme but does not undergo any catalysis. As long as the competitive inhibitor holds
the active site, the enzyme is not available for the substrate to bind.
The relative concentration of the substrate and inhibitor and their respective affinity with the enzyme determines the degree of
40

competitive inhibition. The inhibition could be overcome by a high substrate concentration.

The enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) is a classic example of competitive inhibition with succinic acid as its
substrate. The compounds, namely, malonic acid, glutaric acid and oxalic acid, have structural similarity with succinic
acid and compete with the substrate for binding at the active site of SDH.

II. Non-competitive inhibition :

The inhibitor binds at a site other than the active site on the enzyme surface. This binding impairs the enzyme function. The
inhibitor has no structural resemblance with the substrate. However, there usually exists a strong affinity for the inhibitor to bind
at the second site. In fact, the inhibitor does not interfere with the enzyme-substrate binding. But the catalysis is prevented,
possibly due to a distortion in the enzyme conformation. The inhibitor generally binds with the enzyme as well as the ES complex.
Heavy metal ions (Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+ etc.) can non-competitively inhibit the enzymes by binding with cysteinyl sulfhydryl groups.
The general reaction for Hg2+ is shown below.
E -SH + Hg2+ ----E- S --Hg2+ + H+
Irreversible inhibition
The inhibitors bind covalently with the enzymes and inactivate them, which is irreversible. These inhibitors are usually toxic
substances that poison enzymes. Iodoacetate is an irreversible inhibitor of the
Enzymes like papain and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Iodoacetate combines with sulfhydryl (SH) groups at the
active site of these enzymes and makes them inactive.
Diisopropyl fluorophosphates (DFP) is a nerve gas developed by the Germans during Second World War. DFP irreversibly
binds with enzymes containing serine at the active site, e.g. serine proteases, acetylcholine esterase.
Many organophosphorus insecticides like melathion are toxic to animals (including man) as they block the activity of
acetylcholine esterase (essential for nerve conduction), resulting in paralysis of vital body functions.
The penicillin antibiotics act as irreversible inhibitors of serine – containing enzymes, and block the bacterial cell wall synthesis.
Cyanide inhibits cytochrome oxidase (binds to iron atom) of electron transport chain. Fluoride inhibits enolase (by removing
manganese), and thus glycolysis.
Apple seeds have minute quantity of cyanide.
Enzyme inhibitors as drugs
At least half of the ten most commonly prescribed drugs act as enzyme inhibitors.
DRUG TARGET
penicillin and amoxicillin inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis
captopril, enalapril, and Lisinopril inhibit blood vessels constriction
Aspirin inhibits prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis

3.Allosteric inhibition
The details of this type of inhibition are given under allosteric regulation as a part of the regulation of enzyme activity in the living
system.
41

Enzyme inhibition by drugs

Enzymes are the natural targets for development of pharmacologic agents. Many of the drugs used in the treatment of diseases act
as enzyme inhibitors. For example :
Cholesterol lowering statin drugs (lovastatin) inhibits the enzyme HMG CoA reductase.
Drugs (tenofovir, emtricitabine) employed to block HIV replication inhibit the enzyme viral reverse transcriptase
Selected examples of enzymes with their respective substrates and competitive inhibitors
Enzyme Substrate Inhibitor(s) Significance of inhibitor(s)
Xanthine oxidase Hypoxanthine Allopurinol Used in the control of gout to reduce excess
Xanthine production of uric acid from hypoxanthine.
Monoamine oxidase Catecholamines Ephedrine, Useful for elevating catecholamine levels.
Epinephrine or amphetamine
epinephrine
Acetylcholine Acetylcholine Succinyl choline Used in surgery for muscle relaxation, in
Esterase anaesthetized patients.
Dihydropteroate Para amino benzoic Sulfanilamide Prevents bacterial synthesis of folic acid.
Synthase acid (PABA)
Vitamin K Vitamin K Dicumarol Acts as an anticoagulant.
epoxide reductase
HMG CoA HMG CoA Lovastatin, Inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis
reductase pravastatin

ENZYME SPECIFICITY
Enzymes are highly specific in their action when compared with the chemical catalysts. The occurrence of thousands of enzymes
in the biological system might be due to the specific nature of enzymes. Specificity is a characteristic property of the active site
Three types of enzyme specificity are well-recognized
stereo specificity,
Reaction specificity
Substrate specificity.
1. Stereo specificity or optical specificity:
Stereoisomers are the compounds which have the same molecular formula, but differ in their structural configuration. The
enzymes act only on one isomer and, therefore, exhibit stereo specificity.
2. Reaction specificity:
The same substrate can undergo different types of reactions, each catalyzed by a separate enzyme and this is referred to as reaction
specificity. An amino acid can undergo transamination, oxidative deamination, decarboxylation, racemization etc. The enzymes
however, are different for each of these reactions.
3. Substrate specificity:
The substrate specificity varies from enzyme to enzyme. It may be absolute, relative or broad.
Absolute substrate specificity: Certain enzymes act only on one substrate e.g.
Glucokinase acts on glucose to give glucose 6-phosphate
Urease cleaves urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Relative substrate specificity: Some enzymes act on structurally related substances.
42

Trypsin hydrolyses peptide linkage involving arginine or lysine

Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds attached to aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine and
Tryptophan).
Broad specificity: Some enzymes act on closely related substrates which is commonly known as broad substrate specificity, e.g.
hexokinase acts on glucose, fructose, mannose and glucosamine and not on galactose.

THERMODYNAMICS OF 2. Exothermic (exergonic) reactions : Energy is

ENZYMATIC REACTIONS liberated in these reactions e.g. urease
The enzyme catalyzed reactions may be broadly grouped into three types Urea ---NH3 + CO2 + energy
based on thermodynamic (energy) considerations. 3. Endothermic (endergonic) reactions :
1. Isothermic reactions : Energy is consumed in these reactions e.g.
The energy exchange between reactants and products is negligible e.g. glucokinase
glycogen phosphorylase Glucose + ATP- Glucose 6-phosphate + ADP
Glycogen + Pi -- Glucose 1-phosphate

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

The contact between the enzyme and substrate is the most essential pre-requisite for enzyme activity. The important factors that
influence the velocity of the enzyme reaction are As the concentration of the enzyme is increased, the velocity of the reaction
proportionately increases
1. Concentration of enzyme
As the concentration of the enzyme is increased, the velocity of the reaction proportionately increases
2. Concentration of substrate
Increase in the substrate concentration gradually increases the velocity of enzyme reaction within the limited range of substrate
levels.
3. Effect of temperature
Velocity of an enzyme reaction increases with increase in temperature up to a maximum and then declines. Increase in
temperature results in higher activation energy of the molecules and more molecular (enzyme and substrate) collision and
interaction for the reaction to proceed faster. The optimum temperature for most of the enzymes is between 35°C–40°C. However,
a few enzymes (e.g. Taq DNA polymerase, muscle adenylate kinase) are active even at 100°C. Some plant enzymes like urease
have optimum activity around 60°C. This may be due to very stable structure and conformation of these enzymes. In general,
when the enzymes are exposed to a temperature above 50°C, denaturation leading to derangement in the native (tertiary)
structure of the protein and active site are seen. Majority of the enzymes become inactive at higher temperature (above 70°C).
4. Effect of pH
Increase in the hydrogen ion concentration (pH) considerably influences the enzyme activity. Hydrogen ions influence the enzyme
activity by altering the ionic charges on the amino acids (particularly at the active site), substrate, ES complex etc . Each enzyme
has an optimum pH at which the velocity is maximum. Below and above this pH, the enzyme activity is much lower and at
extreme pH, the enzyme becomes totally inactive. Most of the enzymes of higher organisms show optimum activity around
neutral pH (6-8). There are, however, many exceptions like
5. Effect of product concentration
The accumulation of reaction products generally decreases the enzyme velocity. For certain enzymes, the products combine with
the active site of enzyme and form a loose complex and, thus, inhibit the enzyme activity. In the living system, this type of
inhibition is generally prevented by a quick removal of products formed.
6. Effect of time:
Under ideal and optimal conditions (like pH,
temperature etc.), the time required for an enzyme reaction is less Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are highly efficient, proceeding
from 103–108 times faster than Uncatalyzed reactions. The number of molecules of substrate converted to product per enzyme
molecule per second is called the turnover number, or k cat, and typically is 102–104s-1.
7. Effect of light and radiation:
Exposure of enzymes to ultraviolet, beta, Gamma and X-rays inactivates certain enzymes due to the formation of peroxides. E.g.
UV rays inhibit salivary amylase activity.
8. Effect of activators
Some of the enzymes require certain inorganic metallic cations like Mg2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Ca2+, Co2+, Cu2+, Na+, K+ etc. for
their optimum activity. Rarely, anions are also needed for enzyme activity e.g. chloride ion (Cl–) for amylase. Metals function as
activators of enzyme velocity through various mechanisms— combining with the substrate.
Two categories of enzymes requiring metals for their activity are distinguished
Metal-activated enzymes :
The metal is not tightly held by the enzyme and can be exchanged easily with other ions
E.g. ATPase (Mg2+ and Ca2+)
Enolase (Mg2+)
Metalloenzymes: These enzymes hold the metals rather tightly which are not readily exchange

ENZYME pH
43

Extremes of pH can also lead to denaturation of the pepsin (1-2)

enzyme, because the structure of the catalytically Sucrose 4.5
active protein Enterokinase 5.5
molecule depends on the ionic character of the amino Catalase 7.6
acid side chains. Chymotrypsin (7.0-8.0)
Lipase 9.7
Arginase (4-5)
acid phosphatase (10-11)
alkaline Phosphatase (4-6)
fungi and plants
44

THE CELL

scientist year No. To study

Microscopes
of
(Gr., mikros = small; skopein= to see) invention of the
lenses
microscope and its gradual improvement went hand-
Francis Janssen and 1590 2 insects
in-hand with the development of cell biology
Zacharias Janssen.
Italian Galileo Galilei 1610 1 Compound eyes
Marcello Malpighi 1628-94 2 Plant and animal tissues
Robert Hooke 1665 2 Coined cell

Dimension Biological Structures Method of study field

1. 0.1 mm or 100 m Anatomy organ Eyes and simple lenses anatomy

Organs Eyes and simple lenses
2. 100 m to 10 m Tissues Various types of light Histolog
microscopes, X-ray
10 m to 0.2 m Cell, bacteria microscopy Cell biology

200 nm to 1 nm Submicroscopic Cell Polarization microscopy, electron

components microscopy morphology
viruses
Smaller than Ultrastructure, Arrangement of structures X-ray Ultrastructure
1 nm (10A0) diffraction Atomic
structure

Sedimentation rates Resolution power

Prokaryotic ribosome 70s Human eye 1.0 nm
Eukaryotic ribosome 80s Power of human eye 2.0 microm
Larger subunit of ribosome 60s Electron microscope 2-4 A
Smaller subunit of ribosome 40

STRUCTURE SIZE STUDY METHOD

Organs 0.1 mm or 100 μm Eyes and simple lenses
Tissues 100 μm to 10 μm Various types of light
microscopes,
X-ray microscopy
Cell, bacteria 10 μm to 0.2 μm
Cell components 200 nm to 1 nm Polarization microscopy,
viruses electron microscopy
Arrangement of atoms Smaller than 1 nm X-ray diffraction
(10A0)
CYTOLOGY
The biological science which deals with the study of structure, function, molecular organization, growth, reproduction and
genetics of the cells, is called cytology or cell biology (Gr., kytos = hollow vessel or cell; logous = to discourse)
Major contributions CELL THEORY:

YEAR SCIENTIST CONTRIBUTION The modern version of cell theory states that
1855 Nageli and C. named cell membrane (1) All living organisms (animals, plants and microbes)
Cramer are made up of one or more cells and cell products.
1857 A.Kolliker Discovered mitochondria (2) All metabolic reactions in unicellular and
1865 Mendel fundamental principles of multicellular organisms take place in cells.
heredity (3) Cells originate only from other cells, i.e., no cell can
1866 Haeckel Named plastids originate spontaneously or de novo, but comes into
1871 Miescher Isolated nuclei being only by division and duplication of already
1873 A.Schneider Described chromosomes existing cells. (4) The smallest clearly defined unit of
1879 H.Fol Described the spindle life is the cell.
The cell theory had its wide biological applications.
45

1875 Strasburger Described mitosis With the progress of biochemistry, it was shown that
Introduced the terms cytoplasm and there were fundamental similarities in the chemical
nucleoplasm. composition and metabolic activities of all cells.
1890 Altman Stained mitochondria Kolliker applied the cell theory to embryology—after it
1897 Benda named mitochondrion was demonstrated that the organisms developed from
1898 Golgi Named Golgi complex the fusion of two cells—the spermatozoon and the
1903 Buchner Discovered the enzymes ovum.
1905 Farmer Named meiosis However, in the recent years, large number of sub-
Krebs Krebs cycle cellular structures such as ribosomes, lysosomes,
1945 Porter Discovered and named the mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc., has been discovered
endoplasmic reticulum. and studied in detail. Consequently, it may appear that
1955 De Duve Isolated lysosomes cell is no longer a basic unit of life, because life may
1965 Coined peroxisome exist without cells also. Even then, the cell theory
remains a useful concept.
1955 Sanger Amino acid sequence determined
1956 Tijo Human chromosome count
Exception to cell theory. Cell theory does not have universal application, i.e., there are certain
Living organisms which do not have true cells. All kinds of true cells share the following three basic
characteristics:
1. A set of genes which constitute the blueprints for regulating cellular activities and Making new cells.
2. A limiting plasma membrane that permits controlled exchange of matter and energy with the external world.
3. A metabolic machinery for sustaining life activities such as growth, reproduction and repair of parts.
There are certain other organisms such as the protozoan Paramecium, the fungus Rhizopus and the alga Vaucheria which do not
fit into the purview of the cell theory. All of these organisms have bodies containing undivided mass of protoplasm which lacks
cell-like organization and has more than one nucleus.
Protoplasm theory holds that all living matter, out of which animals and plants are formed, is the protoplasm. The cell is an
accumulation of living substance or protoplasm which is limited in space by an outer membrane and possesses a nucleus. The
protoplasm which is filled in the nucleus is called nucleoplasm and that exists between the nucleus and the plasma membrane is
called cytoplasm.

In the search for information about the structure and

composition of cells, the cell biologists immediately face two Resolution power
limitations : Human eye 3.0 nm
The exceedingly small dimensions of cells and Their Power of human eye 4.0 microm
component parts and the transparent nature of cells. Electron microscope 2-4 A
The diameters of the majority of cells fall within a range of 0.2
and 50 μm. The human eyes have limited distinguishing or
resolving power.
Magnification,
The increase in size of optical image over the size of the object being viewed, is of no use unless the observational system can
resolve the various parts of the structure being examined. Increased magnification without improved resolution results only in a
large blurred image. The human eye has no power of magnification, so magnifying glasses may be used to magnify images up to
about 10 times.
A light compound microscope in which many lenses are combined together has a useful magnification of about 1,500 times.

Light Microscopy Electron microscopy

The compound light microscope uses visible light for Is electrically operated device that uses the much shorter
wavelengths of electrons to
illuminating the object
Achieve resolution as low as 3 A 0, with a usual working range
Contains glass lenses that magnify the image of the object between 5 to 12 A0. In the electron microscope electromagnetic coils
Focus the light on the retina of the observer’s eye. (i.e., magnetic “lenses”) are used to control and focus a beam of
It consists of two lenses, one at each end of a hollow tube. electrons accelerated from a heated metal wire by high voltages, in
The lens closer to eye is called ocular lens or eyepiece the range of 20,000 to
and the lens closer to the object being viewed is called 100,000 volts (The electrons of the beam are scattered by a specimen
objective lens. In ordinary microscopes light is reflected placed in the path of the beam. Electrons that do manage to pass
through the specimen are focused by an objective coil (‘lens’) and a
on the object by a mirror having concave and plane
final magnified image is produced by a projector coil or ‘lens’. The
surfaces. In some microscopes, a third lens, called final image is viewed directly on the fluorescent screen or is
condenser lens, is located between the object and the recorded on photographic film to produce electron micrograph.
light source and serve to focus the light on the object. This type of electron microscope is called transmission electron
The light microscope allows us to magnify cells up to microscope (TEM).
1000 times and to resolve details as small as 0.2 μm the specimen used in electron microscopy must be extremely thin
(ultrathin, i.e., 10 nm to 100 nm thick).
46

fixing the protoplasm by preservatives, called fixatives such as

alcohols, formaldehyde, Mercuric chloride, picric acid, acetic acid
and mixture of these.

dehydration (i.e., gradual removal of water vapors from the tissue)

by the organic solvents such as ethanol

The dehydrated specimens are embedded i.e., they are infiltrated

with molten paraffin which hardens upon cooling
and provides enough support to allow thin sections to be cut with

By the microtome, serial sections,

5 to 10μm thick can be cut and placed on slides in
the order of cutting and permitting a sequence of specimens for
observation.

These sections are stained with a non-vital-stain to increase the

contrast. Stains are the chemicals that can selectively attach to
particular molecules of particular cellular structures and make them
stand out from other parts of the
cell.

The non-vital stains fall into two main classes:

acid stains basic stains
such as eosin, orange G, such as methylene blue, crystal violet,
aniline blue and fast
hematoxylin, basic fuchsin, etc., all of
green, all of which
combine with basic
which combine with nucleic acids and
molecules such
as proteins other acidic molecules of the fixed cells.

Cytochemical stains that bind selectively to some specific acetocarmine and used to stain
groups of cellular macromolecules such as proteins, acetoorcein stains chromosomes of dividing
nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids. For example, cells
Millon reaction, diazonium reaction and Naphthol Yellow Sudan Red stain Golgi complex in
5 stain are used for the proteins; Sudan Black B lipid identification

Vital stains selectively stain the intracellular structures of periodic acid-Schiff starch, cellulose,
living cells without serious alteration of cellular hemicellulose,
metabolism and function. and pectin in plant cell
Commonly used stains hyaluronic acid and chitin
in animal cell

Janus green B stains mitochondria

neutral red stains plant vacuoles

methylene blue Golgi apparatus

nuclear chromatin

COMPARISON BETWEEN LIGHT AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY.

Steps Electron Microscopy Light Microscopy

FIXATION Osmium tetroxide, potassium permanganate, Bouin’s solution; formalin; Zenker’s fluid, Canada
formalin, glutaraldehyde. balsam
47

DEHYDRATION Increasing concentrations ethanol (or acetone) Increasing concentrations ethanol (or acetone) of
followed by propylene oxide. ethanol followed by benzene.

EMBEDDING Araldite: Vestoplaw, Epan 812; Maraglas; Paraffin

Durcopan.
SECTIONING Usually 10–100 nm thick sections cut with a Usually 6μm thick sections cut with a razor blade or
glass or diamond on an ultra-microtome. a knife on a microtome.

MOUNTING On a perforated metal disc (grid) usually covered ON a glass slide with an egg albumin adhesive.
with formvar or paralodian Deparaffinized in xylol for staining

STAINING With salts of heavy metals such as lead acetate, Hematoxylin

lead such as lead acetate, lead acetate; Eosin
phosphotungstic acid. Cleared in xylol
Mounted in Canada balsam
VIEWING Grid is placed between condenser and objective Grid is placed between condenser and objective lens
lens Image viewed through ocular lens
Image viewed on phosphorescent screen

Tracers. Several biological processes such as pinocytosis, phagocytosis and transport of molecules across plasma membrane can
be studied by the use of appropriate tracers (e.g. Gold, mercuric sulphide, iron oxide, etc.). These tracers are detected by their
electron opacity. An ideal tracer should be non-toxic, physiologically inert, composed of small-sized particles of uniform and
known size and preserved in situ during the processing of the tissue.

Whole mounts. They are often used to examine chromosomes and other relatively thick objects that can be isolated free of debris.
In these methods, the specimen is neither sectioned nor stained.

X- RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS ELECTROPHORESIS

This technique is used to analyze three-dimensional (tertiary) Molecules or macromolecules may be separated in an electric-
structure of DNA molecule and a variety of proteins such as field if they are charged to different extents. The rate of
myoglobin, Hemoglobin, collagen, myelin sheath of nerve migration of a molecule in an electric field is determined by its
cells, myofibrils of striated muscles, etc. size and the number of charged groups per molecule. used in the
separation of proteins, nucleic acids and their building blocks.
CELL FRACTIONATION DIALYSIS
Sometimes it becomes necessary to break up tissues and cells It is a sensitive method for separating lower molecular-weight
and to isolate various parts of the cell for structural or component from macromolecules. A thin membrane in the form
biochemical analysis. For this purpose, the technique of cell of a tube is filled with the solution containing the molecules to
fractionation is employed. Cell fractionation method involves be separated. The pore size of the membrane allows the
essentially the homogenization or destruction of cell diffusion of small molecules such as salt or amino acids; larger
boundaries by different mechanical or chemical procedures, molecules such as proteins or nucleic acids cannot pass through
followed by the separation of the subcellular fractions the pores and so remain
according to mass, surface and specific gravity by centrifuges. inside the dialysis tube.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
The chromatography is used to separate the Paper chromatography. The In column chromatography
molecules of different substances present together paper chromatography is a an insoluble medium is
in a solution or cytosol. The solution is applied to an simple method for the packed into a glass tube; the
separation of smaller length
insoluble medium which has a different affinity for
molecules from one another. and width of this tube
the individual molecules of the solution so that the The molecules to be separated influence the separation of the
molecules migrate through the medium at different are applied to sheets of molecules
rates. Following two types of chromatography are suitable paper, EX: Used for separation of
used in molecular biology : EX: Separation of amino proteins, nucleic acids,
acids, nucleotides polysaccharides and lipids).
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
The cells of the living kingdom may be divided into two categories
1. Prokaryotes (Greek: pro – before; karyon – nucleus) lack a well-defined nucleus and possess relatively simple structure. These
include the various bacteria.
2. Eukaryotes (Greek: eu – true; karyon – nucleus) possess a well-defined nucleus and are more complex in their structure and
function. An eukaryotic cell is generally 10 to 100 micrometer in diameter. The higher organisms (animals and plants) are
composed of eukaryotic cells
48
49
50

STRUCTURAL HEIRARCHY OF AN ORGANISM

The cell is limited by an active membrane, well-organized structured system of the biopolymers forming a nucleus and cytoplasm,
participating in
Huge interconnected metabolic reactions
51

power processes
carrying out maintenance and
reproduction of all system
The cell is composed of 3 basic parts:
 Plasma membrane,
 Cytoplasm and
 Nucleus.

The macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and polysaccharides) form supramolecular assemblies (e.g. membranes)
which in turn organize into organelles, cells, tissues, organs and finally the whole organism.

THE CELL
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It may be also regarded as the basic unit of biological activity. The concept of
cell originated from the contributions of Schleiden and Schwann (1838). However, it was only after 1940, the complexities of cell
structure were exposed. The cell consists of well-defined subcellular organelles, enveloped by a plasma membrane. By differential
centrifugation of tissue homogenate, it is possible to isolate each cellular organelle in a relatively pure form
PLASMA MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane is also called cytoplasmic membrane, cell membrane, or plasma lemma. The term cell membrane was
coined by C. Nageli and C. Cramer in 1855 and
The term plasma lemma has been given by J. Q. Plowe in 1931.
Cell membrane
Chemically cell membrane consists of lipids, proteins, and oligosaccharides (fig.2.1).
Under the electron microscope (EM) cell membrane consists of 2 densely stained layers separated by a lighter zone.
The basic structure of membrane is the arrangement of phospholipids’ molecules that constitute the basic framework of the
membrane. Each molecule consists of:
 Enlarged polar hydrophilic head and
 Thin non-polar hydrophobic tail.

Lipids are most stable when organized into a double layer with their non-polar tails directed toward the center of the membrane
and their polar heads directed outward.
In addition to molecules of phospholipids the cell membrane contains several proteins.
Integral proteins either completely (integral proteins proper), or partly are embedded in the lipid bilayer.
Peripheral proteins form a looser association with inner or outer membrane surface.
The carbohydrate layer (glycocalyx) is formed on the external surface of the membrane. It is formed by carbohydrates, which form
connections with proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids). Glycocalyx help establish extracellular microenvironments at the
membrane surface that have specific functions in metabolism, cell recognition, and cell association and serve as receptor sites.
The theory of structure of cell membrane called fluid mosaic- model proposed by S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson.
52

Evidence in support of mosaic arrangement of proteins. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy of the plasma membrane by
Branton (1968) revealed the presence of bumps and depressions (7 to 8 nm in diameter) which are randomly distributed. These
were later shown to be transmembrane integral protein particles.
Evidence in support of fluid property of lipid bilayer. Mobility of membrane proteins due to fluid property of lipid bilayer was
demonstrated by a classical experiment of D. Frye and M. Edidin (1970). They fused two different types of cultured cells having
different surface antigens (proteins). The cell fusion is achieved by the use of some fusogen such as an inactivated parainfluenza

Role of Lipid Molecules in Maintaining Fluid Property of Membrane

Types of movements of lipid molecules.
 Lipid molecules very rarely migrate from one lipid monolayer to other monolayer of lipid bimolecular layer. Such a type
of movement is called flip-flop or trans bilayer movement and occurs once a month for any individual lipid molecule.
However, in membranes where lipids are actively synthesized, such as smooth ER, there is a rapid flip-flop of specific
lipid molecules across the bilayer and there are present certain membrane-bound enzymes, called flippase to catalyze
this activity
 On the other hand, lipid molecules readily exchange places with their neighbors within a monolayer (~ 107 times a
second). This results in their rapid lateral diffusion. Individual lipid molecules rotate very rapidly about their long axes
and their hydrocarbon chains are flexible, the greatest degree of flexion occurring near the centre of the bilayer and the
smallest adjacent o the polar head groups.
 Unsaturated fats increase membrane fluidity.
 Cholesterol molecules orient themselves in the lipid bilayer in such a way that their fluidity is favoured.

LIPIDS PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES

Four major classes of lipids The amount and types of proteins in the membranes are highly Carbohydrates are present only in
are commonly present in the variable According to their position in the plasma membrane, the the plasma membrane. They are
plasma membrane and other proteins fall into two main types : present as short, unbranched or
membranes : integral or intrinsic proteins branched chains of sugars
membrane lying or sticking out at the inner or cytoplasmic (oligosaccharides) attached
phospholipids surface of the plasma membrane they tend to associate firmly either to exterior ectoproteins
(most abundant), with the membrane (forming glycoproteins) or to the
sphingolipids, glycolipids polar ends of phospholipids at the
and Peripheral or extrinsic proteins, lying or exposing to external external surface of the plasma
Sterols (e.g., cholesterol) or extra cytoplasmic surface of the plasma. They have a weaker membrane (forming glycolipids).
All of them are amphipathic association and are bound to lipids of membrane by electrostatic No carbohydrate is located at the
molecules, possessing both interaction cytoplasmic or inner surface of
hydrophilic and hydrophobic these proteins function as the plasma membrane.
domains. receptor molecules
regulatory molecules
Transport proteins

Membrane Protein Lipid Carbohydrate

1. Myelin (Nerve cell) 18 79 3
2. Plasma membrane :
(i) Mouse liver 44 52 4
(ii) Amoeba 54 42 4
53

(iii) Human erythrocyte 52 40 8

3. Spinach chloroplast lamellae 70 30 0
4.Mitochondrial inner membrane 76 24 0

ENZYMES LOCATED IN CELL MEMBRANE

1. Acetyl phosphatase 11. Na+-K+ ATPase
2. Cholesterol esterase 12. Phospholipase A
3. Acetyl cholinesterase 13. Adenylate cyclase
4. Guanylase cyclase 14. Lactase
5. Acid phosphatase 15. RNAase
6. Monoglyceride lipase 16. Maltase
7. Adenosine triphosphatase 17. Alkaline phosphatase
8. NAD-ase 18. Sialidase
9. Mg2+ ATPase 19. Aminopeptidase
10. Protein kinase 20. UDP glycosidase

A single cell of the bacterium, E. coli contains about 6,000 different molecules. Man may contain about 100,000 different types of
molecules although only a few of them
Functions of the cell membrane:
The plasma membrane acts as a thin barrier which separates the intra-cellular fluid or the cytoplasm from the extra-cellular fluid
in which the cell lives. In case of unicellular organisms (Protophyta and Protozoa) the extra-cellular fluid may be fresh or marine
water, while in multicellular organisms the extra-cellular fluid may be blood, lymph or interstitial fluid. Though the plasma
membrane is a limiting barrier around the cell but it performs various important physiological functions
1. Maintaining the structural integrity of the cell.
2. Regulating of cellular interactions.
3. Recognition of antigens and foreign cells.
4. Interaction between the cytoplasm and the external environment.
5. Movements of the cell (formation of cilia, flagella).
6. Transport of substances into and from the cell.
Endocytosis
Some substances pass through the passive channels. Endocytosis involves transport from the cell membrane to lysosomes using
endosome intermediates. Larger molecules enter the cell by invagination of a part of the cell membrane, which first surrounds the
molecule and then separates to form endocytosis vesicle.
Endocytosis is the process of engulfing by cell macromolecules, particulate matter, and other substances from the extracellular
space.
Endocytosis is divided into 2 categories: phagocytosis and pinocytosis
Phagocytosis (cell eating) is the cellular process of engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome.
Phagocytosis is involved in the acquisition of nutrients for some cells, and, in the immune system, it is a major mechanism used to
remove pathogens and cell debris. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be
phagocytized.
Pinocytosis (cell drinking) is the cellular process of engulfing of fluid and small protein molecules usually smaller than 150 nm in
diameter.
Exocytosis is extrusion of materials from the cell .
54

Cell junctions are the types of structures that exist within the tissue of a multicellular organism. They consist of protein
complexes and provide contact between neighboring cells, between a cell and the extracellular matrix. Cell junctions are
especially abundant in epithelial tissues.
There are three major types of cell junctions:

Adherens junctions (anchoring junctions)

Strong mechanical attachments between adjacent cells.
EX: cardiac muscle cells
Desmosomes
Complexes of cell adhesion and linking proteins that attach the cell surface adhesion proteins to intracellular intermediate
filaments. Desmosomes help to resist shearing forces and are found in simple and stratified squamous epithelium. The
intercellular space is very wide (about 30 nm).
EX: muscles cells to one another.
Hemidesmos
Intercellular channels, which are involved in cell-cell communication.
Used for passive diffusion
Each desmosome composed of pair of connexons (hemi channels)
with narrow intercellular gap between the neighboring cell membranes
Cell-matrix junctions, which mediate adhesion between the basal cells and the basement membrane.
Gap junctions (communicating junction)
are intercellular channels
involved in cell-cell communication
form a pathway for passive diffusion
Each gap junctional channel is composed of pair of connexons (hemi channels), with narrow intercellular gap between the
neighboring cell membranes.
Tight junctions (occluding junctions)
are the closely associated areas of two cells whose membranes join together
These junctions act as barrier that prevents the movement of molecules into intercellular spaces.
Tight junctions are composed of a branching network of sealing strands
Each strand acting independently from the others.
55

Movement across cell membrane

Imbibition:
Hydrophilic substances such as cellulose and pectin show sucking/ absorption of water , this process is termed as imbibition
EX: Swelling of seed coats, warping of wooden frame works
Passive transport requires no energy on the part of the cell. Molecules can move passively across membranes in one of two ways.
In both cases, the molecules are moving from where they’re more concentrated to where they’re less concentrated. (In other
words, they spread themselves out randomly until they’re evenly distributed.) Here are the two methods of passive transport:
Diffusion:
The movement of molecules other than water from an area where they’re highly concentrated to an area where they’re less
concentrated is diffusion. To go from a high concentration to a low concentration, the molecules need only diffuse (spread
themselves) across the membrane, separating the areas of concentration.
Osmosis:
The diffusion of water across a membrane is osmosis. It is always from higher concentration to lower concentration. A
semipermeable membrane is always a prerequisite. Movement of water is affected by the concentration of substances called
solutes that are dissolved in the water. Basically, water moves from areas where it’s more concentrated (more pure) to areas where
it’s less concentrated (where it has more solutes)

If a solution is isotonic, the If one solution is hypotonic, it has a lower If a solution is hypertonic, it has a higher
concentrations of the concentration of substances (and more water) concentration of substances in it (and less
substances (solutes) and in it when compared to another solution When water) when compared to another solution.
water (solvent) on both sides a cell is placed in hypotonic solution, water When a cell is kept in hypertonic solution, it
of the membrane are equal tends to move inside cell through osmosis and tends to lose water, its vacuole and
cell becomes flaccid. This condition is called cytoplasm undergoes shrinkage, cell
DEPLASMOLYSIS. becomes star shaped, this condition is called
PLASMOLYSIS.
Osmotic pressure:
A physical pressure that actually balances osmosis of water due to concentration difference between a solution and pure water is
termed as osmotic pressure of the solution. This pressure prevents osmosis.
High osmotic pressure: Low osmotic pressure:
Low concentration of water+ higher solute content High concentration of water+ low solute content
Facilitated diffusion:
Passage of water soluble molecules through a plasma membrane from higher to low concentration with help of some transport
proteins (channel protein, carrier protein), without using energy is termed as facilitated diffusion.
EX: Movement of amino acids, glucose, Na, ,K.
Active transport :
Certain ions or molecules do not follow rule of migration from high to low concentration, instead they dare to move from low
concentration to higher concentration, since they go against diffusion momopoly, they need some helper or facilitator to carry
them across semipermeable membrane. These proteins are called transporter or pump and energy for this adventure is provided by
ATP.
It is a little like having to pay to take Uber cab to Saddar. The cab is the carrier protein, and passenger is the big molecule that
needs help getting from the bloodstream (home) to the inside of the cell (Saddar). The fare paid is equivalent to the energy
molecules expended by the cell.
EX: Na+ / K+ pump in neurons
56

Various cell organelles such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes are also bounded by
membranes similar to the plasma membrane. So known as a basic trilaminar unit membrane .
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel part of the cell lying between the cell membrane and nucleus. It consists of matrix, in which several
components such as organelles and inclusions are embedded.
Organelles
The organelles are the specialized subunits within a cell that have specific functions.

Classifications of the organelles

1). On the basis of their structure the organelles are subdivided as

membranous (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes) and

nonmembranous (ribosomes, Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, centrioles, cilia and flagella).

2). On the basis of their functions the organelles are subdivided on general and special. General organelles such as ribosomes,
mitochondria, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and centrioles are in any cell.
57

Special organelles are in specialized cells (neurofibrils and Nissl bodies - in neurons, myofibrils — in muscle cells, cilia in cells
of respiratory epithelium, flagella - in human spermatozoa).
Nucleus
Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle, surrounded by a FUNCTIONs:
double membrane nuclear envelope. Nucleus on the whole controls, monitors and regulates
The outer membrane is continuous with the membranes of  all cell activities
endoplasmic reticulum. At certain intervals, the two nuclear  Duplication of DNA
membranes have nuclear pores with a diameter of about 90  Replication of DNA into RNA for protein synthesis
nm. These pores permit the free passage of the products
synthesized in the nucleus into the surrounding cytoplasm. Schematic diagram of structure of a nucleus. 1 - nuclear
Nucleus contains DNA, associated with basic protein envelope, 2 - nuclear pores, 3 - ribosomes, 4 - nuclear fibrous
(histones) in the ratio of 1: 1, to form nucleosomes. lamina, 5 - heterochromatin, 6 - euchromatin, 7 – nucleolus
An assembly of nucleosomes constitutes chromatin fibers
of chromosomes (Greek: Chroma – colour; soma – body).
The nucleus of the eukaryotic cell contains a dense body
known as nucleolus. It is rich in RNA, particularly the
ribosomal RNA which enters the cytosol through nuclear
pores. The ground material of the nucleus is often referred to
as nucleoplasm. It is rich in enzymes such as DNA
polymerases and RNA polymerases.
Nuclear matrix
The nuclear matrix is the component that fills the space
between the chromatin and the nucleoli in the nucleus. It is
composed mainly of proteins (some of which have
enzymatic activity), metabolites, and ions. The fibrous
lamina of the nuclear envelope is a part of the nuclear
matrix.
Types of chromatin can be distinguished with both the light
and electron microscopes.
Heterochromatin is coiled segments of chromosomes and
stain deep blue. It forms the chromatin particles of
interphase nucleus, and is inert and inactive.
Euchromatin is uncoiled segments of chromosomes and
stain poorly or not at all. it is active and directs the cell
activities in the production of protein

Human chromosomes have been classified into 7 groups A to G, and each has been given a number mainly on the length of
chromosomes and the position of the centromere: group A- 1 to 3; B- 4 and 5; C- 6 to
12 and X; D- 13 to 15; E-16 to 18; F- 19 and 20; G-21, 22, and Y.

Structure of chromosome. 1- arms. 2 - centromere Human karyotype.

1. Shapes of chromosomes:
2. Depending upon position of centromere, chromosomes are of 4 types
3. Metacentric: Arms equal, centromere in the centre, v-shaped
4. Sub metacentric: Unequal arms, one arm larger other smaller, J-shaped
5. Telocentric: Only one arm, centromere at one pole, i-shaped
6. Acrocentric: One arm long, other very small 1-shaped
58

No. of chromosomes
Fruit fly 08
pea 14
Onion 16
Frog 26
Human 46
Chimpanzee 48
potato 48

Mitochondria The mitochondria (Greek: mitos – FUNCTIONS:

thread; chondros – granule) They are involved in aerobic respiration.
Mitochondria are spherical or cylindrical They are regarded as the power houses of the cell
organelles, which are composed of an outer ATP, generated in mitochondria is exported to all parts of the cell to provide
membrane and inner membrane. energy for the cellular work.
The outer membrane is smooth and completely It contains porins, proteins that render the membrane permeable to
envelops the organelle. molecules
The inner membrane projects folds, termed cristae, Mitochondria may also produce heat (brown fat)
into the interior of the mitochondrion and contains accumulate iron-containing pigments (Heme ferritin),
tennis-racket shaped F1 particles which contain Ions of Ca2+ and HPO4 2-- (or phosphate; e.g., osteoblasts of bones or yolk
ATP-ase enzyme for ATP Synthesis. It also proteins).
contains proton pumps and many permease Conducts active transport through protein pumps
proteins for the transport of various molecules It is estimated that about 10% of the mitochondrial proteins are produced in
such as citrates, ADP, phosphate and ATP. the mitochondria.

The components of electron transport chain and The end result of these reactions, which take place in the mitochondrial
oxidative phosphorylation (flavoprotein, matrix, is the production of C02, water, and heat and the accumulation of
cytochromes b, c1, c, a and a3 and coupling energy in high-energy compounds such as ATP.
factors) are buried in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. The space located between the two
membranes, is termed the intermembrane space.
The internal chamber of mitochondria is referred
to as matrix or mitosol. Matrix contains
mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, tRNA, and the
enzyme system generates ATP by means of the
citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and P-
oxidation of fatty acids. The mitochondrial matrix
contains a circular double stranded DNA
(mtDNA), RNA and ribosomes (independent
protein synthesizing Machinery
Schematic
diagram of mitochondrion. 1 - outer membrane, 2 - inner membrane, 3 -
cristae, 4 — matrix space

Endoplasmic reticulum

The network of membrane enclosed spaces that extends throughout FUNCTIONS:

the cytoplasm constitutes endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Some of
these thread-like structures extend from the nuclear pores to the The principal function of the rough endoplasmic
plasma membrane. reticulum is to synthesis and segregate proteins destined
for export or intracellular use.
Rough (granular) endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is prominent in
cells specialized for the protein secretion, such as pancreatic acinar The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the site of the lipid
cells (digestive enzymes), fibroblasts (collagen), plasma cells and carbohydrate synthesis, protein segregation coming
(immunoglobulin). The rough endoplasmic reticulum consists of from ribosomes. It carries out modification and
tubules and flattened cisterns. On the cytoplasmic surface of the maturation of proteins and sends to Golgi apparatus for
endoplasmic reticulum there are polyribosomes, giving them final processing.
granular appearance.
SER are concerned with steroid synthesis, lipid
Smooth (Agranular) endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is the metabolism and detoxication processes.
membranous network within the cell. These are devoid of ribosome
granules. Its cisterns are more tubular and more likely to appear as a SER in the skin cells converts cholesterol into vit. D
profusion of interconnected channels of variable size s and shape
They are found in the adipose cells, glycogen storing
59

cells in liver

Schematic diagram of endoplasmic reticulum. 1 - rough

endoplasmic reticulum, 2 - smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, 3 - lumen of smooth reticulum, 4 - ribosomes

Plastids.
Plastids occur only in the plant cells. They contain pigments and may synthesize and FUNCTIONS:
Accumulate various substances. Chloroplasts are round, oval or discoid in shape in Concerned with photosynthesis
higher Plants. Like mitochondria, each chloroplast is bounded by two membranous Trapping solar energy into sugars by
using CO2 and water
envelopes, both of which have no chlorophyll pigment. However, unlike mitochondria
there occurs third system of membranes within the boundary of inner membrane,
called grana. The grana form the main functional units of chloroplast and are
bathed in the homogeneous matrix, called the stroma. Stroma contains a variety of
photosynthetic enzymes and starch grains. Grana are stacks of membrane-bounded,
flattened discoid sacs, arranged like neat piles of coins. A chloroplast contains many
such interconnected
Grana on which are located various photosynthetic enzymes and the molecules of
green pigment chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments to trap the light energy.
They contain DNA, ribosomes and complete protein synthetic machinery.
Plastids are of the following type :

1. Leucoplasts are colorless plastids of embryonic and germ cells lacking thylakoids and ribosomes.
2. Amyloplasts produce starch.
3. Proteinoplasts accumulate protein.
4. Oleosomes or elaioplasts store fats and essential oils.
5. Chromoplasts contain pigment molecules and are coloured organelles. Chromoplasts impart a
Variety of colors to plant cells, such as red color in tomatoes, red chillies and carrots, various colors to petals of flowers and green
color to many plant cells. The green coloured Chromoplasts are called chloroplasts. They have chlorophyll pigment and are
involved in the photosynthesis of food and so act like the kitchens of the cell

Golgi apparatus
Eukaryotic cells contain a unique cluster of membrane vesicles known as FUNCTIONS:
dictyosomes constitute Golgi apparatus (or Golgi complex). The newly It collects processes and sorts out molecules
synthesized proteins are handed over to the Golgi apparatus which catalyze the particularly proteins from ER and delivers to
the interior of the cell after packaging or
addition of carbohydrates, lipids or sulfate moieties to the proteins. These
exports outside.
chemical modifications are necessary for the transport of proteins across the Golgi apparatus are also involved in the
plasma membrane. membrane synthesis, particularly for the
Material in form of vesicle coming from ER is received by the cis face, after formation of intracellular organelles (e.g.
maturation and processing, these molecules are released from the trans face in peroxisomes, lysosomes).
larger vesicles in form of secretory vesicles, lysosomes, or other cytoplasmic
components.
Certain proteins and enzymes are enclosed in membrane vesicles of Golgi
apparatus and secreted from the cell after the appropriate signals. The digestive
enzymes of pancreas are produced in this manner.
60

Three-dimensional model of the Golgi

apparatus. 1 - cis (forming) face, 2 - trans
(maturing) face, 3 ~ cistemae, 4 - lumen, 5 -
newly forming vesicle, 6 - secretory vesicle

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are spherical vesicles enveloped by a single membrane. FUNCTIONS:
Lysosomes are regarded as the digestive tract of the cell, since they Lysosomes are present in almost all cells, but they are
are actively involved in digestion of cellular substances—namely particularly abundant in cells with phagocytic activity
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. Lysosomal (macrophages, neutrophilic leukocytes).
enzymes are categorized as hydrolases (more than 40). These As the cell dies, the lysosomes rupture and release
include the enzymes: glucosidase (glycogen), cathepsins (proteins), hydrolytic enzymes that results in post-mortem autolysis.
Lipases (lipids), ribonucleases (RNA). The digestive enzymes of cellular compounds are confined
The lysosomal enzymes are responsible for maintaining the to the lysosomes in the best interest of the cell, if
cellular compounds in a dynamic state, by their degradation and accidentally gets ruptured, they can kill the cell
recycling. The degraded products leave the lysosomes, usually by automatically hence termed as suicide sacs
diffusion, for reutilization by the cell.

Schematic diagram of the lysosomes

Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes, also known as micro bodies, are single . Glyoxisomes hydrolyze fatty acids in plants
membrane cellular organelles.
They are spherical or oval in shape and contain the enzyme
catalase. Catalase protects the cell from
The toxic effects of H2O2 by converting it to H2O and O2.
(2H2O2 —+2H2O +O2).
Peroxisomes are also involved in the oxidation of long chain
fatty acids (> C18), and synthesis of Plasmalogens and
glycolipids.
Plants contain glyoxysomes, a specialized type of peroxisomes,
which are involved in the glyoxylate pathway
61

VALUES TO REMEMBER
Size of peroxisome 0.5 micro
Diameter of chloroplast 4-6 micro
No. of thylakoid in granum >50
No. of nuclear pores in RBC 3-4

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are present in relation to rough endoplasmic reticulum. They may also lie free in the cytoplasm. They may be present
singly (monosomes) or in groups (polysomes). “Free” ribosomes synthesize proteins that will remain in the cell as cytoplasmic
structural or functional elements. Polysomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins for export from the cell and
integral proteins of the plasma membrane.
Each ribosome consists of proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Ribosome consists of 2 subunits of different size . Ribosomes play
an essential role in protein synthesis.

Ribosome granules may exist either in the free state in the cytosol (e.g., basal epidermal cells) or
attached to RER (e.g., pancreatic acinar cells, plasma cells or antibodies-secreting lymphocytes,
Osteoblasts, etc.). Ribosomes have a sedimentation coefficient of about 80S and are composed of two
subunits namely 40S and 60S. The smaller 40S ribosomal subunit is prolate ellipsoid in shape and
consists of one molecule of 18S ribosomal RNA (or rRNA) and 30 proteins (named as S1, S2, S3, and
so on). The larger 60S ribosomal subunit is round in shape and contains a channel through which
growing polypeptide chain makes its exit. It consists of three types of rRNA molecules, i.e., 28S rRNA, 5.8 rRNA and 5S rRNA,
and 40 proteins (named as L1, L2, L3 and so on).

Schematic diagram of ribosome. 1 - small subunit, 2 -

large subunit

Vacuole
Vacuole is a large membranous sac FUNCTIONS:
surrounded by a membrane tonoplast. They regulate osmotic properties of the cell
Animal cell possesses many small and Many coloured pigments giving bright color to flower
plant cell possesses only one large fluid and fruits are located in vacuoles
filled vacuoles. The fluid comprises of They also store toxic molecules as a defense mechanism against herbivores
sugars, oxygen, carbon di oxide, pigments, Animal vacuoles also contain hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, ribonucleases
enzymes and waste materials and glycosidases.
Plant cells contain hydrolytic enzymes that cause lysis of the cell after death.
Cell wall(only present in plant cell)
62

The outermost structure of most plant cells is a dead and rigid layer called cell wall.
It is mainly composed of carbohydrates such as cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose and lignin and certain
Fatty substances like waxes. Ultrastructurally cell wall is found to consist of a microfibrillar network
lying in a gel-like matrix. The microfibrils are mostly made up of cellulose. There is a pectin-rich
Cementing substance between the walls of adjacent cells which is called middle lamella. The cell wall which is formed
immediately after the division of cell, constitutes the primary cell wall. Many kinds of plant cells have only primary cell wall
around them. Primary cell wall is composed of pectin, hemicellulose and loose network of cellulose micro fibrils. In certain
types of cells such as phloem and xylem, an additional layer is added to the inner surface of the primary cell wall at a later
stage. This layer is called secondary cell wall and it consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In many plant
cells, there are tunnels running through the cell wall called plasmodesmata which allow communication with the other cells
in a tissue.

Centrioles(only present in animal cell)

are cylinders that measure 0.2 μm × 0.5 μm. This cylinder is FUNCTIONS
open on both ends, The wall of a centriole has nine groups of The centrosome is juxta nuclear (L., juxta = near) and
microtubules arranged in a circle. Each group, called blade is a firmly attached to the nuclear envelope. At the time of cell
triplet formed of three tubules — A, B, and C that are skewed division two pairs of centrioles are formed and form the
toward the centre. Tubule A has 13 protofilament, while spindle of microtubules which help in the separation and
tubules B and C have only 10 protofilament each. Triplets are movement of chromosomes during concluding stages of
linked by connectives. The procentriole (or daughter centriole) cell divisions.
is formed at right angles to the centriole and is located near the
proximal end of the centriole. Both centrioles are found in a
specially differentiated region the centrosome, cell centre or
centrosphere.
Cytosol and cytoskeleton
The cytoplasmic matrix consists of various the 24 essential elements,
Kinds of ions. The ions are important in maintaining six play especially important
Osmotic pressure and acid-base balance in the cells. roles in living systems. These major elements
are carbon (C, 20 per cent), hydrogen (H, 10 per
Retention of ions in the matrix produces an increase in
cent), nitrogen (N, 3 per cent), oxygen (O, 62 per
osmotic pressure and, thus, the entrance of water in the cell. cent), phosphorus (P, 1.14 per cent) and sulphur (S, 0.14
The concentration of various ions in the intracellular fluid per cent). Most organic molecules are built with these six
(matrix) differs from that in the interstitial fluid. elements. Another five essential elements found in less
abundance in living systems are calcium (Ca, 2.5 per cent),
potassium (K, 0.11 per cent), sodium (Na, 0.10 per cent),
chlorine (Cl, 0.16 per cent) and magnesium (Mg, 0.07 per
cent).
Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, perhaps 46 are found
Several other elements, called trace elements, are also
in the cytosol (cytoplasmic matrix). Twenty four of these are found in minute amounts in animals and plants, but are
considered essential for life (called essential elements), nevertheless essential for life. These are iron (Fe, 0.10 per
while others are cent), iodine (I, 0.014 per cent), molybdenum (Mo),
present in cytosol only because they exist in the environment manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se),
with which the organism interacts copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), tin (Sn), vanadium (V),
silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), fluorine (F) and boron (B).
63

Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes

The matrix consists of both electrolytes and non-electrolytes.

(i) Electrolytes. The electrolytes (ii) Non-electrolytes.

Some of minerals occur in matrix in non-ionizing state. The non-
play a vital role in the maintenance of electrolytes of the matrix are Na,
K, Ca, Mg, Cu, I, Fe, Mn, F, Mo, Cl, Zn, Co, Ni, etc. The iron (Fe) occurs
osmotic pressure and acid base equilibrium in the Haemoglobin, ferritin, cytochromes and oxidase. The calcium (Ca)
occurs in the blood, matrix and the bones. The copper (Cu), manganese
in the matrix. Mg2+ ions, phosphate, (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn) are useful as cofactors for enzymatic
actions. The iodine and Fluorine are essential for the thyroid and the
etc., are good examples of the electrolytes. enamel metabolism, respectively.
some enzymes as catalase and cytochrome

CYTOSKELETON
Cytoplasm actually contains a complex network of protein filaments, spread throughout, that constitutes cytoskeleton.
These structural proteins not only provide for the form and shaping of cell but also play an important role in cytoplasmic and
cellular movements. These filaments which are polymers of proteins are responsible for the structure, shape and organization of
the cell.

The cytoplasmic filaments are of three types –

Microtubules, Microfilaments and intermediate filaments.

64

Microtubules are thin elongated elements of cell Microfilaments are the thin Intermediate filaments
cytoplasm; they are circular in cross section with protein fibers. The protein Diameter of 8-12 nm.
diameter of 24 nm. forming microfilaments are Intermediate solid rope like made
Tubulin subunits polymerize to form microtubules. called actin (5-7 nm in of keratin
Chemically, diameter). no ability to contract and extend,
microtubules are composed of two kinds of protein Microfilaments can be organized They having been classified
subunits : -tubulin (tubulin A) and -tubulin B ,A in many forms: according to their constituent
total of 13 subunits are present in one complete turn of In skeletal muscle they integrate protein such as
the spiral called protofilament with thick (16 nm) myosin
Hollow from inside. filaments; Vimentin filaments are
Microtubules undergo reversible assembly- disassembly In most cells microfilaments are characteristic of cells of
(i.e., polymerization depolymerization, present as a thin sheath just mesenchymal origin.
depending on the need of the cell or organelles. Their beneath the plasmolemma. Desmin is found in smooth
polymerization is regulated by certain MAPs or muscle and in the Z disks of
microtubule- skeletal and cardiac muscle;
associated proteins Cytokeratins are found in most
(e.g., Tau protein). These filaments appear to be epithelia.
associated with membrane
Ability to contract and relax activity such as endocytosis, Provide mechanical strength
Movement of chromosomes in cell division exocytosis, and cell Maintain shape
Movement of organelles within cell migratory activity Helpful in intercellular
Movement of cilia and flagella (pseudopodial processes). attachment
Formation of Basal bodies Help in muscle contraction Support axon terminals
Centrioles, Cilia and flagella Help in cell division
65
66

VARIETY OF LIFE
A great variety of organisms is termed as BIODIVERSITY

As human beings, we’re deeply connected to the living world around us. Yet as we transform the world in order to meet our
needs, we’re changing it in ways that make it less hospitable to other species.
This chapter is designed to help you understand why biodiversity is so important to the future of humanity on planet Earth. It’s
your chance to get acquainted with the diversity of life around you and discover how biologists organize all of those diverse life-
forms into a specific classification system.
Whether or not you appreciate the diversity of life on Earth, biodiversity is important — and worth valuing — for the following
reasons:
 The health of natural systems depends on biodiversity. Scientists who study the interconnections between different
types of living things and their environments believe that biodiversity is important for maintaining balance in natural
systems. Each type of living thing plays a role in its environment, and the loss of even one species can have widespread
effects.
 Many economies rely upon natural environments. A whole industry called ecotourism has grown up around tour
guides leading people on trips through natural habitats and explaining the local biology along the way.
 Human medicines come from other living things. For example, the anticancer drug Taxol was originally obtained from
the bark of the Pacific yew, and the heart medicine digitalin comes from the foxglove plant.
 Biodiversity adds to the beauty of nature. Natural systems have an aesthetic value that’s pleasing to the eye and
calming to the mind in today’s technologically driven world

TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
The taxonomic hierarchy is as follows, from largest to smallest.
(Organisms are placed into each category based on similarities within that particular group of organisms. Whatever characteristics
are used to define a category must be shared by all organisms placed into that category.)

Domain Domains group organisms by fundamental characteristics such as cell

structure and chemistry.
For example, organisms in domain Eukarya are separated from those in
the Bacteria and Archaea domains based on whether their cells have a
nucleus, the types of molecules found in the cell wall and membrane, and
how they go about protein synthesis
Kingdom Kingdoms group organisms based on developmental characteristics and
nutritional strategy.
For example, organisms in the animal kingdom (Animalia) are separated
from those in the plant kingdom (Plantae) because of differences in the
early development of these organisms and the fact that plants make their
own food by photosynthesis whereas animals ingest their food
Phylum separate organisms based on key characteristics that define the major
groups within the kingdom

Class Classes separate organisms based on key characteristics that define the
major groups within the phylum
Order Orders separate organisms based on key characteristics that define the
major groups within the class.
Family Families separate organisms based on key characteristics that define the
major groups within the order
Genus Genera separate organisms based on key characteristics that define the
major groups within the family
species separate eukaryotic organisms based on whether they can successfully
reproduce with each other

Genetic information served as the most important tool for placing all life on Earth, into three main groups called domains.
The three domains of life are
 Bacteria:
 Consisting mostly of single-celled organisms,
 prokaryotic,
 Cell wall made of peptidoglycan.
 Achaea:
67

 These are single-celled,

 Prokaryotic organisms.
 have some chemical and genetic differences from bacteria,
 Cell walls are never made of peptidoglycan.
 Eukarya:
 may be single-celled or multicellular;
 either way, their cells are eukaryotic,
 This domain contains familiar organisms such as animals, plants, mushrooms, and seaweed.

Kingdom Characteristics
Prokaryota Unicellular/ few multicellular
No nuclear membrane
Cell wall made of peptidoglycan

Potoctista Eukaryotic
Unicellular/ multicellular
Autotrophic/ Heterotrophic
No embryo
Fungi Multinucleate
Filamentous
No chlorophyll
Cell wall made of chitin
Absorb food from plants, animals or organic matter
Plantae Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Autotrophic (Chlorophyllous)
Cell wall made of cellulose
Embryo producing
Animalia Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Heterotrophic
Embryo producing

The basic unit of taxonomy is the species, a population of closely similar individuals, which are alike in their morphologic,
embryologic, and physiologic characters, which in nature breed only with each other and which have a common ancestry.
68

NOMENCLATURE
When biologists discover a new organism, they give it a scientific name. They’ve been doing this for hundreds of years according
to a system developed by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 1750s. Linnaeus created a classification system that included
some of the categories, such as kingdom and class that are still used today in the taxonomic hierarchy. Linnaeus also proposed the
system of binomial nomenclature that modern biologists use to give every type of living thing a unique name that has two parts In
binomial nomenclature, the first part of an organism’s name is the genus,
and the second part is the species name, or specific epithet. The rules for using binomial nomenclature are as follows:
 The genus is always capitalized.
 The species name is never written without the genus, although the genus can be abbreviated by just the first letter.
 Both the genus and species should be italicized or underlined to indicate that the name is the official scientific name.
 According to these rules, humans may be correctly identified as Homo sapiens or H. sapiens..
TOOLS FOR CLASSIFICATIONOF ORGANISMS:
69

Certain fields of biology are very helpful in identification and placement of newly discovered organisms and support that all life
forms have descended from common ancestors and are interlinked together. Many evidences for their inter relationship are briefly
listed including

TAXONOMY The characteristics of living things are such that Many examples are known in which a species
they can be fitted into a hierarchical scheme of
categories, each more inclusive than the previous is broken up into a chain of subspecies, each of
one – species, genera, families, orders, classes and which differs slightly from its neighbors but
phyla. Thus, very closely related animals or plants interbreeds with them. The subspecies at the two
are kept in the same ends of the chain, however, may be so different that
they cannot interbreed
species which shows that they descended from a
common ancestor. The species which are much
alike, are included in one genus which is distinct
from other genera

HOMOLOGY Study of homologous organs is termed as A whale’s or seal’s front flipper,

homology. Homologous organs are those which
have the common origin and are built on the same a bat’s wing,
fundamental pattern. But they perform different
functions and have different appearance. These a cat’s paw,
organs are variously modified in adaptation to
different functions. a horse’s front leg,

The theory of evolution suggests that hereditary a human hand and

characters become gradually modified and these
modifications make the organism better suited for Even a bird’s wing, though superficially dissimilar
the changed conditions of life. Homology is found and adapted for quite different functions (viz.,
in every organ system from Pisces to mammals. grasping, running, flying, swimming, etc.) are
homologous structures. Each consists of almost the
same number of bones, muscles, nerves, and blood
vessels arranged in the same pattern, and their mode
of development is very similar.

CYTOLOGY All forms of life are related comes from the All cells that have been examined thus far have a
cellular level. The very fact that the cell is the unit DNA-RNA- protein information and
of structure for all living organisms (except communication system. All forms contain
viruses) is thought to reflect the basic relationship membranes that are made up of double-layered
among living forms. This relationship is even lipoproteins.
further emphasized by the fact that it has been
possible for biologists to construct a picture of the All cells (except few bacteria) utilize the glycolytic
“generalized” cell from which all other types can pathway. Most bacterial forms, and all
be inferred.
uni - and-multicellular organisms, have a Krebs
cycle and an electron transport system.

All are based on ATP as an energy donor.

GENETICS Genetics, the science of heredity, deals with the For the past several thousand years man has been
variability of plants and animals. Hereditary selecting and breeding (i.e., hybridizing) animals
and plants for his own uses, and a great many
Variations provide the raw material of evolution. varieties, adapted for different purposes, have been
There are mainly two sources of hereditary established. These results of artificial selection
variations namely recombination and mutation. provide striking models of what may be
While recombinations after hybridization yield
new combinations, mutations will create new accomplished by natural selection.
genetic material which never existed earlier.

EMBRYOLOGY Comparative embryological studies have revealed The universal features of ectodermally and
that there was one developmental pattern that endodermally derived tissues also indicate the
could be viewed as having undergone a series of presence of a common ancestral type early in
branching. All multicellular animals start their evolutionary history.
70

development as a single zygote, and through a Same pattern of embryo formation with identical
series of mitotic divisions, increase in cell number steps exhibits a great proof of interlink together.
until a blastula is formed. The developing
embryo elaborates upon the blastula stage by
forming two fundamental germ layers, ectoderm
and endoderm, during the course of gastrulation.
After the differentiation of the ectoderm and
endoderm in the gastrula, the third germ layer,
mesoderm, is formed. There are three distinct
patterns by which developing embryo of different
species produce a mesodermal layer.

ANATOMY The skeletal, muscular, circulatory, and excretory Animals standing between two groups of animals
are called connecting links, i.e., Archaeopteryx and
systems of the vertebrates provide especially clear
Archaeornis ; these extinct animals exhibit both
illustrations of this principle, but this is generally reptilian and avian characters, suggesting
evolutionary origin of birds from the reptiles.
true of all systems in all phyla. Such studies in
Among the existing mammals, Monotremata
comparative anatomy provide many evidences of
(duck-billed platypus and the spiny ant-eater)
biological evolution by showing that (i)
occupy an intermediate position between reptiles
anatomical similarities become more and more and typical mammals. For like the mammals they
complex progressively as one proceeds from a
Possess hair and suckle their youngs. Reptilian
lower animal to a higher animal; and (ii) all the features of monotremes are: They lay large heavily
diverse animals inherited the anatomical similarity yolked eggs, have a cloaca into which urinogenital
ducts and alimentary canal discharge; the shoulder
from a common ancestor. girdle is more like reptiles

RECAPITULATION it is most commonly observed that the embryos of higher animals repeat many of the stages through
THEORY which embryos of higher animals have passed. This has been referred to as recapitulation. This
concept, as originally used by von Baer (1792–1876) indicated that some of the developmental stages
of an organism are similar to some of the developmental stages of its ancestors.

Viruses are acellular parasites that cannot reproduce by itself. But, because viruses are primitive and simpler units of life,
therefore, they should be discussed prior to other cells.

VIRUSES
Viruses (L., venom or poisonous fluid) are very small submicroscopic biological entities which lack cellular organization (viz.,
plasma membrane and metabolic machinery) possess their own genetic material, genetically determined macromolecular
organization and characteristic mode of inheritance For their multiplication, they essentially require the presence of some host
cell, i.e., They are obligate cellular parasites of either bacteria, plants or animals.

Structure
Viruses are quite a varied group . They range in between 30 to 300 nm or 300 to 3000 A° in size, so they can be observed only by
electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography. They have a regular geometrical and macromolecular organization. Basically an
infectious virus particle (called virion) is composed of a core of only one type of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) which is wrapped in a
protective coat of protein, called capsid. The capsid consists of numerous capsomeres, each having a few monomers or structural
units. Each structural unit is made up of one or more polypeptide chains. The capsomeres are of different shapes such as hollow
prism, hexagonal, pentagonal, lobular or any other shape. The specific arrangement of capsomeres in the capsid determines the shape
of a virion. Viruses have the following three different types of symmetry :

1. Icosahedral symmetry. Many viruses have spherical, cubical 2. Helical or cylindrical symmetry. The rod-shaped helical
or polygonal shape which is capsid of viruses such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV),
basically icosahedral or 20-sided. Icosahedral symmetry bacteriophage M13 and influenza virus, consists of numerous
depends on the fact that the assembly of the capsomeres causes identical capsomeres arranged into a helix because they are thicker
the capsid of the virus to be at a state of minimum energy. at one end than the other.
An icosahedral capsid comprises both penta-meres (i.e., 3. Complex symmetry.
capsomeres containing 5 structural units) Viruses with complex shaped capsids are of two shapes : those
and hexameres (i.e., capsomeres having 6 structural units). In without identifiable capsids (e.g. Pox viruses such as vaccinia,
an icosahedral virus the minimum Number of capsomeres is 12 cowpox, extromelia and Orf viruses) and those with tadpole-
71

or its multiple such as 32, 42, 72, 92, 162, 252, 362, 492, 642 shaped structures in which each part has different sort of
and 812. symmetry (e.g., T-even phages of E.coli; T2 phage has an
For example, the total number of capsomeres of different icosahedral head, helical tail sheath, hexagonal end plate and rod-
icosahedral viruses are : shaped tail fibers). Some viruses such as rabies virus are bullet-
shaped. Some viruses such as herpes virus, influenza virus,
Bacteriophage 174 mumps virus and Semliki forest virus are surrounded by a 100 –
Turnip yellow mosaic virus or 150 A0 thick spiked membrane. This membrane contains lipid
TYMV 32 bilayer of plasma membrane from which projects the virus-
Poliovirus 32 specific protein molecules or spikes. It is not made by or specified
polyoma virus and papilloma virus by the virus itself but is derived from the plasma membrane of the
Reovirus 72 host cell (i.e., animal cell).
Herpes virus 92
Adenovirus 162
252

Are Viruses Living Entities?

There is no clear answer to this question,
If life is defined as being cellular, then viruses are not alive. If life is defined as being capable of making new life directly through
its own metabolic efforts, then viruses are not living.
However, if life is defined as being able to specify each new generation according to its own genetic
Instructions, then viruses are living systems.
In fact, virus multiplication is very different from cell replication mechanisms. Cells produce their own chromosomes, proteins,
membranes and other constituents and these materials are partitioned into progeny cells after a division process in the parent cell.
As stated in the cell theory, cells arise only from other cells. Viruses do not give rise directly to new viruses. Instead, they must
humiliate the biosynthetic machinery of their host cell so that virus-specific proteins and nucleic acids are made, according to viral
genetic information. Eventually virus particles are assembled from newly made
Molecules in the host cell and are released when the host cell bursts. They may then initiate new cycles of infection in other host
cells. Thus, viruses borrow metabolism and a sheltering membrane from their host, but they provide the genetic instructions that
ensure continuity of their species from generation to generation. Since viruses are entirely dependent on living cells for their
replication, they cannot be a precellular form in evolutionary terms, but should be viewed as pieces of cellular genetic material
which have gained some degree of individual autonomy
Episome is an extrachromosomal, circular, transposable, closed DNA molecule which can exist either integrated into the bacterial
chromosome or separately and autonomously in the cytoplasm. Plasmid is that bit of autonomous genetic material of bacteria
(i.e., circular DNA) that exists only extra chromosomally and cannot be integrated into the bacterial chromosome (DNA)

Naming and Classification

Viruses are not named according to the method of binomial nomenclature like other organisms (Binomial nomenclature is the
Linnaean system of classification requiring the designation of a binomen (L., bi = twice + nomen = a name), the genus and
species name, for every species of bacteria, blue green algae, plants and animals). Viruses tend to be named in a random fashion
 according to the disease caused (e.g., poliomyelitis virus), the host organism (e.g. Bacterial viruses)
 bacteriophages, plant viruses and animal viruses), or
 Some coded system (e.g., T1, T2, P1 phages).
Recently, with increase in knowledge of viral biochemistry and molecular biology, various specific
 characteristics such as
 nature of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA),
 the symmetry of capsid,
 The number of capsomeres, etc., are now being used in viral classification.
conventional classification of viruses which is based on the type of the host cell :
72

T4 bacteriophage is a large-sized tadpole-shaped complex virus. Its capsid comprises of an icosahedral head (1250 A0 length and
850 A0 width; 2000 capsomeres), a short neck with collar bearing ‘whiskers’ and a long helical tail. The tail is made up of a thick
and hollow mid-piece, a Hexagonal base plate or end plate to which are attached six spikes and six long tail fibers. The mid
headpiece consists of a central hollow core and a spring-like contractile sheath which comprises 24 rings of hexameres and
remains helically arranged around the core. The T4 genome or chromosome is a single DNA molecule which is 60 μm long,
linear, double-stranded and tightly packed within the head of the phage.
Phage DNA contains more than 1,66,000 nucleotide pairs and encodes more than 200 different proteins .
B. Plant viruses.
The plant viruses parasitize the plant cells and disturb their metabolism and cause severe diseases in them. All plant viruses
consist of ribonucleoproteins in their organization. The important plant viruses are tobacco rattle virus (TRV), tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV), potato virus, beet yellow virus (BYV), southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV) and turnip yellow viruses (TYV).
Among plants, few hundred viral diseases are caused, e.g., mosaic diseases of tobacco, cabbage, cauliflower, groundnut and
mustard; black-ring spot of cabbage; leaf roll of tomato; leaf curl of papaya, cotton, bean and soybean; yellow disease of carrot,
peach; little-leaf of brinjal. These diseases are spread mainly by insects such as aphids, leaf hoppers and beetles.

CLASSIFICATION: GENOME ENVELOPE EXAMPLE

UN ENVELOPED PLUS STRAND RNA VIRUS: RNA Absent Polio virus
Acts as messenger RNA and directs ribosomes for protein synthesis Rhino virus

ENVELOPED PLUS STRAND RNA VIRUS:

Acts as messenger RNA and directs ribosomes for protein synthesis RNA Present Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis C virus
MINUS STRAND RNA VIRUS:
Cannot serve as messenger RNA instead attack nucleus for protein
synthesis. RNA Present Rhabdo virus
Pox virus
RETROVIRUS
Can convert RNA into DNA through reverse transcriptase enzyme
RNA Present HIV virus
DOUBLE STRAND RNA VIRUS: Hepatitis B virus
Attack both plant and animals
RNA Present Reo virus
SMALL GENOMEDNA VIRUS:

MEDIUM TO LARGE GENOME DNA VIRUS: DNA Present Parvovirus

Mostly infect Animal and humans
DNA Present Herpes virus
BACTERIOPHAGE:
Attacks bacteria
DNA Present T4 virus
Lambda virus

Life cycle of the bacteriophage.

Bacteriophages may have the following two types of life cycles: (1) Lytic cycles, in which viral infection is followed by lysis
(bursting and death) of the host cell and release of new infective phages, e.g., virulent phages such as T4 and all other T-even
coliphages. (2) Lysogenic cycles, in which infection rarely causes lysis, e.g., temperate phages such as P1 and lambda (λ) phages.
Lytic cycle of a virulent
73

Lysogenic cycle. phage.

Certain bacteriophages such as P1 and lambda () phages, have entirely different pattern of life Life cycle of a T4
cycle than the virulent phages. This pattern is called lysogeny and is characterized by delayed bacteriophage involves the
lysis after phage infection. A virus with this capacity is called temperate following steps:
Virus. The infected host cell is said to be lysogenic because dormant virus may at any time 1. Attachment or
become active and begin directing the synthesis of new virus particles. It is a master-slave adsorption of phage to
relationship. bacterial (host) cell.
1. The process of adsorption and nucleic acid injection are quite similar to a lytic cycle. 2. Injection or penetration
2. The nucleic acid is neither extensively replicated nor extensively transcribed, instead virulent
of viral genetic material
genome gets incorporated into host genome and becomes silent. Such an integrated and dormant (DNA) into the host cell.
viral genome is often termed as provirus or prophage 3. Eclipse period, during
which synthesis of new
The virus generally expresses one or a few genes which code for a repressor protein that turns phage DNA and protein
off (i.e., represses) the expression of the other genes of the virus coats takes place.
4. Assembly of phage DNA
3. Being replicated in such a way that when the lysogenic bacterium divides, each daughter cell into protein coats.
receives at least one phage genome in addition to the bacterial genome. 5. Lysis of host cell and
4. This mechanism enables virus to propagate without killing the host cell , due to which it is release of the infective
alive. progeny phages. Such a
5. At any moment of life, virus can become virulent, The calm lysogenic period is ended by some phage is called virulent or
type of shock (e.g., temperature changes, UV irradiation or conjugation of a lysogenic bacterium lytic phage since it has
with a non-lysogenic bacterium) infectiousness and it causes
to the lysogenic culture. and start humiliating host cell and may enter into lysogenic cycle. death of host cell by lysis.
Viruses capable of exhibiting both mechanism of life are
called TEMPERATE viruses.

VIRAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS

POLIOMYELITIS:
Is a most extensively studied RNA-containing animal virus. The polio virus has comparatively very simple organization. It
74

consists of a protein shell built up of 60 protein subunits form a spherical shell.

HERPES
Virus is another most extensively studied animal virus. It possesses a DNA containing Core embedded in a regular icosahedral
capsid (162 capsomeres) and an outer envelope of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The DNA molecule of herpes virus is a
single, linear, double-stranded
COLDS
Caused by a rhinovirus with plus RNA strand. More than 200 types of cold viruses have been identified
MEASLES
Caused by paramyxovirus. Humans are the natural host .Spread by coughing and sneezing and close contact or via blood.
MUMPS
Caused by Paramyxovirus. Most common childhood disease in past, characterized by painful swelling of salivary glands
DENGUE
Dengue virus transmitted by Aedes mosquito(viruses spread by arthropod vector are called arbovirus)
ENCEPHALITIS
Caused by arbovirus. Inflammation of brain
RABIES
Caused by Rhabdovirus. Most dangerous disease Transmitted to human through animal bite(dog, fox, mice)
VIRAL DISEASES OF PLANTS
Tobacco mosaic virus Range of size: 20-200nm
Tobacco spotted wilt virus Smallest virus: Parvovirus
Potato virus Y Largest virus: Poxvirus
Cucumber mosaic virus
Cauliflower mosaic virus
Plum pox virus
IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER:
AIDS SYMPTOMS TRANSMISSION PREVENTION
Stands for acquired immune Short flu like illness Virus can only survive in body Use of fresh or sterilized
deficiency syndrome Pneumonia like conditions fluids syringes and needles
Caused by HIV virus Kaposi’s sarcoma, disfiguring Through sexual contact Transfusion of screened
The virus attaches itself on the form of skin cancer By blood and semen blood
surface of WBC through its Dementia(loss of memory) Unfertilized syringes and needles Restricted and
glycoprotein envelope. Diarrhea Blood products already infected preventive sexual
It completely destroys Helper Septicemia(blood poisoning) with HIV contact
cells of immune system Close contact between HIV Public awareness
Body is not able to produce positive and other people TREATMENT:
Helper and Killer cells for From mother to baby through Azido thymidine
immunity breast feeding Ribavarrin
Sumarin
HEPATITIS HEPATITIS A HEPATITIS B HEPATITIS B
It is caused by inflamed liver Caused by enveloped HAV Caused by HBV virus HEPATITIS C
cells due to viral infection and virus More common in Asia, Africa Caused by HCV virus
toxic chemicals or drugs Most prevalent form Common in homosexuals Transmission during
SYMPTOMS: worldwide Transmission through skin pregnancy from mother
Jaundice Transmitted through feces contact, blood transfusion and to child
Fatigue and infected person medical procedures By sexual contact
Abdominal pain Can lead to liver cancer Blood transfusion
Weight loss associated Hepatitis
Liver enlargement Most frequent reason of
Weakness liver cancer

Viroid. Prions.
Viroids are small RNA circles, only 300 to 400 nucleotides Prions are described as ‘rod-shaped’ proteinaceous particles
long, lacking AUG codon (the signal for the start of protein thought to cause a number of diseases in animals such as
Synthesis). They are replicated autonomously despite the fact Scrapie disease of central nervous system of goats and sheep
that they do not code for any protein. Having no protein coat or (in which animals scrape or scratch themselves against some
capsid, they exist as naked RNA molecules and pass from plant gate post or similar object). Prions are also found to cause a
to plant only when the surfaces of both donor and recipient Scrapie-like disease, called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease of
cells are damaged so that there is no membrane barrier for the nervous system of humans and Kuru disease of brain of
viroid to pass Some of the plant diseases which are caused by cannibalistic tribes of New Guinea.
the viroid’s are the following
1. Potato spindle tuber (Its viroid contains 359 nucleotides in Prions were named by Prusiner (1984). They can survive heat,
single and circular RNA molecule); ionizing and UV radiations, and chemical treatment that
2. Citrus exocortis (Its viroid contains 371 nucleotides in RNA normally inactivates viruses
75

molecule);
3. Chrysanthemum stunt;
4. Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle
5. Cucumber pale fruit
6. Hope stunt
7. Tomato plant macho

KINGDOM PROKARYOTA
The Prokaryotic Cell
Of all the types of cells revealed by the microscope, bacteria have the simplest structure and come closest to showing us life
stripped down to its essentials. Indeed, a bacterium contains no organelles—not evens a nucleus to hold its DNA. This property—
the presence or absence of a nucleus—is used as the basis for a simple but fundamental classification of all living things.
Organisms whose cells have a nucleus are called eukaryotes (from the Greek words eu, meaning “well” or “truly,” and karyon, a
“kernel” or “nucleus”). Organisms whose cells do not have a nucleus are called prokaryotes (from pro, meaning “before”). The
terms “bacterium” and “prokaryote” are often used interchangeably

Prokaryotes are typically spherical, rod like, or corkscrew-shaped. They are also small—generally just a few micrometers long,
although there are some giant species as much as 100 times longer than this. Prokaryotes often have a tough protective coat, or
cell wall, surrounding the plasma membrane, which encloses a single compartment. The cell interior typically appears as a matrix
of varying texture, without any obvious organized internal structure. The cells reproduce quickly by dividing in two. Under
optimum conditions, when food is plentiful, many prokaryotic cells can duplicate themselves in as little as 20 minutes. In 11
hours, by repeated divisions, a single prokaryote can give rise to more than 8 billion progeny (which exceeds the total number of
humans presently on Earth). Thanks to their large numbers, rapid growth rates, and ability to exchange bits of genetic material by
a process akin to sex, populations of prokaryotic cells can evolve fast, rapidly acquiring the ability to use a new food source or to
resist being killed by a new antibiotic. Prokaryotes Are the Most Diverse and Numerous Cells on Earth.

Most prokaryotes live as single-celled organisms, although some join together to form chains, clusters, or other organized
multicellular structures. In shape and structure, prokaryotes may seem simple and limited, but in terms of chemistry, they are the
most diverse and inventive class of cells. Members of this class exploit an enormous range of habitats, from
hot puddles of volcanic mud to the interiors of other living cells, and they vastly outnumber all eukaryotic organisms on Earth.
Some are aerobic, using oxygen to oxidize food molecules; some are strictly anaerobic and are killed by the slightest exposure to
oxygen

Virtually any organic, carbon-containing material—from wood to petroleum— can be used as food by one sort of bacterium or
another. Even more remarkably, some prokaryotes can live entirely on inorganic substances:
They can get their carbon from CO2 in the atmosphere, their nitrogen from atmospheric N2, and their oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorus from air, water, and inorganic minerals.
Some of these prokaryotic cells, like plant cells, perform photosynthesis, using energy from sunlight to produce organic molecules
from CO2.
Others derive energy from the chemical reactivity of inorganic substances in the environment.

Plants, too, can capture energy from sunlight and carbon from atmospheric CO2. But plants unaided by bacteria cannot capture
N2 from the atmosphere, and in a sense even plants depend on bacteria for photosynthesis.

The World of Prokaryotes Is Divided into Two Domains: Bacteria and Archaea
Traditionally, all prokaryotes have been classified together in one large group. But molecular studies reveal that there is a gulf
within the class of prokaryotes, dividing it into two distinct domains called the bacteria and the archaea.
Remarkably, at a molecular level, the members of these two domains differ from one another. Most of the prokaryotes familiar
from everyday life—the species that live in the soil or make us ill—are bacteria.
Archaea are found not only in these habitats, but also in environments that are too hostile for most other cells: concentrated brine,
76

the hot acid of volcanic springs, the airless depths of marine sediments, the sludge of sewage treatment plants, pools beneath the
frozen surface of Antarctica, and in the acidic, oxygen-free environment of a cow’s stomach where they break down cellulose and
generate methane gas. Many of these extreme environments resemble the harsh conditions that must have existed on the primitive
Earth, where living things first evolved before the atmosphere became
rich in oxygen.
Bacteria
Bacteria were first discovered by Leunhoeck in1673 usinghis single lens microscope.
The bacteria (singular bacterium) are amongst the smallest organisms. They are most primitive, simple, unicellular, prokaryotic
and microscopic organisms.
Bacteria occur almost everywhere: in air, water, soil and inside other organisms. They are found in stagnant ponds and ditches,
running streams and rivers, lakes, sea water, foods, petroleum oils from deeper regions, rubbish and manure heaps, sewage,
decaying organic matter of all types, on the body surface, in body cavities and in the internal tracts of man and animals. Bacteria
thrive well in warmth, but some can survive at very cold tops of high mountains such as Alps or even in almost boiling hot
springs. They occur in vast numbers. A teaspoonful of soil may contain several hundred million
bacteria. They lead either an autotrophic (photoautotrophic or chemo autotrophic), or heterotrophic (saprotrophic or parasitic)
mode of existence.
The saprophytic or saprotrophic species of bacteria are of great economic significance for man. Some parasitic species
of bacteria are pathogenic (disease producing) to plants, animals and man. Bacteria have a high ratio of surface area
of volume because of their small size. They show high metabolic rate because they absorb their nutrients directly through cell
membranes. They multiply at a rapid rate. In consequence, due to their high metabolic rate and fast rate of multiplication, bacteria
produce marked changes in the environment in a short period.

1. Size of bacteria.
Typically bacteria range between 1μm (one micrometer) to 3 μm, so they are barely visible under the light microscope. The smallest
bacterium is Dialister pneumosintes (0.15 to 0.3μm in length). The largest bacterium is Spirillum volutans (13 to 15μm in length).
2. Forms of bacteria.

Bacteria vary in their shapes. Based on their shape, bacteria are classified into the following groups :
(1) Cocci (singular coccus).
These bacteria are spherical or round in shape. These bacterial cells may occur singly ( micrococci); in pairs (diplococci, e.g.,
pneumonia causing bacterium, Diplococcus pneumoniae); in groups of four (tetracocci); in a cubical arrangement of eight or more
(sarcinae); in irregular clumps resembling bunches of grapes (staphylococci, e.g., boil causing bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus
or in a bead-like chain (streptococci, e.g., sore throat causing bacterium, Streptococcus spyogenes .

(2) Bacilli (singular, bacillus).

These are rod-like bacteria. They generally occur singly, but may occasionally be found in pairs ( diplobacilli) or chains
(streptobacilli). Bacilli cause certain most notorious diseases of man such as:

DISEASE BACTERIUM
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
typhoid Salmonella
diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
leprosy M y c o b a c t e r i u m leprae)
dysentery Clostridium botulinum
anthrax Bacillus anthracis
black leg Clostridium chauvei).
77

(3) Spirilla (singular, spirillum).

These are also called spirochetes. These are spiral- shaped and motile bacteria . Spirilla cause human disease such as syphilis
(Treponema pallidum).

(4) Vibrio’s (singular vibrio).

These are comma-shaped or bent-rod like bacteria). Vibrios cause human disease such as cholera (Vibrio cholerae).

3. Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria.

On the basis of structure of cell wall and its stainability with the Gram stain, the following two types of bacteria have been
recognized. The Gram staining method is named after Christian Gram who developed it in Denmark in 1884
When heat-fixed bacteria are treated with the basic dye, crystal violet, they become blue or purple. Such blue stained cells are
treated with a mordant (i.e., agent that fixes stains to tissues) such as iodine (i.e., potassium iodide or KI solution) and ultimately
washed with some organic solvent such as alcohol. Some bacteria retain the blue colour, while others lose it and stay colorless. The
former are Gram positive bacteria ( e.g., etc.) and the latter are Gram negative bacteria . Colorless Gram negative bacteria may
thereafter be stained pink with safranin stain for their better microscopic visibility.
The long search for the chemical basis of this differentiating staining reaction ended in 1950’s when it was detected that cell wall of
Gram negative bacteria has high lipid content which tends to be dissolved away by alcohol. The alcohol then can enter the cell and
leach out the stain, whereas the cell walls of Gram positive bacteria form a barrier (i.e., peptidoglycan layers) that prevent the
penetration of the solvent inside the cell.
CHARACTERISTIC GRAM POSITIVE GRAM NEGATIVE
STAINING Purple Pink
NO. OF LAYERS 1 2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Peptidoglycan(50% of dry weight) Lipopolysaccharides
Teichoic acid Lipoproteins
Lipoteichoic acid Peptidoglycan(10% of dry weight)
Lipid 1-4% Lipids 11-12%
Less permeable
PERMEABILITY More permeable Present in all
PERIPLASMIC SPACE Present Present
OUTER MEMBRANE Absent 8-11 nm
THICKNESS 20-80 nm Escherichia coli, staphylococcus ,streptococcus
EXAMPLES Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, diplobacillus , streptobacillus
spirochaete ,spirillium ,vibrio ,monotrichous
lophotrichous ,amphitrichous ,peritrichous

4. Structure of bacteria.
Structural details of a bacterial cell can only be seen with an electron microscope in very thin sections. A typical bacterial cell has
the following components:
A. Outer covering. The outer covering of bacterial cell comprises the following three layers:
I. Plasma membrane. The bacterial protoplast is bound by a living, ultrathin (6 to 8 nm thick) and dynamic plasma
Membrane. The plasma membrane chemically comprises molecules of lipids and proteins which are arranged in a Fluid mosaic
pattern. It is composed of a bilayer sheet of phospholipid molecules with their polar heads on the surfaces and their fatty-acyl
78

chains (tails) forming the interior. The protein molecules are embedded within this lipid bilayer, some spanning it, some exist on
its inner side and some are located on its external or outer side.
The transmembrane proteins act as carriers or permeases to carry on selective transportation of nutrients (molecules and ions)
from the environment to the cell or vice versa.
Certain proteins of the membrane are involved in oxidative metabolism, i.e., they act as enzymes and carriers for electron flow in
respiration and photosynthesis leading to phosphorylation (i.e., conversion of ADP to ATP). The bacterial plasma membrane also
provides a specific site at which the single circular chromosome (DNA) remains attached. It is the point from where DNA
replication starts. The first stage in nuclear division involves duplication of this attachment, followed by a progressive
bidirectional replication of DNA by two replication forks.

Plasma membrane intrusions. Infoldings of the plasma membrane of all Gram-positive bacteria and some Gram-negative
bacteria give rise to the following two main types of structures:
(I) Mesosomes (Chondrioids).
They are extensions of the plasma membrane within the bacterial cell (i.e., cytoplasm) involving complex whorls of convoluted
membranes.
Mesosomes tend to increase the plasma membrane’s surface and in turn also increase their enzymatic contents.
They are seen in chemoautotrophic bacteria with high rates of aerobic respiration such as Nitrosomonas, and in photosynthetic
bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas where they are the site of Photosynthetic pigments. Mesosomes are involved in cross-wall
(septum) formation during the division of cell.
(2) Chromatophores. These are photosynthetic pigment-bearing membranous structures of photosynthetic bacteria.
Chromatophores vary in form as vesicles, tubes, bundled tubes, stacks, or thylakoids (as in cyanobacteria).

II. Cell wall.

The plasma membrane is covered with a strong and rigid cell wall that renders mechanical protection and provides
the bacteria their characteristic shapes ( the cell wall is absent in Mycoplasma).
The cell wall of bacteria differs chemically from the cell wall of plants in that it contains proteins, lipids and polysaccharides. It
may also contain chitin but rarely any cellulose.
Electron microscopy has revealed the fact that the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria comprises the following two layers 1. Gel,
proteoglycan or peptidoglycan (e.g., murein or muramic acid) containing periplasmic space around the plasma membrane and
2. The outer membrane which consists of a lipid bilayer traversed by channels of porin polypeptide. These channels allow
diffusion of solutes. The lipids of lipid bilayer are phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides (LPS). LPS have antigenic property and
anchor the proteins and polysaccharides of the surrounding capsule. The cell wall of Gram positive bacteria is thicker, amorphous,
and homogeneous and single layered. Chemically it contains many layers of peptidoglycans and proteins, neutral polysaccharides
and polyphosphate polymers such as teichoic acids and teichuronic acids.
III. Capsule.
In some bacteria, the cell wall is surrounded by an additional slime or gel layer called capsule. It is thick, gummy, and
mucilaginous and is secreted by the plasma membrane. The capsule serves mainly as a protective layer against attack by
phagocytes and by viruses. It also helps in regulating the concentration, and uptake of essential ions and water.

B. CYTOPLASM.
B. Cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane encloses a space consisting of hyaloplasm, matrix or cytosol which is the ground substance and the seat
of all metabolic activities. The cytosol consists of water, proteins (including multifunctional enzymes), lipids, carbohydrates,
different types of RNA molecules, and various smaller molecules. The cytosol of bacteria is often differentiated into two distinct
areas: a less electron dense nuclear area and a very dense area (or dark region). In the dense cytoplasm occur thousands of
particles, about 25 nm in diameter, called ribosomes. Ribosomes are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins and they
are the sites of protein synthesis. Ribosomes of bacteria are 70S type and consist of two subunits (i.e., a larger 50S ribosomal
subunit and a small 30S ribosomal subunit). Non-functional ribosomes exist in the form of separated subunits which are
suspended freely in the cytoplasm. During protein synthesis many ribosomes read the codes of single mRNA (messenger RNA)
molecules and form polyribosomes or polysomes.
Reserve materials of bacteria are stored in the cytoplasm either as finely dispersed or distinct granules called inclusion bodies or
storage granules. There are three types of reserve materials. First, there are organic polymers which either serve as reserves of
carbon, as does poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid, or as stores of energy, as does a polymer of glucose, called granulose (i.e.,
glycogen). Second, many bacteria contain large reserves of inorganic phosphate as highly refractile granules of metaphosphate
polymers known as volutin. The third type of reserve material is elemental sulphur, formed by oxidation from hydrogen
sulphide. It occurs as an energy reserve in the form of spherical droplets in certain sulphur bacteria.

C. Nucleoids.
In bacteria the nuclear material includes a single, circular and double stranded DNA molecule which is often called bacterial
chromosome.
The nuclear material is usually concentrated in a specific clear region of the cytoplasm, called nucleoid.
79

A nucleoid has no ribosome and nucleolus.

The bacterial chromosome is permanently attached to the plasma membrane at one point.
Bacterial chromosome does not contain histone proteins.
All three classes of RNA (i.e., mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA) are formed (transcribed) by the activity of the single RNA polymerase
(RNAP) species in prokaryotes.
The messenger RNA formed at the chromosome is directly available for translation without processing,
Proteins for use within the cell are synthesized at cytoplasmic ribosomes; but ribosomes responsible for the synthesis of
membrane proteins or proteins destined for export from the cell to form either the cell wall or secretory products, are attached to
the plasma membrane. The resulting exportable polypeptides are ejected directly into or through the membrane as they are
formed.

Plasmids.
Many species of bacteria may also carry extra chromosomal genetic elements in the form of small, circular and closed DNA
molecules, called plasmids.
One function of some of these plasmids is the production of antibiotically active proteins colicins which inhibit the growth of
other strains of bacteria in their vicinity.
Some plasmids may act as sex or fertility factors (F factor) which stimulate bacterial conjugation.
R factors are also plasmids which carry genes for the resistance to one or more drugs such as chloramphenicol, neomycin,
penicillin, streptomycin, sulphonamides and tetracycline.

D. Flagella and other structures.

Many bacteria (e.g., E. coli) are motile and contain one or more flagella for the cellular locomotion (swimming) and are also
simpler in organization.
A bacterial flagellum consists of a helical tube containing a single type of protein subunit, called flagellin. The flagellum is
attached at its base, by a short flexible hook that is rotated, like a propeller of ship, by the flagellar rotatory “motor”.

Classification on the basis of flagella

According to the number and arrangement of the flagella, bacteria are classified as follows. Flagella-like axial filaments
are the characteristics of some spirochetes which move like snakes through the environment.
The axial filaments do not project away from the cell but are wrapped around the cell surface
80

(1) Monotrichous.
There is a single flagellum at one pole of the cell

(2) Lophotrichous.
There are several flagella at one pole

(3) Amphitrichous
The cell bears at least one flagellum at each pole

(4) Peritrichous. There are flagella all over the surface of

cell

FIMBRIAE OR PILI.
Non-flagellar, extremely fine, appendages called fimbriae (mostly Gram negative bacilli) or pili (singular pilus). Pili are non-
motile but adhesive structures.
They enable the bacteria to stick firmly to other bacteria, to a surface or to some eukaryote such as mold, plant and animal cells
including red blood cells and epithelial cells of alimentary, respiratory and urinary tracts. Pili help in conjugation (e.g., long F-pili
or sex pili of male bacteria); in the attachment of pathogenic bacteria to their host cells (e.g., attachment of gonorrhea- causing
coccus, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, to the epithelial cells of the human urinary tract) and in acting as specific sites of attachment for
the bacteriophages. Pili are known to be coded by the genes of the plasmid.

SPINAE.
Some Gram positive bacteria have tubular, pericellular and rigid appendages of single protein moiety, called spinin. They are
called spinae and are known to help the bacterial cells to tolerate some environmental conditions such as salinity, pH,
temperature, etc.

5. Nutrition in bacteria
Bacteria show wide diversity in their nutrition. Some are chemosynthetic, some are photosynthetic, but most of them are
heterotrophic. Heterotrophic bacteria are mostly either saprophytic or parasitic. Parasitic bacteria live on the body of plants and
animals and with few exceptions, most bacteria are pathogenic.

AUTOTROPHIC HETEROTROPHIC
Obtain energy through photosynthesis or chemo synthesis They directly depend on other organic source of food.
Photosynthetic Bacteria Chemosynthetic Bacteria Saprotrophic Parasitic Symbiotic

Green sulphur bacteria They produce energy in Exhibit extra They live as They develop
contain chlorobium absence of sunlight through cellular endoparasites inside close association
chlorophyll while purple oxidation of inorganic digestion. Feed plant and animal with other
sulphur bacteria contain molecules like NH3, NO2, Fe. upon dead bodies and absorb organism and get
bacterio chlorophyll. They This energy is then utilized to organic matter. already digested food food from host
carry out photosynthesis in make carbohydrates by fixing Secrete many from host body. They without producing
presence of sunlight CO2 and H2O. digesting are pathogenic in any harm to it.
2H2S------------(CH2O)n+ enzymes. nature, cause disease to Rhizobium
H2O+2S their host E. coli
81

MODES OF RESPIRATION
Bacteria exhibit are both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Mode:
They require oxygen for respiration.
Anaerobic Mode:
They do not need oxygen for respiration. They are of two types:
Obligate Anaerobes get killed in presence of oxygen.
Facultative Anaerobes have managed to survive in the presence of oxygen but can also live without oxygen.
Micro Aerophilic Mode:
They require very low concentrations of oxygen.
Facultative Bacteria:
They can live with or without oxygen.
Some of the end products of bacterial anaerobic respiration are useful to man, so, they are used in the manufacture of various
foods such as butter, cheese and vinegar.
Pseudomonas is a gram negative heterotrophic aerobic form which can decompose (biodegrade) a wide variety of organic
compounds such as hydrocarbons. So it is used in reducing water pollution due to petroleum spillage.

7. Reproduction in bacteria.
Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission and endospore formation and sexually by conjugation.
Binary fission Endospore formation
In the binary fission, the cell divides into two genetically
identical daughter cells. During this process, the single Under unfavorable ecological conditions, many bacteria
circular chromosome first makes a copy of itself (i.e., it assume inactive state in form of endospore. . In endospore
duplicates) and daughter chromosomes become attached to formation, a part of the protoplasmic material is used to form
the plasma membrane. They separate as the bacterial cell an impermeable coat or cyst wall around the chromosome
enlarges and ultimately the formation of a cross wall between along with some cytoplasm. The rest of the cell degenerates.
the separating daughter chromosomes, divides the parent cell The spore being metabolically inert can survive an unsuitable
into two daughter cells. temperature, pH and drought. Under favorable conditions,
spores imbibe water, become metabolically active again and
germinate.
CONJUGATION
The exchange of genetic material takes place through a conjugation tube between the two cells of bacteria. Two cells of opposite
mating type i.e., F+ and F– become temporarily attached with each other by sex pilus. The sex pilus has a hole of 2.5 pm diameter
through which DNA can pass from donor to recipient cell. The F-factor or F-plasmid is a double stranded DNA loop, present in
the cytoplasm; apart from the nucleoid. The F-factor contains about 20 genes. The donor’s plasmid passes through the sex pilus of
donor cell to the recipient. Following the conjugation, the progenies of the recipient express some of the characteristics of the
donor. Thus, bacterial conjugation is a means of making new genetic combinations or recombinations which are expressed in the
progeny.
(Lederberg and Tatum 1946, in Escherichia coli. They were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1958 for their work on bacterial genetics.
Later on, it has also been demonstrated in Salmonella, Vibrio and Pseudomonas)
82

USEFUL BACTERIA
Decomposers: They help in biodegradation and global clean up task. They largely feed upon dead organic
matter and convert it to simpler compounds.
Industries: Useful in industry. They can change milk into curd, cheese and butter.
They are also used in leather industry.
Digestion: They help out herbivore animals to digest cellulose which otherwise are indigestible by animals
themselves.
Genetic engineering: They serve as important tools to generate useful products such as hormones via genetic
engineering. Many products like acetic acid, acetone, lactic acid and vitamins are being
produced through bacteria. In addition rotting fibers, fermenting of tea, curing and ripening of
tobacco and disposal of sewage are also bacterial actions
Many valuable antibiotics like streptomycin, erythromycin, thyrothycin and ureomycin are
commercially produced through bacteria..
83

Nitrogen fixation: They convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates and make them available to plants for
utilization. Putrefying and Nitrifying bacteria increase fertility of soil.
Symbionts Intestinal bacteria release Vitamin K and Vitamin B12 in human colon. Many bacteria help to
digest cellulose in stomach of ruminant herbivores.
HARMFUL BACTERIA
Spoilage of food It spoils food and causes shortage of food.
Diseases in man Tuberculosis, Pneumonia, Cholera, Typhoid, Tetanus, Diarrhea
Diseases in plants Bacterial leaf spot, Ring disease of potato, Fire blight of apple and citrus canker

PREVENTION OF BACTERIAL INFECTION

Methods of Prevention measures
transmission
Through using food FOOD Refrigeration stops multiplication but not kills bacteria. High temperature kills
spoiled by bacteria bacteria and its spores so cooking at high temperature, bottling, and canning, drying,
Droplet curing and salting helps in food preservation.
infection(inhaling WATER Drinking water must be boiled and chlorinated.
infected air) SEWAGE Sewage should be kept covered and disposed off properly so that flies and animals
Contact with DISPOSAL cannot spread germs through garbage.
wounded tissue or ANTISEPTIC They can be used to enhance immunity against bacteria, before infection as well as
dressing ANTIBIOTIC after infection. Mild antiseptic such as proflavine can be used on open wounds.
Bacterial invasion can be prevented through sterilized bandage.
STERILIZATION High temperature and ultraviolet rays can be used to sterilize objects.
ISOLATION In case of spread of disease at high level, at a place, quarantine measures can be
adapted to prevent spread of disease from infected people(Dengue at present)
IMMUNIZATION Injection or oral intake of a killed microorganism solution to stimulate immune
AND system against that microorganism is called immunization.
VACCINATION In case of natural infection by that microorganism, body is comfortable and already
prepared to recognize that enemy and combat it.
TREATMENT Patients should complete proper 5to 14 days of antibiotic course to properly combat
infection otherwise recurrence will occur

Mycoplasma E. coli

Examples of Prokaryotic Cells The following three types of prokaryotic cells are well studied ones :

1. MYCOPLASMA OR PPLO
Among living organisms that have the smallest mass, are small bacteria called mycoplasmas which produce infectious diseases in
animals including humans. Mycoplasmas are unicellular, prokaryotic, containing a plasma membrane, DNA, RNA and a
metabolic machinery to grow and multiply in the absence of other cells (i.e., they are capable of autonomous growth). They can be
cultured in vitro like any bacteria, forming pleomorphic (Gr., pleo = many; morphe = forms) colonies, i.e., depending on the type
of culture medium, mycoplasmas tend to form different shaped colonies such as spheroid (fried - egg-shaped), thin, branching
filaments, stellate, asteroid or irregular. They differ from the bacteria in the following respects :
1. Mycoplasmas are filterable through the bacterial filters (this fact was first demonstrated by Iwanowski in 1892).
2. They do not contain cell wall and Mesosomes.
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3. Like the viruses and animal cells, they are resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin which kills bacteria by interfering with cell
wall synthesis.
4. Their growth is inhibited by tetracycline and similar antibiotics that act on metabolic pathways.
5. Mycoplasmas are mostly free-living, saprophytes or parasites.
6. Mycoplasmas range in size (diameter) from 0. 25 to 0.1 μm.
7. The spherical cell is bounded by thick plasma membrane composed of molecules of proteins and lipids.
8. There is no cell wall.
2. ESCHERICHIA COLI.
E. coli is a Gram negative, Monotrichous, symbiotic bacillus of colon of human beings and other vertebrates. It is heterotrophic
and non-pathogenic bacteria producing some vitamins (e.g., vitamin K) for human use. Some strains of E.
coli are known to recognize and bind specifically to The prokaryotic cell of E. coli is about 2μm long and 1μm wide.
A typical fluid mosaic plasma membrane is present.
A rigid and protective cell wall is present.
It comprises following two structures :
1. External membrane is a lipid bilayer traversed by numerous porin channels that allow the diffusion of solutes.
2. Both membranes–the plasma membrane and external membrane of the cell wall – are separated by the periplasmic space. This
space contains a network of peptidoglycans. Some porin subunits remain attached to the peptidoglycan grid (E. coli has both
oxygen-requiring (aerobic) and non-oxygen-requiring (anaerobic) respiratory machinery for the
breakdown of sugar and contains a special group of proteins called the electron transport chain for the generation of stored energy
in the form of ATP molecules. E.coli lacks mitochondria, and respiratory chain enzymes are attached to inner face of the plasma
membrane.
Single supercoiled, double-stranded, circular DNA molecule, which occurs in a clear zone of cytoplasm, called nucleoid, and is
attached to the plasma membrane at one point.
The colloidal cytoplasmic matrix of E. coli contains about 5000 distinguishable components, ranging from water to DNA
(i.e., three types of RNA, enzymes, glycogen, amino acids, monosaccharides and various other small molecules). Surrounding the
DNA is dark dense region of matrix containing 20,000 to 30,000 70S type ribosomes

3. CYANOBACTERIA OR BLUE-GREEN ALGAE.

The Gram-negative cyanobacteria or oxyphotobacteria (i.e., oxygen yielding photosynthetic blue green algae) are one of
the most successful and primitive (3.5 billion year old) groups of organisms on earth.
They even inhabit the steaming hot springs and the undersides of icebergs.
They form a group of about 1500 species
They occur as individual cells, as small clusters or colonies of cells, or as long, filamentous chains. They lack flagella but are able
to perform movement by rotatory motion or gliding over a gelatinous layer secreted through the cell surface.
A typical cell of a blue green alga is composed of outer cellular coverings and cytoplasm. The outer
Cellular coverings include an outermost gelatinous or slimy layer, the capsule, a middle cell wall and an innermost lipoproteins
plasma membrane. The cell wall of blue green algae resembles the cell wall of bacteria and contains an outer bimolecular
membrane of phospholipids, lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides, and a network of peptidoglycans (muramic acid) in the
periplasmic space existing in between cell wall and plasma membrane. The cytoplasm of cyanobacteria appears more organized
than that of other bacteria. The matrix extends throughout the cell. The cytoplasm (or protoplast) is differentiated in two regions :
1. Outer or peripheral pigmented region, the chromo plasm having photosynthetic lamellae or thylakoids.
2. Inner or central colorless region called Centro plasm or DNA plasm having DNA and crystalline granules.
Photosynthetic pigments the chlorophyll, carotenoid and phycobilin are present. Blue phycobilin is called phycocyanin, while red
phycobilin is called phycoerythrin. The photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) occur in flattened sacs called
lamellae which remain arranged in parallel array. In between the lamellae occur certain granules of 400A 0 diameter. These
granules contain phycobilin pigments and are called cyanosomes or phycobilisomes. They are attached to the outer lamellar
membrane surface. Being earliest oxygenic photo synthesizers of earth, they made early earth’s atmosphere aerobic providing the
conditions favorable for the evolution of aerobic bacteria and eukaryotes.
The cytoplasm of blue green algae also contains a variety of membrane-free inclusions such as
(1) cyanophycin granules which are located in chromatoplasm and are protein storage products, containing large amount of
arginine amino acid
(2) Myxophycean starch which is the main food storage compound
(3)Polyglucon granules, polyhedral bodies, lipid droplets, polyphosphate bodies etc.
many cyanobacteria (about 20 species) tend to fix atmospheric nitrogen as ammonia, e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc,
Mastigocladus, etc. Under aerobic condition nitrogen fixation is done principally in special type of cells called heterocysts, as in
Nostoc
Asexual reproduction is through Harmogonia, Zoospores, Akinete and Fragmentation.
Sexual reproduction is totally absent.

NOSTOC
It is filamentous alga.
Filaments are intermixed in gelatinous mass forming ball like Coenobium.
Single filament is in form of an unbranched chain of beads.
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A single cell has double layered wall. Outer wall is made of pectin while inner is composed of cellulose only.
Protoplasm is differentiated into outer coloured chromo plasm and inner colorless Centro plasm.
Chromo plasm appears colored due to presence of many pigments such as chlorophyll, xanthophyll, carotene and phycocyanin.
Centro plasm stores food in form of starch.
Hereditary material is present suspended in cytoplasm without any membrane.
Any cell when matures becomes larger, yellowish, thick walled Heterocyst, they serve for asexual means of reproduction and
nitrogen fixation.
REPRODUCTION
Propagates only through asexual reproduction.

Hormogonia are formed by spontaneous break up of chain

into many pieces, each piece serves as hormogonium and
develops into new filament

Akinete formation occurs during unfavorable conditions,

each filament gets surrounded by a thick wall. When
suitable conditions are available, Akinete ruptures and
germinates into new filament.

Heterocyst separates from filament and germinates into a

new chain.

IMPORTANCE OF CYANOBACTERIA
Release oxygen as a byproduct during photosynthesis.
Capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
Used by aquatic animals as food.
Nostoc and Anabaena are used as fertilizers.

Leeuwenhoek Louis Pasteur Robert Koch

Discovered bacteria and protozoa by Developed vaccines for Rabies, Discovered causative bacterium for anthrax from
simple microscope Anthrax, Cholera blood sample of sheep
Introduced pasteurization Discovered causative bacterium for tuberculosis
Fermentation Developed techniques of inoculation
Provided experimental evidence for Developed isolation, media preparation,
pathogenic nature of maintenance of culture and specimen preparation
microorganisms techniques
E. coli is one of the best studied bacteria. It has served well in the field of molecular biology, since this bacterium is particularly
easy to grow in an artificial medium where it divides every 20 minutes at 37 0C under optimal conditions. Thus, a single cell
becomes 109 bacteria in about 20 hours.
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KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
Protists are eukaryotic, with a well organized true nucleus, organelles and cell membrane
Mostly unicellular, sometimes multicellular, colonial or filamentous
Autotrophic or heterotrophic

They are the organisms which no more belong to the plant, animal, or fungi club, but they still share many characteristics with
other eukaryotic life forms. They cannot be placed into any of the other kingdoms physically or genetically

The kingdom is classified into three groups on the basis of mode of nutrition
Plant-Like Protists
Fungi like protist
Animal like protist

PLANT-LIKE PROTISTS
May be unicellular or multicellular. Include all forms of algae
Found floating in water such as Euglena and Chlamydomonas
Contain chloroplast, appear green in color and are photosynthetic in nature.
Multicellular forms are Commonly known as algae. They have chloroplasts that contain the pigment chlorophyll that collects and
converts light into energy. Algal protists can be green, red, brown, or gold; their colors come from pigments that mask the green
color of chlorophyll. Algal protists are collections of cells encased in a layer of slime called an extra-cellular matrix (ECM).
Colonial algae are groups of algae embedded in an ECM that can form a variety of shapes, including structures that resemble
leaves, roots, and stems. 'Volvox' is an example of microscopic colonial algae that resemble a ball. Filamentous algae form long
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chains of cells interconnected by their cell walls and an ECM--they resemble long strands of spaghetti stuffed with green cells.

UNICELLULAR ALGAE
CHLAMYDOMONAS
Definite cell wall
Cup shaped single chloroplast containing pyrenoid
One prominent light sensitive eye spot present
Two flagella arise from tip of pointed end
Reproduce asexually as well as sexually

Another common uni cellular alga is chlorella essentially like Chlamydomonas but are more widespread than Chlamydomonas
CHLORELLA
Fresh water unicellular green autotrophic alga. It is STRUCTURE: REPRODUCTION
found floating on surface of stagnant ponds and Spherical, measuring 2-10 Asexual reproduction takes place
pools. micrometer. through formation of aplanospore
It can easily be cultured in laboratory for Uninucleate Each cell divides into 6-8 daughter
experimental purpose. Contains pyrenoid to store starch protoplasts which further develop
Appears green due to presence of into thick walled non motile
chlorophyll a and b aplanospore
Exhibits rapid multiplication in Each aplanospore getting released
An important antibacterial medicine favorable conditions from parent cell becomes a new
CHLORELLIN has recently vegetative cell and develops into new
been developed in laboratories individual

COLONIAL ALGAE
A hollow sphere of single layer of Uninucleate, green, Widely distributed in streams, ponds and ditches
biflagellate cells Filamentous colony of long green cells
Arrange in a lose association through gelatinous mucilage to Each cell shows one prominent nucleus and many pyrenoids in
form colony called coenobium spirally arranged helix of green chloroplast
Each cell capable of germinating into new daughter colony Sexual reproduction conducted through conjugation
Sexual reproduction carried out through formation of large
non motile egg and small motile flagellated sperms
VOLVOX SPIROGYRA
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MULTICELLULAR ALGAE

ULVA
Marine green alga, commonly found attached rocks on beach. In Karachi, a wide area at Manora beach is covered by thick
population of Ulva.
STRUCTURE
Flat, erect ,thin sheet of multicellular, alga
Plant body forms two layered thallus measuring around 30 cm
Lower part of thallus gets modified into long root like hairs to form Holdfast for attachment to rocks

REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL SEXUAL
Each diploid cell of thallus except holdfast undergoes Meiosis Thallus serves as diploid sporophyte. Each cell of thallus
and gives rise to haploid sporophytic quadriflagellate zoospores releases isogamous(similar ), haploid, biflagellate gametes into
resembling gametophytic zoospores apparently sea water
After some time of swimming and rest, zoospores lose their Gametes from opposite strains of gametophyte fuse together
flagella and germinate into haploid gametophyte into quadriflagellate zygote
Zygote swims, stores food, develops a thick wall around itself
and takes a rest period
Each zygote develops into new diploid thallus

ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
Sporophyte and gametophyte thallus are similar in appearance. Diploid sporophyte forms haploid gametes, fusing together into
diploid zygote forming diploid sporophyte. Diploid sporophyte alternates with haploid gametophyte

EUGLENA
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Unicellular, autotrophic, photosynthetic, green alga found in soil,

water and ponds
STRUCTURE
Oblong in shape
Uninucleate
Possess well defined chloroplast like higher plants and exhibit
photosynthesis
Cell wall is absent
Animal like characters include presence of cytopharynx or
gullet at the base of flagellum
Eyespot with animal pigment astaxanthin
Hard Pellicle surrounds the body
Propagation through sexual reproduction
BROWN ALGAE: PHAEOPHYTA
Commonly known as kelps
Mostly marine found in cold waters along continental coasts.
Species colour varies from dark brown to olive green, depending
upon the proportion of brown pigment (fucoxanthin) to green
pigment (chlorophyll). Brown algae vary in form and size from
small filamentous epiphytes (Ectocarpus) to complex
giant kelps that range in size from 1 to more than 100 meters
Brown algae multiply by asexual and sexual reproduction; both
the motile zoospores and gametes have two unequal flagella.
Some seaweed species have gas-filled bladders (pneumatocysts),
which keep photosynthetic parts of the algal thallus floating on
or near the surface of the water.
Being a major source of iodine and potassium, brown algae are still an important source of algin, a colloidal gel used as a
stabilizer in the baking and ice-cream industries. Certain species are also used as fertilizer, and several are eaten as a vegetable
(e.g., Laminaria) in East Asia and elsewhere.

RED ALGAE: RHODOPHYTA

Predominantly marine algae, often found attached to other shore plants.
Their morphological range includes filamentous, branched, feathered, and
sheet like thalli. They are red due to the presence of phycoerythrin; this
pigment reflects red light and absorbs blue light. Because blue light
penetrates water to a greater depth than light of longer wavelengths, these
pigments allow red algae to photosynthesize and live in depths than most
other "algae".

red algae has been shown to increase blood circulation, regulate blood Some rhodophytes are also important in the formation
sugar levels, and lower LDL or bad cholesterol, as well as improve your of tropical reefs; red algae have contributed far more
immune system overall to reef structure than other organisms, even more
The high vitamin and protein content and simple of cultivation methods than corals. These reef-building rhodophytes are
make it( in Japan more than 300 years) important source of food in Asia called coralline algae, because they secrete a hard
shell of carbonate around themselves, in much the
same way that corals do.

DINOFLAGELLATES
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Known as armored protists, they are unicellular aquatic

organisms bearing two unequal flagella and having
characteristics of both plants and animals. Body may be covered
by cellulose plates or pellicle
Most are marine, though some live in freshwater habitats.
Have unique nuclei and significantly larger genomes than other
eukaryotic algae.
Ranging from 5 to 2,000 micrometers (0.0002 to 0.08 inch).
Most are microscopic, but some form visible colonies. Nutrition
is autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixed; some species are
parasitic to jellyfish, corals, sea anemones and mollusks. They
are also found to be commensal or even predatory.
Reproduction is largely by binary or multiple fission. Under
favorable conditions, dinoflagellates population may reach 60
million individuals per litre

The group is an important component of phytoplankton in all but the colder seas and is an important link in the food chain.
Dinoflagellates also produce some of the bioluminescence sometimes seen in form of twinkling or flashing in the sea. Under
certain conditions, several species can reproduce rapidly to form water blooms or red tides that discolor the water and may
poison fish and other animals.
Some dinoflagellates produce toxins that are among the most poisonous known and block vertebrate diaphragm. The toxins are
abundant may kill fishes, birds and mammals in massive amount.

DIATOMS
found in sediments or attached to solid substances in all the /
waters of Earth
Either unicellular or colonial, they live in glass boxes.
The silicified cell wall forms a pillbox-like shell (frustule)
composed of overlapping halves (epitheca and hypotheca)
perforated by intricate and delicate patterns. Food is stored
as oil droplets, and the golden-brown pigment fucoxanthin
masks the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments that are also
present. Diatoms are commonly divided into two orders on
the basis of symmetry and shape: the round nonmotile
Centrales have radial markings; the elongated Pennales,
which move with a gliding motion, have pinnate (featherlike)
markings.
During reproduction, usually by cell division, the overlapping
shell halves separate, and each secretes a (usually) smaller
bottom half.
Diatoms are among the most important and prolific microscopic sea organisms and serve directly or indirectly as food for many
animals. Diatomaceous earth, a substance composed of fossil diatoms, is used in filters, insulation, abrasives, paints, and varnishes
and as a base in dynamite.

Fungus like protists They are heterotrophs and obtain food outside themselves.
They have cell walls and reproduce by forming spores, just like fungi.
Two major types of fungus- like protists are slime molds and water molds.
WATERMOLDS: OOMYCOTA Differentiation
Commonly known as mildews Myxomycota
Mostly found in water or moist soil Reproduction method is similar to fungi
through spore production
May live upon plant or animal body Amoeboid plasmodium formed during asexual
propagation
Many parasitic forms become pathogenic Known as
Oomycota
STRUCTURE Thick walled Oospores are formed which are
highly resistant to unfavorable conditions
Endophytic, Uninucleate, a septate, branched, multinucleate, filamentous hyphae

Cell wall cellulose in nature

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Many root like haustoria arise from hyphae and penetrate into host tissue for
absorption of digested food material

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Tip of the hypha swells up and forms sporangiophore

Sporangiophore separates from rest of sporangiophore Each sporangium shows

rapid nuclear divisions and forms many spores

Mature sporangium bursts into many zoospores

Each zoospore germinates into new mold

Difference between water molds and fungi

WATER MOLDS FUNGI
Cell wall Cellulose Chitin
Nuclei Diploid Haploid
Spores Biflagellate Monoflagellate
Lysine Different pathway Different pathway
synthesis

slime molds: MYXOMYCOTA

Slime molds appear creamy, slimy with bright colors, such as a vibrant yellow, brown or white. Measuring from one
centimeter to several meters
They can live upon wood logs, forest floor, dead animal bodies, moist soil , decaying dung including almost everything
Cell wall is absent but Reproduce through spores like plants
Heterotrophic without chlorophyll and formation of protoplasmic amoeboid plasmodium like animals. Plasmodium is
multinucleate, cytoplasmic structure exhibiting many vacuoles
REPRODUCTION
Dry, warm conditions lead to transformation of plasmodium into cluster of fruiting bodies. Fruiting bodies acquire specific shape
and color from species to species, golf balls, feather shaped or wormiform
Each fruiting body modifies into uni nucleate, thick walled spore
Each spores during favorable condition gives rise to one or two flagellate cells

ASXUAL REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION

Flagellate cells lose flagella, form amoeboid mass and develops Sometime flagellate cells serve as haploid gametes, undergo
into new plasmodium fusion and form multinucleate plasmodium
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ANIMAL LIKE PROTISTS

Animal like protist CLASSIFICATION

Eukaryotic, unicellular, heterotrophic, Uninucleate or multinucleate On the basis of locomotion categorised as:
Solitary or colonial Class Sarcodina
Soil dwelling, aquatic, found in fresh as well as marine water Class Flagellata
Nutrition is holozoic or saprozoic Class Ciliata
Reproduction both sexual as well as asexual Class Suctoria
ClassSporozoa

Class Sarcodina / Rhizopoda

No definite shape
No pellicle, cell membrane forms outer boundary
Movement through protoplasmic extensions called
pseudopodia
Pseudopodia may be thin or thick, pointed or blunt, soft or
hard
Solitary living
Food ingestion through pseudopodia
Nutrition holozoic
Fresh water or marine
Foraminiferans are covered by single or multichambered
shell, provided with minute pores
Few are parasitic
Ex: Amoeba, Entamoeba, Radiolaria, Globegerina

AMOEBOID NUTRITION:
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Class Flagellata / Mastigophora

Trypanosoma gambiensiea: Causes sleeping sickness
Definite body shape, covered by hard pellicle through tse-tse fly.
Few long hair like flagella present Giardia lamblia: Intestinal pathogen, gas, stomach pain
Locomotion through flagella Trichomonas vaginalis: Vaginal infection can lead to
Live free life or may become parasitic sterility and tubal pregnancy
EX: Leishmania, Trypanosoma , Trichomonas Trichonympha: Inhabits gut of termite and help digest
cellulose
Euglena is considered a connecting link between plants and animals
Class Ciliata / Ciliophora
Definite body shape covered by hard pellicle
Many small hair like cilia cover the whole body
Food enters body through depression called gullet
Two nuclei (Macronucleus and micronucleus) are present
Mostly free living, few are parasitic
EX: Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella, Balantidium

Balantidium coli: Causes mild to severe diarrhea

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Class Suctoria
Striking similarities to ciliates
Young individuals ciliated, adults are sessile and attached through stalk to the substrate
Protoplasmic thin tentacles extend out of body to help in either capturing or holding prey
Tentacles produce toxic chemical to paralyze the prey
Two nuclei(macronucleus and micronucleus) are present
Asexual reproductionthrough budding
EX: Acenata, Dendrosoma

Acineta

Class Sporozoa / Apicomplexa

Unicellular, Heterotrophic
Locomotary organ absentThey have no cilia, no flagella, no
pseudopods
Contractile vacuoles absent
All forms are obligate parasite
They usually pass from host to host in protective capsules
called spores which enclose zygotes or juvenile states;
however, those species that are transmitted by blood-sucking
vectors, like mosquitoes, lack true spores
Nutrition is saprozoic
Asexual reproduction throughmultiple fission or sporulation
Sexual reproduction isogamous or anisogamous
Some forms have flagellated gametes
Complicated life histories involving many hosts
Alternation of generation (asexual with sexual reproduction)

Asxual reproduction through Schizogony

Sexual reproduction through Sporogony
All life stages are haploid except zygote
The Sporozoa is a very large and diverse class with at least four subclasses and many thousands of species. They cause disease in
a wide variety of animals from earthworms and rats to silkworms (the disease called pebrine) and fish
EX: Plasmodium, Monocystis,
ECONOMIC GLOBAL IMPACT OF SPOROZOANS
95

Malaria is easily the most important sporozoan disease, Coccidiosis, which afflicts poultry and cattle is the second most
especially for humans.. Some sporozoans, like the malarial prevalent disease. Coccidian, live in the epithelial cells lining
organism, live primarily in the blood cells; others, like the intestine. Other sporozoan live in muscles, kidneys, and
other organs.
Character Class Sarcodina Class Flagellata Class Ciliata Class Suctoria Class Sporozoa

Shape Not definite Definite Definite Definite Definite

Locomotion Pseudopodia Flagella Cilia Sessile Nonmotile
Pellicle Absent Present Present Absent Present
Nutrition Holozoic Holozoic Holozoic Holozoic Saprozoic

LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM

There are several species of Plasmodium, all causing malaria in birds or mammals. They have complicated life cycles involving
two hosts; with sexual stages in a mosquito and asexual stages in mammalian or avian blood.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Man is the primary host for plasmodium where asexual Female Anopheles mosquito serves as the secondary host
reproduction takes place through Schizogony. It involves four where Sexual reproduction of plasmodium takes place through
stages: Sporogony. It involves three stages:
PRE ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE
1. During a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Anopheles GAMETOGONY
mosquito inoculates sporozoites into the human host 7. The gametocytes, male (microgametocytes) and female
2. Sporozoites circulate in blood and infect liver cells. After (macrogametocytes), are ingested by Anopheles mosquito
growing for few days each sporozoite matures into schizonts. during a blood meal. The parasites’ multiplication in the
Each schizont divides to form uninucleate merozoites which are mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle.
released when liver cells undergo rupture.
In P. vivax and P. ovale a dormant stage [hypnozoites] can 8. In the mosquito's stomach, each microgamete matures to
persist in the liver and cause relapses by invading the form smaller 6-8 sperms through exflagellation. Female
bloodstream weeks, or even years later. gametocyte feeds voraciously and modifies into large immotile
ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE macrogamete.
3. The merozoites released in bloodstream invade Red blood
cells and undergo asexual multiplication in the erythrocytes SYNGAMY
(Erythrocytic Schizogony). 10.Gametes of opposite sexes undergo fusion in the stomach
4. Each merozoites becomes round and forms trophozoites. 11. The zygotes in turn become motile and elongated wormlike
When trophozoites mature, their nucleus is pushed towards (ookinetes).
their peripheral cytoplasm and trophozoites assumes ring like 12. They invade the midgut wall of the mosquito where they
structure develop protective cyst around them and form oocysts.
5. The ring stage trophozoites feed upon RBCs and breakdown
their hemoglobin.Trophozoite becomes amoeboid and after SPOROGONY
active feeding modifies into schizont. 10. For 6-7 days the oocysts grow into multinucleate
Each schizont undergoes Schizogony and forms protoplasmic mass which undergoes cytokinesis to form
endoerythrocytic merozoites. These merozoites are released numerous oval sporozoites.
96

into bloodstream with rupture of these RBCs. These merozoites 11. Sporozoites make their way to the mosquito's salivary
are ready to invade and start new erythrocytic Schizogony of glands.
new erythrocytes. Erythrocytic Schizogony is responsible for 11. Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new human host
recurrent attacks of fever and weakness. Blood stage parasites perpetuates the malaria life cycle.
are responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease.
POST ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE
6. After several successful asexual multiplications some
merozoites only undergo enlargement to form gametocytes.
Male gametocyte (Microgamete)
Female gametocyte (Macrogametocyte)
These gametes remain inactive in the blood, unless are fed
upon by Female Anopheles mosquito
The infected mosquito carries the disease from one human to another (acting as a “vector”), while infected humans transmit the
parasite to the mosquito, In contrast to the human host, the mosquito vector does not suffer from the presence of the parasites.
TYPES OF MALARIA SYMPTOMS
Plasmodium: Recurrent attacks of
Malaria is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium. P. falciparum High fever
Human malaria is caused by four different species P. malariae Headache
P. ovale and Sweat
TRANSMITTING AGENT Female Anopheles mosquito P. vivax. Chills
TRANSMITTING ORGAN Salivary gland Tiredness
TRANSMITTING STAGE Sporozoite Loss of appetite
Nausea
Vomiting
Constipation
Insomnia
SPREAD OF MALARIA TO REMEMBER:
depends mainly on climatic factors such as temperature, In 2016, an estimated 445,000 people died of malaria
humidity, and rainfall. Malaria is transmitted in tropical and At temperatures below 20°C (68°F), Plasmodium falciparum
subtropical areas (which causes severe malaria) cannot complete its growth cycle
Malaria occurs mostly in poor tropical and subtropical areas of in the Anopheles mosquito, and thus cannot be transmitted.
the world. In many of the countries affected by malaria, it is a In general, malaria is a curable disease if diagnosed and treated
leading cause of illness and death. In areas with high promptly and correctly.
transmission, the most vulnerable groups are young children,
who have not developed immunity to malaria yet, and pregnant
women, whose immunity has been decreased by pregnancy.
The costs of malaria – to individuals, families, communities,
nations – are enormous.
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PREVENTION MEASURES

Prevention Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs)

Many malaria vectors are considered “endophilic”; that is, the Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnant women
mosquito vectors rest inside houses after taking a blood meal. (IPTp)
These mosquitoes are particularly susceptible to control
through coating the walls and other surfaces of a house with a Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in infancy (IPTi)
residual insecticide. For several months, the insecticide will kill
mosquitoes and other insects that come in contact with these
surfaces.

Larval control and other vector control interventions Mass drug administration
Larval control may be implemented through environmental A number of strategies use antimalarial drugs to reduce
modification – draining and filling – or through use of transmission by clearing the affected population of malaria
larvacides. Though biological control using fish is often used, parasites. The best known of these is mass drug administration
evidence for its effectiveness is limited. (MDA). Mass drug administration (MDA) is the
administration of antimalarial treatment to every member of a
defined population or every person living in a defined
geographical area
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KINGDOM FUNGI

GENERAL CHARACTERS
Fungi are among the most widely distributed organisms on Earth and are of great environmental and medical importance. Many
fungi are free-living in soil or water; others form parasitic or symbiotic relationships with plants or animals. They are found in
just about any habitat but most live on the land, mainly in soil or on plant material rather than in sea or fresh water.
Fungi can be single celled or very complex multicellular organisms.
They are heterotrophic since they lack chlorophyll unlike plants.
The study of fungi is known as Mycology
SEPARATION FROM PLANTS SEPARATION FROM ANIMALS
Historically, fungi were included in the plant kingdom; however, Fungi are clearly distinguished from all other living
because organisms, including animals, based upon
they lack chlorophyll, have Principal modes of vegetative growth
cell wall made of chitin and Nutrition
Possess cell membrane
They have been separated from plants.

STRUCTURE
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms, with membrane-bound organelles and clearly defined nuclei.
Their cell walls contain chitin, which is a hard substance also found in the exoskeletons of insects and arthropods such as
crustaceans. They do not contain cellulose, which commonly makes up plant cell walls.
Fungi are made up of very fine threads (hyphae), which branch enormously to form a ball of threads known as Mycelium.
Hyphae may be of two types, septate and Aseptate.
Septate hyphae have cross walls along the length of hypha forming uni nucleate or multinucleate protoplasmic chambers.
Cytoplasm from one chamber can flow into other through minute pores in septum.
Aseptate hyphae have no cross walls and appear like fluid filled multinucleate tubes.
All nuclei are haploid except diploid zygote stage.
REASONS FOR SUPREME INVASION:
Hyphae grow at the tip and divide repeatedly along their length creating long and branching chains. The hyphae keep growing
and intertwining until they form a network of threads called a mycelium. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the hyphal tip.
These enzymes break down the organic matter found in the soil into smaller molecules which are used by the fungus as food.
Some of the hyphal branches grow into the air and spores form on these aerial branches. Spores are specialized structures with a
protective coat that shields them from harsh environmental conditions such as drying out and high temperature. Spores are similar
to seeds as they enable the fungus to reproduce. Wind, rain or insects spread spores. They eventually land in new habitats and if
conditions are right, they start to grow and produce new hyphae. As fungi can’t move they use spores to find a new environment
where there are fewer competing organisms

TYPES OF NUTRITION IN FUNGI

Fungi are heterotrophs, since they lack colorful pigments they cannot make their own food and must obtain nutrients from organic
material. To do so, they use their hyphae, which elongate and branch off rapidly, allowing the mycelium of the fungus to quickly
increase in size. Some fungi hyphae even form root-like threads called rhizomorphs, which help tether the fungus to the substrate
that it grows on while allowing it to quickly obtain more nutrients from other sources. Fungi are opportunists, which mean that
they can obtain nutrients from a wide variety of sources and thrive in a wide range of environmental conditions.
SAPROBIC / SAPROTROPHIC
Some fungi obtain nutrients from dead organic matter; these fungi are called saprobes and are decomposers, which break down
dead organic matter and contribute towards natural recycling of C, H, O, N, S, and P.
These fungi occupy large surface area through enormous branching
Invade through penetrating rhizoids
Secrete digesting enzymes to facilitate absorption

PARASITIC
Other fungi parasitize plants and develop root like haustoria to establish close connection with host fluids to feed upon. They are
of two types:

OBLIGATE PARASITES
They are totally dependent on host for life activities. In absence of host, death occurs.
FACULTATIVE PARASITES
They depend upon host for food absorption but if not available can survive without host
However, fungi can also have symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationships with photosynthetic algae or bacteria, and with plant
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roots. A symbiotic association of a fungus and photosynthetic alga is called a lichen, while a plant root-and-fungus association is
called a mycorrhiza
PREDATORY
They paralyze and kill their host through toxic chemicals to fulfill their need of food
EX: Oyster mushroom kills nematode to cover its nitrogen deficiency and prey upon wood to obtain glucose
SYMBIOTIC
They develop close association with plants or animals
Both partners get benefitted
No one is harmed

LICHENS MYCORRHIZA
An association between fungi and algae, found at barren rocks (Myco= fungus, Rhiza= roots) is the association between roots
where algae or fungi, none can grow alone. Through this of vascular plants and fungi living along with them
association Fungi increases surface area for plant-soil contact, which
Algae gets protection from harsh weather and sunlight results into greater mineral absorption from soil
Fungus gets food Fungus in turn gets food from plant
LICHENS serve as bio indicators for checking level of air On the basis of association, fungi can be
pollution ENDOMYCORRHIZAE
Hyphae penetrate root cells and develop direct contact with
cytoplasm
ECTOMYCORRHIZAE
Hyphae form network around roots but do not penetrate cell
walls
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Type Structure Asexual Sexual Diseases Examples

reproduction reproduction
Zygomycota Non septate Non motile Zygospores Rhizopus
Multinucleate spores in Albugo
sporangia
Ascomycota Septate, Long Conidia Ascospores in Athlete’s foot, Yeast
Dikaryotic stage sac like asci ringworm Morels
ergotism Truffles
Basidiomycota Septate, Long Uncommon Basidiospores Rusts Agaricus
Dikaryotic stage on basidia Smuts Puccinia
Deuteromycota Variable Spores / Conidia Absent Aspergillus
Penicillium
Types of fungi
Fungi are subdivided on the basis of their life cycles, the presence or structure of their fruiting body and the
arrangement of and type of spores (reproductive or distributional cells) they produce.

ZYGOMYCOTA
STRUCTURE
Zygomycetes are mainly terrestrial and feed on plant detritus or decaying animal material. They live close to plants, usually in soil
and on decaying plant matter. Because they decompose soil, plant matter, and dung, they have a major role in the carbon cycle.
They also cause problems by growing on human food sources. The hyphae of zygomycetes are not separated by septa, making
their mycelia essentially one large cell with many nuclei.
Example: Rhizopus stolonifer, a(bread mold)

NUTRITION
Zygomycota are heterotrophic and typically grow inside their food, dissolving the substrate with extracellular enzymes, and taking
up nutrients by absorption rather than by phagocytosis. The most common members of the Zygomycota are the fast growing
members. They function as decomposers in soil and dung, thereby playing a significant role in the carbon cycle.
REPRODUCTION
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Zygomycetes are able to reproduce both sexually and asexually.

LIFE CYCLE OF ZYGOMYCETES
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Sexual reproduction is haploid-dominant
In fact, sexual reproduction is a distinguishing characteristic of zygomycetes.
Sexual reproduction occurs through fusion of undifferentiated isogametangia or anisogametangia.
Mating strains (progametangia) grow toward each other and induce the hormone trisporic acid to initiate formation of lateral
gametangia.
Gametangia undergo fusion, Plasmogamy is followed by karyogamy
This fusion produces a zygote, which develops into a zygospore.
Sexual reproduction ends with the formation of the zygospore.
Under favorable conditions, zygospore germinates into new sporangium. Because of the Zygomycota life cycle, only the diploid
phase takes place in the zygospore. Zygospores must undergo a dormant period before beginning the reproductive cycle again.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION,
Zygomycota typically undergo prolific asexual reproduction through the formation of sporangia and sporangiospores.
Sporangiospores are distinguished from other types of asexual spores, such as conidia of the Ascomycota and Basidiomycetes, by
their development. Walled sporangiospores are formed by the internal cleavage of the sporangial cytoplasm. At maturity, the
sporangial wall typically disintegrates or dehisces , thereby freeing the spores that are usually dispersed by wind or water.
Typically, three sporangia are produced, but there are variations within asexual reproduction. Nuclei move to the ends of the
progametangia to form septa. Plasmogamy and karyogamy follow the fusion of the progametangia. Sporangia are formed at the
ends of specialized hyphae called sporangiophore. The entire black sporangium is explosively shot off of the top of the
sporangiophore up to distances of several meters. Phototrophic growth of the sporangiophore facilitates dispersal away from the
dung onto a fresh blade of grass where it may be consumed by an herbivore, thereby completing the asexual cycle after the spores
pass through the digestive system

SPORANGIOPHORES ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

LIFE CYCLE OF ZYGOMYCETES

Economic importance
Zygomycetes are arguably the most ecologically diverse group Some species have a negative economic impact on
of fungi, human affairs by
functioning as saprophytes on substrates such as fruit, soil, and causing storage rots of fruits (particularly
dung , strawberries by Rhizopus stolonifer,
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as harmless inhabitants of arthropod guts, as agents of plant disease (flower rot of curcurbits),
as plant mutualists forming ectomycorrhizae , and While other species can cause life-threatening
as pathogens of animals, plants, amoebae, and especially other opportunistic infections of diabetic
fungi In addition to some several species of microsporidia
A number of species are used in Asian food fermentations, cause serious human infections.
Indonesian staple tempeh, and Chinese cheese or sufu Some zygomycetes regularly cause infections to
domesticated animals

ASCOMYCOTA / The Sac Fungi

The majority of known fungi belong to the Phylum Ascomycota,
Characterized by the formation of an ascus (plural, asci), a sac-like structure that contains haploid Ascospores.
STRUCTURE:
Mycelium is well developed and branched with septate uninucleate or multinucleate hyphae.
Filamentous Ascomycetes produce hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the
other.
Hyphae may appear homokaryotic or heterokaryotic.
These organisms obtain their nutrition from different sources ranging from dead and decaying matter to nutrition from
compounds synthesized by other organisms such as cyanobacteria as is evident in their lichen symbiotic relationship. They are
important decomposers, breaking down organic materials, such as dead leaves and animals, and helping the detritivores (animals
that feed on decomposing material) to obtain their nutrients.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Hyphae serve as conidiophores and develop conidia at the terminal end, usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by blocked
(non-perforated) septa.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains .
The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops into ascogonium.
Female ascogonium forms beak like projection, Trichogyne at the tip to facilitate fertilization.t
The antheridium and the ascogonium combine in Plasmogamy without nuclear fusion.
Special heterokaryotic ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the
“female” strain.
In each ascus, two or more haploid Ascospores fuse their nuclei in karyogamy.
Thousands of asci along with sterile hyphae become tightly interwoven to fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp.
Karyogamy occurs and the diploid nucleus gives rise to four haploid nuclei by meiosis which in turn undergo mitosis to form
eight nuclei.
Inside ascus, each Ascospore develops thick wall around itself .Ascus becomes highly turgid and undergo bursting to release
Ascospores with force.
Each Ascospore germinates and forms hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia
TYPES OF ASCOCARP
Ascocarp may be
Closed(Cleistothecium)
Pointed with an opening at terminal end (Perithecium)
Cup shaped (Apothecium)
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Many Ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and
wine fermentation, plus truffles and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies. Aspergillus oryzae is used in the fermentation
of rice to produce sake. Other Ascomycetes parasitize plants and animals, including humans. For example, fungal pneumonia
poses a significant threat to AIDS patients who have a compromised immune system. Ascomycetes not only infest and destroy
crops directly; they also produce poisonous secondary metabolites that make crops unfit for consumption. Members of the
Penicillium and Aspergillus genii, for example, are used to produce cheese and citric acid. Ascomycetes can also be directly
edible the most famous edible Ascomycetes is the truffle. There are several species of truffle typically used as a flavoring in
cooking. A very famous antibiotic known as penicillin is produced from members of this genus. Flavacin, another antibiotic, is
also produced from Ascomycetes.

Another life-saving drug is ergot, which is produced by Claviceps purpurea. Ergot can reduce bleeding by making vessels narrow.
It's used to stop bleeding during menopause, menstrual cycles, miscarriages, and in childbirth to expel the placenta by contracting
the muscles of the uterus
ergot can also cause significant problems in wheat and grass crops. It causes the grass to produce fungal spores instead of grains,
which makes the crop inedible.

YEAST
Make up around 1% of total fungi
Mostly found where sugars are abundant, on surface of flower or ripe fruits
STRUCTURE
Eukaryotic, unicellular, spherical
Thin cell wall encloses cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole numerous glycogen granules and food reserves.
REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION through Syngamy
through Budding Two haploid cells undergo fusion and form Ascus. Karyogamy is
Fission followed by meiosis forming four haploid Ascospores
Ascospores are released by breakdown of old cell wall
Each Ascospore germinates into new individual

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Promote alcoholic fermentation
(conversion of sugars into CO2 and alcohol) by producing enzyme ZYMASE
C6H12O6------ 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + Energy
Yeasts such as Saccharomyces, play an important role in the production of bread and in brewing.
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Yeasts are also one of the most widely used model organisms for genetic studies, for example in cancer research.
Used in preparation of alcoholic drinks, brewing , baking industry and preparation of organic acids
Serves as a most favorable research tool for scientific investigation such as cancer research
Used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells and produce ethanol as the biofuel
Serves as important source of vitamin B
Candida albicans grows naturally inside the human body, but sometimes it can grow excessively and cause a yeast infection.
Yeast infections are extremely common; 75 percent of women will have at least one yeast infection during their lifetime.

BASIDIOMYCOTA
Named behind formation of characteristic basidiospores
Form a large group of fungi
STRUCTURE
Hyphae are compactly branched and monokaryotic. Hyphae appear Aseptate in earlier stages but soon become septate into
uninucleate cells. This primary haploid mycelium undergoes dikaryotization to give rise to dikaryotic hyphae, compactly arranged
to form gills. Dikaryotic phase forms dominant phase of life.
This group includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, smuts and toadstools.
Mushroom-producing basidiomycetes are sometimes referred to as “gill fungi” because of the presence of gill-like structures on
the underside of the cap. The “gills” are actually compacted hyphae on which the basidia are borne.
Shelf fungi cling to the bark of trees like small shelves.
Smuts and rusts, are important plant pathogens.

Many Basidiomycota obtain nutrition by decaying dead organic matter, including wood and leaf litter.
Thus, Basidiomycota play a significant role in the carbon cycle
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REPRODUCTION
The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations.
Spores are generally produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction.
The tip of hyphae gets cut off through septum. Septum is primarily perforated but soon becomes blocked.
In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote which immediately
undergoes meiosis.
The club-shaped basidium carries four haploid spores called basidiospores.
Terminal end of hypha serves as sterigma and forms basidiospores.
The haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which germinate into monokaryotic hyphae.
The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium.
Mycelia of different mating strains can combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of two different
mating strains. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomycetes lifecycle and is the dominant stage.
Eventually, the secondary mycelium generates a basidiocarp, which is a fruiting body that protrudes from the gThe basidiocarp
bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Most edible fungi belong to the Phylum Basidiomycota; however, some basidiomycetes produce deadly toxins. For example,
Cryptococcus neoformans causes severe respiratory illness
The basidia, which are the reproductive organs of these fungi, are often contained within the familiar mushroom structure. The
fruiting bodies of a basidiomycetes form a ring in a meadow, commonly called “fairy ring” . The best-known fairy ring fungus has
the scientific name Marasmius oreades. The body of this fungus, its mycelium, is underground and grows outward in a circle. As it
grows, the mycelium depletes the soil of nitrogen, causing the mycelia to grow away from the center and leading to the “fairy
ring” of fruiting bodies where there is adequate soil nitrogen

DEUTEROMYCOTA / FUNGI IMPERFECTI

Named so, because they lack formation of sex organs(perfect structures)
Sexual reproduction not found
Majority are Ascomycota but have lost ability of sexual reproduction (Ascus formation)
STRUCTURE
The mycelium is made up of well-developed, profusely branched and septate hypha that possesses multinucleate cells and simple
pore septa.
The hyphae may be inter- or intracellular, and their cell wall chiefly contains chitin-glucans.
REPRODUCTION
True sexual reproduction is absent
Only propagate through asexual means
Deuteromycetes reproduce only asexually by:
Hyphal fragments budding (common in Blastomycetes),
Arthrospores (flat-ended asexual spores formed by the breaking up of cells from the hypha), Chlamydospores (thick-walled
modified cells functioning as resting spores), or
Most commonly by conidia or conidiospores (nonmotile spores formed externally on the surface of hyphae or on specialized
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hyphal branches called conidiophores).

The cell of conidiophore that produces conidia is called conidiogenous cell and the conidia may be produced either at the tip or
side of the conidiogenous cell either singly or in chains.
The conidiophores are either free from one anther (mononematous) or they may be aggregated to form specialized structures such
as synnemata and sporodochia
PARASEXUALITY
Most special feature of Deuteromycetes is Parasexuality
Hyphae from different strains fuse together forming heterokaryotic hyphae, followed by genetic recombination between sources
creating new pathogenic strains. The process is termed as Para sexuality.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Deuteromycetes abundantly occur in soil where they play a vital role in the decomposition of organic matter and thus bring about
recycling of nutrients in nature.
Some deuteromycetous fungi are medicinally very important. For convenience, the wonder drug penicillin is commercially
obtained from Penicillium chrysogenum, whereas P. griseofulvum is the source of the production of griseofulvin antibiotic.
The use of deuteromycetous fungi in fermentation is so important that without them there would be no such fermentation industry.
Many new and novel chemical compounds are obtained from these fungi at industrial level.
Deuteromycetes are utilized for their ability of biochemical synthesis and conversions of steroids which are of great significance
in pharmaceuticals.
Inhabit plant, animal or food matter, produce variety of toxins in foods, feeds, and grains in storage. Some of these toxins have
been found to be carcinogenic to humans and animals
Many species are pathogenic and cause human diseases such as Ringworm and Athlete’s foot.
Some species cause low grade human infection in lungs, heart brain, bone and meninges.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
HARMFUL ASPECTS BENEFICIAL ASPECTS
ANIMAL DISEASEAS very small number of fungi causes Fungi are also often associated with food. Mushrooms and truffles
diseases in animals. In humans these include skin diseases are examples of fungi that are sometimes edible, the latter being
such as athletes’ foot, ringworm and thrush. highly prized in haute cuisine internationally.
Ergotism causes nervous spasm, convulsions, gangrene Some molds are used in the process of cheese-making. Molds are
and psychotic delusions. added to soft ripened cheeses like brie, washed rind cheeses like
Histoplasmosis is caused by inhaling fungal spores. Limburger, and blue cheeses. Fungi not only carry out fermentation
PLANT DISEASES In crops fungal diseases can lead to but also add flavor and aroma
significant monetary loss for the farmer such as Late blight Nearly two dozen antibiotics are obtained from fungi including
of potato Penicillin, Chloromycin, Neomycin
Powdery mildew Increase soil fertility through developing mycorrhiza.
Ergot of rye
Apple scab
Red rot of sugarcane
Rusts and smuts(Wheat, rice, corn)
FOOD SPILAGE
Tremendous loss of fruits and crops is caused by them,
around 15-20% fruit damage every year is caused by fungi

LAND ADAPTATIONS
Have adapted to moist, damp places with minimum water available.
Extensive anastomosing branching hyphae to invade large surface area.
Cytoplasmic streaming causing rapid growth and spread.
Chitinous walls more resistant to decay than cellulose and lignin.
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Rhizoids provide fast attachment, penetration and digestion.

Non motile spores and conidia spread through dehiscence(Pressured release) free from depending on ordinary dispersal means.
Can survive in hyperosmotic and high temperature areas(-5 t0 50 oC).

IMPORTANTHUMAN DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI

FUNGUS DISEASE FUNGUS DISEASE
Coccidiodes Coccidiomycosis Clostridium Tetanus
Histoplasma Histoplasmosis Eberathelia Typhoid
Sporotrichum Sporotrichosis Hemophilus Influenza
Candida albicans Candiasis Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Aspergillus Aspergillosis Diplococcus Pneumonia
Microsporum Ring worm Treponemap Syphilis

Some fungal diseases occur on a wide range of vegetables.

These diseases include
 Target spot –  Late blight –
(tomatoes) (celery)
 Aphanomyces root  Cercospora leaf
rot – (beans) spot – (beets)
 Aschochyta collar rot  Leaf blight –
(peas) (parsley)
 Gummy stem blight  Septoria spot –
– (cucurbits) (lettuce)
 Alternaria leaf spot –  Leaf blight
(cucurbits) – spring onions)
 Black leg –  Leaf blight –
(brassicas) (carrots)
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KINGDOM PLANTAE
GENERAL CHHARACTERS
Eukaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic, exhibiting sexual reproduction
Cell wall is composed of cellulose
Truly adapted to live on land
Some plants are aquatic but they show secondary adaptations for aquatic life
They produce heterogamous reproductive structures
Embryos are retained inside plant body, thus also named as Embryophyta
Heteromorphic alternation of generation is observed with prominent differentiable gametophyte and sporophyte
Classified on the basis of conducting tissues(xylem and phloem) into two divisions
BRYOPHYTA AND TRACHEOPHYTA
Classified on the basis of seed production into two divisions
GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS

PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Plant classification is an arrangement of plants into groups and subgroups on the basis of their affinities.For the classification of
plants, several systems were proposed from time to time by various botanists

C. Linnaeus (1735) Based on number and 24 classes,

Sexual System of Classification: based position of stamens, their Cryptogamia = algae, fungi, lichens, mosses and ferns
on the reproductive structures. fusion and other sexual
Numerical System of Classification: characters
based on the number of stamens

Eichler (1875) on the basis of simplicitytwo sub-kingdoms

First phylogenetic system of plant and complexity of the Cryptogame (Gk. Kryptos = concealed; games =
classification. plant body marriage) algae, fungi, lichens, mosses Phanerogamae
(Gk. Phaneros = visible; gamos = marriage) flowering
plants which bear seeds are included in
Oswald Tippo (1942) on the basis of absence Two divisions
Proposed a modern classification of the and presence of an Thallophyta =
plant kingdom embryo algae, fungi, lichens
Embryophyta =
Bryophyta and Tracheophyta
The term ‘alga’ (L. alga – seaweed) was first introduced by Linnaeus (1755) and included in plant kingdom but the present day
algae were delimited by de Jussieu (1789).
Algae was also included in kingdom Plantae by Whittaker (1969) are of three types: red algae, brown algae and green algae.

Non
Vascular VASCULAR
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DIVISION BRYOPHYTA
DIVISION BRYOPHYTA
Named by Schimper in 1879
Divided into three classes-Hepaticae, Anthocerotae and Musci.
(by Campbell, Smith, Takhtajan) Class 1. Hepaticae
Liverworts
Evolved in Silurian/ Devonian eriod Class 2. Anthocerotae
Hornworts
Class 3. Musci
Mosses

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS

Plant body is thallus, it cannot be differentiated into leaves, stem and roots
True lignified vascular tissues are absent but they do contain conducting tissues known as hydroids, for water transport. True roots
are absent but They do not have roots, but have long dead cells capable of water absorbency via apoplastic transport, these cells
are called rhizoid cells
Height is very small
Usually spread horizontally on soil in form of matts
Alternation of generation present
Gametophyte is dominant with large size and long lived
Sporophyte is small, dependent and short lived
Diploid sporophyte develops sporangium and produces haploid spore through meiosis.
Spores get dispersed and germinate into new gametophyte.
Gametophyte forms male gametangium, the antheridium and female gametangium, the archegonium.
Antheridium gives rise to many flagellated motile sperms while each archegonium retains one immotile egg.
Fertilization is water dependent. Sperms swim towards archegonium to conduct fertilization, resulting into diploid EMBRYO
Embryo is protected inside thick walled archegonium.
LIFE CYCLE
The life cycles of all mosses (Liverworts, Hornworts and Bryophytes) are in principle similar. All mosses are haplo-diplonts:
haploid (n) and diploid (2n) life forms alternate and in each phase mitotic divisions occur. Only the haploid, dominant
gametophyte can survive for longer periods and is found extensively in the field. The fertilization requires the presence of water
drops so that antherozoids, the male motile gametes, can reach the ovule with help of their flagella, and fertilization can take
place. Diploid (2n) cells arising from the zygote continue to divide to form a small sporophyte (2n). The sporophyte consists of a
stalk (called seta) and a capsule, remains attached to the gametophyte, living in dependency with it. In the sporophyte meiosis
occur leading to the formation of haploid (n) spores. (The sporophyte is thus the only diploid phase of the entire life cycle in
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mosses).The spores are dispersed by the wind and germinate to filamentous protonema. From these structures one or more new
thalli can grow, closing the circle.
(Mosses rarely contain leptoids, these cells are responsible for nutrient conduction. Hydroids and leptoids may be found in the
stem or leaves, depending on the species)
Mosses are may be acrocarpous, with their shoots grow vertical in tufts with the sporophyte terminal on the shoot. Mosses may
also be pleurocarpous, with their shoots grow laterally in mats with the sporophyte on specialized buds or branches.
Species can be distinguished by means of the features of their leaves.

LAND ADAPTATIONS
WATER ABSORPTION
Long filamentous extension in form of rhizoids increase surface area and carry out efficient water absorption.
WATER CONSERVATION
Plant body is protected through multilayer thick external coat. IN addition waxy cuticle is present to minimize water loss.
ABSORPTION OF CO2
Large number of stomata is present to facilitate entry of CO2 to conduct photosynthesis.
HETEROGAMY
This feature ensures production of new characters and increased adaptability to extremely changing environment.
PROTECTION OF REPRODUCTIVE CELLS
Special multicellular protective antheridia and archegonia are developed and aided by protective hair like paraphytes to prevent
desiccation
EMBRYO FORMATION
Embryo formation occurs inside archegonium and retained to avoid drying and mechanical injury.
Large number of species places the Bryophytes as the third most diverse group of land plants, only after the angiosperms and
ferns.

CLASS HEPATICAE
Hepaticae are phylogenetically closest to green algae.
Mostly found in tropical areas, body is multilobed, giving it name of liverworts.
Their thallus typically has dorsal and ventral parts, and the sporogon is bag-like.
Inside the sporangium, there is no central column (columella) but elaters are present, which are cells that loosen spores.
1. The gametophytes are dorsoventrally differentiated. They may be thalloid (thallose) or differentiated into leaves and stem
(foliose).
2. In foliose types the leaves are arranged in two or three rows on the axis and are always without mid-rib.
3. The sex organs develop from superficial cells on the dorsal side of the thallus, except when they are terminal in position.
4. The sporophyte may be simple, or differentiated into foot and capsule, or into a foot, seta and capsule.
5. The sporogenous cells develop from the endothecium of sporogonium.
6. The sporophyte is completely dependent on gametophytes for its nutritive supply.
7. The wall of sporogonium is one to several layered thick. The stomata are not present on the wall of sporogonium.
8. The dehiscence of sporogonium is irregular.
One of the most widespread liverwort is Marchantia, it is commonly found in wet shady places. It became a frequent weed in
greenhouses

CLASS ANTHOCEROTAE / ANTHOCEROTOPHYTINA

Evolutionary are closest to Pteridophyta (ferns and allies). Hornworts have a flattened thallus body, their long photosynthetic
sporogon has columella and elaters. The presence of stomata on sporogon and the ability of some hornwort sporogon to branch
and sometimes even live independently from the gametophyte provide a support for the advanced position of this group.
Hornworts are rare and quite small (first millimeters in size), and like liverworts, they prefer shady and wet places.
1. The gametophyte is thalloid and dorsiventral, bearing simple and smooth-walled rhizoids; tuberculate rhizoids and ventral
scales are altogether absent.
2. The tissues of the thallus are undifferentiated; air chambers and air pores are absent; each cell bears a large chloroplast and a
conspicuous pyrenoid within it.
3. The sex organs are found to be embedded in the gametophytic tissue.
4. The antheridia arise from the hypodermal cells of the thallus on the dorsal side of it; they develop within the antheridial
chambers, singly or in groups on the dorsal side of the thallus.
5. The archegonia are found in sunken conditions on the dorsal side of the thallus, they develop from superficial cells.
6. The elongated and cylindrical sporogonium arises from the dorsal side of the thallus.
7. The sporogonium consists of foot, meristematic region and capsule; the meristem is intercalary and continues its growth
throughout the growing season.
8. The wall of sporogonium contains chlorophyll.
9. The central sterile portion of sporogonium is columella, which remains surrounded by sporogenous tissue and spores; the
elaters are also present.
10. The sporogenous mass develops from amphithecium and arches over the columella. The class Anthocerotae includes a single
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order, the Anthocerotales with the same characters.

There are two families 1. Anthocerotaceae and 2. Notothylaceae.

CLASS MUSCI / BRYOPSIDA

1. The gametophyte consists of prostrate, thalloid, branched protonema and erect leafy gametophore.
2. The gametophytic plant body consists of the stem, spirally arranged leaves and the sex organs (antheridia and archegonia) at its
apical portion.
3. The rhizoids are multicellular, branched and obliquely septate.
4. The sex organs (antheridia and archegonia) develop from the superficial cells of the gametophore.
5. The sporophyte is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.
6. The capsular wall remains interrupted by stomata at several places.
7. The archesporium or sporogenous mass develops from outer layer of endothecium which in addition forms columella.
8. The elaters are not present in the sporogonium.
The class Bryopsida (Musci) has been divided into three sub-classes
(1) Sphagnobrya (Sphagnidae); (2) Andreaeobrya (Andreaeidae) and (3) Eubrya (Bryidae).

Mosses have become known as the “evolutionary dead end” because their poikilohydric gametophyte requires water for
fertilization and does not have a root system; this restricts the size and requires dense growing. However, if the sexual organs are
near the soil surface, then the parasitic sporogon would not grow tall enough, and consequently would not be able to effectively
distribute spores with the wind.
Three natural forces “tear” the body of moss: wind and light require plant to be taller whereas water requires it to be smaller .
Mosses did not resolve this conflict.

MARCHANTIA
Marchantia, the most important genus of family Marchantiaceae is represented by about 65 species. The name Marchantia was
given in honor of Nicolas Merchant, director of botanical garden of Gaston d’ Orleans in Blois, France . All species are terrestrial
and cosmopolitan in distribution. The species prefer to grow in moist and shady places like wet open woodlands, banks of
streams, wood rocks or on shaded stub rocks. These grow best after the forest fire in the burnt soil. It is perhaps because of
nitrification of soil due to fire
GENERAL CHARACTERS
The plant body is gametophytic, thalloid, flat, prostrate, plagiotropic, 2-10 cm. long and dichotomously branched Dorsal surface is
dark green. It has a conspicuous midrib and a number of polygonal areas called areolae. The midrib is marked on the dorsal
surface by a shallow groove and on the ventral surface by a low ridge. Each polygonal area re-presents the underlying air
chamber.
The boundaries of these areas represent the walls that separate each air chamber from the next. Each air chamber has a central
pore. The midrib ends in a depression at the apical region forming an apical notch in which growing point is situated.
Dorsal surface also bears the vegetative and sexual reproductive structures. The vegetative reproductive structures are Gemma cup
and develop along the midrib. These are crescent shaped with spiny or fimbriae margins and are about one eighth of a inch in
diameter.
The ventral surface of the thallus bears scales and rhizoids along the midrib. Scales are violet colored, multicellular, one cell thick
and arranged in 2-4 rows. Scales are of two types: (i) Simple or ligulate (ii) Appendiculate.
Appendiculate scales form the inner row of the scales close with midrib. Ligulate scales form the outer or marginal row and are
smaller than the Appendiculate scales.
Rhizoids are unicellular, branched and develop as prolongation of the lower epidermal cells. They are of two types:
(i) Smooth-walled rhizoids, (ii) Tuberculate rhizoids.
In smooth-walled rhizoids both the inner and outer wall layers are fully stretched while in tuberculate rhizoids appear like circular
dots in surface view. The inner wall layer modifies into peg like in growth which projects into the cell lumen . The main functions
of the rhizoids are to anchor the thallus on the substratum and to absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil.
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REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproductive structures are borne on special Stalked structures called gametophores or gametangiophores. The
gametophores bearing archegonia are called archegoniophores and that bearing antheridia are called antheridiophores
LIFE CYCLE
Marchantia shows an alternation of generation
A compact, filamentous protonema with short rhizoids is formed from the haploid spore.
A new thallus develops from this protonema by means of mitotic divisions.
The male and female gametangia, called respectively antheridia and archegonia, are formed on this young thallus.
In each antheridium numerous male gametes (antherozoids = sperms) are produced, but in each archegonium only one large single
egg cell is produced (ovum).
The sperm cells which are foreseen of flagella can reach the female gametophyte by means of a drop of (rain) water. Through
capillary action the water can penetrate into the archegonium and the sperm cells can reach the immobile egg cell and fertilize it
(oogamy).
The zygote remains in this enclosure and does not pass a rest stage, but it develops inside the archegonium into a sporophyte.
The diploid sporophyte grows thus on the gametophyte.
Inside the sporangium meiotic divisions occur.
The product of these divisions in Marchantia is (haploid) spores. Some diploid cells in the sporangium expand and form elaters
(tubular cells with spiral-like thickenings) that contribute to the dissemination of the spores.
The haploid thalli (single thallus) are dioecious: they produce either (female) archegoniophores or male antheridiophores.

CLASS MUSCI (THE MOSS PLANT)

Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically form dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations.
The first plants to colonize land were the bryophytes. They are generally thought to have evolved from green algae. The bryophytes are
poorly adapted to live on land and are mainly confined to damp shady places. The bryophytes are said to be the amphibians of the
plant world because they cannot live away from water. They need water for reproduction

GENERAL CHARACTERS
The individual plants are usually composed of simple leaves that are generally only one cell thick, attached to a stem that may be
branched or unbranched and has only a limited role in conducting water and nutrients. Mosses do not have seeds and all of them
having the haploid gametophyte generation as the dominant phase of the life cycle. after fertilization develop sporophytes with
unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores.

LIFE CYCLE REPRODUCTION IN MOSSES

The life cycle of a moss alternates a conspicuous gametophyte generation and a dependent sporophyte generation. Formation of
diploid sporophyte and haploid spores follow the same sequence of events of alternation of generations as in liverworts. However, the
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spore of a moss, unlike that of liverworts, develops into an alga like structure, the protonema. Haploid moss plants (gametophyte)
develop from buds on the protonema and the life cycle is completed
Some of the salient features of the different life cycle stages are outlined below.
Moss plants (known as gametophytes) form male and female structures either on the same plant or, more likely, on different
plants.
The male structures (at the top of the plant stem) are known as antheridia. The antheridium (singular) produces the sperm cells.
The antheridium can form a ‘splash cup’ or ‘splash containers’ with more specialized leaves forming a rosette. The female
structure are known as archegonia (singular – archegonium) which produces the egg cells and is where the spore stem forms. In
many moss plants the male and female parts can only be seen with a microscope.
FERTILIZATION
Water falling on the male plant releases the sperm cells (who swim using threadlike tails) and they are carried on splashing water
droplets to neighboring female plants. Depending on the type of plant, the water droplets can ‘splash’ between 50cm to over 2m
away.
Chemical attraction ensures the sperm cells find the egg within the female archegonia. The fertilization produces the ‘sporophyte’.
SPOROPHYTE FORMATION
Sporophytic generation is more complicated than liverworts and hornworts. Once the egg is fertilized, the zygote forms an embryo
which grows from the female plant and forms the ‘sporophyte’ (or spore stem) which consists of a foot, stalk and capsule.
The foot connects the spore stem to the main plant – providing access to food and water. The seta is the stalk that raises the pod
above the plant. The capsule is a small pod that contains the spores. Inside the capsule can be anywhere from 4 to over a million
spores depending on the species of moss.
On the front of the pod capsule are a set of ‘teeth’ called the ‘peristome‘ that controls the release of the spores. When the
conditions are dry, the peristome opens, releasing the spores.
GERMINATION
Germinating spores do not form new plants immediately. If a spore falls onto suitable, moist conditions it germinates into a
‘protonema‘. This is a thin, filament like, branching plant. From this threadlike plant grow ‘buds‘ and these buds are what
become the new male and female plants.And the cycle of sexual reproduction is completed. The entire development of sporophyte
thus takes place within the gametophyte plant body. Even which the sporophyte is fully developed it remains attaché d to the
gametophyte for nourishment and protection because it does not contain chloroplasts and is unable to perform photosynthesis. There is
an alternation of generations in the life cycle of bryophytes i.e. multicellular haploid gametophytic (gamete producing) generation. It
is a very important phenomenon, which provides continuous genetic variabilities and selection for the best genetic make up for survival
and adaptation in the changing environment.
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Moss can be a troublesome weed in containerized nursery operations and greenhouses. [36] Vigorous moss growth can inhibit
seedling emergence and penetration of water and fertilizer to the plant roots.
The main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat (mostly the genus Sphagnum), although they are
also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and
for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight. They are best known for those species that carpet woodland and forest
floors. Ecologically, mosses break down exposed substrata, releasing nutrients for the use of more complex plants that succeed
them. They also aid in soil erosion control by providing surface cover and absorbing water, and they are important in the nutrient
and water economy of some vegetation types.
Moss growth can be inhibited by a number of methods:
 Decreasing availability of water through drainage.
 Increasing direct sunlight.
 Increasing number and resources available for competitive plants like grasses.
 Increasing the soil pH with the application of lime.
 Heavy traffic or manually disturbing the moss bed with a rake
 Application of chemicals such as ferrous sulfate (e.g. in lawns) or bleach (e.g. on solid surfaces).
 In containerized nursery operations, coarse mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and rock chips are used as a fast-draining
top dressing in plant containers to discourage moss growth.
The most important adaptation to land life which mosses have in common with other land plants is the presence of a thin cuticle
that protects them against loss of water. Single-cell and multicellular rhizoids resembling root hairs can be found. These serve for
anchorage to the substrate and water uptake, but they are no true roots. The uptake of water and nutrients can occur over the
entire thallus. The exchange of CO2 and O2 happens mainly by diffusion (for example through the large surface of lamellae on the
leaflets), also through pores occur in Liverworts and through stomata on the capsule of the sporophyte of Hornworts and True
Mosses. But the 'leafy' part of the gametophyte lacks stomata

ADAPTATION TO LAND
In general bryophytes developed the following adaptive characters for terrestrial environment:
 Formation of a compact multi cellular plant body which helped in the conservation of water by reducing cell surface
area exposed to dry land condition. Presence of cuticle further reduces loss of water by evaporation.
 Development of photosynthetic tissues into special chambers for the absorption of carbon dioxide without losing
much water and exposure to light.
 Formation of special structures like rhizoids of absorption of water and anchorage.
 Heterogamy (production of two types of gametes) is evolved, forming non motile egg containing stored food and
motile sperms.
 Gametes are produced and protected by the special multi cellular organs (antheridia and archegonia).
 Multi-cellular embryo is formed which is retained and protected inside the female reproductive body during its
development.
Alternation of spore-producing generation (sporophyte) with gamete producing generation (gametophyte) enabled the plant to
produce and test the best genetic combinations for adapting to the versatile terrestrial conditions

Tracheophytes are distinguished from bryophytes by their highly developed vascular systems, which facilitate the transport of
water and nutrients to all parts of the plant. This vascularization adaptation has allowed tracheophytes to become more fully
terrestrial than bryophytes, which are still dependent upon moist environments for many reproductive and nutritive functions
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ADVANCED LAND ADAPTATIONS IN TRACHEOPHYTES

Tracheophytes are characterized by the presence of vascular tissue, composed of specialized conductive cells that create "tubes"
through which materials can flow throughout the plant body. These vessels are continuous throughout the parts of the plant,
allowing for the efficient and controlled distribution of water and nutrients. In addition to this transport function, vascular tissues
also provide a measure of support to the plant, contributing to tracheophytes' ability to grow much larger and higher than
nonvascularized plants. The two types of vascular tissue are xylem (dead cells) and phloem (living cells). Roots and root hairs,
through which the bulk of water and minerals enter the plant body, are also integral to the vascular system of tracheophytes.

1. Xylem and Phloem

Xylem consists of a "pipeline" of dead cells arranged end to end for water and mineral transport. When the cells that form xylem
die at maturity, the nucleus and cytoplasm disintegrate, leaving a hollow tunnel. The leftover cell walls are very thick and provide
support for the plant; the cavities inside provide a passage through which fluids can move. The xylem carries water and dissolved
minerals upward from the roots through the stem and leaves of the plant. In larger seed plants, xylem cells are specialized into
vessel elements and tracheid’s. Vessel elements are found in flowering plants (angiosperms), and are wider and better at
conducting water than the tracheid’s of conifers (gymnosperms)
Unlike xylem, the cells that make up phloem are living at maturity and can carry materials both up and down the plant body.
Phloem is comprised of sieve elements, which are arranged end to end to form passageways, and companion cells, which are
closely associated with the sieve elements even though their exact function is unknown. Mature companion cells have both a
nucleus and cytoplasm, while the mature sieve elements contain only cytoplasm; for this reason it is thought that the nuclei of
companion cells may control the activities of neighboring sieve elements. Phloem is responsible for distributing the products of
photosynthesis, such as amino acids and carbohydrates, from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

2. Roots
Like the stem, the roots of a tracheophytes contain vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem. Although the relative
position of the two tissues is different, the transport system within the roots is continuous with that in the shoot, allowing for the
efficient movement of water and nutrients up and down the plant body. The roots draw water and minerals from the soil and pass
them upward to the stem and leaves. They are also responsible for storing the plant's organic nutrients, which are passed
downward from the leaves through the phloem. Radiating from the roots are a system of root hairs, extend from the surface of the
root and vastly increase the absorptive surface are of the roots. For more information on roots and root hairs, see Roots, Plant
Structures

3. Growth in Vascular Plants

Vascular plants undergo two kinds of growth, called primary and secondary growth. Primary growth occurs in the apical
meristems, located at the tip of both root and shoot, and is mainly a growth of vertical length. The meristems are regions of rapid
mitotic division, almost a cell-making factory. When a cell divides, one of its offspring moves down into the plant body where it
elongates, and the other remains in the meristem to divide again.
The Transition From Aquatic to Terrestrial Environments
Although it is not certain when plants first arose, it appears that they did so during a time when the Earth's climate was changing.
Likely, those areas where plants evolved was subject to periods of flooding and periods of drying, and characteristics that enabled
some species to better survive during the dry periods evolved slowly. Adaptation to the drier conditions eventually enabled early
plants to colonize the land. To fully appreciate the huge advantages that terrestrial migration had for plant development, it is
necessary to understand the differences between aquatic and terrestrial environments with respect to requirements for plant
growth.

Advantages of Moving to a Terrestrial Environment:

Increased Photosynthesis and Decreased Competition
In order for plants to photosynthesize and produce the proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates necessary for growth, they require light
energy. Light energy available to organisms living beneath the water's surface is greatly reduced . The blue and especially red
wavelengths of light that are absorbed by photosynthetic pigments do not penetrate deep beyond the surface of the water;
therefore, photosynthetic organisms living in an aquatic environment do not receive the full amount of light energy radiated from
the sun. Photosynthetic organisms growing on land do not face this problem. Photons emitted from the sun can directly strike
light-absorbing surfaces and the full range of useful wavelengths are available for photosynthesis. In the aquatic environment,
many large algae compete for sunlight (similar to the competition for sunlight in modern forests). For early plants first moving
into terrestrial environments, there was no competition for access to light.
Challenges of Terrestrial Environments: Desiccation and Upright Growth
The major challenge for early plants first migrating onto land was the lack of water. In an aquatic environment, desiccation is
generally not a problem and there is no need for any protective covering to prevent water loss. Lacking any protection from the
dry terrestrial environment, early plants probably dried out very quickly and would have been limited to very moist environments.
The ancestors of early plants were dependent on water, not only to maintain their moisture content but also for structural support.
The buoyancy of water supports upright growth of giant marine seaweeds (e.g., kelp, Fig. 6) Consider the seaweeds that are often
found washed up on the beach. Although these algae are no longer alive, when held beneath the water their upright form is
restored. In a terrestrial environment, the surrounding media is air rather than water. Air does not provide any support for upright
growth. The transition to land required changes in structural features, and, as will be discussed later in this tutorial, adaptations for
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structural support are key features used in plant classification

TYPES OF LIFE CYCLES

One of the properties of life is the ability to reproduce to create offspring that can carry on the genetics of the parent or parents to
the following generations. Living organisms can accomplish this by reproducing in one of two ways. Some species use asexual
reproduction to make offspring, while others reproduce using sexual reproduction. Both ways are to carry on the species.
Different kinds of eukaryotic organisms that undergo sexual reproduction have different types of sexual life cycles. These life
cycles determine how the organism will not only make its offspring but also how the cells within the multicellular organism will
reproduce themselves. The sexual life cycle determines how many sets of chromosomes each cell in the organism will have.
A life cycle is a period involving one generation of an organism through means of reproduction, whether through asexual
reproduction or sexual reproduction.
There are three types of cycles;
Haplontic life cycle, diplontic life cycle, diplobiontic life cycle.
These three types of cycles feature alternating haploid and diploid phases (n and 2n).
The haploid organism becomes diploid through fertilization, after union of gametes. This results in a zygote which then
germinates. To return to a haploid stage, meiosis must occur.
Diplontic Life Cycle
1. A diploid cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that has 2 sets of chromosomes. Usually, these sets are a genetic mixture of
both the male and female parent.
2. One set of the chromosomes comes from the mother and one set comes from the father. This increases diversity of traits
in the gene pool for natural selection to work on.
3. The majority of the organism's life is spent with most of the cells in the body being diploid.
4. The only cells that have half the number of chromosomes (haploid), are the gametes (sex cells).
5. Most organisms that have a diplontic life cycle start from the fusion of two haploid gametes.
6. One of the gametes comes from a female and the other from the male.
7. This coming together of the sex cells creates a diploid cell called a zygote.
8. Since the diplontic life cycle keeps most of the body cells as diploid, mitosis can happen to split the zygote and continue
splitting future generations of cells.
9. Before mitosis can happen, the cell's DNA is duplicated to make sure the daughter cells have two full sets of
chromosomes that are identical to each other.
10. The process of meiosis creates the haploid gametes and ensures that the gametes will have only one set of chromosomes,
so when they fuse again during sexual reproduction, the resulting zygote will have the two sets of chromosomes of a
normal diploid cell.
11. Most animals, including humans, have a diplontic sexual life cycle.
Haplontic Life Cycle
1. Cells that spend the majority of their lives in a haploid phase are considered to have a haplontic sexual life cycle.
2. Zygote is the only diploid cell in whole life cycle.
3. A haploid gamete from a female and a haploid gamete from a male will fuse to make a diploid zygote. However, that is
the only diploid cell in the entire haplontic life cycle.
4. The zygote undergoes meiosis at its first division to create haploid daughter cells.
5. All of the haploid cells in the organism undergo mitosis in future cell divisions to create more haploid cells.
6. This continues on for the organism's entire life cycle.
7. When it is time to sexually reproduce, the gametes are already haploid and can just fuse with another organism's haploid
gamete to form the zygote of the offspring.
8. Examples of organisms that live a haplontic sexual life cycle include fungi, some protists, and some plants.
Haplodiplontic or Digenetic Type:
1. The diploid zygote instead of germinating into a new plant gives rise to a new sporophytic generation.
2. It bears sporangium and its nucleus undergoes reduction division and gives rise to spores.
3. The spores germinate into new haploid gametophytic plants.
4. The two generations are equally prominent and multicellular.
5. The sporophyte bears spores and the gametophytes bears gametes.
6. Distinct alternation of generations is not seen such cases.
7. If both the generations are structurally the same, they are isomorph (e.g., Dictyota)
8. But if different, heteromorphic (e.g., Laminaria).
Diplohaplontic Lifecycle:
1. In such cases both the generations are equally prominent, but the sporophyte is more complicated and extended.
2. The sporophyte consists of two parts:
i. The first part constitutes the independent heteromorphic plant, and
ii. The second part is cyctocorp, which bears the diploid carposporephylls. The second part is dependent on the
gametophytic plant.
3. Distinct alternation of generations is seen and the life cycle consists of three plants:
(a)Independent gametophytic plant,
(b)The sporophytic cystocarp, which is dependent on the gametophytic plant and
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(c)Independent tetrasporic plant.

4. Such types of life cycle are known as triphasis or Diplohaplontic.
5. Example: Polysiphonia.
ALTERNATION OF GENERATION
Haplontic and diplontic life cycles are multicellular life stages of organisms that undergo alternation of generations.
Significance
The haplontic life cycle consists of a free-living gametophyte while the diplontic life cycle consists of a free-living sporophyte
in plants

Difference Between Haplontic and Diplontic Life Cycle

The main difference between haplontic and diplontic life cycle is that the main form of the haplontic life cycle
is haploid and its diploid zygote is formed for a short period of time whereas the main form of the diplontic life cycle is
diploid, which produce gametes. Furthermore, most algae, most fungi, and lower plants have a haplontic life cycle while
animals, higher plants have a diplontic life cycle.
Similarities Between Haplontic and Diplontic Life Cycle
 Haplontic and diplontic life cycles proceed through a haploid and diploid stage in an alternative manner.
 Both occur in multicellular organisms with sexual reproduction.
 They undergo mitosis and meiosis.
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Why is sexual reproduction widespread?

In some ways, asexual reproduction, which makes offspring that are genetic clones of the parent, seems like a simpler and more
efficient system than sexual reproduction. After all, if the parent is living successfully in a particular habitat, shouldn’t offspring
with the same genes be successful too? In addition, asexual reproduction only calls for one individual, removing the problem of
finding a mate and making it possible for an isolated organism to reproduce.
Despite all this, few multicellular organisms are completely asexual. Why, then, is sexual reproduction so common? This question
has been hotly debated, and there is still disagreement about the exact answer. In general, though, it’s thought that sexual
reproduction offers an evolutionary advantage – and thus, is widespread among organisms alive today – because it increases
genetic variation, reshuffling gene variants to make new combinations.
The processes that generate genetic variation in all sexual life cycles are:
Advantage
Crossing over in meiosis, random assortment of homologous chromosomes, and fertilization.
Genetic variation provides better varieties to cope with changing environment. As an example, let’s consider the case where a
population’s environment changes, perhaps through the introduction of a new pathogen or predator. Sexual reproduction
continually makes new, random combinations of gene variants. This makes it more likely that one or more members of a sexually
reproducing population will happen to have a combination that allows survival under the new conditions (e.g., one that provides
resistance to the pathogen or allows escape from the predator).
Over generations, beneficial gene variants can spread through the population, allowing it to survive as a group under the new
conditions.

DIVISION II
TRACHEOPHYTA
Tracheophytes are vascular plants. They have vascular tissues i.e. xylem and phloem. These are the most successful groups of
land plants.
They are adapted successfully to rough land habitats. Flowering plants are also tracheophytes. They have dominated the land
habitat. The vascular plants show the evolution of following complex vegetative and reproductive characteristics. These
characteristics have made them the predominant plants of land:
1. They have true root, stem, and leaves.
2. They have vascular systems in stems, roots, and leaves.
3. Tracheophytes have protected sporangia, leading to the evolution of the seed.
4. They develop a pollen tube. So, they do not require water for the transmission of male gametes to female gametes.
5. They develop flowers and fruits.
6. They show heteromorphic alternation of generation
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CLASSIFICATION
Five classes
PSILOPSIDA
LYCOPSIDA
SPHENOPSIDA
PTEROPSIDA
SPERMOPSIDA

PSILOPSIDA
Psilopsida is considered to be the earliest group of vascular plants. Most of the representatives of this group have become extinct, for
example, Horneophyton, psilophyton, cooksonia . There are only two living genera Psilotun, and Tmesipeteris.
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Plants have rootless sporophytes.
2. The stem is differentiated into an underground rhizome and an aerial part. Both are dichotomously branched.
3. The rhizome bears rhizoids; both perform the function of root.
4. The aerial branches are green, leafless and bear small veinless out growths and carry out photosynthesis.
5. The reproductive organs of sporophyte are sporangia which develop at the tips of long or short branches, or on lateral sides of
branches.
6. Internal structure of stem is simple. Vascular tissue is narrow, central and solid without pith, with a broad cortex
7. The gametophyte is thalloid. Examples are Psilotun, and Tmesipteris.

It is colorless and underground. Its cells contain a fungus which provides food to the gametophyte and in return gets protection from it.
Such beneficial symbiotic relationship among the two members (fungus and plant) is said to be symbiosis; or mycorrhizal association.
RHYNIA
1. Root is absent. Rhizoids are present instead of root
2. Aerial stem was dichotomously branched and tapper
3. The tip of aerial branch bear solitary terminal sporangia
4. Possessed water-conducting cells called tracheids in its stem, much like those of most living plants.
5. Underground runners connected its aboveground stems; these stems were photosynthetic, branched evenly many times,
and produced elliptical sporangia at the tip of every branch
Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii was first described as a new species by Robert Kidston and William H. Lang in 1917. The species is
known only from the Rhynie chert in Aberdeen shire, Scotland, and named so, where it grew in the vicinity of a silica-rich hot
springThey are simplest extinct vascular plant.
Discovered by Sir William Dawson’s (1858) from Devonian period of Paleozoic age.
Found at USA, Scotland, Norway and Belgium.
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PSILOTUM (Whisk fern)

1. A simple design: dichotomous branching ( di = 2)..each fork branches off to form 2 new branches.
2. Enations: tiny green flattened protuberances with no veins so they are not considered a true leaf
3. Rhizoids originating on the rhizomes with mycorrhizal ( fungal symbioants) associations
4. A cross section reveals the production of : true xylem & phloem and stomata
5. Plants are located in tropical and subtropical USA and Hawaii

Life cycle:
a. Transition of main life stage to the sporophytic stage and reduction of the gametophytic stage.
b. The gametophyte is only 1/4" long, bisexual and is saprobic- it gains its energy through an association with a fungus ( a
endomycorrhizal)
A small group of vascular plants in which the vegetative and reproductive structures remained undeveloped, one living
member of that group is known as Psilotun has survived for about 400 million years
Psilotun is the only living vascular plant to lack both leaves and roots, hence the generic name that derives from the Greek word
for bare or smooth .A whisk fern has water- and food-conducting tissues but lacks true leaves and roots. Characteristics of
Psilotun: No true leaves or roots - basic organ is a true stem with rhizomes or underground stem branching off. ( By true we mean
containing an actual vascular system)

TMESIPTERIS (Hanging fork ferns)

Tmesipteris is a small green plant which usually grows from the
trunks of tree-ferns, but occasionally grows in humus on logs, or on
the ground. In the epiphytic form the fleshy branching rhizome
which is not, strictly speaking, a root, is embedded in the fibrous mat
formed by the aerial roots of the tree-fern trunk. The rhizome is not
photosynthetic but is covered with minute golden-brown hairs or
‘rhizoids’, and harbors a fungus within its tissues from which it is
thought to receive supplementary nutrition. (Fungal hyphae in
association with roots are called mycorrhiza.) The rhizome is
continuous with the pendant aerial fronds which may reach up to 30
inches but are usually nearer 12 inches. In terrestrial forms the
fronds are often semi-erect. The green aerial portion has small scale-
like emergences near the base which gradually pass into the larger
characteristic leaves. These are peculiar in that they have no distinct
stalk but the bases of the ‘leaves’ are applied closely to the stem and
spread downwards to give it a ridged appearance.. The leaf tip ends
fairly bluntly but the midrib is often continued forming a little spike
or ‘mucron’ on the end of the leaf.
The reproductive organs are two-lobed structures, of spindle-shaped appearance, and are borne on the upper side of a forked
appendage. The two sporangial chambers are separated by a septum, and the whole structure sheds its numerous spores by
splitting lengthwise. The fertile organs can be borne at any point along the main part of the stem intermixed with the leaves, but
there seems to be a tendency for them to be aggregated in fertile zones.

UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE PSILOPSIDA (Order Psilopsida)

1. The Psilotales are an order showing essentially primitive features. The plants are rootless; the development from the
zygote shows that this condition is genuinely primitive and not a result of reduction due to specialization of habit. The
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plant body is relatively unspecialized anatomically. The sporophyte is in many respects like a primitive simple thallus,
the main continuous axis weakly differentiated into underground rhizome and leafy aerial shoot. The gametophyte is
likewise a simple branching undifferentiated thallus.
2. The resemblance of the two generations of the life cycle is more striking in this order than in any other group of
Pteridophyta. The vascular gametophyte is unique in the Plant Kingdom.
3. The Psilotales have no known fossil history in the geological record. Their nearest relatives are a very primitive early
Devonian order of fossils, the Psilophytales. It is indeed a puzzle as to why the undoubtedly primitive and ancient
Psilotales should have survived without leaving us any faint clue in the fossil record as to ‘what they are or whence they
came’.
4. The genera of this order exemplify discontinuous geographical distribution. This occurrence pattern at the ends of the
earth probably indicates that the Psilotales are merely relics of a once more continuous and widespread group.
5. In Pteridophyta the gametophyte generation has the haploid or n. number of chromosomes; the sporophyte has the diploid
or 2n. Number which is halved by a reduction division or meiosis at spore formation.

The cytology of this order is extremely interesting. The chromosome count for the sporophytic cells of the Psilotales is exceedingly
high. For Tmesipteris the diploid chromosome number is about 200. It seems likely therefore that polyploidy, i.e., multiplication of
the diploid number, occurs in this genus, proves the fact that there is more than one nucleolus in the nuclei of some specimens.
It is interesting to note that this type of abnormality occurs in cancer cells and such cytological abnormalities have also been
produced when colchicine has been applied to higher plants to induce polyploidy artificially.
The sporophyte number for normal Psilotun is about 100.

Adolphe-Theodore Brongniart is Father of Paleobotany. In 1822 a 21-year-old French botanist published a paper on the
distribution and classification of fossil plants.

LYCOPSIDA (Club Mosses)

GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. The plant body of Lycopsida is sporophyte. It is differentiated into roots, stem and true leaves.
2. The leaves are small and single veined. They are also called microphylls. The arrangement of leaves is spiral or opposite.
3. There are certain reproductive leaves called sporophylls. The sporangia develop singly on the upper side of the sporophylls.
These sporophylls may arrange to form strobili.
4. The leaves and sporophylls of certain Lycopsida like Lycopodiurn have small outgrowth called ligules. In certain other
Lycopods like Selaginella, ligules are present near the base of the upper side of the leaves.
5. The sporophytes of some Lycopods have one kind of sporangia like Lycopodium. They produce a single type of spore. Such
sporophytes are called homosporous. This condition ¡s called homospory. Some have two types of sporangia microsporangia
and megasporangia as in Selaginella. They produce two types of spores. Such sporophyte is called heterosporous. This
condition is called heterospory. Selaginella is a heterosporous plant and so it resembles the seed-producing plants
(spermatophytes).
6. Lycopsids are not mosses. Their strobili are club-shaped or spike-shaped. They have small leaves, resembling leaves of
mosses (bryophytes). So they are called club mosses or spike mosses. They also show resemblances with the evergreen plants.
So they are, sometimes, called ground pries.
7. The gametophyte of Lycopsida is mainly underground.

SELAGINELLA
Selaginella are frequently described as primitive or living fossils due to the nature of their physiology and reproduction. They are
the only living members of their family, with about 700 species. Selaginella are found in a wide range of environments, from cold
temperate to desert to the wet humid tropics. Many of them look like mosses but they differ in significant ways–reproduction
being the most obvious.
they are herbaceous perennials
1. dorsiventral, prostrate and creeping row on the ground in
humid, shady habitats.
2. The sporophyte is herbaceous and the shoot is
dorsiventral and radial and creeping or erect.
3. The leaves are small (microphyllous) and a ligule is
present at the base of each leaf and sporophyll.
4. Rhizophore is (a leafless structure where from roots
arises) present in some species.
5. Sporophylls are usually aggregated into strobili at the
apices of the branch, hetero- sporous.
6. Heterothallic (dioecious) gametophytic prothalli.
vi. Antherozoids are biciliate.
Structure of Selaginella:
The Sporophyte:
The plant body of Selaginella is differentiated into well-developed roots, stem and leaves. Besides, some species also have
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rhizophore In many species of Selaginella, peculiar leafless, prop-like cylindrical, structures, originate from the
stem at the point of branching. These grow downwards into the surface and form many adventitious roots at
their free ends. They are known as rhizophores.
the roots of the mature sporophyte are adventitious in nature and dichotomously branched.
The leaves of all species are microphyllous, sessile and simple,
A small, membranous, tongue-like structure, ligule (Latin ligula = a small tongue), is located at the base of each vegetative, leaf
and sporophyll (Fig. 7.51). The ligule is found on the ventral (upper) surface of the leaf.
Selaginella reproduce by the production of two types of spores that combine to produce a new plant.
Mature Plant and Spore
A mature Selaginella produces, on the tips of branches, small structures sometimes referred to as cones but are more properly
called strobili. There are two types of strobili that differ in size and color, each having a component for the plant's sexual
reproduction. A plant that has both microspores and megaspores is called heterosporous
Megasporangium
The largest of these, called megasporangium because of their size, is usually yellow and may appear lumpy. Four large spores can
be seen with the help of a magnifying lens. They act as the female component in the reproduction of Selaginella.
Microsporangium
The smaller structure is darker, usually orange in color, and not lumpy but oval shaped. This structure is the microsporangium and
it contains many, nearly microscopic, spores. These microspores act as the male component in reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction
As in ferns, the spore of Selaginella grow into a gametophyte. The gametophyte produced by the large spore in the
megasporangium produces egg cells. The small spores in the microsporangium grow into a gametophyte that produces sperm
cells.
A film of water is necessary for the sperm to travel to the egg; this is provided in the wild by dew, fog or rain. When the sperm
unites with the egg, cell division produces a tiny new plant called a sporophyte. The sporophyte roots to the ground and develops
into a plant over time, producing spores to repeat the process when mature.
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THE MORPHOLOGICAL NATURE OF RHIZOPHORE

is controversial because of its unusual position and structure. It has been interpreted by vari ous plant scientists as root, stem or an
organ sui generis (i.e., an organ, neither a stem nor a root).
I. Similarities with Root:
i. Rhizophores are positively geotropic in nature.
ii. It does not bear leaves.
iii. Monarch xylem like that of root.
iv. Presence of root cap in some species
v. Transport of auxin in rhizophore is acropetal which is similar to root.
II. Similarities with Stem:
i. Exogenous in origin like stem.
ii. Absence of root caps and root hairs.
iii. Originate due to the activities of meristems which are present between the two branches of the stem. This meristem has been
termed as angle meristem which is basically an embryonic shoot .
iv. Production of roots endogenously from the tip.
v. Under experimental conditions the rhizophore can be transformed into a leafy short.
Rhizophore is neither a root nor a stem, but an organ sui generis. It is a specialized stem behaves like root.
However, recent biochemical studies of protein from stem, leaf, root and rhizophore revealed that the polypeptides of the
rhizophore more closely resemble those of the stem rather than subterranean roots. The above-mentioned features are not for a
typical root, moreover, they produce roots endogenously. Therefore, these outgrowths are called rhizophores (Gr. Rhiza = root;
phora = bearer).

SPHENOPSIDA (Horse Tail)

GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. The sporophyte of Sphenopsida is differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves,
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2. The leaves may be expanded or scale-like and are always arranged in whorls.
3. Their whole plant body is composed of a large number of joints. So these plants are also called arthrophytes.
4. The main stem is not smooth. It has a large number of ridges and furrows. It has nodes and internodes. Each node has a whorl
of branches.
5. The sporangia are borne on structures called sporangiophore. The sporangia aggregate on sporangiophores to form cones or
strobilus. Each sporangiophore has a slender stalk and an expanded disc at its free end. The sporangia are present on the underside
of the disc.
6. Their gametophyte is thalloid. It grows on clayey soil or on mud.
Example: Equisetum.
EQUISETUM
1. Sporophytic plant body
2. Differentiated into root, stem and leaves
3. Creeping or erect plant body
4. Stem: consist of underground rhizome and upright
green aerial branches. Jointed stem with nodes and
internodes, internodes with longitudinal ridges and
furrows and hollow interior
5. Silica deposits in stem make it rough (Scouring
rushes)
6. Leaves: nodes with small, sessile microphyllous scale
leaves in whorl
7. Function: photosynthesis
8. Fertile branches bear strobili after some vegetative
growth
9. Roots: Adventitious roots arise from the nodes of
rhizome
10. Other features: Homosporous nature, Eusporangiate
Strobilus or structure of cone
Equisetum is homosporous and Eusporangiate
Strobili are borne terminally and singly on aerial fertile branches.
Strobilus consists of a central axis on which stalked sporangiophores with sporangium are arranged in whorls
Sporangiophore
Umbrella shaped structure with a slender stalk and a hexagonal peltate disc
The underside of peltate disc bears variable number of sac like sporangia
The number of sporangia in each sporangiophore may vary from 5-10
Sporangium consists of a 2 cell thick wall, with large number of homosporous spores. Dehiscence along longitudinal
slit. Spores are dispersed by wind with the help of elaters
Spores and Elaters
Spores are Green, large, uninucleate, spherical, chloroplast containing structures with exine, intine and outermost epispore
Elaters are spirally coiled , spoon shaped hygroscopic structures formed from epispore of haploid spore
Each spore has 4 spirally arranged hygroscopic elaters
Function: helps in dehiscence of sporangium and spore dispersal
Gametophyte or Prothallus of Equisetum
Spores falling on suitable substratum germinate to form green prothallus with rhizoids for fixation.
Prothallus consists of a basal disc and number of green vertical
Monoecious or bisexual: both antheridia and archegonia are present.
Antheridia may occur on vertical lobes or basal disc embedded.
Antheridium produces 256-512multiflagellate, spirally coiled spermatozoids.
Archegonia flask shaped structures at the base of vertical lobes.
Fusion forms embryo which give rise to new plant.
Life cycle: Homomorphic alternation of generation
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PTEROPSIDA (Ferns)

1. Pteropsida evolved from Psilopsida, which appeared in the Devonian period live in the Carboniferous period decline in the late
Paleozoic era.
2. They have true roots, stem and leave with all developed vascular systems.
3. Leaves of fern are some simple but more often they are compound.
4. Stem are prostrate on or in the soil and large leaves are the only part normally seen.
5. Large leafy fern is diploid sporophyte spore are produced in sporangia, located in a cluster on the underside of see leave. A
number of sporangia develop inside a single sorus.
Pteropsida is divided into three classes
LIFE CYCLE OF FERN
The life cycle of the fern has two different stages; sporophyte, which releases spores, and gametophyte, which releases gametes.
Gametophyte plants are haploid, sporophyte plants diploid. This type of life cycle is called alternation of generations.
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EVOLUTION OF LEAF IN TRACHEOPHYTES

Early vascular land plants did not have true leaves or roots. These plants had a small size. They had dichotomously branched erect
smooth aerial parts. They have subterranean (underground) rhizome. It was used for anchoring and absorption. Later, the
evolution of the leaf took place.
Evolution of Microphyll (Small Leaf)A leaf with a small size and with the single undivided vein (vascular supply) is
called Microphyll. E.g. Leaves of Lycopods (Lycopodium). Rhynia was a primitive vascular plant. It had naked stem with leaves.
Such plants started forming leaves as small outgrowths. These outgrowths were not supplied with vascular bundles. Therefore,
they were not regarded as true leaves. Lycopods were the first plants that formed the true leaves and roots
Evolution of Megaphyll (Large Leaves)
Large leaves with divided veins and veinlets and with expanded leaf blade or lamina are known as megaphyll. Such leaves are
characteristics of ferns and seed plants. It is suggested that the evolution of megaphylls started from a dichotomous branching
system. This evolution took place in some primitive fern-like plants approximately 350 million years ago. The evolution of
megaphyll took place in the following steps:
1. Overtopping
There were some unequal branches on the dichotomously branched aerial, portion. Some branches remained short, while other
branches grew and expanded at a much faster pace. All these branches grew in different planes. Such an unequal development of
various branches is called overtopping.
2. Planation
In this step, the dichotomous branches were arranged in one plane. This process is called planation.
3. Fusion or Webbing
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In this step, the space between dichotomous branches was filled by a sheet of parenchyma cells. Parenchyma connected these
branches and formed a flat lamina or leaf blade structure. This structure has many dichotomously branched veins.
After some time, the vascular strands fused to form a network or reticulation pattern. The process of evolution was very slow and
gradual. It was completed in more than 15—20 million years.

COOKSONIA
1. Are some of the earliest known land plants. They existed during the middle
Silurian period (wenlock epoch) and went extinct during the early Devonian
period. They are a transitional genus between the bryophytes and vascular
plants.
2. Cooksonia was first discovered in Britain, where most of the fossils come
from. It thrived around the world. No fossil has been found of a Cooksonia
producing gametes, but rather spores.
3. Description
4. Cooksonia is one of the oldest plants to have a stem with vascular tissue. It
was also a non-vascular bryophyte. They lacked leaves. Each branch had a
sporangium at their end for producing spores. Some Cooksonia species had
trancheids (Although not many).

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PTERIDOPHYTES

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SPERMOPSIDA
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. They are the most successful group of the plant that appeared in the late Devonian period live in the carboniferous period and
replaced the Sphenopsida and Lycopsida.
2. The gametophyte is reduced and not photosynthetic.
3. Sperms are not independent free-swimming flagellated cells. Seed plants can be further divided into gymnosperms (naked
seed plant) and angiosperm (covered seed plant).
ADAPTIVE CHARACTERS
CLASSIFICATION GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
The division spermatophyte consists of two main subdivisions:
1. Gymnospermatophyta Vascular plants with naked Vascular plants with seeds
2. Angiospermatophyta seeds enclosed within ovary
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GYMNOSPERMS
The term gymnosperms (gymnos = naked; sperma = seed) was introduced by Theophrastus in 300 BC to describe plants with
unprotected seeds. According to Goebal gymnosperms are phanerogams without ovary. The phanerogams or Spermatophyta
(sperm = seed; phyton = plant) or seed plants are those plants which reproduce by means of seeds, not spores. Gymnosperms are
the vascular plants where seeds are not enclosed within an ovary (opposite to an angiosperm or flowering plants where seeds are
enclosed by mature ovaries or fruits). Gymnosperms were dominant plants over the earth’s surface during the Jurassic and
cretaceous periods of Mesozoic era. At present about 83 genera and approximately 790 species of living gymnosperms are
distributed throughout temperate, tropical and arctic regions of the world.
In these plants the ovules are borne naked or the surface of the megasporophylls, which are often arranged in the cones
Fossil records indicate that the gymnosperms must have evolved approximately 300 million years ago from non-seed producing
ancestors of the extinct division of Progymnospermophyta which were fern like in appearance (form a bridge between
pteridophytes and angiosperms).
1. Gymnosperms are predominantly woody plants, represented by trees, shrubs or rarely climbers.
2. They are usually xerophytic; some of them are deciduous while others are evergreen.
3. Plant body is sporophytic and can be differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
4. Generally the plants possess well developed tap root system. In some gymnosperms the roots show symbiotic relationship e.g.,
coralloid roots of Cycads with algae and mycorrhizal roots of Pinus with fungi.
5. Stem is erect, woody and branched (unbranched in Cycads and tuberous in Zamia). Presence of leaf scars on the stem is the
characteristic feature of gymnosperms.
6. The arrangement of the leaves on the stem may be spiral or cyclic. They may be of one kind (monomorphic) or two kinds
(dimorphic, foliage leaves and scale leaves). Foliage leaves are green, simple, may be small (microphyllous e.g., Pinus) or large
(megaphyllous e.g., Cycas). Their main function is photosynthesis. Scale leaves are present around the reproductive structures and
apex. They are mainly protective in nature.
Sequoia sempervirens (California or Coast red wood) is probably the tallest living tree reaching a height nearly 112 m and
attaining a growth of 15 m. Smallest gymnosperm is Zamia pygmaea.It is 25 cm tall. Taxodium maxicanum has a trunk with the
enormous diameter of 17 meter. The bristlecone pines (three species of pines i.e., P. aristata, P. longaeva and P. balfouriana) are
thought to reach an age greater than that of any other single organism known, upto nearly 5000 years.
CLASSIFICATION OF GYMNOSPERMS:
in older times gymnosperms were kept among angiosperms. it was robert brown (1827) who first of all recognized these plants
due to presence of naked ovules and placed them in a distinct group called gymnosperms. bentham and hooker (1862-83) placed
this group in between dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae as ‘genera planterum’.
Recently in 2011, new classification and linear sequence of extant (still existing) gymnosperms based on previous molecular and
morphological, phylogenetic and other studies was proposed by Maarten J.M., Christenhusz and co-workers.
Gymnosperms can be divided into four divisions. They are:
 Pinophyta
 Cycadophyta
 Ginkgophyta
 Gnetophyta
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CLASSIFICATION OF GYMNOSPERMS
1. cycads
Palm-like plants found mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. First appeared about 320 million years ago during the
Carboniferous; were so numerous during the Mesozoic that is it often called the Age of Cycads and Dinosaurs. Many have a
distinct trunk, with the functional leaves at the top - these being large megaphylls, often dissected. Reproduction structures are
reduced leaves with sporangia attached loosely or tightly clustered into conelike structures near the apex of the plant. Species are
either dioecious (male and female sporangia on different plants) or monoecious (male and female sporangia on same plant). Plants
are often toxic with neurotoxins and carcinogenic compounds.
2. ginkgoes: maidenhair tree
One species: Ginkgo biloba; the maidenfern tree no longer living in the wild, and only found in cultivation. The tree was
preserved in temple grounds in China and Japan. The genus is known from fossils that date back nearly 200 million years and are
nearly identical to present-date trees. It is easily recognized by its fan-shaped leaves and dichotomous pattern of vein; the leaves
on the spur shoots are more or less entire, whereas the those on the long shoots and seedlings are deeply lobed. Unlike most of
gymnosperms, this is a deciduous tree. The species is dioecious: the ovulate trees produce an abundance of trees which have a
particularly obnoxious odor. One of few species of plants known to have sex chromosomes. First brought over to the U.S. from
the orient in 1784; it is resistant to air pollution so is commonly cultivated in urban parks. The species is also widely used in the
ethnomedicinal trade.

3. gnetophytes: mormon tea, welwitschia, gnetum

Vessel-bearing gymnosperms, but apparently the vessels are convergent with angiosperms. Molecular systematic evidence is
suggesting these are closely related if not imbedded in conifers, rather than close to angiosperms as usually assumed. Three
families each with a single genus, none of which are found in Wisconsin.
Gnetum: 30 species of trees and climbing vines, with large leathery leaves that resemble dicots
Ephedra or mormon tea with about 35 species, profusely branched shrubs with small scalelike leaves
Welwitschia is one of the most bizarre organisms - most of the plant is buried in sandy soil of the coastal desert of southwestern
Africa.The exposed part consists of a massive woody, concave disk that produces only two strap-shaped leaves with the cone
bearing branches arising from meristematic tissue on the margin of disk.

4. conifers: pines, spruces and firs

Known from the late Carboniferous, some 290 million years ago. Now dominant only in boreal forests and often found in higher
elevations, but as a group they also do well in dry environments. Pines, spruces, and firs are of great commercial value. The tallest
(coastal redwood), most massive (giant sequoia), and oldest (bristle cone pine) are members of this group.

REPRODUCTION IN GYMNOSPERMS:
1. It is of two types: vegetative and sexual, reproduction.
2. Vegetative reproduction takes place by the formation of bulbils or adventitious buds which develop on the stem in the axil of
the scale leaves e.g., Cycas.
3. Gymnosperms are heterosporous and sexual reproduction is oogamous type. In living gymnosperms the reproductive structures
are arranged in the form of strobili or cones (except the ovulate structures of Cycas).
4. Plants may be Monoecious (e.g., Pinus) or dioecious (e.g., Cycas).
5. Usually the cones are monosporangiate (unisexual) but in certain members e.g., Ephedra bisporangiate (bisexual) cones have
been reported.

Male Cones:
 Male cone consists of many microsporophylls (stamens) arranged on central axis.
 Microsporophylls bear microsporangia (pollen sacs) on the abaxial (lower) side.
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Sporangial development is eusporangiate (develop from a group of cells).

Meiosis occurs in microspore mother cells and haploid pollen grains (male gametophytes) are developed.
During the development of male gametophyte only one (e.g., Cycas) or two (e.g., Pinus) prothallial cells are formed.
Pollen tubes act as sperm carrier only in higher forms (e.g., Pinus, Ephedra) whereas in the lower forms it acts as
haustoria (e.g., Cycas).
 Pollen grains may be smooth (e.g., Cycas) or winged (e.g., Pinus).
Female Cones:
 Female cone is the aggregation of megasporophylls (carpels) which bear megasporangia (ovules).
 Ovules are naked or not enclosed inside the ovary because ovary wall is absent.
 Ovules are orthotropic and are covered by a single integument (unitegmic e.g., Cycas) or two integuments (bitegmic e.g..
Ephedra). An additional covering in the form of aril or cupule is also present outside the integument.
 The single integument is differentiated into three layers: outer fleshy (outer sarcotesta), middle stony sclerotesta) and
inner fleshy layer (inner sarcotesta).
 In young ovules meiosis occurs and 4 haploid megaspores are produced.
 Three megaspores degenerate and one functional megaspore forms female gametophyte (monosporic) or endosperm.
 Endosperm is haploid because it develops before fertilization.
 Female gametophytes bear archegonia.
 The number of archegonia is variable. In Gnetum only one, in Pinus two and in Cycas more archegonia develop. The
archegonium in Gnetum is represented by ovum only.
 Each archegonium has a single egg and a ventral canal cell. Neck canal cells are absent. In some members e.g. Cycas
venter canal cell is also absent.

Pollination:
 The microspores are liberated in various stages of development of male gametopohyte e.g., they are liberated at 3-celled
stage in Cycas. 4-celled stage in Pinus and 5-celled stage in Ephedra. Except in Cycas and Ephedra the male gametes are
non-motile.
 Pollination is anemophilous i.e., brought about by wind.
 Pollen grains come in direct contact with the ovule. They are deposited in the pollen chamber where they germinate.
Fertilization:
 It is siphonogamous i.e., takes place with the help of pollen tube, Water is not essential for fertilization.
 An oospore is formed after fusion of male and female gametes.
Embryogeny:
 The development of embryo is meroblastic i.e., only a part of the zygote (basal) develops into an embryo.
 There are free nuclear divisions in the early stages of development of embryo (except Gnetum and Welwitschia). Later it
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gets differentiated into upper (haustorial), middle (sensorial) and basal (embryonal) cells.
 Polarity is endoscopic with the shoot end directed away from the micropyle.
 Polyembryony is observed in some members of gymnosperms e.g. Pinus. Several embryos develop due to fertilization of
more than one egg or by the division of the zygote (cleavage Polyembryony) but only one embryo attains maturity.
 A true fruit like that of angiosperms is absent in gymnosperms. It is because of the absence of ovary.
 The ovule after embryo formation turns into the seed. The integuments of the ovule act as seed coat.
Number of cotyledons varies in different members; they are two in Cycas and many in Pinus. These become green while
still enclosed within the seed.
The seeds represent three generations:
 Integuments and nucellus represent the parent sporophytic phase.
 Endosperm represents the gametophytic phase.
Embryo represents the new sporophytic phase.
Gymnosperms show distinct alternation of generation. The sporophytic or diploid phase is dominant, long lived and independent
while the gametophytic or haploid phase is short lived and is dependent on gametophytic phase.
PINUS- LIFE CYCLE
The pine is a conifer. The main plant body is saprophyte which produces spores after reduction division of spore mother cell in
sporangia. Conifers are heterosporous. Microspores and megaspores are produced in microsporangia and megasporangia respectively.
Sporangia (i.e., micro and megasporangia) are produced on respective cones (male cones and female cones) on the same plant.
The male cones are small in size and are produced in clusters on an axis. Each male cone consists of microsporophylls which contain
microsporangia. Microspore germinates to form a small inconspicuous male gametophyte (also called as microgametophyte) within the
spore wall. Such a microspore of seed plants that contains the microgametophyte including the gametes is called a pollen grain (plural =
pollen).
Pollen are produced in great numbers and are transported by wind. Pollen grain in Pinus has two wings attached to its lateral sides. Due
to wings, pollen can float in air for a longer period of time and can travel long distances. The gymnosperms have successfully evolved
this totally new mechanism of transfer of male gamete to the female gametophyte through wind which has made them independent of
water for this purpose. This is an important improvement and evolutionary adaptation to survive in the harsh dry terrestrial (land)
environment.
During pollination the pollen land directly on the ovules. Only few pollen are able to germinate to form pollen tubes through which male
gametes are transferred to the embryo sac for fertilization.
More than one egg can be fertilized to form several zygotes, but one zygote usually survives to form a single embryo. After fertilization
the ovule becomes the seed. The seeds now contains an embryo along with some stored food material. The seed upon germination gives
rise to a new sporophyte plant.
In the life cycle of Pinus, the dominant diploid sporophyte generation alternates with inconspicuous haploid gametophyte generation
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AFFINITIES AND RELATIONSHIP OF GYMNOSPERMS:

Gymnosperms occupy a place in between pteridophytes and angiosperms in the plant kingdom. Therefore, gymnosperms bear
close affinities with the pteridophytes on one hand and the angiosperms on the other. In many other characters they differ from
both.

RESEMBLANCES OR SIMILARITIES WITH PTERIDOPHYTES:

1. Sporophytic, independent plant body is present in both the groups. It is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
2. Sporophyte possesses a well-developed vascular tissue.
3. Xylem lacks vessels and phloem companion cells.
4. Young leaves show circinate vernation.
5. Presence of megaphyllous leaves.
6. Gymnosperm and few pteridophytes e.g. Selaginella are heterosporous i.e. form micro- and megaspores in micro- and
megasporangia, borne on the micro and megasporophylls respectively.
7. In Cycas, sporangia are grouped in sori like pteridophytes.
8. The female sex organ is archegonium in both the groups.
9. The male gametes of Cycas and Ginkgo are motile like the pteridophytes.
10. Permanent retention of megaspore within the megasporangium.
11. Gametophytes are endosporic and highly reduced.
12. Female Prothallus develops before fertilization and there is free nuclear division.
13. Germination of spores is precocious in gymnosperms and heterosporous pteridophytes.
14. Development of distinct embryo after fertilization.
15. Like the pteridophytes, gymnosperms show marked alternation of generation between gametophytic and sporophytic phase.
Sporophytic generation or sporophytic phase is dominant, independent and large at maturity while the gametophytic generation
exhibits progressive reduction and dependence.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND PTERIDOPHYTES:
Gymnosperms Pteridophytes
1. Occur in Xerophytic habitats. 1. Hygrophytes (grow in moist and shady places).
2. Have taproot. 2. Possess adventitious roots.
3. Eustelic organization. 3. Not found.
4. Secondary growth present. 4. Absent.
5. Stems are aerial. 5. Usually underground rhizomes.
6. Only microspores are shed from microsporangia. 6. Both micro- and megaspores are shed from sporangia.
7. Pollen tube is developed to carry male gametes to 7. Pollen tube is absent in all heterosporous pteridophytes.
archegonium. 8. In archegonium, neck canal and neck canal cells are present.
8. Archegonia lack neck canal and neck canal cell and 9. Ovule is absent.
archegonium is absent in Gnetum.
9. Megasporangium is protected by integument and is called 10. Water is essential for fertilization.
ovule. 11. Gametophyte is green and autotrophic.
10. Water is not essential for fertilization. 12. Absent.
11. Gametophyte is fully dependent on sporophyte.
12. Presence of free nuclear divisions in earlier stages of 13. Absent.
development.
13. Seeds are present.

Similarities with Angiosperms:

1. Main plant body is sporophytic and is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
2. Plants are trees or shrubs and may be erect or climbing.
3. Root system is well developed and the roots may be diarch, triarch, tetrarch or polyarch.
4. The xylem is exarch in the roots.
5. Stem is Eustelic. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
6. Secondary growth takes place.
7. Wood may be monoxylic or polyxylic.
8. Vessels and companion cells also occur in some gymnosperms (Gnetales) like angiosperms.
9. Heterosporous and have reduced gametophytes.
10. Nucellus is surrounded by integument to form a structure called ovule.
11. Like gymnosperms many angiosperms are wind pollinated.
12. Megaspore permanently remains inside the megasporangium and develops into female gametophyte.
13. Pollen grains grow into pollen tube.
14. Male gametes are non-motile in majority of gymnosperms and angiosperms.
15. Fertilization is siphonogamous.
16. Suspensor is formed during development of embryo.
17. Formation of endosperm.
18. Formation of seeds from ovules.
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19. As in gymnosperms, Polyembryony is found in several angiosperms.

20. Embryogeny is endoscopic.
21. Life cycle is similar in both groups.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS

Gymnosperms Angiosperms

1. Plants are mostly woody trees. 1. Plants may be herbs, shrubs or trees.
2. Unisexual, may be Monoecious or dioecious. 2. Bisexual as well as unisexual, Monoecious or dioecious.
3. Angiosperms may be annual, biennial or perennial.
3. Majority of the gymnosperms are perennial. 4. Vegetative reproduction is very common.
4. Rarely reproduce by vegetative means. 5. Present.
5. Vessels in xylem element and companion cells in phloem are 6. Absent.
completely absent. 7. Flowers consist of sepals and petals.
6. Cones are present. 8. Pollination may be anemophilous, entomophilous,
7. Beautifying devices like sepals and petals are absent. hydrophilous or zoophilous.
8. Ovules are naked. 9. Ovules are enclosed within the ovary wall.
9. Presence of Prothallus. 10. Absent.
11. Pollination is anemophilous. 11. Absent.
12. Archegonia present. 12. Formed after fertilization.
13. Double fertilization absent. 13. Endosperm is triploid.
14. Zygote undergoes free nuclear divisions. 14. Present.
15. Endosperm is haploid, Endosperm is formed before 15. Absent.
fertilization. 16. Zygote does not undergo nuclear divisions.
16. Fruit formation absent. 17. Present.
17. Cleavage Polyembryony prevalent.

EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF GYMNOSPERMS:

Gymnosperms are the most ancient seed plants that originated during the late Paleozoic (290-540 million years ago) era but
flourishing well during the Mesozoic age. Their long evolutionary history is full of diverse lines of evolution. 1. One of these lines
of evolution included the early fern-like seed bearing group of plants known as cycadofilicales or the Pteridospermae.
Neuropteris, Lygenopteris are some of the examples of such plants. They had fern like general appearance and foliage but
possessed the primitive type of seed. These fossil seed ferns are evidence of the origin of the gymnosperms from an ancient fern
like individuals.
2. During the course of evolution of the seed habit, a number of morphological adaptations were necessary e.g., secondary wood,
stelar system, origin of leaf, development of pollen grains, ovule and seed. First of all seed plants are heterosporous i.e. produce
two types of spores-megaspores and microspores (hence it is assumed that ancestors of male plants are heterosporous).
3. Development of pollen is of evolutionary significance because sperm is protected within pollen. Pollens are able to travel by
wind. It allows plant to use several recombinations over long distances.
4. Development of seed is also of evolutionary significance because seed contains the plant embryo and enough energy to nurture
the plant embryo through germination.
5. The evolutionary significance of the seed is related to the plant capability of distant colonization and to the protection of
embryo. The seeds containing embryo can be carried by wind, water and animals and germinate in different environments. This
fact contributes to the exploitation of a variety of ecological niches and for the diversity of plant species. Seed in addition protects
embryo against external aggressions and they also provide germination under more adequate conditions (inside the seed). These
features contribute to the evolutiary significance of gymnosperms.

The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a system
known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.
Theophrastus- who is known as the father of botany and apparently the first to provide a difference between dicots and monocots

EVOLUTION OF SEED IN GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms are one of the successful groups of seed plants of worldwide distribution. They constitute about one-third of the world’s
forests. The gymnosperms are heterosporous plants which produce seeds but no fruits. The ovules in these plants are usually borne on
the exposed surfaces of fertile leaves (megasporophylls). These ovules, unlike those of angiosperms are not enclosed but lie naked on the
surface of fertile leaves.
Like filicinae, they show regular heteromorphic alternation of generations. They have independent, dominant sporophyte but less
conspicuous, dependent gametophyte. The female gametophyte is permanently retained within the ovule. The two kinds of spores are
microspores and megaspores which develop on microsporophylls and megasporophylls respectively. The megasporophylls bearing
ovules are not folded and joined at the margins to form an ovary. For this reason the seeds lie naked on the mega sporophylls
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Classification of Angiosperms
A large number of plants fall into this category and so there was a requirement to classify angiosperms. There are three systems
that classify angiosperms:
 Artificial Systems based on superficial features.
 Natural systems based on form relationships.
 Phylogenetic systems based on evolutionary and genetic relationships.
Artificial systems Natural Systems Phylogenetic systems
These systems of classification were based These systems the plants were classified on These classification systems came
on one or few morphological characters. the basis of their natural affinities (i.e. the up after Darwin’s theory of
Many botanists used this system basic similarities in the morphology) evolution was proposed and
• Theophrastus Bentham and Hooker’s System widely accepted
• John Ray two popular systems:
• Carolus Linnaeus- Engler and Prantl
Hutchinson

Top five botanists who have contributed towards plant classification.

Carolus Linnaeus’s first person to use the binomial system of nomenclature based solely on the number and arrangement of
system the reproductive organs
It aids in the quick and easy identification by means of one or a few characters.
John Ray’s system Classification on the basis of overall morphology, seeds, flowers, fruits and roots

Bessey’s System followed Bentham and Hooker’s system

Angiosperms divided into two Classes –Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledoneae.
Divided gymnosperm families into different groups
Bentham and It is a natural system and mostly used for practical purposes. First great natural system of plant
Hooker’s System classification. very easily workable
Accepted by the entire British Empire, USA and other European countries.
Focused on the contrast between free and united petals in this system
does not indicate phylogentic relationship
Engler and Prantl’s It is phylogenetic and proposed after the theory of descent.
System Broad description of the whole plant kingdom
provides abundant illustrations and descriptions

Hutchinson’s System of Classification of Angiosperms

John Hutchinson was the author of a classification published between 1926-1934. This system appeared in two volumes “families
of flowering plants”. This was later revised in 1948.
 It is phylogenetic system. A clear concept of evolution was taken into account
 Concepts are new but it is based on Bessey’s system.
 Flowering plants were classified.
 Gymnosperms are more primitive to angiosperms.
 Dicots divided into Lignosae and Herbaceae.
 Compositae highly advanced in monocots.
 Orchidaceae highly advanced in monocots.
 There are 411 families.

ANGIOSPERM
About 300,000 species of flowering plants,
The largest and most diverse group within the kingdom
Represent approximately 80 percent of all the known green plants now living.
Vascular seed plants in which the ovule (egg) is fertilized and develops into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The ovary
itself is usually enclosed in a flower containing the male or female reproductive organs or both.
Fruits are derived from the maturing floral organs
CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS
The class angiospermae is divided into two sub-classes, the monocotyledonae (with one cotyledon) and the dicotyledonae (with two
cotyledons), according to the number of cotyledons in the embryo.
b) Class Monocotyledonae a) Class Dicotyledonae
 Their seeds have an embryo with one  These are plant whose embryo of seeds has
cotyledon two cotyledons.
 Relatively narrow leaves with parallel veins  Their leaves are broad and have networks of
 The cross section of the stem reveals scattered veins
vascular veins  Cross section of stems reveals vascular
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No vascular cambium hence no secondary bundles arranged in rings

growth  They have taproot system
 They bear floral parts in threes  Centrally placed star-shaped xylem with
Examples include Maize, grass, wheat, sorghum, phloem alternating with arms of the xylem
sugarcane, coconuts, bananas and sisal.  Their flowers have floral parts in five or fours
Examples are herbs, shrubs, and trees. The herbs
include plants with all stems such as beans, cabbages,
tomatoes and black jack while the shrubs include
plants with fairly thick stems such as coffee, tea and
cocoa

Lifespan and life cycle

The life span of a plant is the length of time it takes from the beginning of development until death, while the life cycle is the
series of stages between the germination of the seed until the plant produces its own seeds.
 annual: a plant which naturally germinates, flowers, and dies in one year, Annuals complete their life cycle in one
season
Arabidopsis

 biennial: a plant that requires two years to complete its life cycle, biennials complete their life cycle in two seasons
Carrot

 perennial: a plant that is active throughout the year or survives for more than two growing seasons, and perennials
complete their life cycle in more than two seasons.
Magnolia
classification based on flowering frequency
 monocarpic: a plant that flowers and bears fruit only once before dying, bamboo and yucca, Soon after flowering, these
plants die
 polycarpic: bearing fruit repeatedly, or year after year such as apple and orange, they flower every year.
 senescence: aging of a plant; accumulated damage to macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs with the passage of time
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BOTANICAL TERMS
Classical angiosperm phylogeny is based mainly on flower anatomy, and in particular, the arrangement, form of the principle
parts and the fruiting body. A flower is the reproductive unit of an angiosperm plant. There is an enormous variety of flowers,
but all have some characteristics in common.
The definitive characteristic of the angiosperms is the enclosed ovary, which contains and protects the developing seeds.
Floral reproduction is bisexual, and flowers have "male" and "female" parts.
The "male" or pollen-bearing part is called the stamen, and is composed of the filament and the anther.
The "female" or seed-bearing part is called the pistil, and is composed of the ovary, the stigma, and the style.
A flower may have exclusively male parts, exclusively female parts, or commonly, both. When there are separate flower types,
both may occur on the same plant; occasionally a plant may bear only male or female flowers. Inflorescence refers to the
flowering body of a plant.
PARTS OF A FLOWER

Pedicel:
The footstalk supporting a single flower in an inflorescence.
Receptacle:
The generally enlarged top of the footstalk, which supports the other parts of the flower. Some "fruits" are enlarged receptacles
rather than ovaries
Peduncle:
The stalk supporting an inflorescence or solitary flower.
Bract:
A leaf-like element below a flower or on an inflorescence. Bracts are typically shaped differently than other leaves on the plant.
They are usually green, but occasionally are brightly colored and petal-like.
Perianth:
The technical term for the envelope that surrounds the reproductive parts of a flower. This enclosure is composed of two
concentric units, the outer perianth, or calyx which may be divided into sepals, and the inner perianth, or corolla, which may be
divided into petals. Either the calyx or the corolla (or both) may be much reduced or lacking.
Calyx:
The outer perianth of a flower. The calyx surrounds the corolla, and is typically divided into lobes called sepals. These are
frequently green, and reduced relative to the petals, but they can also be large, and brightly colored, resembling petals. In many
flowers, the sepals enclose and protect the flower bud prior to opening.
Sepal:
A division or lobe of the calyx or outer perianth of a flower. Sepals are often green, and/or reduced in size, but they can be
colorful and petal-like as well
Corolla:
The inner perianth of a flower. The corolla typically surrounds the reproductive parts of the flower. It may be continuous as in a
petunia, lobed, or divided into distinct petals. In some cases, especially in cultivated varieties, the corolla may be doubled or
even further multiplied, producing multiple layers of petals. In other cases, it may be lacking entirely.
Petal:
A division or lobe of the corolla or inner perianth of a flower.
Involucre:
A circle or cup of bracts that surrounds and supports the multiple florets of the head in the composite flowers of the
family asteraceae. The shape and arrangement of the involucral bracts is important in describing the members of this family.
Anther:
The pollen-bearing body of the stamen, usually relatively compact, and supported at the end of the narrow filament. Under a
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lens, anthers exhibit a wide variety of forms and means of attachment. These characteristics are often important in technical
keys for flower identification.
Filament:
The usually narrow and often threadlike part of the stamen which supports the pollen-bearing anther.
Stamen:
The pollen-bearing or "male" reproductive part of a flower. The pollen is borne on a more or less compact body termed
the anther, which is supported by the filament. A flower may have hundreds of stamens, or only a few. Pistillate or "female"
flowers have pistils but no stamens.
Pistil:
The seed-bearing or "female" reproductive part of a flower. The pistil is composed of the ovary, the style, and the stigma. The
ovary contains the developing seeds, and is connected to the pollen-receiving stigma by the style. Flowers often contain a
single pistil, but may contain several. Staminate or "male" flowers contain only stamens and lack pistils entirely.
Ovary:
The part of the pistil that encloses the unfertilized seeds or ovules, and that typically develops into a dry or fleshy fruit once
pollination takes place. The ovary is generally central to the flower, and supports the other principle parts. Whether they are
attached at the top (ovary inferior) or the bottom (ovary superior) is an important anatomical characteristic for classification.
Not all "fruits" are mature ovaries; some form from supporting parts of the flower, for example, strawberries develop from
the receptacle - the enlarged top of the flower stalk.
Stigma:
The upper part of the pistil which receives the pollen. The stigma is often sticky, or covered with fine hairs or grooves, or other
anatomical features that help the pollen to adhere. It may be cleft into several parts.
Style:
The usually elongated part of the pistil that connects the ovary to the stigma.

TYPE OF BRACT

1.Leafy or foliaceous. These bracts are typical- ly green leaf-like, e.g., Acalypha indica (Fig. A, B) of Euphorbiaceae etc.

2.Scaly. These bracts are thin and scale-like e.g., disc florets of capitulum inflorescence in Helianthus annuus of Asteraceae

3.Spathy. These bracts are large, fleshy and boat-shaped, which partially or completely covered the inflorescence, e.g., spathe
(of spadix inflorescence) of coconut, Cocos nucifera of Palmae; spathe of Colocasia antiquorum ( of Araceae etc.

4.Petaloid. These bracts are coloured and showy like petals, e.g., Euphorbia pulche- rrima of Euphorbiaceae, . Bougainvillea
spectabilis (Fig. E) of Nyctaginaceae etc.

5.Epicalyx. These are present at the base of the calyx and are bracteole in nature, e.g., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Fig. F) and many
otp]her members of Malvaceae.

6.Involuc These are green leafy bracts pre- sent in one or more whorls at the base of the capitulum inflorescence, e.g.,
Helianthus annuus (Fig. G) of Compositae etc.
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7.Glume. These are stiff, dry and scaly bracts found in the spikelet inflorescence (Fig. H) of Poaceae (Gramineae) etc.

8.Cupule. These bracts grow together at the base of flower in the form of a cup and later surround the fruit, e.g., hazel, Corylus
sp (Fig. I) of Betulaceae etc.

TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE

A determinate form has a fixed endpoint, usually a terminal flower that generally opens first. Lower side branches bear buds
that open later.
In indeterminate inflorescences, the youngest flowers are at the top of an elongated axis or on the centre of a truncated axis. An
indeterminate inflorescence may be a raceme, panicle, spike, catkin, corymb, umbel, spadix, or head.
Solitary:
Flowers (or heads) borne singly on isolated stems or arising individually from leaf axils. Not part of a larger group.
Cyme:
A determinate inflorescence, often one forming a convex or flat-topped cluster, though the term is applied to other determinate
arrangements as well. In all forms, a terminal flower opens first, followed by flowers on lower branches. Multiple levels of
branching are frequently involved.
Raceme:
A simple, indeterminate inflorescence consisting of stalked flowers attached to a central stem and forming a more or less
elongated cluster. The stalk of a flower is termed a pedicle and pedicled flowers are implied by the term raceme when used
alone in the specific sense.
Spike:
An indeterminate inflorescence consisting of stalk less flowers attached to a central stem, generally forming a highly elongated
cluster. A raceme of stalk less flowers.
Spikelet
A small spike, characteristic of grasses and sedges.
Corymb:
An indeterminate inflorescence forming a convex or flat-topped cluster, essentially a contracted raceme. Typically flowers arise
from a central axis on stalks (pedicles) of different lengths that bring them all to near the same height. The term is also applied
to racemes of similar shape with branching pedicles. The outermost flowers generally open first.
Umbel:
An branched inflorescence forming a convex or flat-topped cluster in which all the pedicles are nearly the same length, and
appear to originate near a single point (like the spokes of an umbrella). Many umbels are actually highly contracted racemes,
though the term is frequently used with determinate forms as well. Umbels can be compound that is an umbel of umbels. The
form is characteristic of the parsley family (apiaceae), which was formerly known as umbelliferae.
Head:
A compact inflorescence, with the flowers so tightly packed as to appear a single unit. The composite flowers of the sunflower
family (asteraceae) are the most familiar examples, but there are many other instances. The term is applied to both determinate
and indeterminate units.
Panicle:
An indeterminate inflorescence consisting of a compound raceme; that is, a central axis bearing racemes as secondary units, or
a more general branching structure composed of racemes. The term is sometimes applied to any sort of a loose, branching
cluster
Thyrse:
A multi flowered inflorescence with an indeterminate central axis and many opposite, lateral dichasia, mixed inflorescence with
determinate and indeterminate shoots

SYMMETRY OF FLOWER
Actinomorphic or radial (or regular) - also known as Zygomorphic or bilateral (or irregular) - also known as
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polysymmetric. monosymmetric.
Divisible through the centre of the flower in several or many  divided into equal halves along one (longitudinal) plane
longitudinal planes, the halves of the flower being mirror only, or in other words,
images in every case.  divisible through the centre of the flower in only one
longitudinal plane for the halves of the flower to be
mirror images.

Asymmetric
The flowers of a few species have no plane of symmetry and are asymmetrical (a term that is applied by some authors to
zygomorphic flowers). The flowers of some cannas and some gingers are classified in this manner.
TYPES OF AESTIVATION
1. Valvate Aestivation
Sepals or petals in a whorl just meet by their edges without overlapping. eg. Sepals of Hibiscus.
2. Twisted Aestivation
In this mode of aestivation one margin of each sepal or petal overlaps the next one, and the other margin is overlapped by a
preceding one. Here the over lapping is regular in one direction-clockwise or anticlockwise. eg. Petals of Hibiscus
3. Imbricate
In this type, one sepal or petal is internal or being overlapped on both the margins and one sepal or petal is external with both of
its margins overlapping. Of the remaining sepals or petals, one margin is overlapping and the other margin overlapped.
There are two types of imbricate aestivation descendingly imbricate and ascendingly imbricate.
Descendingly Imbricate or Vexillary Aestivation: In this type of aestivation the posterior petal of overlaps one margin of the
two lateral petals.
The other margin of these two lateral petals overlaps the two anterior petals, which are united. Thus the overlapping is in
descending order and hence the name eg. Corolla of Fabaceae.
Ascendingly imbricate aestivation : In this type the posterior odd petal is innermost being overlapped by one margin of the two
lateral petals. The other margin of the two lateral petals is overlapped by the two anterior petals. Here the overlapping of petals
begins from the anterior side proceeding towards the posterior side. This is just opposite of descendingly imbricate aestivation.
eg.Petals of Caesalpiniaceae.
4. Quincuncial
It is modification of imbricate aestivation in which two petals are internal, two are external and the fifth one has one margin
external and the other margin internal. eg. Guava

CALYX The outer whorl of perianth consisting of sepals is called calyx

1. Polysepalous: When calyx lobes or sepals are free, e.g., Cassia.
2. Gamosepalous: When calyx lobes or sepals are fused or united, e.g., Datura.
3. Caducous: When sepals wither or drop off very soon, e.g., poppy.
4. Persistent: When sepals persist even in the fruit, e.g., Solanum nigrum.
5. Petalloid: When sepals are coloured, e.g., Delphinium.
Forms of Calyx:
1. Tabular: Like a tube, e.g., Nicotiana.
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2. Urceolate: Un-shaped, e.g., Hyoscyamus.

3. Cupulate: Cup-like, e.g., Gossypium.
4. Infundibuliform: Funnel-shaped, e.g., Atropa belladona.
5. Campanulate: Bell-shaped, e.g., Lathyrus odoratus.
6. Bilabiate: Consisting of two lips, e.g., Ocimum.
7. Spurred: When one or more sepals are produced into spur, e.g., Delphinium.
8. Pappus: Reduced and hairy, as in Asteraceae.

COROLLA
The petals are usually brightly coloured because of the presence of water-soluble anthocyanin (red, orange, violet, blue, etc.) and
anthoxanthin (yellow to ivory white) pigments or the carotenoids contained in the chromoplasts.
1. Cruciform:
Petals are differentiated into a claw and a limb, and all the four petals are arranged in the form of a cross, e.g., members of
Cruciferae.
2. Caryophyllaceous:
When five petals are clawed and have their limbs spreading out, e.g., members of Caryophyllaceae.
3. Rosaceous:
When five or more petals are spreading like that of a rose, e.g., Rosaceae.
4. Campanulate:
Bell-shaped corolla, e.g., Campanula, Physalis.
5. Tubular:
Regular, gamopetalous corolla with their petals fused to form a tube, as in disc florets of Compositae.
6. Infundibuliform:
Regular, gamopetalous corolla with their petals in the form of a funnel, e.g., members of Convolvulaceae.
7. Hypocrateriform:
Regular, gamopetalous, salver – shaped corolla, i.e., basal portion is narrow and tubular with the abruptly expanding flat apical
part, e.g., Clerodendron.
8. Urceolate:
Urn or pitcher – shaped corolla with the broad middle part, e.g., Bryophyllum, Petrospora.
9. Rotate:
Regular, gamopetalous, wheel-shaped corolla with narrow and short corolla tube, and the limbs of petals being at right angle to
the tube, e.g., Nyctanthes.
10. Butterfly-like or Papilionaceous:
It is irregular, polypetalous corolla with its five petals arranged so as to resemble a butterfly. It consists of a posterior largest
‘vexillurri, two lateral ‘alae’ and two anterior fused petals called ‘keel’, as in members of Papilionaceae.
11. Ligulate:
It is a strap-shaped, zygomorphic, gamopetalous corolla, with a short, narrow tube and strap-like, flat upper portion, e.g., ray
florets of Compositae.
12. Bilipped or Bilabiate:
Zygomorphic, gamopetalous corolla, in which petals are so fused together that they appear to be divided into two separate lips,
e.g., Adhatoda, Ocimum.
13. Personate or Masked:
It is also bilabiate corolla but here the mouth of the corolla is closed because two lips are very close to each other, e.g., Linaria.
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ANDROECIUM
It is the third whorl of the flower. It is considered as the male part of the flower. The androecium is made up of stamens or
microsporophylls. Each stamen has a slender stalk called filament, bearing the anther (microsporangial sorus). Usually the anther
consists of two lobes. The two lobes of an anther are connected by a tissue called connective. Each anther lobe has two pollen
sacs(microsporangia). Each pollen sac consists of innumerable Pollen grains (microspores).
Sterile stamen or staminode
In some plants, a stamen may not develop any fertile anther. Such sterile stamens are called staminodes eg. Cassia.
1. Cohesion of Stamens
Monadelphous: All the stamens of a flower are united in one bundle by fusion of their filaments only. The anthers are free,
eg. Hibiscus, Abutilon, etc.
Diadelphous: All the stamens of a flower are united in two bundles by fusion of their filaments only. The anthers are free,
eg.Clitoria
Polyadelphous: Filaments of all the stamens unite to form more than two bundles. The anthers are free, eg. Citrus.
Syngenesious: Anthers of all the stamens of the flower unite to forma cylinder around the style. The filaments are free,
eg.Asteraceae.
Synandrous: Anthers as well as the filaments are fused throughout their whole length, eg. Cucurbitaceae
Polyandrous: Stamens are indefinite and free, eg. Ranunculus.

2. Adhesion of stamens
Epipetalous: Stamens adhre to the petals by their filaments and hence appearing to arise from them, eg. Solanum, Ocimum, etc.
Epitepalous (Epiphyllous): When stamens united with the perianth leaves, the stamens are said to be Epitepalous.
eg.Asphodelus. (Spider lilly)
Gynandrous: Stamens adhere to the carpels either throughout their length of by their anthers only. eg. Calotropis.

3. Length of stamens
i. Didynamous: Out of four stamens in a flower, two are long and two are short, eg.
Ocimum
ii. Tetradynamous: Out of six stamens in a flower, two outer are short and four inner are long, eg. Mustard.

4. Position of stamens
i. Inserted: Stamens shorter than corolla tube.
ii. Exerted: Stamens longer than the corolla tube, protruding outwards.
Number of antherlobes
Dithecous: Anthers have two lobes with four microsporangia or pollen sacs.
Monothecous: Anthers have only one lobe with two microsporangia.
Fixation of anthers
Basifixed (Innate): Filament is attached to the base of the anther, eg. Brassica.
Adnate: Filament is continued from the base to the apex of anther, eg. Verbena.
Dorsifixed: Filament is attached to the dorsal side of the anther, eg. Citrus.
Versatile: Anther is attached lightly at its back to the slender tip of the filament so that it can swing freely, eg. Grass
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GYNOECIUM
Gynoecium is the collective term for the innermost central whorl of floral appendages. It is considered as the female part of the
flower. A unit of gynoecium is called carpel. Following technical terms and related with gynoecium.
1. Number of Carpel
Monocarpellary: Gynoecium consists of a single carpel; eg. Fabaceae
Bicarpellary: Ovary consists of two carpels; eg. Rubiacea
Tricarpellary: Ovary consists of three carpels; eg. Liliaceae
Tetracarpellary: Ovary comprises of four carpels; eg. Melia
Multicarpellary: Gynoecium consists of many carpels eg. Papaver

2. Cohesion of Carpels
Apocarpous: Gynoecium made up of two or more carpels which are free; eg. Polyalthia.
Syncarpous: Gynoecium consists of two or more carpels which are fused; eg. Hibiscus.

3. Number of locules
Depending on the number of chambers, the ovary may be described as unilocular, bilocular, trilocular etc.

PLACENTATION
In Angiosperms, ovules are present inside the ovary. Placenta is a special type of tissue, which connects the ovules to the ovary.
The mode of distribution of placenta inside the ovary is known as placentation.
1. Axile Placentation
This type of placentation is seen in bi- or multi carpellary, syncarpous ovary. The carpel walls meet in the centre of the ovary,
where the lacenta are formed like central column. The ovules are borne at or near the centre on the placenta in each locule.
eg.Hibiscus.
2. Marginal Placentation
It occurs in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. The ovules are borne along the junction of the two margins of the carpel.
eg.Fabaceae
3. Parietal Placentation
This type of placentation is found in multi carpellary, syncarpous, unilocular ovary. The carpels are fused only by their margins.
The placenta bearing ovules develop at the places, where the two carpels are fused. eg. Cucumber
4. Basal Placentation
It is seen in bicarpellary syncarpous, and unilocular ovary. The placenta develop directly on the receptacle, which bears a single
ovule at the base of the ovary. eg. Asteraceae.
5. Superficial Placentation
This type of placentation occurs in a multicarpellary, multiocular ovary. The ovules are borne on placentae, which develop all
round the inner surface of the partition wall eg. Nymphaeaceae
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TYPE OF FRUITS
True Fruit: The fruit, which is derived from ovary of a flower and not associated with any noncarpellary part, is known as true
fruit. eg. Tomato, Brinjal, Pea, Mango, Banana etc.
False Fruit: (Pseudocarp) The fruit derived from the ovary along with other accessory floral parts is called a false fruit.
eg. Apple(edible part of the fruit is the fleshy receptacle).
Structure of fruit
A fruit consists of two main parts - the seeds and the pericarp or fruit wall. The structure and thickness of pericarp varies from
fruit to fruit. The pericarp consists of three layers - outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp. The sweet juicy and
edible flesh is the mesocarp, the inner most hard covering is the endocarp.
The fruits are usually classified into three groups, namely simple, aggregate and multiple or composite fruits.
Berry: It is a many seeded fruit. Here the epicarp is thin, the mesocarp and endocarp remain undifferentiated. They form a pulp in
which the seeds are embedded. In these fruits, all parts including the epicarp with the seeds are edible eg. tomato
Drupe: This is normally a one-seeded fruit. In these fruits the pericarp is differentiated into an outer skinny epicarp, a middle
fleshy and juicy mesocarp and an inner hard and stony endocarp. Drupes are called stone
fruits because of the stony hard endocarp. The endocarp encloses F o llic le a single seed. The edible portion, i. Basifixed
(Innate): Filament is attached to the base of the anther, eg. Brassica.
of the fruit is the fleshy mesocarp eg. mango. In coconut, the mesocarp is fibrous, the edible part is the endosperm.
Hesperidium: It is a skind of baccate fruit that develops from a superior multicarpellary and syncarpous ovary. The fruit wall is
differentiated into three layers - an outer glandular skin or epicarp, a middle fibrous mesocarp, and an inner membranous
endocarp. The latter divides the fruit chamber into a number of compartments. The seeds arise on axial placentae and are covered
by juicy hairs or outgrowths from the lacentae that are edible.
It is characteristic fruit of the genus Citrus (Fam. Rutaceae)
Pepo: A large fleshy fruit developing from a tricarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular and inferior ovary with parietal placentation.
The fruit is many seeded with pulpy interior; eg. Cucumber, Melon, Bottle gourd etc.
Pome: It is a fleshy and a false fruit or Pseudocarp. It develops from a multicarpellary syncarpous inferior ovary in which the
receptacle also develops along with the ovary to become fleshy and enclosing the true fruit. The true fruit containing seeds
remains inside. The edible part is fleshy thalamus. eg. Apple, Pear etc.
146

The fruit may be defined as a fertilized and developed ovary. Fruits and seeds develop from flowers after completion of two
processes namely pollination and fertilization. After fertilization, the ovary develops into fruit. The ovary wall develops into the
fruit wall called pericarp and the ovules inside the ovary develop into seeds. The branch of horticulture that deals with study of
fruits and their cultivation is called pomology.
Fertilization acts as a stimulus for the development of ovary into fruit. But there are several cases where ovary may develop into
fruit without fertilization. This phenomenon of development of fruit without fertilization is called parthenocarpy and such fruits
are called parthenocarpic fruits. These fruits are necessarily seedless. eg. Banana, grapes, pineapple and guava etc. The fruits
are classified into two main categories, - true and false fruits.
Floral Formula:
It is a symbolic and numerical representation of various floral parts. It also furnishes information regarding symmetry, sexuality
and interrelationship of various floral parts viz., calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
147

FAMILY ROSACEAE
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
Habit:
The plants show great variation in habit. The plants may be annual (Neurada spp.) or perennial prostrate herb, scandent or
climbing or erect (Rosa spp.), shrubs or trees. Cydonia species are bushes. Trees are common and many of them are our popular
fruit trees e.g. Prunus amygdalus (H. Badam); Prunus persica (H. Aru);Pyrus communis (H. Naspati); Pyrus mains (H. Seb) etc.
Root:
Tap, branched sometimes adventitious arising from stem cuttings.
Stem:
Erect, prostrate or climber, branched, hard and woody, runner or sucker. Vegetative propagation takes place by means of runner or
sucker or cuttings, many shrubby species are with spines, in some prickles are present (Rosa spp.).
Leaves:
Alternate rarely opposite (Rhodotypos), simple or compound sometimes pinnately compound, stipulate, stipule may be minute and
caducous (Spiraea, Pyrus), adnate and persistent (Rosa, Rubus), leaf base conspicuous.
FLORAL CHARACTER
Inflorescence:
Solitary (Potentilla, Rosa servica) or grouped in racemose (Agrimonia). terminal corymbose (Rosa moschata), terminal cyme
(Geum) or corymbose cyme (Potentilla sibbaldi).
Flower:
Actinomorphic very rarely zygomorphic (Chrysobalanoideae), bisexual or rarely unisexual (Spiraea aruncus), pentamerous or
tetramerous, hypogynous or epigynous (Pyrus) or perigynous (Rosa); stipules may be represented by epicalyx (Fragaria,
Potentilla).
Calyx:
148

Sepals 5, gamosepalous, adriate to the receptacle; sometimes epicalyx present; calyx tube remains free or adnate to the ovary,
green, imbricate or valvate aestivation.
Corolla:
Petals 5, or multiples of 5, polypetalous, rosaceous, inserted on the receptacle cup variously coloured; petals entirely absent
(Poterium, Alchemilla, Pygeum gardneria), or petals may be indefinite (Rosa spp.); sometimes stamens may be transformed into
petal like structures; imbricate aestivation in bud.
Androecium:
Stamens 2, 3 or 4 times the number of petals, may be indefinite, free, commonly borne on the rim of the torus; anthers small,
dithecous, splitting longitudinally, introrse in bud; rarely stamens 1 to 4 (Alchemilla).
Gynoecium:
Carpel 1 (Prunus, Prinsepia) or (Agrimonia atorium) or 5 (Pyrus) or indefinite (Fragaria and Rosa), apocarpous rarely syncarpous,
ovary superior sometimes inferior (Pyrus), axile placentation, nectar secreting disc present between stamens and carpels; when
syncarpous the placentation is axile, if apocarpous then basal.

Fruit:
Variable; drupe (Prunus), etario of achenes (Potentilla) berry (Eriobotrya japonica), pome (Pyrus).
Seed:
Non-endospermic.
Pollination:
Entomophilous-insects are attracted by nectar, colour, aroma or protandrous nature.

FLORAL FORMULA

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Common plants of the family: 4. Prunus:
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1. Pyrus malus (H. Seb): Small sized tree cultivated for fruits in temperate climate.
Tree commonly cultivated for fruit. 5. Potentilla:
2. Rosa indica: Herbs with yellow or red flowers.
Cultivated for showy and fragrant flowers. 6. Eriobotrya japonica (H. Loqat):
3. Fragaria vesca: Native of Japan and cultivated for fruits.
Largely cultivated for fruits.
Fruits: Medicinal:
The fruits of Pyrus malus (H. seb), Pyrus communis (H. Nakh), The petals of Rosa are used in making Gulkand, rose water and
Prunus persica (II. Aru), Prunus amygdalus (H. Badam), Prunus rose-scent. The fruits of Prunus domestica are given in
domestica (H. Alucha), Prunus armeniaca (H. Khuwani), leucorrhoea and irregular menstruation. The roots of Rubus
Eriobotrya japonica (H. Loqat) are relished by all. Fragaria fruticosus are used in dysentery and whooping cough.
vesca is strawberry; black berries and raspberries belong to Crateagus ox. is a very good homeopathic medicine for heart
Rubus; Cydonia oblonga is Quince. disease. the fruits of Eriobotrya japonica are sedative and used
in allaying vomiting and thirst.
Ornamental: Wood:
Rosa alba, Rosa moschata, Potentilla, Spiraea are commonly The wood of Cydonia indica, Crataegus oxyacantha is used in
grown in gardens. Rosa damascena (Damascus rose) and R. making tool handles. The branches of Cydonia indica are
centifolia are cultivated for otto (itr) or roses. Oil is extracted excellent walking sticks.
from Prunus amygdalus (Badam oil).

Affinities of Rosaceae:
Rosaceae is related to Leguminosae and Saxifragaceae due to Primitive characters:
the presence of stipules, pentamerous flowers, torus, and 1. Plants mostly shrubs, trees and climbers.
monocarpellary pistil. The Chrysobalanoideae with 2. Leaves stipulate and simple, alternate in most genera.
zygomorphy connects the Rosaceae with the Papilionaceae. In 3. Flowers hermaphrodite and actinomorphic.
Acioa the filaments may be fused as in Papilionaceae. 4. Petals free and numerous.
The members of the Rosaceae are very much like that of the 5. Stamens numerous and polyandrous.
Ranunculaceae in number of floral parts, apocarpous condition 6. Gynoecium polycarpellary and apocarpous.
but differ in shape of the thalamus i.e. thalamus in Rosaceae is Advanced characters:
cup shaped with carpels either standing or embedded in the 1. A few plants herbaceous (Potentilla and Fragaria).
bottom of the cup and in Ranunculaceae in the form of a cone. 2. Leaves compound (Rosa).
3. Flowers perigynous or epigynous and in a few unisexual.
4. Calyx gamosepalous.
5. Gynoecium monocarpellary.
6. In Pyrus gynoecium bi-to-penta-carpellary and syncarpous.
7. Ovules campylotropus.
8. Seeds non-endospermic.

FAMILY SOLANACEAE
Solanaceae is an economically important family which is also known as the potato family. Around 2000 species of dicotyledonous
plants belong to this family. The vegetative parts, root system, floral characters, floral formula and floral diagram of Solanaceae
are discussed below.
Distribution
This family includes 90 genera and 2200 species. The largest genus solanum includes 1700 species. The members are found in
trophics, sub-trophics, temperate regions. Many economically important vegetable plants are included in this family. So, this is
considered as economically important family.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
Habit
Annual (Physalis minima), biennial or perennial herbs(Vicia, Pisum), shrubs(Cestrum, Brunfelsia), soft wooded trees (Solanum,
Petunia), sometimes climbers (Lycium sinemis), terrestrial.
Root
Well-developed branched taproot system.
Stem
Aerial, erect or prostrate or creeping with distinct nodes and internodes, branched, herbaceous. Sometimes woody, cylindrical,
solid, rarely fistular, pubescent or glabrous, sometimes stem gets modified into the underground swollen structure due to the
storage of food materials.
leaf
Cauline and ramal, exstipulate, petiolate or subsessile or sessile, alternate, opposite in upper portions or floral portions, simple,
sometimes pinnately lobed(Lycopersicum) unicostate, reticulate venation.
FLORAL CHARACTER
Inflorescence: Racemose- terminal or axillary raceme; Cymose- solitary in Solanum.
150

Flower: Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous.

Calyx: Five sepals, gamosepalous; valvate aestivation.
Corolla: Five petals, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation.
Androecium: Five stamens, epipetalous; anthers basifixed.
Gynoecium: Syncarpous, bicarpellary, bilocular, superior ovary, axile placentation.
Fruit: Berry/ capsule.
Seed: Numerous, endospermous.
FLORAL FORMULA Ebr or Br. K(5) C(5)A5ˆC(5)A5^ G

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Vegetables (food plants) Medical plants
 Solanum tuberosum (Potato)  Nicotania tabaccum(Tobacco)
 Solanum nelongena (Brinjal)  Atropa beladonna (Atropo)
 Capsicum annum (Capsicum)  Datura stramonium (Dhatura)
 Capsicum Frutescence (Chilly)
 Lycopersicum esuculentum (Tomato)
Ornamental plants Narcotics
 Solanum Jasminoldes (Jasmine)
 Cestrum noctuurleum (Night jasmine)  Nicotiana tabaccum
 Petunia hybrida (Petunia)
Edible Fruit
 Physalis- Rasbhari
151

FAMILY SOLANACEAE
Primitive characters: Advanced characters:
1. Shrubs, trees and perennial climbers. 1. Most of the plants are herbaceous and many are annuals.
2. Leaves simple and alternate. 2. Leaves exstipulate, in some finely divided.
3. Inflorescence solitary axillary or terminal. 3. Calyx and corolla are gamosepalous and gamopetalous.
4. Flowers actinomorphic, hermaphrodite and hypogynous. 4. Stamens epipetalous.
5. Pollination by insects. 5. Reduction in the number of carpels to two.
6. Ovules numerous in each loculus. 6. Gynoecium is syncarpous.
7. Stamens dithecous. 7. Fruit is simple.
8. Seeds endospermic.
Affinities of Solanaceae:
Hallier regarded Solanaceae as a primitive member of the tubiflorae together with the Scrophulariaceae and both have arisen
very likely from the Linaceae. Wettstein placed the family in the Tubiflorae along with Convolvulaceae. Rendle placed the
family in the Tubiflorae, assigning a separate position for the Convolvulaceae under the order Convolvulales.
Solanaceae bears a close relationship to the Boraginaceae in alternate leaves, regular flowers and five stamens. It is related to
Convolvulaceae in the presence of persistent calyx, twisted corolla and false septum. It is allied to Scrophulariceae but the latter
differs from it in actinomorphic flowers and obliquely placed carpels.

FAMILY CRUCIFERAE (Mustard Family)

Distribution: The family Cruciferae is cosmopolitan in distribution. Primarily, it is found in temperate zone of northern
hemisphere. The plant of this family are cultivated for vegetables, oil yielding seed , ornamental purpose.
152

Habit: They are mostly herbs which may be annual, perennial , biennial and rarely small shrubs. The plant posses pungent sap
having sulfur containing glucoside.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
Root: Tap root and branched. In some species , tap root is modified into napiform (Raphana sativum) and fusiform
(Brassica rapa).
Stem: Erect, herbaceous rarely wooded, branched or unbranched, solid , cylindrical, hairy. The main stem is condensed very
much in some sepecies like Brassica rapa, Raphana sativum etc.
Leaves : Radical , Cauline , ramal, alternate , petiolate or sessile , simple , lyrate , unicostate , reticulate venetion , hairy.
FLORAL CHARACTER
Inflorescence: Racemose type, generally raceme or corymb or corymbose raceme.
Flower - Ebracteate, pedicellate , complete , bisexual , actinomorphic and rarely zygomorpohic, tetramerous , cruciform ,
hypogynous.

Calyx: Sepal - 4, polysepalous, arranged in two whorls 2+2, inferior , petalloid , imbricate aestivation.
Corolla: Petal - 4, polypetalous, each alternating with carpel , cruciform , valvate aestivation , inferior.
Androecium: Stamen - 6, arranged in two whorls 2+4, polyandrous , tetradynomous, outer two short and inner 4 long stamen,
green nectrarial gland is present at the base of stamen, anther is dithecious, basifixed, introse.
Gynoecium: Carpel - 2 , bicarpellary , syncarpous , ovaries : superior , unilocular in the early stage and become bilocular due to
development of false septum called replum, style is short and simple , stigma : capitate.
Pollination: Cross, entomophilous, self sometime.
Fruit: Siliqua or Silicula.
Seed : Small , non-endospermic with curved embryo , cotyledon is oily.

FLORAL FORMULA

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Members of this family have great economic importance because of their use as vegetable, for cooking oil and for ornamental
value.
Vegetable Oil: Ornamental Value
Brassica campestris var. sarson (Mustard, Sarson). The seeds The following plants are used in gardening:
are used as condiments. The mustard oil extracted from the 1. Iberis amara (Candytuft);
seeds is used in cooking, to massage our body, in pickles, in 2. Cheiranthus cheiri (Wall flowers);
small lamps etc. The by-product oil cake is used as fodder 3. Mathiola (Stocks);
and fertiliser. 4. Arabis (Rock cress);
153

Other oil-yielding species are: 5. Alyssum maritimum (Basket of gold);

1. B. nigra Koch. (Black mustard, Kali sarson); 6. Lunaria sp.;
2. B. juncea hook. f. & Thorns. (Indian mustard, Rai); 7. Lobularia sp. et
3. B. napus L. (Rape seed, Toria);
4. B. alba Boiss. (White mustard, Safed sarson) etc.

Vegetable:
1. Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage). The leaves are
used as vegetable.
2. B. oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower). The inflorescence
is used as vegetable.
3. B. oleracea var. gongylodes (Knolkhol). The swollen stem
is used as vegetable.
4. B. rapa (Turnip). The swollen root is used as vegetable.
5. B. campestris var. sarson (Sarson). The leaves are used as
vegetables.
6. Raphanus sativus (Radish). The swollen root is used as
vegetable.

The seeds of Descurainia sophia are locally used by the name Tscher «lasi^ in the early stages of measles diseases. The seeds of
Erysimum peroskianum serve as crude material for the production of Cardiac drugs.

Primitive characters: Advanced characters:

1. Leaves simple and alternate. 1. Plants are generally herbs-annual or biennials.
2. Flowers hermaphrodite, hypogynous and actinomorphic. 2. Leaves exstipulate.
3. Calyx and corolla free. 3. Flowers ebracteate and sometimes zygomorphic (Iberis).
4. Stamens polyandrous. 4. Gynoecium bicarpellary and syncarpous.
5. Ovules anatropous. 5. Fruit simple.
Affinities of Brassicaceae:
Rendle placed this family under the order Rhoedales; Bentham-Hooker placed it under the cohort Parietales. The family is related
to the Papaveraceae on one hand and to the Capparidaceae on the other. Bentham & Hooker and Hutchinson (1948, 1964) hold the
view that Brassicaceae is derived from the Papaveraceous ancestors whereas Eames, Arber, Hayek and Puri believe it to have a
Capparidaceous alliance.
The three families, Capparidaceae, Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) and Papaveraceae have in common the features of tetramerous
perianth, bicarpellary syncarpous gynoecium and parietal placentation. These characters gave problematic issues as to whether the
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) originated from the Capparidaceae or descended from the Papaveraceae.
The anatomy and morphology of stamens and carpels of cruciferous flower bears testimony to a papaverous ancestory. But in
Brassicaceae the stamens are tetradynamous and not in Papaveraceae.
Comparison of floral diagram indicates that Brassicaceae is closely allied to Capparidaceae. But in Brassicaceae gynophore and
variable number of stamens are absent where as these are the prominent characters of Capparidean flowers.
Within the Rhoedales reduction seems to have taken place in the number of stamens. In the Papaveraceae there are numerous
stamens but in its two subfamilies reduction has occurred. In the Hypecoideae there are only four stamens; in the Fumarioideae
the stamens are arranged in two bundles each with one dithecous and two monothecous anthers.
In the Capparidaceae the numbers of stamens range between several (as in Capparis) to six (as in Gynandropsis). Finally in
Cleome there are only four stamens. The floral diagram of Cleome spinosa with six stamens is remarkably similar to that of the
Brassicaceae (Cruciferae).
In this family the general condition is tetradynamous but may be reduced to only two (as in Coronopus). Celakovasky considers
the above view as most satisfactory.
Cronquist (1968) too considers that the Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) evolved from the Capparidaceae
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FAMILY LEGUMINOSAE
 This family is also known as Papilionaceae or Fabaceae or commonly known as pea family.
 It is considered to be the second largest family of dicotyledonous plants.
 It is a terrestrial plant widely distributed in temperature and tropical countries of the world.
 The plants are of great economic importance.
 They are herbs, shrubs and trees.
 This is one of the largest and most useful plant families.
 17,000 species, distributed almost throughout the world. It includes many well-known vegetables particularly of
temperate regions (Beans, Peas), ornamental trees in tropical regions (Bauhinia, Flamboyant, Cassia), fodder crops
(Clover, Lucerne) and weeds (Vetches and Trefoils), and their growth habits vary from ground cover and aquatic to
shrubs, climbers and trees. Many species of trees in this family are important for their timber.
 (On the basis of flower shape, type of corolla, androecium and gynoecium family is now separated
into CAESALPINIACEAE, FABACEAE, MIMOSACAE, PAPILIONACEAE)
Economically, Leguminosae is second in importance only to Poaceae. Legumes are the most valuable plant protein sources in
human diet, and even the only protein sources in some poor regions of the world.
About 88% of legume species have the ability of nitrogen fixation by root nodules and provide biological nitrogen for agriculture
and natural ecosystems. Use of green nitrogen fertilizers can reduce the consumption of chemical nitrogen fertilizers and, in turn,
improve ecosystem services, especially the global nitrogen cycles.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Some important plants of the family:  Phaseolus anreus (Mung)
 Pisum sativum (Garden pea)  Cajanus cajan (Arhar)
 Melilothus indica (Motha)  Arachis hypogaea (Mungphali or ground nut)
 Lathyrus odorantus (Sweet pea)  Dalbergia sisoo (Shisham)
 Phaseolus mungo (Urad) Cicer arietinum (Charia)
Food: Oil:
The fruits and seeds of Pisum sativum (H. Matar), Cicer The seeds of Arachis hypogea are pressed to obtain an oil. It is
arietinum, (H. Chana), Cajanus cajan (H. Arhar), Dolichos converted into vegetable ghee after hydrogenation and largely
lablab (H. Sem), Vigna aconitifolius (H. Moth), Phaseolus used as substitute for pure ghee. The oil cake is used for cattle
radiatus (H. Moong), P. mungo (H. Urd), Lens esculenta (H. feeding. Mungfali is also eaten after roasting. Oil can be
Masur), Glycine max (Soyabean) are used as vegetable and extracted from soyabean and ground nut.
pulse. Soya-bean is supposed to contain very high percentage
of proteins comparable to meat. The red seeds of Arbus precatorious are used as jeweler’s
As pulses: Large number of plants are the sources of pulses weights.
which are rich in proteins. E.g. Pisum sativum (garden pea),
Vicia faba (broad bean), Glycine max (soyabean) Vinga mungo Condiments (flavoring agent): Seeds of Trigonella foenum
(black gram), V. radiate (green gram), Cajanus cajan (pigeon graecum (Methi) are used to add flavor to food.
pea), Lens esculenta (Musur) etc.
Medicine: Fibre:
Glycyrrhiza glabra (H. Mulathi) is used in throat pain and Crotalaria juncea (Sunn Hemp or H-Swun) yields fibres, which
cough. Physostigma venenosum has several alkaloids and are used for making rope, mat, coarse canvas, sacks, nets etc. It
sometimes used as an eye ointment. The fresh juice of the is a blast fibre. Sun hemp and Sesbania cannabina (river hemp
leaves of Abrus precatorius (H. Ratti) is said to remove spots of or yellow pea bush) are used to extract fibers.
leucoderma. Its seeds have constant weight to an astonishing
degree and traditionally used by goldsmiths. Cyamopsis Natural fertilizers: Crotolaria juncea (sun hemp), Trifolium
tetragonoloba (syn. Psoralea tetragonolaea) seeds are laxative, repens (Clover), Medicago sativa (alfa alfa)
stimulant and produce a colourless essential oil. The juice of
Sesbania grandiflora flowers is said to improve eye sight.
Timber: Dye:
Dalbergia sissoo (H. Shismam), D. latifalia (Indian rose wood) Indigofera tinctoria yields a dye – the indigo (H. Neel).
yield timber
Ornamental and miscellaneous:
Many plants viz., Lathyrus odoratus, Clitoria, Sesbania, Lupinus, Genista, Robinia, etc. are used as ornamental plants in gardens.
Erythrina – (Indian Coral tree) is bird pollinated and produces beautiful red flowers.
Peru balsam and Tolu balsam are obtained from Mysoxylon. Gum tragacinth is obtained from Astragalus gummifer. Gum is also
obtained from Butea monosperma and Pterocarpus. Because of root nodules many plants of this family can enrich the soil with
fixed nitrogen. Hence they are often used in crop rotation.

Primitive characters: Advanced characters: 6. Stamens diadelphous.

1. Leaves alternate, stipulate and simple in some species
(Indigofera cordifolia, Heylandia). 1. Plants herbaceous, annual. 7. Gynoecium
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2. Flowers hermaphrodite, large and showy.

3. Corolla polypetalous. 2. Leaves compound and in monocarpellary.
4. Androecium polyandrous in Ormosia, Baphia, Sophora. many genera leaflets are
5. Ovules anatropus. modified into tendrils (Pisum, 8. Fruit simple legume.
Lathyrus)
9. Ovules campylotropous.
3. Flowers zygomorphic.
10. Seeds non-endospermic
4. Calyx gamosepalous.

5. Corolla papilionaceous.

SUBFAMILY CAESALPINIACEAE
There are about 135 genera in the family Caesalpiniaceae.
Distribution:
Most of the members belonging to this family are tropical and sub-tropical in distribution. In India the family is represented by
many genera, e.g., Cassia, Bauhinia, Tamarindus, Saraca, Poinciana, Parkinsonia, Caesalpinia, etc.
Habit:
The plants show great variations in their habit, they may be trees or shrubs and very rarely herbs. Mostly they are mesophytes, but
xerophytes (e.g., Parkinsonia) are also reported. Most of them are wild, but many are cultivated for their beautiful flowers and
timber. Some plants are woody climbers. (e.g., Bauhinia sp.)
Distinguishing characters
Root: Tap branched,
Stem: Erect, woody, branched, cylindrical, glabrous, solid.
Leaves: Compound, alternate, paripinnate, pulvinus at the base, petiolate, stipulate (stipules caducous), leaflets 4-8 pairs, ovate,
entire, acute, glabrous, venation unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence: Racemose, typical raceme.
Flower: Pedicellate (long pedicels), bracteate (bracts minute and caducous) hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, complete,
hypogynous, yellow.
Calyx: Five sepals, polysepalous, more or less petaloid (yellowish green), inferior, quincuncial aestivation, odd sepals anterior.
Corolla: Five petals, polypetalous, yellow, clawed, ascending imbricate aestivation, inferior.
Androecium: Ten stamens, polyandrous, unequal in length, three posterior stamens reduced to staminodes, basifixed anthers with
abortive and indehiscent lobes.
Gynoecium: One carpel (monocarpellary), ovary superior, unilocular, marginal placentation, style short, stigma terminal, hairy.
Fruit: A legume, 1-2 feet long, cylindrical, black when ripe.

FLORAL FORMULA
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Ornamental plants Vegetable and fruits
Bauhinia variegate (kuchnar), Cassia fistula (Amaltas) and The leaves and flower bud of Bauhinia variegate (kuchnar) are
Parkinsonia are used as ornamental plants used as vegetable. The acidic fruit of Tamarindus indica are
edible. It is rich in tartaric acid.

Medicinal importance Tanning and dye

 The leaves of Cassia fistula are used to cure ring worm and The bark of Buahinia and Tamarindus indica is used in tanning
skin diseases. (leather industry). The heart wood of Haematoxylon (long
 The leaves of Cassia senna and Cassia obovata yield a drug wood) gives dyes Haematoxylin. It ¡s used for staining the cell.
called Senna. It forms a base for a laxative.
 Oil is extracted from the seeds of cauliflora Cynometera.
This oil is applied externally for skin diseases.
SUBFAMILY MIMOSACEAE
Trees or shrubs; leaves bipinnate and stipulate, stipule may be modified into spines; inflorescence cymose head or head; flowers
actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, small, tetra or pentamerous; calyx and corolla valvate; petals connate below, stamens number
varies from 4 (Mimosa) to many (Acacia, Albizzia); carpel one; fruit legume.
Distribution of Mimosaceae:
It is commonly called Acacia family. It includes 40 genera and 2000 species. The members are mostly distributed in tropical and
sub-tropical regions. In India it is represented by 12 genera and 90 species.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
Habit:
Herbs (Mimosa), climbers (Entada) and trees (Acacia, Albizzia) and hydrophytic (Neptunia oleracea). Many members are
xerophytic (Acacia, Prosopis).
Root:
Tap, much branched and deep.
Stem:
Erect or climbing woody, branched angular or cylindrical, solid, covered with bark, some species yield gum, sometimes spiny.
Leaf:
Cauline, ramal, alternate, pinnate or bipinnate compound, stipulate, stipules may be modified into spines, petiolate; in some
species of Acacia the petiole becomes flattened into a phyllode and leaflets fall down; leaflets show movements (Mimosa,
Neptunia).
FLORAL CHARACTER
Inflorescence:
Cymose head (Acacia), spike or racemose (Dichrostachys and Prosopis).
Flower:
Pedicellate or sub-sessile (Acacia) or sessile (Prosopis), bracteate, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous, complete, tetra or
pentamerous, small.
Calyx:
Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate or imbricate (Parkia), green or petaloid (Acacia nilotica), inferior.
Corolla:
Petals 5, polypetalous or gamopetalous (Acacia, Albizzia) valvate, inferior.
Androecium:
4 free in Mimosa, 10 free in Prosopis, indefinite and monadelphous in Albizzia, filaments long, anthers dithecous, pollen grains
often in packets; often gland dotted to attract the insects.
Gynoecium:
Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, marginal placentation, one or many ovules in a carpel; style long and filiform; stigma
minute and simple.
Fruit:
A legume or lomentum.
Non-endospermic
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FLORAL FORMULA

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Wood and Timber Dye
Acacia, Albizzia and Xylia, Acacia nilotica : Their wood is used A dye Katha is obtained from Acacia catechu
for construction, for furniture or for fuel Acacia decurrens-The bark is used for tanning and dyeing. The
Albizia chinensis: The writing and printing papers are made writing and printing papers are made from its wood pulp.
from wood pulp. Acacia leucophloea : The bark yields a tan and a fibre.
Catechu is also used as a raw material for plywood adhesives. It
is extensively used for dyeing canvas, fishing nets and ropes
Gum Medicinal
Obtained from Acacia nilotica and Acacia Senegal. Acacia The tender leaves of Acacia nilotica are used as blood purifier.
farnesiana Acacia catechu:The Kattha, obtained from the heartwood is
Albizia lucida- makes an important host of lac insect. used as a masticatory and as a dyeing and preserving agent.
Acacia senegel: The stem bark, yields a gum which is used in
the textile, mucilage, polish, paste and confectionery industries
Ornamental Wind breaking:
Mimosa pudica and Acacia melanoxyíon. Acacia farnesiana A few species of Prospis are planted in the arid zones for
Gandh babul: The fragrant flowers yield a perfume. breaking the wind pressure.

Fodder Detergent
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Acacia nilotica Acacia concinna: The fruits (pods) are used as a detergent for
Acacia aneura washing hairs, silk and woollen fabrics
Acacia leucophloea
Albizia lebbeck
Albizia chinensis
Mimosa leucophloea
Vegetables: Neptunia oleracea’A common aquatic herb. It is used as a vegetable.
Common plants of the sub-family: Parkia roxburghii:
1. Acacia: A handsome avenue tree.
Tree or shrub, with yellow flowers in rounded head. 6. Prosopis:
2. Albizzia lebbek (Siris): Prickly tree or shrub. Prosopis spicigera- tree of arid regions; it
Silk flower, flowers in round heads, flower fragrant. is water indicator.
3. Mimosa – H. Chuimui: 7. Entada:
Leaves are highly sensitive, showing sleep movements. A woody climber.
4. Neptunia oleracea: 8. Xylia:
An aquatic, common water weed. Iron wood tree.

Primitive characters: Advanced characters:

1. Plants are mostly trees shrubs. 1. Leaves are compound and in many stipules are modified into
2. Leaves are stipulate and spirally arranged. spines.
3. Flowers actinomorphic, hermaphrodite and hypogynous. 2. Leaves modified into phyllode in Australian Acacias.
4. Petals are mostly free. 3. Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
5. Stamens are numerous and free. 4. Calyx is gamosepalous.
5. Reduction in number of petals and stamens (Mimosa).
6. Gynoecium is monocarpellary and unilocular.
7. Fruit is simple-pod.
8. Seeds are non-endospermic.

COMPARISON AMONG PAPILIONACEAE, CAESALPINIACEAE AND MIMOSACEAE.

Papilionaceae: Caesalpiniaceae: Mimosaceae:
1. Habit-Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs and 1. Habit-Mostly shrubs and trees rarely 1. Habit-Mostly shrubs and trees, rarely
a few trees. herbs. herbs
2. Leaves-Imparipinnate. 2. Leaves-Paripinnate. 2. Leaves-Bipinnate.
3. Inflorescence-Racemose. 3. Inflorescence-Raceme or panicle. 3. Inflorescence-Cymose head.
4. Flower-Zygomorphic. 4. Flower-Slightly zygomorphic. 4. Flower-Actinomorphic and regular.
5. Calyx-Sepals 5, gamosepalous, odd
5. Calyx-Sepals 5, gamosepalous, odd 5. Calyx-Sepals 5, free or slightly fused, sepal posterior.
sepal anterior. odd sepal anterior. 6. Corolla-Petals 4 or 5, fused at the base.
6. Corolla-Petals 5, papilionaceous, with 6. Corolla-Petals 5, odd petal smallest Aestivation valvate.
posterior largest, standard, 2 lateral and innermost. Aestivation ascending
wings and 2 anterior united keel. imbricate.
Aestivation descending imbricate or
vexillary. 7. Androecium-Stamens numerous, free.
7. Androecium-Stamens 10, usually 7. Androecium-Stamens 10 (5+5), with
diadelphous (9)+1, rarely monadelphous. staminodes, rarely fever free, variable in 8. Gynoecium-Same.
8. Gynoecium-Monocarpellary, length.
unilocular, marginal placentation. 8. Gynoecium-Same. 9. Fruit-Lomentum
9. Fruit-Legume 10. Floral formula-
10. Floral formula- 9. Fruit-Legume
10. Floral formula-

FAMILY GRAMINAE / POACEAE

Distribution
The family is commonly known as grass family. It is one of the largest among the angiospermic families. It consists of 620 genera
and 6,000 species. The members are cosmopolitan in distribution. The plants represent all the 3 ecological types as hydrophytes,
xerophytes and mesophytes. In India it is represented by 850 species.
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DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
Habit:
Herbs, annuals or perennials or shrubs, sometimes tree like (Bambusa,
Dendrocalamus).
Root:
Adventitious, fibrous, branched, fascicled or stilt (Zea mays).
Stem:
Underground rhizome in all perennial grasses, cylindrical, culm with conspicuous
nodes and internodes, internodes hollow, herbaceous or woody, glabrous or
glaucous, vegetative shoots are arising from the base of aerial stem or from
underground stems are called tillers.
Leaves:
Alternate, simple, distichous, exstipulate, sessile, ligulate (absent in Echinochloa),
leaf base forming tubular sheath, open, surrounding internode incompletely, ligule is
present at the junction of the lamina and sheath, entire, hairy or rough, linear,
parallel venation.
FLORAL CHARACTERS
Inflorescence: Variable, compound of several spikelets which are combined in various ways on a main axis called the rachis.
Some are in compound spikes as in wheat, others are racenes as in Fastuna while still others are panicles as in oats. Mostly
inflorescence is composed a spike of spikelet as in wheat. Each spikelet may bear one to several flowers (florets) attached to a
central stalk or rachilla.
Spikelet bears at the base a pair of glumes, the lower or other one called the first and the other or inner one called the second.
Abone glumes and partly enclosed by them is a series of florets. Each floret at its base has a lemma or inferior palea and above a
pale or superior palea. The lemma or inferior palea is the lower outer scale of the floret which in many species bears a long
cylinder own or beared as an extention of the mid rip at the tip or beak. The superior palea often with two longitudinal ridges
(keels or merves) stands between the lemma and rachilla. The presence of two merves conchide that it is formed by fushion of two
bractioles. The essential organs of the flower lic between the tightly overlapping superior and inferior palea.
Flower: Sessile, bracteate, incomplete, bisexual (Bamboo, wheat, oat) or unisexual (Maize), Zygomorphic hypogynous.
Perianth: Sometimes 2 to 3 reduced membranous scales called lodicules lying on the anterior side below the stamns are regarded
as rudimentary perianth.
Androcium: Normally there stamens (one to six in some speices e.g.: Bambusa and oryza (3+3_ filaments long free, anthers
versatile, pollen grains dry.
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary syncarpous, though only one is functional uninlocular, single ovule, style short or more bearing long
feathery stigmas. In maize the elongated stamens form long silken threads.
Fruit: Achenial,caryopsis. Seeds endospermic with single cotyledon.
FLORAL FORMULA +, ♀, P0 or 2 (lodicules), A3 or 3+3, G1
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Food: All the cereals and millets belong to this family. These form the basic food of mankind. These plants are:
Tirticum sp (Wheat)
Avena sativa
Zea mays (corn)
Oryza sativa (rice)
Hordeum vulgare (barley)
Scale cereale (rye)
Penlsetum typholdeum
Sorghum vulgare
Fodders Most of the fodders of the animals also belong to this family.
The dried stems and leaves of the cereal crops are used as fodder for the cattle.
Sugar: Sugar ¡s obtained from the juice of Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane).
Ornamental plants: Many gras.es are used ¡n lawns, e.g. Agrostis,
Poa, Festuca etc. So these plants have ornamental significance.
Uses of Bamboo Bambusa (bamboo): These are used as building material.
These are used for thatching huts making boats, carts pipes etc. Their spilt stems are woven into mats, fans, hats and course
umbrella. While, their leaves are given to horse for curing cough and cold.
Aromatic oils: Certain grasses give aromatic oil e.g. Cymbopogon squarrosus (lemon grass). It gives lemon grass oil.
This oil is used in perfumes and soap industry for making infusions.
Paper Industry: Some species of grasses are used for making papers.
Alcohol and beverages: Ethyl alcohol and many other beverages are prepared form cereals. For example, whisky is prepared from
rye, corn and rum molasses form sugar cane.
Ropes: Fibers are obtained from the leaves of Saccharum munja. However, these fibers are used for making ropes.
Ecologicalimportance
Grasses occur in almost every habitat around the world from the equator to the polar regions, sea level to mountain heights and
aquatic to desert environments.
Open situations are preferred so grasses are not common in rainforest or dense thickets.
Many species grow in brackish water, salt marshes, lakes and rivers.
Alpine grasslands are a prominent feature of many mountain areas such as the Kosciuszko region of south-eastern Australia.
Adaptations
A number of characteristics, have enabled grasses to adapt to a wide range of habitats and to spread widely.
Grasses as a group exhibit a variety of breeding systems including cross-pollination, self-pollination, cloning and apomixis
(formation of embryos without reduction division and fertilisation) but a number can reproduce by more than one of these
mechanisms.
However they retain the ability to out-cross, thus maintaining variability in the gene pool. New habitats may then be exploited
when they become available.
In addition hybridization is common between species and this contributes to diversity. Extensive hybridisation in the field makes
identification of some species very difficult, for example those of the genus Lolium.
Large quantities of seed are produced by most grasses and, even if conditions are adverse, some seed is set.
The small, light 'seeds' (diaspores), often with hairs, hooks or awns attached, are effectively dispersed by wind, water, man or
animals.
Many grasses propagate vegetative by the production of large numbers of shoots (tillers) from basal buds or creeping stems
(stolons and rhizomes). This potential for reproduction and dispersal is reflected in the fact that 13% of cosmopolitan genera
belong to Poaceae although grasses comprise only 4% of the total number of flowering plant genera.
A system of branching (tillering) at or near ground level results in dense tufts, often large tussocks, and/or a network of shoots
connected by stems that are just above or below the ground.
Buds (apical meristems) are protected from fire and from the teeth and hooves of animals not only by their position, but also by
the cylindrical leaf bases which enclose and protect meristematic tissue.
Intercalary meristems occur at the base of each grass leaf and stem internode. These meristems are stimulated by removal or
displacement of upper leaf or stem parts.
Grass leaves elongate after cutting, and shoots flattened by wind, rain or animals, are able to grow upright again. In addition basal
buds are stimulated to produce new tillers by moderate cutting, grazing or fire.
These adaptations to fire, grazing or weather damage enable grasses to thrive under conditions that effectively discourage most
other plants. They may make up approximately 90% of the total biomass, thus dominating the community. Grasses provide forage
for herbivores that have developed in conjunction with them. The grazing animals, in their turn, contribute nutrients in the form of
dung and urine and increase the rate of nutrient turnover in the ecosystem.
Cereals
In the form of cereal grains, grasses directly supply about 60% of the world's food for human consumption including about 75%
of the carbohydrate and 55% of the protein.
Grasses and cereal grains, converted to animal products, supply about 20% of the world's dietary protein.
The principal cereals are, in order of importance,
Wheat, Rice, Maize, Barley, Oats, Sorghum, Rye and several grasses usually grouped together and termed 'Millets'. Rice, grown
largely in the tropics and sub-tropics is the staple diet for half of the world's population while wheat is the preferred food in
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temperate regions.
Most of the world's great civilizations have been based on the cultivation of cereal crops.
Barley and Wheat sustained the Egyptian, Sumerian and other Middle East civilizations.
Advantages of cereals as crops include high yields for a small amount of seed and work, non-shattering inflorescence, ease of
threshing, tolerance to a wide range of soil and environmental conditions, and ease of handling and storage.
An average moisture content for wheat in storage would be 12%.
The grain contains about 65% carbohydrate, 10% or more of protein, and 5% fibre together with minerals and other substances.
This nutritious food could be stored over winter, adverse seasons, periods of warfare, and, unlike most root crops, for more than
one year.
Livestock and grazing
45% of world meat production comes from ruminant animals grazing grass crops, grassland or fed cereal grain.
The remaining 55%, pork and poultry meat, is produced from animals eating rations based on cereal grains. Maize is the most
important feed grain making up about 60% of the total trade in feed stuffs in the U.S.A.
Other products
About half the world's sugar is produced from Sugarcane, a tropical lowland grass.
Important by-products of Sugarcane are molasses, rum and bagasse. The latter is used as fuel and in the manufacture of fiber-
board and paper.
In Brazil, alcohol produced from cane sugar is mixed with petrol as a fuel for motor vehicles.
Power alcohol produced from grain or cane is a possible renewable energy source.
Alcoholic beverages such as beer are made from a fermented cereal grain such as barley.
Whisky, gin and vodka are produced by distillation of fermented grain.
Cereal grains and Sugarcane are important sources of industrial starch used in the paper and plastics industries.
Fiber from grass leaves and stems is used to make paper, 'esparto' being a South American grass paper (from Stipa tenacissima).
Oils, distilled from the leaves of Lemon Grass, Cymbopogon citrinus, and the roots of Chrysopogon zizanioides are used in
perfumery, and the leaves of Lemon Grass are an important curry ingredient.
Bamboos, which are woody grasses, are put to innumerable uses in the tropics; the most important being in building construction.
Large stems are used for house frames and scaffolding while smaller stems are split and interwoven for walls and floors etc.
Containers, implements and baskets are among other articles made from bamboo and the shoots and grains of some bamboos are
eaten. The dried leaves and stems of many grasses are used as thatch for house roofs.
Aesthetic and other uses
Grasses are used in soil conservation and engineering to stabilise bare soil surfaces and re-vegetate disturbed areas, sand dunes
and water catchments.
Grass swards form the playing surface of countless sporting complexes and are used in almost every park and garden. Many
grasses such as pampas grass, Cortaderia selloana, are attractive ornamental plants.
Minor uses include brush bristles from Sorghum inflorescences, clarinet reeds from Arundo donax stems and even necklace beads
from Coix lachryma-jobi spikelets.

EVOLUTION OF SEED IN ANGIOSPERMS

In these plants fertile leaves bearing ovules are folded and joined at the margins to form ovaries. The ovary after fertilization is changed
into a fruit, containing seeds.
Angiosperms make up 235,000 of the 360,000 known species of plants. They are heterosporous, autotrophic plants. These are highly
evolved of all the plants on the earth. The plants produce flowers, fruits and seeds
LIFE CYCLE OF AN ANGIOSPERM PLANT
The adult plant is a diploid saprophyte mostly differentiated into roots stem and leaves. At maturity it produces flowers. A flower is a
modified shoot which consists of a pedicel, thalamus or torus, and floral leaves (sepals, petals, stamens and carpals). Thalamus and floral
leaves, especially the stamens and the carpals, are so modified, that they do not even look like stem and leaves respectively. The sepals
and petals are non-essential or non-reproductive parts, and stamens and carpals are the essential or reproductive parts of the flower.
The sepals and the petals protect the stamens and the carpals. They also attract insects for pollination. When the pollination is over, the
162

sepals usually and the petals always fall off.

The anther contains microspore mother cells which produce haploid microspores through mitosis. Each microspore germinates to
produce male gametophyte. Such microspores containing male gametophytes are called pollen.
The carpel consists of a basal broader apt, the ovary, the style and the, terminal part of the style. The stigma. The ovary contains ovules.
The ovule consists of an integument (covering) and a tissue, the nucleolus present inside.
After pollination, the pollen grain is transferred to the stigma. Here it germinates to form a pollen tube. The nucleus of the microspore
divides by mitotic divisions to form two male gametes and the tube nucleus. At this stage of development, the pollen grain is called male
gametophyte. In the meantime certain changes occur in the ovule leading to the formation of female spore (megaspore). The megaspore
develops into female gametophyte. This consists of seven cells only. One of these cells is the egg of oosphere.
The pollen tube grows through the style, enters the ovule and then reaches the female gametophyte. Here it discharges the male gametes.
The egg and one of the two male gametes fuse to form the oospore. The second male gamete fuses with the secondary nucleus to form
endosperm nucleus (double fertilization). The oospore develops into an embryo and endosperm nucleus develops into a multicellualr
nutritive tissue, the endosperm.
Seed formation
Meanwhile, the integuments of the ovule form testa and tegmen and ovary wall develops into the fruit. Seeds usually undergo a period of
rest and then under suitable conditions, germinate and produce a seedling which gradually changes into a sporophyte (fig. 9.23).
Thus an alternation of dominant sporophyte generation (2n) occurs with inconspicuous gametophyte generation (n).

SIGNIFICANCE OF DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

Double fertilization is a special process found in angiosperms. In this two male gametes fuses with two cells simultaneously. A male
gamete (n) fuses with egg (n) to form a diploid zygote (2n) which develops later into an embryo and second male gamete (n) fuses with
another female cell called fusion nucleus (2n) resulting into a triploid (3n) endosperm cell, which develops into food storing endosperm
tissue. It is an important evolutionary advancement in which food storage fertilized ovule is made only on fertilization i.e. formation of
zygote. This actually helps the plant to economize its food resources

Seed plant introduction: Origin and evolution of the seed habit

The seed habit is the most complex and evolutionary successful method of sexual reproduction found in vascular plants. Today,
seed plants, gymnosperms ("Nacktsamer", ca. 800 living species) and angiosperms ("Bedecktsamer", flowering plants, ca. 250000
living species), are by far the most diverse lineage within the vascular plants (see figure below). Most of this diversity is
accounted for by the angiosperms and Charles Darwin described the rapid rise and early diversification within the angiosperms
during the Cretaceous time as 'an abdominable mystery' (see 'angiosperm seed evolution'). The seed plants have an adaptive
advantage, occur in a wide variety of habitats and dominate today's flora. This evolutionary success is, at least in part, due to the
seed, which is one of the most dramatic innovations during land plant evolution. Morphological evidence for the monophyly of
seed plants includes the seed habit itself, but also include vegetative traits like the production of wood by cambium, a secondary
meristem. The origin and evolution of the seed habit is a fascinating story by that started in late Devonian times about 385 MYBP
(see figure below). To understand the seed, it helps to think about how it evolved and what it essentially is in terms of origin and
function.
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The earliest seed plants, "progymnosperms", emerged in the late Devonian (see figure below). Progymnoperm fossils show
vegetative morphologies to seed plants, but not all progymnosperms had seeds or seed-like structures (ovules or pre-
ovules). Archaeopteris spp. was the first modern tree, but it sproduced spores rather than seeds. However, it exhibited an advanced
system of spore production called heterospory. Heterosporous plants produce two sets of specialized spores: megaspores (haploid
female-like megaspores) and microspores (haploid male-like microspores). Heterospory, which probably has been evolved
independently in several lineages, is widely believed to be a precursor to seed reproduction. The progymnosperms are regarded as
the ancestors of the seed plants. Fossils of seed-bearing seed ferns (Lyginopteridopsida) exhibit a variety of seed and seed-like
structures (see 'The earliest seeds'). 'The seed' might have evolved once or several times during evolution. Three major
evolutionary trends were important for the transition from the seed ferns to the gymnosperms, from the spore to the gymnosperm
seed:
(1) The evolution from homospory to heterospory and connected with this from megasporangia with many spores to
megasporangia with just one functional megaspore.
(2) The evolution of the integument, maternal tissue that protects the ovule; the integument forms the seed coat.
(3) The evolution of pollen-receiving structures. This includes the transition to water-independence of the
pollination/fertilization process (water is required for fern fertilization).

Today there are four major lineages of extant gymnosperm seed plants: Cycadopsida (cycads, "Palmfarne"), Ginkgopsida
(ginkgos), Pinopsida/Coniferopsida (conifers, "Nadelbäume"), and Gnetopsida (gnetophytes).

Fig. Origin and evolution of the seed habit.

Seed plant phylogeny considering major extinct and extant gymnosperm and angiosperm clades. Based on
molecular phylogenetic evidence, the extant gymnosperms form a monophyletic group and the extant
angiosperms form a distinct monophyletic group. Note that the precise evolutionary connections between the
different gymnosperm groups are unknown and that the ancestors of the angiosperms are unknown

EVOLUTION OF SEED HABIT

The seed habit is the most complex and successful method of sexual reproduction in vascular plants. The seed plants
(Spermatophyta) comprise two major groups: the Acrogymnospermae (also referred to as gymnosperms; c. 800 living species)
and the Angiospermae (also referred to as angiosperms; c. 250 000 living species) (Cantino et al., 2007). These groups are by far
the most diverse lineages within the vascular plants.

PARTS OF A SEED
Ovule
Structure that consists of the integument(s) surrounding the nucellus (megasporangium); unfertilized, immature
seed precursor
Nucellus
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Megasporangium; surrounds the megagametophyte; can develop into perisperm after fertilization
Megagametophyte Female gametophyte, contains the female haploid egg cells (gametes) and several thousand (gymnosperms) or
typically three to eight (angiosperms) other cells; the mature angiosperm megagametophyte is called the embryo sac
Integuments
One (gymnosperms) or two (angiosperms) outer layers of the ovule, having an apical opening (micropyle);
develop after fertilization into the seed coat (testa)
Micropyle
Apical opening of the integuments; allows the pollen tube to enter the nucellus to release sperm for fertilization
Testa
Seed coat, derived from the integuments of the ovule; dead maternal tissue
Endosperm
Arises from the fusion of a second sperm nucleus with the central cell nucleus of the embryo sac during double
fertilization; nutritional tissue during seed development and in the mature seed of most angiosperms, in between
testa and embryo
Perisperm
Derived from the nucellus after fertilization; maternal nutritional tissue in the mature seed of some angiosperms
Ovary Usually lower portion of the angiosperm pistil (carpel or fused carpels) containing ovules; fruits are mature ovaries; ovary
tissue develops into the pericarp
Pericarp
Fruit coat of angiosperm fruits, develops from the mature ovary wall and other flower tissues; surrounds the seed(s)

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
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ANIMALS
1. All animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms, and most animals have complex tissue structure with differentiated
and specialized tissue.
2. Animals are multicellular, they vary in complexity and are classified based on anatomy, morphology, genetic makeup,
and evolutionary history.
3. Animals are heterotrophs; they must consume living or dead organisms since they cannot synthesize their own food and
can be carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, or parasites.
4. Most animals are motile for at least some stages of their lives,
5. most animals reproduce sexually with the offspring passing through a series of developmental stages that establish a
fixed body plan
Mesozoic Era (251–65.5 Million Years Ago)
During the Mesozoic era Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates
Coral reefs emerged, becoming important marine ecological niches for other organisms
Cenozoic Era (65.5 Million Years Ago to the Present)
The beginning of this era Followed mass extinctions of both terrestrial and marine animals
Modern mammal orders and insects Diversified during the Cenozoic

COMPLEX TISSUE STRUCTURE

Animals, besides Parazoa (sponges), are characterized by specialized tissues such as muscle, nerve, connective, and epithelial tissues.
1. Animal cells don’t have cell walls; their cells may be embedded in an extracellular matrix and have unique structures for
intercellular communication.
2. Animals have nerve and muscle tissues, which provide coordination and movement; these are not present in plants and fungi.
3. Complex animal bodies demand connective tissues made up of organic and inorganic materials that provide support and
structure.
4. Animals are also characterized by epithelial tissues, like the epidermis, which function in secretion and protection, cover,
line, protect, and secrete; these tissues include the epidermis of the integument: the lining of the digestive tract and trachea.
They also make up the ducts of the liver and glands of advanced animals.
5. The animal kingdom is divided into Parazoa (sponges), which do not contain true specialized tissues, and Eumetazoa (all
other animals), which do contain true specialized tissues.

PARAZOA (Beside animals) METAZOA (beyond animals)

Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Multicellular Multicellular
Do not contain true specialized tissues. Contain specialized cells
Although they do possess specialized cells that perform Cells organizes to form tissues
different functions, Three germinal layers are present
cells are not organized into tissues Heterotrophic / autotrophic
Loosely assembled together Exhibit proper sexual reproduction
These organisms are considered animals since they lack Proper development from zygote to embryo
the ability to make their own food

Animal Tissues
Tissues are collection of specialized cells with all the cells having same structure and function.
There are four types of tissues found in animals:
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
I. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues line body surfaces and cavities, as well as form glands. The cells of the tissue are closely connected to each other
via cellular junctions and because epithelium is found on the edges of organs, it has two distinct surfaces. The apical surface is
exposed to the body cavity or exterior, while the basal surface is adjacent to the underlying tissue (see the figure below). Epithelia
contain no blood vessels (they are non-vascular) and are dependent upon the underlying connective tissue for nutrients.
II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Is characterized by
extracellular matrix: gel like nonliving material protein fibers: Collagen and Elastin
CELLS: Specialized cells
III. MUSCLE TISSUE
Specialized for contraction. The cells are elongated, and are also known as muscle fibers. They contain the contractile proteins
actin and myosin, which interact to shorten and elongate the cells. There are three different types of muscle tissue: skeletal,
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cardiac, and smooth.

IV. NERVOUS TISSUE
is specialized for communication and composes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The tissue consists of two major cell
types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons communicate with each other via electrical and chemical signals. They have nucleated cell
bodies and two types of elongated cellular processes: dendrites – which receive signals, and axons – which send signals.

TYPES OF SYMMETRY
1. Asymmetrical Symmetry:
In some animals there are no body axis and no plane of symmetry,
hence the animals are called asymmetrical. The amoeboid forms
(e.g., Amoeba) and many sponges have irregular growth pattern of
the body and cannot be divided into two equal halves

Radial Symmetry:
In radial symmetry the body can be divided into two roughly equal
halves by any one of many vertical planes passing through the
central axis (Fig. 9.3A-C) like the spokes of a wheel. The animals
which exhibit primarily radial symmetry are cylinder in form and
the similar parts of the body are arranged equally around the axis.
The axis extends from the centre of the mouth to the centre of the
aboral side.

The radial symmetry is seen among the sessile and sedentary animals such as in some sponges, hydroids, anthozoan pol yps,
medusae and sea stars.
The animals with radial symmetry do not have anterior and posterior sides or dorsal and ventral surfaces. They have a mouth
bearing oral side and the side away from the mouth called the aboral side.
Bilateral Symmetry:
In bilateral symmetry the body parts are arranged in such a way that the animal is divisible into roughly mirror image halves
through one plane (mid sagittal plane) only (Fig. 9.4A). This plane passes through the axis of the body to separate the two
halves which are referred to as the right and left halves. Bilaterally symmetrical animals have
A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side
A right and left side
Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends
Bilateral Symmetry facilitates cephalization, the development of a head – an evolutionary trend toward the concentration of
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sensory equipment on the anterior end (toward the head)Bilateral organisms are typically motile in their environment

DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS
After a sperm fertilizes an egg the zygote undergoes cleavage, leading to the formation of a blastula Cleavage is the process of
cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane and the succession of rapid cell divisions without
growth during early embryonic development – converts zygote into a ball of cells A blastula is a hollow ball of cells marking the
end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development The blastula undergoes gastrulation resulting in the formation of
embryonic tissue layers and a gastrula
Animal embryos form germ layers (embryonic tissues), including ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm
Ectoderm covers the surface of the embryo and gives rise to the outer covering of the animal
Endoderm is the innermost germ layer which lines the digestive tract and organs
Mesoderm lies between the endoderm and the ectoderm – it forms muscles and most other organs between the digestive tube and
outer covering of the animal
Diploblastic animals have two germ layers
Triploblastic animals have three germ layers
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HOX GENES: Near the end of the 20th century, a particular class of genes that dictate developmental direction was discovered.
These genes that determine animal structure are called “homeotic genes.” They contain DNA sequences called homeoboxes, with
specific sequences referred to as Hox genes. This family of genes is responsible for determining the general body plan: the
number of body segments of an animal, the number and placement of appendages, and animal head-tail directionality. The first
Hox genes to be sequenced were those from the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). A single
Hox mutation in the fruit fly can result in an extra pair of wings or even appendages growing from the “wrong” body part. Hox
genes are so powerful because they can turn on or off large numbers of other genes. Hox genes do this by coding transcription
factors that control the expression of numerous other genes. Hox genes are homologous in the animal kingdom: the genetic
sequences and their positions on chromosomes are remarkably similar across most animals
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
Depending on the primary germ layers present in the blastula stage of organisms, there are two groups of organisms as
diploblastic and triploblastic. The basic three germinal layers are ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Ectoderm and endoderm
layers are common to both diploblastic and triploblastic animals, while mesoderm is present only in triploblastic animals.
DIPLOBLASTIC ANIMALS TRIPLOBLASTIC ANIMALS
Diploblastic organisms have only two primary germ Most metazoans develop three primary germ layers in their blastula;
layers in their blastula: endoderm and ectoderm. They hence, they are referred to as triploblastic animals. The three primary
lack the middle layer or the mesoderm. The inner layer, germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Ectoderm
which is the endoderm, gives rise to tissues associated basically gives rise to the epidermis and may also give rise to sensory
with gut and associated glands. In contrast, the outer organs and parts of the nervous system. Mesoderm mainly forms
layer, ectoderm, gives rise to covering tissues like muscles, connective tissues, blood vessels, epithelial lining of interior
epidermis. cavities, certain excretory organs, and skeletal elements. Endoderm
Animals in phyla Cnidaria and Ctenophore belong to gives rise to parts of gastrointestinal tracts, respiratory tract, parts of
this group. Cnidarians include jellyfish, corals, sea pens, endocrine glands and organs, and auditory system.
sea anemones, etc. and ctenophores include comb
jellies. These simple, primitive metazoans basically lack
body cavities and true organs.
The key difference between diploblastic and triploblastic is that diploblastic organisms have two germinal layers and
lack mesoderm while triploblastic organisms have all three germinal layers, including the mesoderm.
Triploblastic animals may develop a coelom. There are three types of animals based on type of coelom

CHARACTERISTIC DIPLOBLASTIC ANIMALS TRIPLOBLASTIC ANIMALS

Germ layers 2 3
Ectoderm Forms epidermis, nervous tissue and Forms epidermis, hairs, lens, brain and
nephridia spinal cord
Endoderm Endoderm forms true gut Endoderm forms lungs, gut, liver and
bladder
Mesoderm Absent Forms excretory system and reproductive
system
Body cavity Absent Present
True tissues Absent Present
True gut Present Present
Symmetry Radial Bilateral
Complexity Less complex Highly complex
Example Cnidarians Worms, mollusks, Arthropod and
chordates
BODY CAVITIES
The coelom is a body cavity found in metazoans
Triploblastic animals
Derived from mesoderm
A body cavity is a “tube-within-a-tube” body plan consisting of a fluid-filled space separating the digestive tract
from the outer body wall.
ACOELOMATES
Organisms that lack a body cavity are called acoelomates.
EX: Flatworm
PSEUDO COELOMATES
Organisms that possess a body cavity that is not fully lined with mesodermal epithelium are called pseudo
coelomates.
Their cavity is derived from blastocoel
Cavity is lined only at one side by mesoderm
EX: Nematodes
COELOMATES
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True body cavity present

Derived from mesoderm
Lined on both sides by mesoderm
EX: Annelids onwards all phyla

FUNCTIONS OF A COELOM AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Absorb Shock
The coelomic cavity is filled with a fluid known as coelomic fluid, which serves to separate the organs from the
outer body, and ultimately works to protect the organs from mechanical shock or trauma. The disconnect between
the organs and the outer body also allows for greater ranges of movement and flexibility, as the organs are
unperturbed by minor displacement as the body bends or stretches.
Hydrostatic Skeleton
In soft bodied animals, such as earthworms and many other invertebrates, the fluid filled coelom can act as a
hydrostatic skeleton. A hydrostatic skeleton is a type of structure that functions like a skeleton, but is supported by
fluid pressure rather than bones. This allows movement in soft bodied animals.
Immune System Support
Coelomocytes play a key role in the immune system of most invertebrates. They are macrophage-like cells that are
involved in important functions, such as phagocytosis, inflammation, and the secretion of humoral factors that
impart humoral immunity.
Circulatory System
The coelomic fluid also facilitates the transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products between different parts of the
body. Nutrients absorbed in the coelomic fluid are distributed to all parts of the body in a manner similar to that of a
circular system, and any un-needed substances left after metabolic processing are excreted via the coelomic fluid. In
fact, the emergence of the coelom in organisms has allowed for the evolution of larger body sizes because of this
facilitated transport of materials.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COELOM
The development of the coelom begins in the gastrula stage, and can be formed by one of two processes:
schizocoely or enterocoely.
SCHIZOCOELY ENTEROCOELY
In schizocoely, a blind pouch called the archenteron The mesoderm buds from the walls of the archenteron
forms as the embryo’s digestive tube beings to develop. then hollows out to form the coelomic cavity.
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The mesoderm splits into two layers, one attaching to

the ectoderm (which becomes the parietal layer) and the
other surrounding the endoderm (which becomes the
visceral layer). The space between these two layers
becomes the coelom of the organism
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DEVELOPMENT OF MOUTH
Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic Eucoelomates can be divided into two groups based on differences in their
early embryonic development. True coelomates are often grouped into two categories: protostomes and
deuterostomes. This distinction is based on patterns of cell division, coelom formation, and the fate of the
blastopore. In protostomes, the blastopore becomes the mouth. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus.
PROTOSTOMES(“mouth first,”) DUETEROSTOMES(“mouth second”)
Clams, snails, slugs, octopuses, earthworms, and are Sea stars, sea urchins, fish, and humans are
protostome coelomates, meaning they are formed from deuterostomes coelomates, meaning they are formed
head to foot (or mouth to foot). The mouth first develops from anus to head. The blastopore becomes the anus,
from the blastopore, which is the first developmental and the mouth is formed later. Deuterostomes undergo
opening. Protostomes undergo spiral and determinate radical and indeterminate cleavage in the early
cleavage in the early embryonic stages, and the coelom embryonic stages; the coelom is formed through the
is formed through the process of schizocoely. process of enterocoely.
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PHYLUM PORIFERA
General characteristics

1. Kingdom: Animalia
2. Habitat: Aquatic, mostly marine, few are terrestrial
3. Habit: They are solitary or colonial.
4. Grade of organization: cellular grade of body
5. Shape: Body shape is variable, mostly cylinder shaped, vase-like, rounded or sac-like
6. Symmetry: Asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.
7. Germ layer: Diploblastic animals. The adult body wall contains two layers, outer dermal layer and inner
gastral layer. In between these two layers, there is a gelatinous and non-cellular mesoglea containing numerous
free amoeboid cells.
8. Coelom: Absent; acoelomate but spongocoel is present
9. Surface of the body has numerous perforation called ostia (for the entry of water) and a large pore at the apex
called osculum (for the exit of water).
10. Water canal system present
11. Endoskeleton: Either calcareous spicules (calcium carbonate) or siliceous spicules (silica) or sponging fibers
(protein).
12. Nutrition: holozoic
13. Digestion: Intracellular
14. Nervous system: absent
15. Circulatory system: absent
16. Reproduction:
 Asexual: by budding or gemmule or regeneration
 Sexual: gamete fusion
17. Fertilization: Internal
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Classification
Based on the type of skeleton system the phylum Porifera is divided into three classes
Class 1: Calcarea or Calcispongiae
(calcareous: lime / calcium))

 Habitat: Exclusively marine

 Habit: Solitary or colonial nature.
 Endoskeleton: calcareous spicules composed of calcium carbonate
 Symmetry: Radially symmetry
 Shape: Cylindrical shape
 Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia

Class 2: Hexactinellida or hyalospongiae:

(Hex: six, actin: ray, idea: terminal)
 Habitat: Exclusively marine (deep sea)
 Habit: Solitary in nature.
 Endoskeleton: six- rayed siliceous spicules.
 Symmetry: Radially symmetry
 Shape: Cylindrical shape.
 Examples: Euplectella, Hyalonemma

Class 3: Demospongiae
(Demos: frame)

 Habitat: Mostly marine and some are freshwater

 Endoskeleton: Siliceous spicules or sponging fibres or both or none
 The spicules are monaxon or tetraxon but never six-rayed
 Symmetry: asymmetrical.
 Shape: Irregular
 Canal system complicated.
 Spongocoel is totally absent.
 Examples: Spongilla.

TYPE OF ENDOSKELETON IN SPONGES

Like any other animals, sponges possess some sort of a skeleton that gives their bodies shape and structure. All the sponges have a
skeleton embedded in the mesenchyme. Skeleton consists of separate spicules or interlacing sponging fibers or both. Skeleton
supports and protects the soft body parts of the sponges. Skeleton also serves as the basis of classification of the sponges into
various classes like Calcarea, Hexactinellida and Desmospongia.
SPONGIN FIBERS
Spongin is an organic, horny, elastic substance which resembles silk in chemical composition. It is a scleroproteins containing
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sulphur and chemically related to collagen. It is insoluble in water and chemically resistant to protein digesting enzymes. Spongin
fibers are fine threads consisting of a soft granular axial core externally surrounded by concentric layers of spongin.
Spongin contains large amounts of iodine. This is the reason that in olden days the bath sponge was used a cure for croup, a throat
condition in children resulting from inflammation and partial obstruction of larynx.
 In the class Desmospongia, spongin fiber occurs in various forms.
 It may occur as a cement connecting together siliceous spicules.
 It may be found in the form of branching fiber in which siliceous spicules are embedded.
 In Keratosa, spicules are completely absent and spongin alone is formed.
Formation of spongin
Spongin fibers are secreted by flask-shaped mesenchyme cells called as spongioblast cells. During the development the
spongioblast cells are arranged in the rows and the spongin rods secreted by them are fused with the neighboring cells to form a
long fiber. Later the spongioblast vacuolated and finally get degenerated after secreting certain amount of spongin .
SPICULES
Spicules are microscopic crystalline structures which gives the sponges their rigidity and form. Spicule consists of spines or rays
that radiate from a point. These are secreted by special mesenchymal amoebocytes called scleroblast cells. The following are
various types of spicules:

On basis of type of deposit on core organic On the basis of size and function: Spicules can be of large size or
matter: All kinds of spicules have a core of organic small size. Accordingly spicules can be of two types:
material around which either calcium carbonate or
colloidal silica is deposited. Accordingly spicules are of
two types:
Calcareous spicules Siliceous spicules Megascleres Microscleres
The organic material in The organics material in These are larger spicules These are the small spicules occurring
this type of spicules is this type of spicules is constituting main skeleton interstitially.
calcium carbonate or Colloidal silica or Silicon. of sponge body.
calcite. This is the These types of spicules
characteristic of the are the characteristic of
sponges of class Calcarea. the sponges of class
Hexactinellida.
On the basis of number of axes and rays: Spicules may occur in several forms like the simple rod form or in the form of forks,
anchors, shovels, stars, plumes etc. The spicule forms depend on the presence of number of axes and rays. Accordingly, they can
be divided into the following forms:
Monaxon: These kinds of spicules are formed by the growth along one axis. They may be straight needle-like or rod like or may
be curved. Their ends may be pointed or hooked or knobbed. Monaxon can be both calcareous and siliceous types. These
monaxon spicules are further divided into two kinds

Monactinal- the growth of the Diactinal- The growth of the spicule Tetraxon: These spicules have four rays each
spicule takes place only in one takes place in both the directions. pointing in different direction. Usually one of the
direction four rays is elongated giving the appearance of a
crown of 3 rays. Such spicules are called as
triaenes.

TYPES OF CANAL SYSTEM

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A flow of water through the body is essential because there is no other fluid cir culating in the body. It supplies food and oxygen
and helps to remove waste products. Water current is caused by the beating of the flagella of the choanocytes.
ELEMENTS OF CANAL SYSTEM
Sycon, like all other sponges, possesses the characteristic anatomical peculiarity—the canal system. It permeates the body with
water channels. It plays a very important role in the life of Sycon.
The particular type of canal system encountered in Sycon is known as the Syconoid (Stage I) type , which is practically more
advanced than the asconoid canal system.

The canal system consists of the following parts:

(i) Paragastric cavity or gastral cavity or spongocoel:
Outer large opening, called osculum, leads into a large central canal. This canal is called Paragastric cavity or gastral cavity or
spongocoel. The wall of the Paragastric cavity is lined by ectodermal flattened cells, called pinacocytes. The osculum is
surrounded by a layer of cells, called myocytes which are contractile in nature and act as sphincter. The spongocoel opens to the
exterior through the osculum.
(ii) Radial canals:
The body wall lining of the spongocoel is out-pushed at regular intervals as finger-like projections. These projections are called
radial canals. The wall of the radial canal is lined with flagellated collar cells or choanocytes.
(iii) Incurrent canal:
In between two successive radial canals, a tubular space, called incurrent canal or inhalant canal, is present, thus radial canals and
incurrent canals are arranged alternately and the latter opens to the exterior through Ostia. The wall of the incurrent canal is lined
by ectodermal, flat pinacocytes.
(iv) Prosopyles:
The wall between the incurrent and radial canals is pierced by numerous minute pores called prosopyles. Through these pores, the
incurrent canals open into the radial canals. The prosopyles are the openings of the porocytes, generally believed to be modified
pinacocytes. The porocytes are thick-walled cylinder-like structure with a nucleus in the cytoplasm at one side. It is highly
contractile and controls the inflow of water.
(v) Ex-current canals:
The radial canals communicate into the spongocoel through short, wide canals, called excurrent canals. The wall of the excurrent
canal is lined by flat, pinacocytes.
(vi) Apopyle
The excurrent canals open into spongocoel by internal Ostia or apopyles. The apopyles are surrounded by contractile myocytes.
ASCONOID TYPE:
1. Simplest type.
2. Hollow and gastrula-like construction.
3. Thin body wall.
4. Central large (spacious) spongocoel lined by a cell layer of choanocytes.
5. Unfolded layer of choanoderm.
6. Canals run straight through the body wall.
7. Straight entry of water into the spongocoel through the tubular porocytes.
8. With the increase of the size of spongocoel, the surface area of choanocytes layer is not increased sufficiently for the movement
of water from the spongocoel and water is not pushed out readily through an apical narrow opening, the osculum.
9. These structures impose very definite size limitations.
10. Thus asconoid sponges become always small vase-like and grow in groups attached to the rocks in shallow seas.
2. SYCONOID TYPE:
1. Slightly complex type than ascon type.
2. Thick folded walls. Despite the folding of the body wall, the Syconoid sponges still retain the radial symmetry.
3. Central large spongocoel is not lined by choanocytes.
4. Rather complex water passage (a twisted route).
5. Restriction of choanocytes to the evaginated radial canals only.
6. These structures help to increase the surface area of the choanocyte layer and allow sponges to increase in size and helps more
water flow efficiently through the body. They do not live in groups as asconoid sponges.
7. The Syconoid sponges pass through an asconoid stage in their development suggesting that they have evolved from some
ancestral asconoid.
3. LEUCONOID TYPE:
1. Most complex type.
2. No spongocoel.
3. Highest degree of folding takes place.
4. Numerous incurrent canals lead into the small, rounded, choanocyte chambers, necessary to propel more water through the
body.
5. Canals are large and branched.
6. These structures help to increase significantly in the surface area and the system seen among the largest-sized sponges.
7. The complexity of structure of the leuconoid canal system helps to increase the most efficiency rather than other canal systems.
8. The leuconoid canal system may have evolved through asconoid and Syconoid stages.
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PATHWAY OF WATER IN CANAL SYSTEMS

COMPARISON AMONG CANAL SYSTEMS

ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF CANAL SYSTEM IN SPONGES

Role of Canal System:
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The canal system which draws water current inside the sponge’s body and maintains a continuous uninterrupted flow of water,
plays a vital role in the physiology of sponges, because it serves the various kinds of functions.

(i) Nutrition:
The sponges are holozoic and bring various kinds of microscopic organisms as food such as bacteria, diatoms, protozoans and
other organic particles with the water current inside the body. The selected food are digested by choanocytes of the flagellated
chambers and serves the purpose of nutrition.

(ii) Respiration:
A continuous flow of water brings oxygen inside, and exchange of gases takes place between the dissolved oxygen of the flowing
water and the cells of the sponge along the course of water flow.

(iii) Excretion:
The outgoing flow of water current removes the various kinds of metabolic waste materials such as ammonia, urea, uric acid and
other nitrogenous excretory products.

(iv) Reproduction:
The incoming water current brings sperms which are captured by the choanocytes and help in fertilization.
UNIQUE FEATURES OF SPONGES
4 types of unique cells
Epithelial Cells: make up the skin or outer layer
UNIQUE
of sponge. They generate water currents and trap
and ingest food particles. CELLS
Amoebocytes: distribute food and oxygen to other
cells
Collar Cells: inner layer of sponge that helps OF
circulate water through the sponge
Porocytes(Pores): allow water to pass through A
sponge
SPONGE

REGENERATION
Regenerate into more sponges. When a part is damaged or lost the sponge can regenerate from fragments or single cells. The cells
then migrate and become attached to another surface and a new sponge starts to grow. They do not have individual organs to
detect environmental stimuli. They can close external body openings, construct the internal canals, and reverse the flow of the
water through body

ADAPTIBILITY
Sponges can live almost everywhere, so they can adapt to any environment. Their dense structure helps them in harsh conditions.
They are also able to control the amount of water that passes through their body. This allows to filter detritus particles
resourcefully. Sponges release a toxic substance into its environment as protection as well.
FILTER FEEDING
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One way sponges obtain energy is through filter

feeding. Sponges move the water in one direction
through their bodies, capturing small food
particles out of the water.

REPRODUCTION
Sponges are hermaphrodites meaning they have both reproductive organs they are only one gender at a time: female, male or
neuter. Earth Life explains that the males release sperm into the water, and the female sponges draw the sperm in to fertilize the
ovum, which are then released as little sponges
They exhibit both asexual and sexual reproductions
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Most common is gemmulation which is when aggregates cells become weighted down with reserve food granules (particles) and
become isolated at the surface of sponge. Then they get surrounded by a protective covering and these are called gemmules. This
is also called budding.
Sexual Reproduction
egg and sperm cell come together to fertilize a new embryo and then turns into an AMPHIBLASTULA larvae. The larvae then
swims and settles into a new suface and a new sponge forms.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Serve as ecological indicators and do not grow in areas with increased level of pollution
Important in nutrient cycles in coral reef systems
Cleaning of all kinds// dish washing, car washing, arts and crafts
Potential medical uses: chemicals can be potentially used to treat infectious diseases and cancers
Encourages better sunlight penetration into water, which leads to better plant growth and higher dissolved oxygen
levels.
Microbial symbionts, and creates habitats for other organisms, sponge beds are also “hotspots” for diversity. The
economic is that they can absorb water and filter shit, Medicine.
Sponges have a great capacity to absorb water. So they are used in surgical operations for absorbing fluid and blood.
Sponges are also used for sound absorption in buildings.
The sponge serves an important purpose in filtering bacteria and other contaminants from water, and it forms a
significant portion of coral reefs.
Even though sponges are rarely taken as food by other animals, crustaceans are found leading parasitic life on them
and some mollusks like nudibranchs depend on them for their diet.
Sponges serve as protective houses for animals like crustaceans, mollusks, small fishes, etc. In addition to the
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protection, the animals that live inside the sponge get a rich food supply from the water circulating through them.
The dried, fibrous skeleton of many sponges like Spongia, Hippospongia and Euspongia are used for the purpose of
bathing, polishing, washing cars, walls, furnitures, and scrubbing floor etc. The skeleton of some sponges like
Euplectella are of great commercial value and used as decorative pieces.

Phylum Cnidaria/Coelenterata
(K hollow, enteron: cavity)oilos
General characteristics
Kingdom: Animalia
Habitat: aquatic, mostly marine.
Habit: solitary or colonial. Each individual is known as zooid.
Symmetry: radially symmetrical
Grade of organization: tissue grade of organization.
Germ layer: diploblastic, outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Mesogloea separates these two layer
The body has a single opening called hypos tome surrounded by sensor y tentacles.
Coelom: gastro vascular cavity or coelenteron.
Nematocyst: organ for capturing and paralyzing pray, present in tentacles
Nutrition: holozoic
Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular.
Respiration and excretion are accomplished by simple diffusion.
Circulatory system: absent
Nervous system: poorly develop
Many forms exhibit polymorphism ie. Polyp and medusa
Polyps are sessile, asexual stage
Medusa are free swimming, sexual stage
Metagenesis: asexual polypoid generation alternate with sexual medusoid generation
Reproduction:
Asexual: by budding
Sexual: by gametic fusion
Fertilization: internal or external
Development: indirect with larval stage
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CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CNIDARIA/COELENTERATA

The phylum coelenterate is divided into three classes on the basis of development of zooids:
Class1: Hydrozoa
(Greek ὕδρα, hydra, "sea serpent" and ζῷον, zoon, "animal"
Habitat: mostly marine, few are fresh water
Habit: some are solitary and some are colonial
Includes a large number of colonial species that contain more than one form of individuals called zooids.
In some cases the specialized individual animals cannot survive outside the colony.
A few genera within this class live in fresh water.
Asexual Polyps is dominant form
Medusa possess true velum: circular membrane beneath the umbrella that helps propel the (usually smaller)
Hydromedusae through the water
Mesogloea is simple and acellular
A ring of muscle fibres is present within the Mesogloea around the rim of the dome, and the jellyfish swims by
alternately contracting and relaxing these muscles. The periodic contracting and relaxing propels the jellyfish
through the water, allowing it to escape predation or catch its prey.
The nervous system is unusually advanced for cnidarians. Two nerve rings lie close to the margin of the bell, and
send fibers into the muscles and tentacles.
POLYP
The hydroid form is usually colonial, with multiple polyps connected by tubelike hydrocauli. The hollow cavity in
the middle of the polyp extends into the associated hydrocauli, so that all the individuals of the colony are intimately
connected. Where the hydrocaulus runs along the substrate, it forms a horizontal root-like stolon that anchors the
colony to the bottom. The hydrocaulus is usually surrounded by a sheath of chitin and proteins called the perisarc
TYPE OF POLYP
In every colony, the majority of polyps, Gastrozooids, are specialized for feeding, with a terminal mouth on a raised
protuberance called the hypostome, surrounded by a number of tentacles.
All colonial hydrozoans also include some polyps, Gonozooid, specialized for reproduction. These lack tentacles
and contain numerous buds from which the medusoid stage of the lifecycle is produced.
In addition to these two basic types of polyps, a few colonial species have other specialized forms. In some,
defensive polyps Dactylozooid are found armed with large numbers of stinging cells. In others, one polyp may
develop as a large float, from which the other polyps hang down, allowing the colony to drift in open water instead
of being anchored to a solid surface
MEDUSAE
Most hydrozoans have a medusoid stage, this is not always free-living, and in many species, exists solely as a
sexually reproducing bud on the surface of the hydroid colony. Sometimes, these medusoid buds may be so
degenerated as to entirely lack tentacles or mouths, essentially consisting of an isolated gonad.
Most hydrozoan medusae have just four tentacles, although a number of exceptions exist. Stinging cells are found on
the tentacles and around the mouth.

Examples: Hydra, Obelia, Physalia physalis (Portuguese man of war), Tubularia

Class 2: Scyphozoa or Scyphomedusae

Greek word skyphos (σκύφος), denoting a kind of drinking cup and alluding to the cup shape of the organism.
Habitat: exclusively marine
Habit: solitary, freely swimming
Most species of Scyphozoa have two life history phases, including the planktonic medusa or jellyfish form, which is
most evident in the warm summer months, and an inconspicuous, but longer-lived, bottom-dwelling polyp, which
seasonally gives rise to new medusae. Most of the large, often colorful, and conspicuous jellyfish found in coastal
waters throughout the world are Scyphozoa.
Scyphomedusae are found throughout the world's oceans, from the surface to great depths; no Scyphozoa occur in
freshwater (or on land).
As medusae, they eat a variety of crustaceans and fish, which they capture using stinging cells called nematocysts.
The nematocysts are located throughout the tentacles that radiate downward from the edge of the umbrella dome,
and also cover the four or eight oral arms that hang down from the central mouth.
Some species, however, are instead filter feeders, using their tentacles to strain plankton from the water.
Medusa is dominant and it is Large bell or umbrella shaped.
Polyps is short lived or absent
Mesogloea is usually cellular
The nervous system usually consists of a distributed net of cells, although some species possess more organized
nerve rings.

Examples: Aurelia aurita (Jelly fish), Rhizostoma

Class 3: Anthozoa or Actinozoa
(Anthos: flower; zoios: animal “flower like animals”)
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Habitat: exclusively marine

Adult Anthozoans are almost all attached to the seabed, while their larvae can disperse as part of the plankton.
The basic unit of the adult is the polyp; this consists of a cylindrical column topped by a disc with a central mouth
surrounded by tentacles.
Sea anemones are mostly solitary, but the majority of corals are colonial, being formed by the budding of new
polyps from an original, founding individual.
Colonies are strengthened by calcium carbonate and other materials and take various massive, plate-like, bushy or
leafy forms.
Anthozoans are carnivores, catching prey with their tentacles.
Many species supplement their energy needs by making use of photosynthetic single-celled algae called zoo
chlorella and dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues. These species live in shallow water
and many are reef-builders. Other species lack the zooxanthellae and, having no need for well-lit areas, typically live
in deep-water locations.
Medusa stage is absent
Mesogloea contains fibrous connective tissue and amoeboid cells.

Example: Metridium s (sea anemone), Telesto, Tubipora, Xenia

POLYMORPHISM IN CNIDARIA
Polymorphism is the phenomenon of occurrence of the same species of the organism in more than one form with
different functions. Polymorphism is a Greek word, polys meaning many and morphe meaning form.
This occurrence of polymorphism ensures well-organized division of labor between several individuals. In
coelenterates different individuals get united in the form of a colony and hence polymorphism is a very important
feature of this phylum. Class hydrozoa is the best example of polymorphism.
There are two main forms included in the polymorphism of the coelenterates namely Polyps and medusae

Polyps: This form is tubular and the mouth is surrounded by tentacles only at one end while the other end is usually
attached by a pedal disc to the substratum. Gastrozooids or feeding zooids are typical polyps with a mouth and
surrounding tentacles. Dactylozooids which are used for defence are polyps without mouth and usually with a long
basal tentacle. Gonozooid are reproductive zooids derived from polyp, which produce sexual medusae or
gonophores.

Medusae: This form is umbrella or bowl shaped with marginal tentacles and mouth centrally located on the
projection of the lower concave surface.
Generally polyps are sessile and medusae forms are motile. But a homology exists between the two in their basic
features.
Patterns of polymorphism
Different groups of hydrozoa show varying degree of polymorphisms. The following are various patters of
polymorphism found in hydrozoa.
Dimorphic: This is the most simplest and the common pattern of polymorphism exhibited by most of the hydrozoan
colonies. They have only two types of zooids and hence the name dimorphic. Dimorphic polymorphism is exhibited
by many hydrozoan colonies like Obelia, Tubularia. The two types of zooids are,
Gastrozooids are concerned with feeding. They are also known as hydranths
Gonozooids are concerned with asexual reproduction. They are also known as blastostyles
Trimorphic: This polymorphic pattern bears an additional zooid called as Dactylozooids along with Gastrozooids
and Gonozooids. Dactylozooids are non-feeding, defensive structures consisting of batteries of nematocysts.
Polymorphic: Having more than three types of zooid individuals is termed as polymorphism. For example a colony
of Hydractinia consists of five types of polyps each assigned with a special function,
Gastrozooids for feeding
Spiral Dactylozooids for protection
Long sensory tentaculozooids for sensory function
Skeletozooids (Spiny projections of chitin)
Gonozooids for reproduction
Modifications of Polyp forms
Gastrozooids also called as feeding polyps. They have a mouth and long a long tentacle
Dactylozooid also called as protective polyp. They have no mouth but have a basal long tentacle
Gonozooid also called as reproductive polyp. It produces sexual medusa form.
Tentaculozooids: Long sensory for sensory function
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Modifications of Medusa forms

Nectophore also called as swimming zooid. They have muscular bell without tentacles
Pneumatophore also called as float bladder-like medusa. They are filled with secreted gas.
Phyllozooid also called as bract. They are studded with nematocysts and help in protection.
Gonophore also called as gonad zooid. They may be either male or female.
REPRODUCTION
In general, polyps primarily reproduce asexually by budding; however, some produce gametes (eggs and sperm) and
reproduce sexually. Medusae usually reproduce sexually using eggs and sperm. Depending on the species,
Cnidarians can be Monoecious (also called hermaphroditic), with individuals capable of producing both eggs and
sperm, or they can be dioecious, with individuals of separate sexes for gamete production. Typically the
hermaphroditic species cannot self-fertilize, so sexual reproduction requires at least two individuals. Jellyfish of the
class Scyphozoa are dioecious
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Polyps reproduce asexually by budding, forming colonies.
Cnidarians switch from the polyp to the medusa stage by a form of asexual reproduction in which the polyp
develops a stack of medusoid structures that can then bud off to become independent medusae. This process is called
strobilation
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The polyp stage can be regenerated when medusae reproduce sexually to form a ciliated larva called a planula. The
planula can then develop into a polyp and continue the cycle.
There are many variations on this general life cycle, depending on the species. For example, exclusively polyp
species in the class Anthozoa will obviously exhibit a truncated version of the lifecycle omitting the medusa stages.
There are also some species that are exclusively medusae and do not form polyps. Another variation in the sexual
reproduction of cnidarians is whether fertilization takes place internally or externally. In some species, sperm
released by the males must be ingested by the females in order to reach eggs within the female body for fertilization.
In other species, both sperm and eggs are released into the aquatic environment by the organisms, and fertilization
takes place externally
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The life cycle of Obelia, a marine colonial hydroid.

DEFENSE STRUCTURE IN CNIDARIA

The body wall of all the coelenterates contains special defensive structures called as stinging cells or nematocysts.
Because of the presence of these cnidocytes the phylum Coelenterata is also known as Cnidaria. Each cnidocyte
contains a fluid filled membranous capsule called cnida. Cnidocytes help not only in defense but also in locomotion,
adhesion and capture of prey.
The presence of these defensive structures is one of the most important characteristic features of coelenterates. These
are not actually cells by are cell organelles found in the specialized cells called as cnidocytes or Cnidoblasts.
Cnidoblast is a Greek term “knide” meaning nettle and “blast” meaning germ.
Cnidoblasts develop only from modified interstitial cells of epidermis and are not found in the gastrodermis. When
fully developed, Cnidoblasts migrate to the tentacles through Mesogloea by means of amoeboid movement.
Structure of Cnidoblast
Cnidoblasts are oval or rounded cell with a basal nucleus on one side. Inside the Cnidoblast an oval or pyriform
bladder called as stinging capsule is present. This stinging capsule is also called as nematocyst. The nematocyst
consists of a tiny bulb made of chitin. This bulb is filled with poisonous fluid or hypnotoxin, which is chemically a
mixture of proteins and phenols. On end of this bulb is extended as a narrow, long, hollow tube like filament which is
coiled round the poisonous sac. This filament is called as thread tube. The base of the thread tube is swollen to form a
shaft. Inside the shaft there are three large spines called as barbs and three spiral rows of minute spines called as
barbules. The shaft is externally covered by a lid-like structure called as operculum.
The outer end of the Cnidoblast projects freely beyond the epidermal surface as a tiny, pointed hair-like process called
cnidocil or trigger. Groups of supporting rods surround the central core of cnidocil. The central core is structurally
similar to the cilium with fibers in 9+2 pattern. The cytoplasm of the Cnidoblast contains contractile muscle fibrils.
The cell organelles present in the cytoplasm of the Cnidoblast include endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi
bodies, mitochondria and multi-vesicular bodies as revealed by electron microscopic studies.
Distribution of nematocyst
Nematocysts are found scattered single or in groups (very rare) throughout the epidermal region of the cnidarian body.
These special defensive structures are absent on the basal disc. They are abundant at the oral region and on the
tentacles where they form batteries of nematocysts.
A battery of nematocyst is the structure comprising of two large central nematocysts surrounded by 10-12 small
nematocysts. All these large and small nematocysts are enclosed within a single large epithelio-muscle cell.
Cnidoblasts are not formed in the tentacles rather they are formed in the epidermal region and then they migrate to the
tentacles. During this migration of large number of Cnidoblasts some of them encyst in clusters in gastro vascular
cavity to form battery of nematocyst.
Mechanism of Defense
The discharge or explosion of nematocysts takes place when cnidocil is stimulated by food, prey or enemy. Both the
presence of food and touch together initiates the process of explosion and not any one alone. Hence both the
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mechanical stimulations like contact of food and chemical stimulations like approaching enemy are involved in the
mechanism of action of nematocysts.

CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming coral larvae attach to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces along
the edges of islands or continents. As the corals grow and expand, reefs take on one of three major characteristic
structures —fringing, barrier or atoll.
Fringing reefs are the most common, project seaward directly from the shore, forming borders along the shoreline
and surrounding islands.
Barrier reefs also border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from their adjacent land mass by a
lagoon of open, often deep water.
If a fringing reef forms around a volcanic island that subsides completely below sea level while the coral continues
to grow upward, an atoll forms. Atolls are usually circular or oval, with a central lagoon. Parts of the reef platform
may emerge as one or more islands, and gaps in the reef provide access to the central lagoon.
In addition to being some of the most beautiful and biologically diverse habitats in the ocean, barrier reefs and atolls
also are some of the oldest. As coral reefs grow, they establish characteristic biogeographic patterns.
All three reef types—fringing, barrier and atoll—share similarities in their biogeographic profiles. Bottom
topography, depth, wave and current strength, light, temperature, and suspended sediments all act to create
characteristic horizontal and vertical zones of corals, algae and other species. These zones vary according to the
location and type of reef. The major divisions common to most reefs, as they move seaward from the shore, are the
reef flat, reef crest or algal ridge, buttress zone, and seaward slope.

With growth rates of 0.3 to 2 centimeters per year for massive corals, and up to 10 centimeters per year for
branching corals, it can take up to 10,000 years for a coral reef to form from a group of larvae
Depending on their size, barrier reefs and atolls can take from 100,000 to 30,000,000 years to fully form.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CORALS

Coral reefs benefit a healthy world by providing:

Habitat: Home to more than 1 million diverse aquatic species, including thousands of fish species
Income: Billions of dollars and millions of jobs in more than 100 countries around the world
Food: For commercial fishing enterprises and for people living near coral reefs, especially on small islands
Protection: A natural barrier protecting coastal cities, communities, and beaches
Medicine: Potential treatments for many of the world's most prevalent and dangerous illnesses and diseases
Animals That Live Nowhere Else
Coral reefs are biologically diverse. This means that the variety of species living on coral reefs is greater than almost
anywhere else in the world. Coral reef ecosystems are like bustling cities, with buildings made of coral and
thousands of marine inhabitants coming and going, interacting with one another, carrying out their business. In this
sense, coral reefs are the sea's metropolises. Coral reefs provide shelter for nearly one quarter of all known marine
species. And over the last 240 million years, reefs have evolved into one of the largest and most complex
ecosystems on the planet. The reefs are home to more than 4,000 species of fish, 700 species of coral, and thousands
of other plant and animal life. Scientists estimate that, in total, more than one million species of plants and animals
are associated with the coral reef ecosystem.
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Millions of Humans Depend on Coral Reefs

By one estimate, coral reefs provide economic goods and ecosystem services worth about $375 billion each year to
millions of people. Many countries with coral reefs generate significant portions of their income through tourism.
Studies show that on average, countries with coral reef industries derive more than half of their gross national
product from them.
The variety of marine life and protected beaches supported by coral reefs provide an inviting setting for sightseers,
sunbathers, snorkelers, and scuba divers
Coral reefs are also a significant source of protein for millions of people. For people who live in coral reef areas,
coral reefs are part of their lives. Reefs are directly linked with their traditional, spiritual, and cultural values.
Coral Reefs Protect the Beaches
Reefs serve as a buffer, protecting in-shore areas from pounding ocean waves. Without coral reefs, many beaches
and buildings would become vulnerable to wave action and storm damage.
Coral Reefs Save Lives
Just like species in the rain forest, reef plants and animals contain medicinal compounds, many of which are just
being discovered. Several important drugs have already been developed from chemicals found in coral reef
organisms. Unique compounds from coral reefs have yielded treatments for cardiovascular diseases, ulcers,
leukemia, and skin cancer. In addition, coral's unique skeletal structure has been used to make our most advanced
forms of bone-grafting materials. Amazingly, more than half of all new cancer drug research focuses on marine
organisms. The beautiful and fragile creatures of our coral reefs have the potential to make even greater
contributions to our lives by providing new cures for life-threatening diseases.
 A good example can be found in Bonaire, a small Caribbean island. Bonaire earns about USD $23 million
annually from coral reef activities, yet managing its marine park costs less than $1 million per year
 .In fact, there are more than 8.5 million certified scuba divers in the United States who spend money on
dive vacations each year. In 1997, the State of Florida earned USD $1.6 billion from coral reef and beach-
related tourism. For residents of coral reef areas who depend on income from tourism, reef destruction
creates a significant loss of employment in the tourism, marine recreation, and sport fishing industries.
 In the tsunami of December 2004, some coastlines were spared further damage as a result of healthy reefs.
In another instance, when coral and sand was mined away in the Maldives, it cost USD $10 million per
kilometer to build a wall to protect the coastline
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CNIDARIANS

1. Significant economic importance for humans, especially those belonging to the Anthozoa class. For
instance, scientists have discovered many chemical compounds in Cnidarians that can be used to treat
cancer and other illnesses. Many Cnidarians are also an important part of the food chain for larger,
commercially fished animals, many of which could not exist without them to feed on.

2. Cnidarians also have a few negative economic impacts as well, such as the closing of beaches due to
jellyfish swarms. These swarms also often clog the nets of commercial fishing boats, costing them time and
money. Furthermore, jellyfish stings can put people in the hospital or even result in death, further adding to
their costs.
3. Corals have huge ecological importance. They house over 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals
and hundreds of other species. Scientists estimate that there may be another 1 to 8 million undiscovered
species of organisms living in and around reefs (Ocean Service Education)

4. Coral also has a very big economic importance. Because tourists come and dive in the corals, they bring
people to the places of the reefs. Therefore people need restaurants, hotels and commercial and
entertainment facilities. (Reef Relief)

5. In terms of Money and Economy, Cnidaria have no major impact for economical reasons. They acutally
hinder the economy, adding hours of extra work to removing jellyfish and corals from fishing nets.
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PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
With more than 20,000 species currently identified, the phylum Platyhelminthes makes up one of the largest phyla after
chordates, mollusks, and arthropods.
They make up the largest phylum among acoelomates.
Coelom: Acoelomate, Lack a true body cavity
Wormiform or ribbon like body pointed at both ends
Habitat: found in marine, freshwater as well as moist terrestrial environments.
Symmetry: Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical organisms with multicellular bodies that display organ grade organization
Germ layers: They are triploblastic organisms with three embryonic germ layers that include the ectoderm (outermost germ
layer) mesoderm (central germ layer) and endoderm (innermost germ layer)
Their bodies are typically soft
No exoskeleton is present. Instead hooks, spines and teeth and hardened
Apart from attachment organs such as hooks and suckers, flatworms also secrete adhesive secretions from two main glands
namely; the eosinophilous and cyanophilous gland
The digestive tract is completely absent
Their nervous system, for the most part, is primitive (ladder-like)

Feeding Systems in Coelomates and Acoelomates

Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity with only one opening –
which serves as a dual role of mouth and anus.
This means that they lack a digestive tract altogether and absorb nutrients across their body surface.
There is no specialization of compartments in this system.Digestion is extracellular – meaning that the breakdown of food is
outside the cells.Coelomates, such as annelids, have a complete digestive tract that includes specialization along the tract.This
means that the digestive tube extends between two openings, the mouth and an anus.Having an extracellular cavity for digestion
enables an animal to devour much larger prey than can be ingested by phagocytosis and digested intracellularly.
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CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES

the phylum is further divided into the following classes:

Turbellaria
Monogenea
Cestoda
Trematoda Class Turbellaria

Class Turbellaria
Class Turbellaria is composed of about 3,000 species of organisms spread across at least 10 orders.
They require moist conditions to survive. Majority are marine, others are found in freshwater environments as well as tropical
terrestrial and moist temperate environments..
Exist as free-living organisms or parasites.
As worms, they have an elongated soft body tapered at both ends with reduced thickness compared to the central part of the body.
With a compressed dorso-ventral body section, Turbellaria species have a high surface area to volume ratio.
Marine species are very colorful (yellow spots, reddish in color etc.) those found in terrestrial and interstitial environments are
largely dull in appearance.
Locomotion is achieved through well-coordinated movement of cilia that repeatedly flap in one direction. These cilia are located
on the secreted mucus trail and therefore conveniently located for movement purposes. For some of the species, however,
movement is achieved through the rhythmic contraction of muscles.
They are not segmented
They are acoelomate.
They have sub-epidermal rhabdites (rod-shaped bodies located below epidermis, produce a protective, sticky coat around the
organism) in their ciliated epidermis that distinguish this class from other flatworms.
They lack an anal opening. As a result, food material is taken in through the pharynx and ejected through the mouth.
Feeding: While a majority of species in this class are predators of smaller invertebrates, others live as herbivores, scavengers, and
ectoparasites.
Pigment cells and photoreceptors present in their eyespots are used in place of image-forming eyes.
Nervous system: Depending on the species, the peripheral nervous system of Turbellarians ranges from very simple to complex
interlacing nerve webs that control muscle movement.
Reproduction is achieved through a number of methods that include sexual reproduction (simultaneous hermaphrodites) and
asexual reproduction (transverse fission). In sexual reproduction, eggs are produced and bundled into cocoons from which
juveniles hatch and develop. Asexually, some of the species split into two halves that the regenerate to form the missing half thus
developing into a whole organism.
Divided into two large groups

Class Monogenea
This is one of the largest groups of flatworms whose members as almost exclusively parasites of aquatic vertebrates
(ectoparasites).
The head of monogeneans at the anterior region may contain eyespots with pigments. This region of the body also has an oval
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shaped pharynx that is poorly developed.

They are hermaphrodites - They possess both male and female reproductive organs (testis and ovary)
Fertilized eggs are directly released in water where they hatch to produce free-swimming larva.
To complete their life cycle, the larva infects a host as they develop to continue the cycle;
Monogeneans do not have intermediate hosts in their life cycle.
They use adhesive organs known as haptors to attach to the host. This structure also consists of suckers, clamps or anchors.
Although they have specific body shapes depending on the species, they have been shown to be capable of elongating/shortening
their bodies as they move in their environment
They do not have an anal opening and therefore use protonephridial system for the purposes of excreting waste products
They lack a respiratory and circulatory system but have a nervous system consisting of a nerve ring and nerves that extend to the
posterior and anterior part of the body
As parasites, monogeneans often feed on the skin cells mucus as well as the blood of the host which causes damage to the mucous
membrane and skin that protects the animal (fish). These infections can also affect other organs of the host including the gill
tissue

CLASS CESTODA
Commonly called flat worms
Characterized by their long ribbon like flat bodies that can grow up to 18 meters long consisting of many reproductive units
(proglottid).
The body is divided into scolex (containing suckers and/or hooks), a neck as well as a strobili that consists of a series of
units known as proglottids.
LIFE CYCLE :
The body of true tapeworms consists of many segments known as proglottids. Each of the proglottids contains both a male
and female reproductive structures (as hermaphrodites) that are capable of reproducing independently.
A single proglottid is capable of producing thousands of eggs, their lifecycle can continue in another host when the eggs are
ingested.
The host that ingests the eggs is known as the intermediate host.
In the body of intermediate host the eggs hatch to produce larvae (coracidium). The larvae, however, continues to develop in
the second host (definitive host) and mature in the adult stage.
They lack a digestive system - Compared to the two other classes of flatworms, tapeworms lack a digestive system. Instead,
the surface of their bodies is covered by small microvillus-like projections similar to those found in the small intestine of
many vertebrates.
Through these structures, tapeworms effectively absorb nutrients through their outer covering (tegument). For this reason, a
majority of tapeworms can be found in the small intestine of many of their hosts where they can easily obtain nutrition.
They have well-developed muscles.
Modified cilia on their surface are used as sensory endings.
The nervous system is made up of a pair of lateral nerve cords.
Examples of cestodes species include:

Taenia solium
Dipylidium caninum
Taenia saginata
Hymenolepis nana
Diphyllobothrium latum

CLASS TREMATODA
Commonly known as flukes, members of class Trematoda are all parasitic in nature. Currently, about 20,000 species of class
Trematoda have been identified.
They have separate sexes that can live in blood for a number of years
They have oral suckers as well as ventral suckers that make it possible for the organisms to attach on to the host. This makes
feeding easier for the organisms.
Adult flukes can be found in the liver or the circulatory system of the host
They have a well-developed alimentary canal and excretory system,
They have a well-developed muscular system

PLANARIA
Habitat: live in both saltwater and freshwater ponds and rivers. Some species are terrestrial and are found under logs, in
or on the soil, and on plants in humid areas.
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1. Commonly called planaria and is a fresh water form of cosmopolitan distribution.

2. The body is elongated, flattened and some-what conical.
3. A distinct head is present, which is triangular in form and bears a pair of semicircular ocelli and a pair of distinct
auricles.
4. These animals are acoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical and are triploblastic.
5. Body wall is comprised of ciliated epidermis and has rod-like bodies-the rhabdites embedded in it.
6. Excretory organs are protonephridia and flame cells.
7. Alimentary canal is having a distinct pharynx, a proboscis and an intestine, which is trifid in front and bifid behind.
8. Locomotion: Planarians move by beating cilia on the ventral dermis, allowing them to glide along on a film of mucus.
9. Reproduction through regeneration.
Planaria exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate lost body parts. For example, a planarian split lengthwise or
crosswise will regenerate into two separate individuals. Some planarian species have two eye-spots (also known as
ocelli) that can detect the intensity of light, while others have several eye-spots. The eye-spots act as photoreceptors and
are used to move away from light sources.

FLAME CELLS
As multi-cellular systems evolved to have organ systems that divided the metabolic needs of the body, individual organs
evolved to perform the excretory function. Excretory cells known as flame cells developed in flatworms, while nephridia
developed as excretory cells in annelids.
Flame Cells of Planaria
Planaria are flatworms that live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a highly-
branched duct system that leads to pores located all along the sides of the body. The filtrate is secreted through these pores.
The cells in the tubules are called flame cells (or protonephridia) because they have a cluster of cilia that looks like a
flickering flame when viewed under the microscope. Flame cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials through
filtration. The cilia propel waste matter down the tubules and out of the body through excretory pores that open on the body
surface; cilia also draw water from the interstitial fluid, allowing for filtration. After excretion, any useful metabolites are
reabsorbed by the cell. Flame cells are found in freshwater invertebrates, such as flatworms, including parasitic tapeworms
and free-living planaria.

NEPHRIDIA OF WORMS
Earthworms (annelids) and some other invertebrates, such as arthropods and mollusks, have slightly-more-evolved
excretory structures called nephridia. A pair of nephridia is present on each segment of the earthworm. They are similar
to flame cells in that they have tubules with cilia and function like a kidney to remove wastes, but they often open to the
exterior of the organism. The ciliated tubules filter fluid from the body cavity and carry waste, including excess ions,
through openings called nephrostomes. From the nephrostomes, excretion occurs through a pore called the
nephridiopore. A nephridium is more evolved than a flame cell in that it has a system for reabsorption of some useful
waste products, such as metabolites and ions, by a capillary network before excretion (unlike planaria that can only
reabsorb useful metabolites after excretion).
Key Points
Nephridia are more evolved than flame cells because they can reabsorb useful metabolites before excretion of waste.
Both nephridia and flame cells are ciliated tubules that filter fluids in the cell to remove waste.
Flame cells are connected to a duct system of pores to expel wastes, while nephridia often are open to the exterior of the
organism.
Key Terms
flame cell: a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates
nephridium: a tubular excretory organ in some invertebrates
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nephridiopore: the external opening of a nephridium, where waste is excreted from the cell
nephrostome: the funnel-shaped opening of a nephridium into the body cavity

Fasciola hepatica (Liver fluke)

Common name: Liver fluke
Habitat: Bile duct of liver
Route of infection: Human feeding on Contaminated plants/ Vegetables
Definitive host:Sheep/ man/any mammal
Intermediate host: Snail
Infective stage: Metacercariae
Diagnostic stage:Eggs in stool specimen
Disease: Fasciolosis
Liver flukes are trematodes, a group of flattened oval or worm-like internal parasites of mollusks and vertebrates. The
two species of the greatest veterinary importance are Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica. Most aspects of their biology
and effect on cattle and sheep are similar.
1. Body of liver fluke is soft, flattened, leaf-like with a triangular head lobe (Fig. 21 A). It is brown to pale-grey in
colour and measures 2.15-3 cm x 1.2-1.5 cm. The body is covered with a cuticle, the greater portion of which bears
minute spines.
2. The mouth of liver fluke is anterior and terminal, surrounded by the oral sucker.
3. The posterior sucker is ventral and behind the mouth.
4. The genital aperture is placed in between the two suckers.
5. The excretory pore is median and posterior terminal in liver fluke.
Reproductive Organs of Liver Fluke:
1. Liver fluke is hermaphrodite and bears organs of both the sexes.
2. The male organs consist of paired, much branched testes, a pair of vasa deferentia, a common seminal vesicle, and an
ejaculatory duct opening in the male aperture in the cirrus.
3. The female organs of liver fluke consist of a single branched ovary, an oviduct, a uterus, an ootype, vitelline glands
and their ducts and shell glands. The uterus opens in the cirrus.
4. A small cavity, the genital atrium bearing the external aperture of male and female duct is formed when the cirrus is
withdrawn.
Life cycle of the liver fluke
1. The eggs of liver fluke are large ovoid structures with brown color due to the presence of bile pigment. On the
average, they measure 40-80yum (microns). The eggs are fertilized in the uterus and self or cross fertilization may
occur.
2. The zygote receives yolk and a Chitinous covering in the ootype, remains in the uterus for a short period and is
discharged. Passing down the bile duct, the zygote reaches the intestine of the host and passes to the exterior with the
faeces.
3. Active development starts and after 2-3 weeks the miracidiurn larva hatches out of the egg.
4. The miracidium swims actively in water or moves on damp herbage and can survive only if it reaches an amphibian
snail, the other host, approximately within 8 hours-time.
5. The embryo bores into the snail and comes to the pulmonary sac or other organs.
6. The ciliated ectoderm is lost, it grows to an elongated sac and forms the sporocyst.
7. The germ cells of the sporocyst behave like parthenogenetic ova. Each cell divides to produce blastula, gastrula and
finally a form of larva, the redia.

8. Five to eight rediae are usually formed in each sporocyst.

9. From the germ cells in the redia, 14-20 cercariae develop in each redia. Cercariae are produced if the season is
summer but redia gives rise to a fresh generation of 8-12 rediae if the season is winter.
10. The cercaria escapes through the birth opening of the redia.
11. The cercaria forces its way out of the snail, loses its tail, becomes encysted and remains attached to blades of grass
or other herbage.
12. The encysted cercaria known as metacercaria is taken by the host with the grass and the young fluke on escape, may
reach the liver through bile ducts or hepatic portal vein, and grows rapidly to reach the adult stage. The eggs come out
with the faeces about 3 to 4 months (incubation period) after infection.
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EFFECT OF PARASITISM ON
1. On host:
The attack of liver fluke causes ‘liver-rot’, which is disastrous to the host and death has been recorded in most cases of liver-rot.
Jaundice and adenomata have also been reported.
2. On parasite:
Due to parasitic life, considerable degeneration of the vegetative organs has taken place in Fasciola. The reproductive organs are
more developed. On the other hand a single fluke may produce about 50,000 eggs. Twice in its life cycle, the young embryos are
exposed to the environment and the cycle which is already full of risks becomes more risky.
To compensate the huge loss during its perilious journey from host to host further multiplication by asexual means has appeared,
in addition to the already accentuated rate of multiplication.
TAPEWORM: HUMANS AS TAPEWORM HOSTS
Human tapeworm infestations are most common in regions where there is fecal contamination of soil and water and where meat
and fish are eaten raw or lightly cooked. In the case of the human tapeworm most common in the United States (the beef
tapeworm, Taenia saginata ) the usual intermediate host is a cow, which ingests the proglottid while drinking or grazing. The
round-bodied embryos, equipped with sharp hooks, hatch and bore through the cow's intestinal wall into the bloodstream, where
they are carried to the muscles. Here each embryo encloses itself in a cyst, or bladder; at this stage it is called a bladder worm.
During the bladder worm stage the embryo develops into a miniature scolex; it remains encysted until the muscle is eaten by a
primary host, in this case a human. If the scolex has not been killed by sufficient cooking of the meat, it sheds its covering and
attaches to the intestinal wall, where it begins producing proglottids.
A human tapeworm, the pork tapeworm (T. solium), has a similar life cycle, with a pig as the usual intermediate host.
The fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothrium latum, transmitted to humans from fish, especially pike. This tapeworm has a more
elaborate life cycle, involving both a fish and a crustacean as intermediate hosts.
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The dwarf tapeworm, Hymenolepis nana, is transmitted through fecal contamination.

There are also several tapeworms for whom humans are the usual intermediate host; among these, the dog
tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosis, spends its adult phase in the intestines of dogs.
TAPEWORM
Name for the parasitic flatworms forming the class Cestoda. All tapeworms spend the adult phase of their lives as parasites in the
gut of a vertebrate animal (called the primary host). Most tapeworms spend part of their life cycle in the tissues of one or more
other animals (called intermediate hosts), which may be vertebrates or arthropods.
Reproduction
Each proglottid contains a complete set of male and female reproductive organs that produce the sex cells. Fertilization is
internal; in most species cross fertilization between two adjacent worms is necessary, but in a few species self-fertilization may
occur between two proglottids of the same worm, or within the same proglottid. In some species the fertilized eggs are shed
continuously and leave the host's body in the feces; in others the fertilized eggs are stored until the proglottid is filled with them
and the entire proglottid is then shed. The eggs develop into embryos with a hard outer shell; these do not hatch until they are
eaten by a suitable intermediate host.
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IMPORTANCE OF FLATWORMS TO EVOLUTION

Bilateral body plan Body can be divided into two equal halves
Cephalization Development of the head(Sense organs and nerves concentrated in head)
Nerve cord runs from head to last end connected through ganglia
Centralization of nervous system Highly specialised muscles to accomplish locomotion
Advanced muscle tissue Allows removal of metabolic wastes
Primitive excretory system

PARASITIC ADAPTATIONS IN HELMINTHS

A parasite is those organism which lives at the expense of other organism, and in return it cause injury or harm to the host. Such
an association in which one organism, the parasite, is benefited while the another one, the host, is harmed is called parasitism.
Parasitism has evolved accidently as a result of contact between different forms of animals, mainly for the purpose of obtaining
nourishment and receiving shelter. In the process the organism from which nourishment is being obtained gets harmed. An ideal
parasite is that which does not cause too much harm to its host because if the host dies the parasite depending upon the host will
also have to die.
Flatworms live in water or environments with high moisture. Some species are microscopic, while others may be as long as 164
feet. All get their names from their characteristically flat bodies. The three main types of flatworms are free-living, flukes and
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tapeworms. Both flukes and tapeworms are parasitic, relying on other host animals for survival. Although flatworms do not have
highly evolved biological systems, they have several adaptations that optimize their survival.

MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS:
Several morphological adaptations have occurred m the body of helminthes parasites in order to survive well in the body of their
host. The adaptions have occurred either in the form of degeneration of certain organs or attainment of new organs.

(A) DEGENERATION OF ORGANS:

In order to lead a parasitic life complete or partial degeneration or loss of organs has taken place in the body of helminthes
parasites. Such degeneration are found especially in those organs which are of little or no use to the parasite. Important organs in
which degeneration have occurred are –
1. Organs of locomotion:
Since the parasite resides in the host body where they live well protected and nourishment readily available, there is no need to
move. Hence, the locomotory organelles are completely lost. However, in cases where the larval forms are free living, the
locomotory organs in the form of cilia reappears, e.g., Miracidium larva of Fasciola.
2. Tropic organs:
The organs which are concerned with nutrition are called trophic organs. As the parasite derives fully digested or partially
digested nutrition from the host s body, the alimentary canal has either totally disappeared (e.g. Taenia solium) or exhibit fair
degree of degeneration (e.g. Fasciola, Ascaris).
3. Nervous system and sense organs:
The endoparasites live in a well-protected and more or less stable environment inside host’s body in perpetual darkness, there is
no need of complex form of nervous system, consequently the photoreceptor organs (eyes) and other sense organs have
completely lost. The central and peripheral nervous system have also reduced considerably as compared to the other free living
species of the same phylum.

(B) ATTAINMENT OF NEW ORGANS:

The helminthes parasites have attained certain special structures which help them adjust well within the body of their host. These
are-
1. Shape of the body:
The shape of the body has become round or dorso-ventrally flattened or ribbon like which enable them to fit in the space of host’s
body where they reside.
2. Development of protective covering:
The integument of the parasite has lost epidermis and has developed several layered thick protective covering of cuticle. The
cuticle is resistant to host’s digestive enzymes, antitoxin and abrasive action of the food and roughage passing through the
digestive tract. The cuticle is permeable to water and also help in the absorption of food Protective spines have also developed in
the cuticle of several trematodes.
3. Development of adhesive organs:
The endoparasites live in an environment where there is always a danger of being dislodged or sweapt away along with the hosts
body fluid or peristalsis of the alimentary canal. Hence, there is always a demand for certain organs of attachment to keep the
parasite in their respective position. The different forms of adhesive organs found in helminthes parasites are-
(i) Acetabulum: In adult flatworms, in the upper half of the body, acetabulum is present which act as anchoring structure e.g.
Fasciola.
(ii) Suckers: Suckers are strong organs or attachment found in both trematodes as well as in cestodes In Fasciola hepatica, there
are two suckers, an anterior sucker surrounding mouth and a large ventral sucker. In Taenia solium, there are four suckers on the
scolex.
(iii) Hooks: The anterior end of the body of cestodes and trematodes bear hooks and spines as organ of attachment.
(iv) Jaws: In nematodes (e.g. Ascaris) Chitinous jaws are present inside mouth which helps them to anchor with the wall of gut.
(v) Glands: The secretory glands present near the mouth in certain helminthes help them to tissues by secreting histolytic juices.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS:
The helminthes endoparasites have to live in the physiological environment of their host and accordingly they have acquired
certain physiological adaptations which enable them to survive comfortably. Some of the physiological adaptations exhibited by
parasites are as below:
1. Secretion of antienzymes and mucous:
In order to obtain nutrition from host’s body most of the endoparasite live in the host body where abundant nutrient material is
available. But at the same time, the parasites living inside the gut are always in danger of being digested by the digestive enzymes
of the host. To overcome this problem the parasites (e.g. Taenia, Ascaris) have developed following adaptations –
(a) Strong impermeable cuticle has developed around the parasite.
(b) The parasite stimulates the host gut to secrete huge amount of mucous that surrounds the parasite and protect it from the
digestive juice of the host.
(c) Most of the parasites produce antienzymes which protect them from the gastric juice and digestive enzymes of the host.
(d) It has been reported that the lime cells present in the body wall of the tapeworms neutralizes the acidic effect of the gastric
juice.
2. Development of anaerobic mode of respiration:
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Most of the helminthes endoparasites especially those living inside the gut lumen, live in oxygen deficient environment. At the
same time they possess very low metabolic rate which require very little amount of oxygen. To overcome the problem of non-
avaibility of oxygen, helminthes parasites have adapted to anaerobic mode of respiration in which energy is obtained by
fermentation of glycogen in an oxygen free environment and carbon dioxide and fatty acids are given out as end products.
However, at times when oxygen is available, they may exhibit aerobic mode of respiration.
3. Osmotic pressure adaptability:
The parasites maintain osmotic pressure of their body fluid approximately same or slightly less than that of the environment in
which they live inside the body of their host. This fascilitate them to absorb the nourishment from the general body surface.
Osmotic equilibrium also, prevents the disturbing exchange of water.
4. Chemotaxis:
The endoparasites has to face the changing chemical environment inside the body of their host, hence are adapted to exhibit the
phenomenon of chemotaxis, which allow them to find their way and respond accordingly.
5. Regeneration Abilities
Using the basic process of cell division, flatworms are able to regenerate missing pieces of their bodies. Without regeneration
abilities, losing part of their bodies could be fatal. This adaptation also provides another form of asexual reproduction. If a worm
is cut in half, the head of the worm will regenerate a tail and the severed tail will also regenerate a new head, resulting in two
flatworms.
Elaboration of reproductive organs:
One of the most characteristic features of helminthes parasites is enormous development of their reproductive system. The
chances of survival of parasite inside host’s body are always threatened and the life cycle of a parasite is generally complex often
comprising two or more hosts and there is always obscure chance of egg reaching the host body and attaining the reproductive
age. To overcome the problem, the reproductive organs of parasites are well developed and the production of egg is prolific to
ensure the race continuation. This adaptation is correlated with the passive transference of the infective stages of the parasites
from primary host to intermediate host and back to primary host. The important adaptations are:
1. Hermaphroditism:
To overcome the problem of reaching the mate, the trematode and cestode parasites have attained hermaphroditism and exhibit
the phenomenon of self-fertilization In case of tape worm each proglottid of the body bears full set of hermaphrodite sex-organs.
2. Development of cyst wall:
The eggs and larvae of parasite are provided with resistant wall which protect them from the action of digestive juices of the host.
The hexacanth larva of T. solium remains surrounded by three layered cyst wall.
3. Fecundity:
Since, there is remote chance of eggs and larvae reaching the definitive host the parasite possess enormous fecundity, producing
large number of eggs. Single gravid proglottid of T. solium contains about 40,000 fertilized eggs. Fasciola produces about 30000
– 35,000 eggs and Ascaris lays about 2 lakh eggs each day.
4. Complexity of life cycle:
Most of the helminthes endoparasites has complex life cycle involving two or more host. The presence of intermediate host
minimizes the exposure period of the parasite or its larval stage to the external environment

PHYLUM NEMATHELMINTHES / ASCHELMINTHES

(Nematos” - threadlike )
This phylum is devided into many classes, class Nematoda forms the prominent group.
Class NEMATODA
The body of these organisms is unsegmented and triploblastic.
They have a pseudocoeloem, where the body cavity is not lined by the mesodermal layer.
Body Type: They are bilaterally symmetric.
The body is cylindrical or thread like with elongated, slender worm-like appearance and tapering at both ends.
Body wall has epidermis, muscle layer and is covered by cuticle.
The body size of these organisms varies from microscopic to several centimetres in length.
These organisms are mostly parasitic, with a few free-living
Body Organization: They exhibit an organ system level of organization.
Externally, there is little differentiation between the anterior and posterior regions. But internal cephalization is present.
Nervous system
Most nematodes possess four longitudinal nerve cords that run along the length of the body in dorsal, ventral, and lateral positions.
The ventral nerve cord is better developed than the dorsal or lateral cords. All nerve cords fuse at the anterior end, around the
pharynx, to form head ganglia, or the “brain” of the worm (taking the form of a ring around the pharynx), as well as at the
posterior end to form the tail ganglia.
There is no distinct head. However, the mouth is present in the anterior
The digestive system is complete, with a mouth and anus.
The mouth in these organisms is terminal and is surrounded by lips bearing sense organ.
Amphids and papillae are the main sensory organs.
Respiratory organs are absent. Respiration occurs through the general body surface. It is aerobic in free-living forms and
anaerobic in parasitic organisms.
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Respiration: Diffusion through skin

Excretory System
In nematodes, specialized excretory systems are not well developed. Nitrogenous wastes may be lost by diffusion through the
entire body or into the pseudocoelom (body cavity), where they are removed by specialized cells. Regulation of water and salt
content of the body is achieved by renette glands, present under the pharynx in marine nematodes.
Reproduction: Sexes are separate and are unisexual, exhibiting sexual dimorphism.
Fertilization is internal.
They are ovo-viviparous, oviparous or viviparous.
The life cycle of these organisms is complicated. It may be with or without an intermediate host.
Nematodes possess the ability to shed their exoskeleton in order to grow, a process called ecdysis
Examples
Ascaris lumbricoides – Round Worm
Enterobius vermicularis – Pinworm
Ancylostoma duodenale – Hookworm
Wuchereria bancrofti – Filarial worm
Loa loa – Eye Worm
Ecological Roles: – Parasitic: Affect both plants and animals – Food source – Aerate soil – Decomposers
Only longitudinal muscles are present
Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent
The cuticle of Nematodes is rich in collagen and a carbohydrate-protein polymer called chitin. It forms an external “skeleton”
outside the epidermis. The cuticle also lines many of the organs internally, including the pharynx and rectum. The epidermis
can be either a single layer of cells or a syncytium, which is a multinucleated cell formed from the fusion of uninucleated cells.

Nematodes can be free-living or parasitic. The free-living organisms are extremely abundant in soils and sediments and they feed
on bacteria. While some others are plant parasites and can cause disease in crops that are economically important. The others are
parasites that can be found in animals and human beings. Some of the parasitic worms include hookworms, pinworms, Guinea
worms, and intestinal roundworms. Ascaris lumbricoides is the Giant Intestinal Roundworm that is an endoparasites living in the
human intestine. They are very common in children. These worms cause a disease called ascariasis. Many adult roundworms live inside
the intestine, causing obstruction to the intestinal passage. This causes abdominal discomfort, colic-like pain, impaired
digestion, diarrhea, and vomiting. Generally, deworming medicines are given to get rid of these roundworms from the body.

ASCARIASIS
Causal Agents
Ascaris species are very large (adult females: 20 to 35 cm; adult males: 15 to 30 cm) nematodes (roundworms) that parasitize the
human intestine. A. lumbricoides is the primary species involved in human infections globally, but Ascaris derived from pigs
(often referred to as A. suum) may also infect humans. These two parasites are very closely related, and hybrids have been
identified; thus, their status as distinct, reproductively isolated species is a contentious topic.
Hosts
Humans and swine are the major hosts for Ascaris; see Causal Agents for discussion on species status of Ascaris from both hosts.
Natural infections with A. lumbricoides sometimes occur in monkeys and apes. Occasionally, Ascaris sp. eggs may be found in
dog feces. This does not indicate true infection but instead spurious passage of eggs following coprophagy.
1. Adult worms
2. live in the lumen of the small intestine. A female may produce approximately 200,000 eggs per day, which are passed
with the feces
3. Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not infective. Larvae develop to infectivity within fertile eggs after 18 days to
several
weeks
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LIFE CYCLE OF ASCARIS LUMBERICOIDES

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4. Depending on the environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm, shaded soil). After infective eggs are
swallowed
5. The larvae hatch ,
6. Invade the intestinal mucosa, and are carried via the portal, then systemic circulation to the lungs.
7. The larvae mature further in the lungs (10 to 14 days), penetrate the alveolar walls, ascend the bronchial
tree to the throat, and are swallowed.
Upon reaching the small intestine, they develop into adult worms. Between 2 and 3 months are required from
ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the adult female. Adult worms can live 1 to 2 years.

COMMON HUMAN NEMATODE INFECTIONS

Nematode infections in humans include ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm, enterobiasis, strongyloidiasis, filariasis, trichinosis,
dirofilariasis, and angiostrongyliasis (rat lungworm disease)
Helminth Path of infection Disease Larvae location Helminth location
Pinworm Oral Enterobiosis Hands Small intestine
Roundworm Oral-fecal Ascariasis Hands, food, soil Intestine, moves to liver and
pancreas
Toxocara worm Oral-fecal Toxocariasis Hands,Food, soil Heart, liver, muscles, lungs,
brain, eyes
Whipworm Oral-fecal Trichocephalosis HandsFood,Soil Small intestine
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PARASITIC PLANT NEMATODES

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Nematodes can be found from the depths of the ocean to mountain tops. A spadeful of soil can contain more than a
million nematodes! Because nematodes are so numerous and occur in so many habitats, it has been suggested that if we
removed everything from our planet but nematodes, much of the topography of the Earth would still be recognisable as a
film of nematodes!
So while nematodes are generally small and often unnoticeable, they have an enormous impact on us and our world.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OVER PESTS
One of the main characteristics of some species of nematodes is that they are natural predators. This is a big advantage
given that these species have been shown to hunt and kill well over 200 species of pests. As such, these nematodes act as
biological control of various pest insects that affect human beings and plants.
As biological control, one of the biggest advantages of these beneficial nematodes is the fact that they do not negatively
affect the health of human beings and animals as is the case with various chemicals. While they may infect certain insects
with bacteria that ultimately kills the insect, some of the nematodes also live as endoparasites in some of the agricultural
pests and kill them in the process.Beneficial Nematodes naturally occur in soil and are used to control soil pest insects
and wherever larvae or grubs are present. Beneficial nematodes only attack soil dwelling insects and leave plants and
earthworms alone. The beneficial nematodes enters the larva via mouth, anus or respiratory openings and starts to feed.
This causes specific bacteria to emerge from the intestinal tract of the nematode. These spread inside the insect and
multiply very rapidly. The bacteria convert host tissue into products which can easily be taken up by the nematodes. The
soil dwelling insect dies within a few days. Beneficial nematodes are a totally safe biological control in pest insects.
NEGATIVE IMPACT ON PLANTS
Most plant feeding nematodes live in the soil and feed on plant roots, thereby reducing the plant’s uptake of water and
nutrients, and reducing tolerance to other stresses such as drought. Some transmit other disease causing agents (e.g.
viruses) to plants as they feed.
NUTRIENT RECYCLING
Fortunately, most species of nematodes have no effect, or have a beneficial effect, on humans and their endeavours. Many
species of nematodes are ‘free-living’, living in soil, sea and freshwater. These feed on bacteria, fungi, protozoans and
even other nematodes, and play a very important role in nutrient cycling and release of nutrients for plant growth. Other
nematodes attack insects, and help to control insect pests. In fact, some nematodes which attack insect pests are reared
commercially and released for the control of certain insect pests as a biological insecticide. A nematode released to
control the Sirex wood wasp has been credited with saving the forestry industry up to 80 million US dollars per year in
Australia.
AS SCIENTIFIC TOOLS
Nematodes are also important in other ways. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was the first multi-cellular organism
to have its DNA fully sequenced. This has led to many exciting breakthroughs in the biological and medical sciences in
the last few years. This nematode is also famous in that some individuals, being carried onboard as part of an experiment,
survived the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003!

PINWORMS
Pinworms live in the colon and the rectum. Inside the body, they attach to the wall of the intestine by their head.
Moreover, they consume food in the intestine to grow new body segments. However, old body segments break off from
the worm, and they contain eggs. These segments leave the body along with the faeces. At night, female worms come
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out to lay eggs on the skin around the anus. On the other hand, this produces symptoms of the pinworm infection,
including the very itching bottom, disturbed sleep, discomfort, irritability due to itching, and evidence of worms
in faeces.
Pinworms are a common type of parasitic roundworm. They cause a pinworm infection known as enterobiasis.
Generally, pinworms lay individual eggs in the intestine, and they are observable under the light microscope. However,
their adult worms are thread-like. Therefore, threadworms are another name for pinworms. Hence, there is no significant
difference between pinworms and threadworms.

Pinworms Threadworms
pinworms are the parasitic roundworms that the adult pinworms are thread-like, they are known as
cause enterobiasis threadworms
Pinworms are common types of intestinal parasite or
helminthes, especially in humans
The adult pinworms are light-yellowish in color, and
they are clearly, visually detectable during the night at
the anus or on toilet paper.
Pinworms lay individual eggs in the intestine
Generally, Pinworms, threadworms and seat worms are other names for the same parasite. Therefore, there is no
significant difference between pinworms and threadworms

Difference Between Cestodes and Nematodes

The main difference between cestodes and nematodes is that cestodes are tapeworms that belong to the phylum
Platyhelminthes, whereas nematodes are roundworms that belong to the phylum Nematoda. Furthermore, cestodes have a
long, ribbon-like, dorsoventrally flattened body while nematodes have a cylindrical body tapered at each end. Moreover,
cestodes are acoelomates while nematodes are pseudocoelomates. Cestodes and nematodes are two types of parasitic worms
or helminthes in the intestine. Generally, both types are endoparasites.
CESTODES NEMATODES
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomates
Multisegmented Unsegmented
Head with scolex Mouth has 3-6 lips with series of teeth
Mouthparts help for attachment Sucking through mouth parts
Lack a digestive system Complete digestive tube from mouth to anus
Hermaphrodite Dioecious, reproducing through copulation
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PHYLUM ANNELIDA
Having over 17,000 species, Phylum Annelida is a large phylum. Annelids are also known as ringworms or segmented worms.
They exist in various environments including marine waters, fresh waters and also in moist terrestrial areas. The size of the
annelids can range from a few millimeters to an amazing three meters in length.

 (Annulus: little ring)


 They have a long and segmented body.
 Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical.
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 They are triploblastic.

 Also, they exhibit organ system grade of organization, showing organ differentiation.
 The body is covered with a thin cuticle.
 They are coelomate. A body cavity or coelom is present.
 Annelids live in moist environments, moist soil, freshwater and marine water.
 Body is metameric ally segmented
 They have parapodia and Chitinous setae, used for locomotion.
 Chitinous hairlike extensions, anchored in the epidermis and projecting from the cuticle, called setae/chaetae are present
in every segment
 The digestive system is complete and developed.
 Nervous system: nervous system with an anterior nerve ring, ganglia and a ventral nerve chord.
 Circulatory system: Has a true closed circulatory system. Their body appears red due to the presence of hemoglobin.
 Excretion: by nephridia
 Reproduction: Sexual and gonochoristic or hermaphroditic.
 Respiration happens through the general body surface.
 Sexes may be separate or united, wherein they are called hermaphrodites.
 Fertilization can be internal or external
 Development: direct with no larval stages

Examples of Annelids
 Earthworm
 Leeches
 Lugworms
 Polychaetes

Classification of Phylum Annelida

Phylum Annelida is divided into four main classes, primarily on the basis of setae, parapodia, metameres and other
morphological features.

Class 1 Polychaeta
(Polys: many; chaite:hair)
Habitat: They are marine, terrestrial, and freshwater.
Archetypical protosome development (schizocoely).
True coelomates (schizocoelomates).
Bilaterally symmetry, segmented worms.
Complete digestive system.
Closed circulatory system.
Well-developed nervous system.
Excretory system: Both metanephridia and protonephridia.
Lateral epidermal setae with each segment.
Dioecious or hermaphroditic.
Fertilization: external
Examples: Nereis (sandworm), Syllis, Sabella

CLASS 2 OLIGOCHAETA
(Oligos: few, chaite: hair)

 Habitat: mostly terrestrial and few are freshwater

 Body metamerically segmented
 Clitellum present
 Hermaphrodite but cross fertilization occur
 Fertilization: external
 Cocoon formation occur
 Examples: Pheretima posthuma (Earthworm), Lumbricus, Stlaria, Tubifex

Sexually mature oligochaetes have a clitellum, which is a modification of a section of the body wall consisting of a
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glandular, saddle like thickening near the gonopores. During copulation, the clitellum secretes a mucus that keeps the
worms paired while sperm are being exchanged. Following copulation, the clitellum secretes substance for a cocoon,
which encircles the worm and into which eggs and sperm are deposited.

CLASS 3 HIRRUDINEA
(Hirudo: leech)

 Habitat: primarily freshwater annelids but some are marine, terrestrial and parasitic
 The body has definite number or segments.
 The tentacles, parapodia and setae are totally absent.
 They are hermaphrodite.
 Fertilization: internal and a larval stage is absent.
 Examples: .Hirudinaria (Leech)

A significant difference between leeches and other annelids is the development of suckers at the anterior and
posterior ends and a lack of chaetae. Additionally, the segmentation of the body wall may not correspond to the
internal segmentation of the coelomic cavity. This adaptation possibly helps the leeches to elongate when they ingest
copious quantities of blood from host vertebrates.

CHARACTERISTICS UNIQUE TO ANNELIDA

Symmetry and Size
While annelids range in size from one to three millimeters, they are amazingly one of the few who
are bilaterally symmetrical.
The largest worms, annelids, can reach up to one meter, around five hundred times the smallest size.
Coelom
A storage area for gametes, the coelom acts as a function of movement. The coelom is greatly powerful. An annelid
may lose a few segments but the whole animal doesn't get damaged. The function of movement stays strong and the
coelom functions fine without the lost segments.
Body Wall
The annelid body wall never sheds, contains a network of fibers and sometimes gills for swimming.
Parapodia
While many annelids lack parapodia, the ones that do use them, use them to easily crawl and swim.
Nervous System
Just like other organisms, the nervous system rests in the head. The signals mainly transfer to the muscles and gut.
Blood
Blood carries many dissolved pigments
Hemoglobin
Hemerythrin
Chlorocruorin
Amoeboid cells to eat bacteria
(Only four blood pigments are known and annelids possess three of them)
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
SOIL FERTILITY
Annelids present in soil mainly come under two categories; burrowers and those live on surface. The burrowers loosen the
soil making penetration of water and oxygen easy. Thus annelids keep soil aerated and fertile. Both accelerate the process
of decomposition of organic matter and minerals. This makes consumption easy for other organisms and plants. They also
support production of soil by mixing minerals and organic matter. Hence, annelids play a supportive role in agricultural
production. They also bring the fresh subsoil to the surface which is still finer and rich in organic matters. Charles Darwin
has estimated that an acre of earth is inhabited by nearly 50,000 earthworms (a recent estimate suggests that their number
may reach up to 25, 00,000 per acre) which may bring more than 18 tons of deeper subsoil to the surface in one year.
FOOD
An earthworm, the most common annelid, is food for many birds, rodents, mammals, aquarium fish and laboratory
animals. Presence and conservation of earthworms has become essential for conservation some species of endangered
birds. Earthworm is excellent fishing bait.
Certain varieties of annelids like, the epitokes of Eunice (Palolo worms) are used as food by the native people. They are
highly nutritive.
MEDICINAL USE
Annelids have importance in treatments. The medicinal leech was used by doctors to bleed their patients. Though this
practice is not being followed now, medicinal leech is still used to heal severed appendages. They are also used in
cosmetic surgeries and skin grafts because of their anesthetics and antibiotics powers. Some earthworms are used in
interior parts of China, India and Japan for preparing medicines for bladder stones, jaundice, piles and rheumatism.
LABORATORY USE
Earthworms and leeches are widely used for dissection and for studying comparative physiology in colleges and
universities.
OXYGEN SUPPLEMENTATION
Burrowing species of marine annelids supports the penetration of water and oxygen into the sea-floor sediment. These
sediments support the life of aerobic bacteria and small animals alongside their burrows. Marine annelids are food for
plants and animals living in sea
HARMFUL IMPACT
Annelids destroy young plants by scavenging
Some serve as secondary host for completion of life stages of certain parasites
They increase soil erosion
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HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
Hydrostatic skeletons use a cavity filled with water; the water is incompressible, so the organism can use it to apply
force or change shape. Plants use osmotic pressure to pressurize the cavity, whereas animals do it with muscle layers
in the hydrostatic walls
Animals with hydrostatic skeletons usually comprise both circular and longitudinal muscle fibers, and their shapes
are typically cylindrical.
A hydrostatic skeleton is one that contains no rigid, hard structures or bones for support, but rather relies on a fluid-
filled cavity surrounded by muscles. It is the skeleton adopted by worms, starfish and other invertebrates, and carries
with it a number of advantages and disadvantages over a more solid frame.
ADVANTAGES
Fluid Shape
Because of the lack of permanently rigid structures, creatures with hydrostatic skeletons have a relatively flexible
shape which often enables them to fit through oddly shaped passages.
Strength
Creatures with hydrostatic skeletons cannot utilize properties of leverage inherent in boned joints, and often do not
have the lifting capacity that exo/endoskeletal creatures have. However, they can squeeze between spaces and
expand, to allow for a "prying open" movement.
Fragility
If the fluid-filled sac, called a coelom, is punctured, movement is inhibited. The fluid must be fully encased to work
properly.
Healing Time
While bones take a long time to heal and may heal improperly, coelomic fluid is made up of mostly water and can
be regenerated quickly. This allows many creatures, like earthworms, to grow back a significant portion of their
mass after being damaged.
Movement: Peristalsis
Hydrostatic skeletons allow movement through peristaltic motion or by waving flagella. In peristaltic motion, as one
portion expands, another contracts, slowly pulling along the creature; peristaltic movement generally is
disadvantageous if speed is needed.
Movement: Flagellation
In flagellation, small appendages are waved back and forth to provide thrust in one direction, providing quicker
movement than peristalsis.

METAMERISM
Metameric segmentation or Metamerism is an architectural body plan in some animals in which the similar body
segments and organ systems are serially repeated one after another. The similar body segments are called metameres or
smites.
The animals which exhibit such features called metamerically segmented. Structurally each meta-mere or somite is
constructed on the basis of some fundamental plan and usually possesses a part of almost all the body system
Occurrence of Metamerism:
Metamerism is first seen in annelids in animal kingdom. Each segment usually contains appendages, muscles, nerves,
blood vessels, excretory organs and a pair of coelomic sacs which are repeated in almost all segments. It is also seen in
kinorhynchs, arthropods and most chordates.
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Characteristic Features of Metamerism:

1. Metamerism is always confined to the intermediate (trunk) segments except the anterior acron (head) and a posterior
pygidium or telson.
2. Each metamere represents a mirror image of the other.
3. Segmental structures are interdependent on each other.
4. They are integrated into a single functional unit.
5. All the segments of body work in coordination.
Significance of Metamerism:
1. It helps in locomotion, not only in burrowing but in all other types of locomotion.
2. Metamerism offers division of labor.

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
The name “arthropoda” means “jointed legs” (in the Greek, “arthros” means “joint” and “podos” means “leg”); it aptly describes
the enormous number of invertebrates included in this phylum. Arthropoda dominate the animal kingdom with an estimated 85
percent of known species included in this phylum and many arthropods yet undocumented.
1. Habitat:
They occur on land, in the soil, in sea water, in fresh water and in the bodies of animals and plants as parasites.
2. Body Form:
It varies considerably. They have jointed legs. The body is segmented externally. The body consists of head, thorax and
abdomen.
3. Body wall:
The body is covered with a thick, tough and non-living Chitinous cuticle, which forms the exoskeleton.
4. Body cavity:
The true coelom is greatly reduced in adults, and is only represented by the cavities of the reproductive and excretory organs.
The body cavity is a haemocoel viz., cavity filled with blood.
5. Digestive tract:
It is complete. The alimentary canal consists of stomodaeum (fore gut), mesenteron (mid gut) and proctodaeum (hind gut).
6. Blood vascular system:
It is of open type viz., blood does not flow in definite vessels. There are present irregular spaces, known as lacunae or sinuses,
filled with blood.
7. Respiratory organs:
These are gills or book gills in aquatic forms and tracheae or book-lungs in terrestrial forms.
8. Excretory organs:
These are either green glands or Malpighian tubules. In some forms coxal glands are excretory organs.
9. Nervous system:
The annelidian type of nervous system is present, viz., it consists of a nerve ring and a solid double ventral nerve cord with
ganglia.
10. Sense organs:
Sensory organs like antennae and eyes are present. In many arthropods, compound eyes are present, in which mosaic vision is
developed. Some forms also have statocysts (balancing organs).
11. No cilia:
An important feature of the arthropods is the complete absence of the cilia.
12. Muscles:
The muscles are generally striped, which are capable of rapid action. Un-striped muscles are also found.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
13. Endocrine glands:
Endocrine glands are present which secrete hormones. Some arthropods particularly insects excrete pheromones. The latter are
chemicals which communicate message. Some pheromones act as sex attractants.
14. Sexes:
Sexes are separate (dioecious) and the sexual dimorphism is observed in many forms.
15. Development:
Fertilization is usually internal. They are mostly oviparous. Development may be direct or indirect. In indirect development
there is metamorphosis.
16. Parental care:
It is often seen in many arthropods.
17. Parthenogenesis:
Development of an egg (ovum) into a complete individual without fertilization by a sperm is called parthenogenesis. Male honey
bees (drones) are formed by parthenogenesis.

Annelidian characters: Arthropod characters:

(i) Long, Worm-like body, (i) Antennae on the head,
(ii) Segmentally arranged nephridia. (ii) Tracheae for gas exchange.
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Classification of Phylum Arthropods:

On the basis of body divisions and presence or absence of certain appendages, the phylum Arthropoda is divided into
seven classes.

CLASS 1. CRUSTACEA:
The body is divisible into cephalothorax (head + thorax) and abdomen. Dorsally, the cephalothorax is covered by a
thick exoskeleton carapace. There are present two pairs of antennae and a pair of stalked compound eyes.
Examples: Palaemon, (Prawn), Astacus (Cray fish), Palinurus (Lobster), Cancer (Crab), Lucifer (shrimp) Eupagarus
(Hermit Crab), Lepus (Goose barnacle), Balanus (Acorn barnacle), Sacculina (a parasite on crab), Oniscus (Wood louse
— terrestrial), Squilla, Daphnia (Water flea), Cyclops.
Palaemon (Prawn):
Gills are the chief respiratory organs. The body is divisible into cephalothorax and abdomen. The cephalothorax bears
13 pairs of appendages. The abdomen has 6 pairs of appendages. The appendages are useful in feeding, swimming,
balancing etc. The posterior end of abdomen forms a conical telson. Prawn is edible.
Cancer (Crab):
1. Five pairs of thoracic legs are present in which first pair of legs forms enormous chelipedes
1. Usually marine aquatic arthropods
2. Head and thorax fused to form cephalothorax
3. Cephalothorax usually covered by single large carapace
4. Two pair of antennae (only arthropod with two pairs of antennae)
5. 5 pairs of cephalic appendages
6. Cephalic appendages: first pair antennules, second pair antennae, third pair mandibles, fourth pair first
axillae and fifth pair second maxillae
7. Thoracic and abdominal appendages are biramous
8. First pair of antennae (antennules) are uniramous
9. Respiration through gills
10. Excretion by green glands or antennal glands
11. Sense organs: antennae, Statocysts and eyes
12. Eyes are compound
13. Paired gonopores
14. Development usually indirect (direct forms also present)
15. Larval stage is called nauplius

CLASS 2. CHILOPODA:
Body is divisible into head and trunk. Each trunk segment bears a pair of legs.
The first pair of legs are modified into poison claws.
There is a single pair of antennae.
Example: Scolopendra (centipede).

CLASS 3. DIPLOPODA:
Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
There is a single pair of antennae.
Except first thoracic segment, (it does not have legs) each thoracic segment bears a pair of legs, however, each
abdominal segment has two pairs of legs.
Example: Julus (millipede).
1. Includes centipedes and millipedes
2. All are terrestrial arthropods
3. Usually contain many legs
4. Single pair of antennae
5. Eyes simple
6. Mouth part lies on the underside of head
7. Upper lip of mouth with epistome and labrum
8. Lower lip of mouth with a pair of maxillae
9. A pair of mandibles present
10. Mandibles lie inside the mouth
11. Breath through spiracles that connect tracheal system similar to insects
12. Excretion through Malpighian tubules
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CLASS 4. INSECTA (HEXAPODA):

Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen. There is a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The thorax consists
of three segments with three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. Uric acid is chief excretory waste.
Examples: silver fish, cockroach, bedbug, locust, termites, butterflies, rat flea, beetle, wasp, aphid, silk moth, etc
1. A large taxa, includes insects and a small group of wingless arthropods
2. Body plan: 3 parts, head, thorax and abdomen
3. Head with six segments
4. Thorax with three pairs of jointed legs (hence the name Hexapoda)
5. Head bears a presegmental acron
6. Acron bears compound eyes
7. Head segments are very closely fused
8. Appendages absent in segment 1 and 3
9. Segment 2 bears a pair of antennae
10. Segment 4 bears mandibles for crushing the food items
11. Segment 5 bears maxillae for chewing
12. Segment 6 bears the labium which forms the lower lip of mouth
13. Mouth lies between the fourth and fifth segments
14. Thorax composed of three segments, each with a single pair of legs
15. Each leg with single walking branch composed of five segments
16. Abdomen usually with 11 segments
17. Abdominal appendages are absent or extremely reduced
18. Abdomen contains most of the internal systems such as respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems
19. Respiration through tracheae
20. Excretion through Malpighian tubules
21. Development always indirect
22. Larval stage present, which undergo complete metamorphosis
23. Sub-phylum Hexapoda is divided into two classes

CLASS 5. ARACHNIDA:
The body is usually divisible into cephalothorax and abdomen.
The cephalothorax bears simple eyes and six pairs of appendages (one pair of chelicerae, one pair of pedipalpi and four
pairs of legs).
Antennae are absent.
Respiratory organs are book lungs or tracheae or both.
Examples: scorpion, spider, tick, mite.
CLASS 6. ONYCHOPHORA:
Peripatus (The walking worm):
It has characters of phylum Annelida and phylum Arthropoda. Hence it is a “connecting link” between Annelida and
Arthropoda
CLASS 7. MEROSTOMATA:
Example Limulus.
Limulus (The king Crab or Horse-shoe crab):
The king crab continues to remain unchanged for the past about 190 million years. It is, therefore, also called “living
fossil”. Excretion takes place through four pairs of coxal glands. Respiratory organs are book gills.
UNIQUE FEATURES:
(i) Jointed appendages,
(ii) Thick exoskeleton.
(iii) Compound eyes,
(iv) Haemocoel.
(v) Antennary glands, Malpighian tubules and coxal glands for excretion and osmoregulation.
(vi) Tracheae, gills, book gills, and book lungs as respiratory organs,
(vii) Pheromones.
Advancement over Annelids:
(i) Distinct head,
(ii) Well developed exoskeleton,
(iii) Jointed appendages for different functions,
(iv) Striped muscles,
(v) Endocrine glands and pheromones.
(vi) Special respiratory organs such as tracheae, book lungs,
(vii) Compound eyes.
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EXCLUSIVE CHARACTERS
 A unique feature of animals in the arthropod phylum is the presence of a segmented body and fusion of sets of
segments that give rise to functional body regions called tagma. Tagma may be in the form of a head, thorax,
and abdomen, or a cephalothorax and abdomen, or a head and trunk.
 A central cavity, called the haemocoel (or blood cavity), is present, and the open circulatory system is
regulated by a tubular or single-chambered heart.
 Chitin is a tough, flexible polysaccharide. In order to grow, the arthropod must shed the exoskeleton during a
process called ecdysis (“to strip off”); this is a cumbersome method of growth, and during this time, the animal
is vulnerable to predation.
 Respiratory systems vary depending on the group of arthropod: insects and myriapods use a series of tubes
(tracheae) that branch through the body, open to the outside through openings called spiracles, and perform gas
exchange directly between the cells and air in the tracheae, whereas aquatic crustaceans utilize gills, terrestrial
chelicerates employ book lungs, and aquatic chelicerates use book gills
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION
BOOK LUNGS
The book lungs of arachnids (scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites) contain a vertical stack of haemocoel wall tissue that
somewhat resembles the pages of a book.
Between each of the “pages” of tissue is an air space. This allows both sides of the tissue to be in contact with the air at
all times, greatly increasing the efficiency of gas exchange.
GILLS
The gills of crustaceans are filamentous structures that exchange gases with the surrounding water.
ORGANS OF EXCRETION
Groups of arthropods also differ in the organs used for excretion, with crustaceans possessing green glands and insects
using Malpighian tubules, which work in conjunction with the hindgut to reabsorb water while ridding the body of
nitrogenous waste.

Insects Disease
Housefly Typhoid, cholera, Diarrhea
Sand-fly Kala-azar
Mosquito Filariasis, Dengue Fever, Malaria
Rat Flea Bubonic plague
Tsetse fly African Sleeping sickness

METAMORPHOSIS
Metamorphosis Definition
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Metamorphosis is a process by which animals undergo extreme, rapid physical changes sometime after birth. The result
of metamorphosis may be change to the organism’s entire body plan, such as a change in the animal’s number of legs, its
means of eating, or its means of breathing.
In species that use metamorphosis, metamorphosis is also typically required for sexual maturity. Pre-metamorphic
members of these species are typically unable to mate or reproduce.
Commonly known examples of metamorphosis include the process undergone by most insects, and the transformation of
tadpoles into frogs. Metamorphosis is a remarkable process. The speed and extent of cell growth and differentiation is
astonishing. In most species, such rapid growth and such sweeping changes to cell type only happen during embryonic
development. The changes leading to metamorphosis are triggered by hormones, which the animal’s body releases as the
right conditions for metamorphosis approach
ADVANTAGE OF METAMORPHOSIS
The benefit of metamorphosis may lie in its ability to reduce competition. Pre-metamorphic animals typically consume
completely different resources from their adult forms. Tadpoles live in water, eating algae and plants. Frogs live on land,
breathing air and eating insects. Caterpillars eat leaves; butterflies live off of nectar. This effectively prevents older
members of the species from competing with younger members. This may lead more members of the species to
successfully reach sexual maturity, without the risk of being out-competed by older members of their species.
TYPES OF METAMORPHOSIS
COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
In complete metamorphosis, a larva completely changes its body plan to become an adult. The most famous example is
that of the butterfly, which starts out as a worm-like, leaf-eating caterpillar and transforms into a flying, nectar-drinking
creature with an exoskeleton. Organisms that undergo complete metamorphosis are called “holometabolous,” This
transformation is so swift and complete that the caterpillar must spin a cocoon and lie dormant for weeks while its body
undergoes these radical changes.
Other animals which transform from a worm-like larval stage into an animal that looks completely different include
beetles, flies, moths, ants, and bees.
INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
In incomplete metamorphosis, only some parts of the animal’s body change during metamorphosis. Animals that only
partially change their bodies as they mature are called “hemimetabolous,”
Cockroaches, grasshoppers, and dragonflies, for example, hatch from eggs looking a lot like their adult selves. They do
acquire wings and functioning reproductive organs as they grow, but they do not completely remake their bodies like
their completely metamorphosing cousins do.
Animals that you may not know undergo metamorphosis include fish, mollusks, and many other types of sea creatures
which are related to insects, mollusks, or fish. Lobsters, for example, which are closely related to insects, do undergo
metamorphosis as part of their life cycle.

MOUTH PARTS
In general, insect mouthparts are modified, paired appendages that are used to acquire and manipulate food. Although
different insects have different adaptive forms of these parts (such as the mosquito's proboscis), the basic structures and
their functions are depicted in the table below:
Structure Function

A single plate that forms the 'upper lip' of sorts. It's used to protect the other mouthparts and bring food
Labrum
into the mouth.

Mandible
A set of jaws that moves laterally, meaning side-to-side.
s

Maxillae A second set of smaller, segmented claws that are used to manipulate food for the insect.

Labium A fused structure that's essentially the 'lower lip.' This mouth part is used to close the mouth.

Insect Mouth Types

An insect's different mouth types are easy to remember since they're named after its feeding actions. Grasshoppers chew
their prey, butterflies siphon nectar from flowers, and mosquitoes pierce your skin and suck your blood. While the
different mouth types introduce more terms, all of the new parts are structural modifications of the basic mouthparts
discussed a moment ago, although they do appear completely different often times.
• Piercing and sucking mouthparts e.g. mosquitoes
• Non-piercing and sucking mouthparts e.g. moths
•Chewing mouthparts e.g. grasshopper
•Chewing-sucking or chewing-lapping mouthparts e.g. Honeybee ring the chewed food into their mouths.
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MOLTING IN ARTHROPODS
The arthropod exoskeleton serves as a rigid attachment site for muscles and as a barrier against microbial invasion and
the loss of ions and water from tissues. However, the exoskeleton is rigid and cannot expand. Thus, when an arthropod
grows to a certain size, it must periodically shed its outer cuticle (the major part of the hard exoskeleton), and a new
cuticle forms. Shedding of the old cuticle allows for increases in body size and other morphological changes. The overall
process may occur over days or even weeks without obvious outward signs because the new exoskeleton forms
underneath the old one. Only when the old layer is actually being shed does it become apparent that the arthropod has
been undergoing a molting phase. Sequentially, the old cuticle (now called an exuviate) splits open, and the arthropod
draws itself out. The new cuticle (which consists of an outermost epicuticle layer, a middle exocuticle, and an inner
endocuticle) expands and hardens over several hours, primarily as the result of the cross-linking of proteins and chitin (a
polysaccharide derived from glucose) in the exocuticle.
Several steroid hormones regulate the molting process. The three chief ones are
Juvenile hormone, ecdysone, and bursicon.
In general, juvenile hormone governs formation of cuticle and internal tissues in larval form. For example, if juvenile
hormone is present during a critical period of a larval stage, the next stage will be larval. If juvenile hormone is absent, as
it is during the last larval stage (or pupal stage in certain arthropods), the next molt will result in a change to the adult
form. Ecdysone controls the molting process itself and is present before the molt to transform the tissues for shedding.
Finally, the peptide neurohormone bursicon, often called the tanning hormone, regulates the expansion and hardening of
the new cuticle, as well as the darkening of the cuticle to its characteristic brown/black color.
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COMPOUND EYES
Arthropod eyes are called compound eyes because they are made up of repeating units, the ommatidia, each of which
functions as a separate visual receptor.
Each ommatidium consists of
 a lens (the front surface of which makes up a single facet)
 a transparent crystalline cone
 light-sensitive visual cells arranged in a radial pattern like the sections of an orange
 pigment cells which separate the ommatidium from its neighbors.
The pigment cells ensure that only light entering the ommatidium parallel (or almost so) to its long axis reaches the visual
cells and triggers nerve impulses. Thus each ommatidium is pointed at just a single area in space and contributes
information about only one small area in the field of view.
There may be thousands of ommatidia in a compound eye with their facets spread over most of the surface of a hemisphere.

MOST SUCCESSFUL LAND INVERTEBRATES

Insects are the most abundant and most diverse group of organisms on earth. They have maintained a position of
ecological pre-eminence for over 400 million years, The insects do have a unique combination of characteristics which,
as a whole, have given them an unusual survival advantage.
Exoskeleton
Unlike vertebrates, an insect's supporting skeleton is located on the outside of its body. This exoskeleton is a marvelous
structure that not only gives shape and support to the body's soft tissues, but also provides protection from attack or
injury, minimizes the loss of body fluids in both arid and freshwater environments, and assures mechanical advantage to
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muscles for strength and agility in movement. As a "suit of armor", the exoskeleton can resist both physical and
chemical attack. It is covered by an impervious layer of wax that prevents desiccation. Much of the exoskeleton is
fabricated from chitin, a polysaccharide that binds with various protein molecules to form a body wall that may be as
flexible and elastic as rubber or as hard and rigid as some metals. Freedom of movement is ensured by membranes and
joints in the exoskeleton. Muscles that attach directly to the body wall combine maximum strength with near-optimum
mechanical advantage (leverage). The result is an ant, for example, that can lift up to 50 times its own body weight.
Small Size
In general, the insects are marvels of miniaturization. Most species are between 2 and 20 mm (0.1 - 1.0 inch) in length,
although they range in size from giant moths that would nearly cover your computer screen to tiny parasitic wasps that
could hide inside the period at the end of this sentence. Small size is a distinct advantage.
Flight
Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly. Judging from the fossil record, they acquired this ability about 300
million years ago -- nearly 100 million years before the advent of the first flying reptiles. Flight gave these insects a
highly effective mode of escape from predators that roamed the prehistoric landscape. It was also an efficient means of
transportation, allowing populations to expand more quickly into new habitats and exploit new resources.
An insect's flight musculature produces at least 2X more power per unit of muscle mass as compared to birds. This high
efficiency is largely due to elasticity of the thorax -- 90-95% of the potential energy absorbed by flexion of the
exoskeleton is released as kinetic energy during the wing's down stroke.
Efficient use of energy allows some insects to travel great distances or remain airborne for long periods of time.
Reproductive Potential
Reproductive success is one of the most significant measures of an organism's fitness. In insect populations, females
often produce large numbers of eggs (high fecundity), most of the eggs hatch (high fertility), and the life cycle is
relatively short (often as little as 2-4 weeks). Together, these three characteristics enable insects to produce remarkably
large numbers of offspring. A typical female lays 100-500 eggs in her lifetime, but numbers in the thousands are not
uncommon. The queen of an African termite colony may be the mother of more than ten million workers during her 20-
25 year lifespan.
Metamorphosis
In the class Insecta, only 9 out of 28 orders undergo complete metamorphosis, yet these 9 orders represent about 86% of
all insect species alive today. The obvious advantage to this type of development lies in the compartmentalization of the
life cycle. Through natural selection, larval form and function can be maximized for growth and feeding without
compromising adaptations of the adult for dispersal and reproduction. Each stage of the life cycle is entirely free to
adapt to its own ecological role. In some cases, this means that immature and adults may consume different types of
food, exploit different environmental resources, and even occupy different habitats.
Adaptability
A combination of large and diverse populations, high reproductive potential, and relatively short life cycles, has
equipped most insects with the genetic resources to adapt quickly in the face of a changing environment. Their record of
achievement is impressive: they were among the first creatures to invade the arid expanses of dry land and exploit green
plants as a source of food, they were the first animals to use flight as an escape from predators, and they were the first
organisms to develop a complex social hierarchy with division of labor and cooperative care of the young.
The most remarkable example of insect adaptation in this century has been the speed with which pest populations have
developed resistance to a broad range of chemical and biological insecticides.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Since ancient times, honey bees (Apis mellifera) have been valued for the honey and beeswax they produce.
HONEY is one of the beehive's principle food resources. It is produced from droplets of flower nectar gathered by
worker bees. The nectar is temporarily held in the bee's foregut where enzymatic action begins to convert sucrose
into dextrose (glucose) and levulose (fructose). In the hive, this nectar-enzyme mixture is transferred to waxen
cells, reduced in volume by evaporation of water, and allowed to ripen into honey. The bees seal each cell with a
wax cap when the process is complete. Worker bees make as many as 50,000 trips to and from the hive and visit up
to 4 million blossoms in order to produce a single kilogram of honey (2.2 lbs.). Large, healthy hives may average
more than 25 kg (55 lbs.) of honey per year. Although the market for honey is not as large or as profitable as it
once was, annual U.S. production is still over 115 million kg. Most of this honey is used as a primary sweetener or
as a substitute for refined sugar in baked goods. It is also an ingredient in a few cough medicines and laxatives.
BEES WAX: Specialized glands on the ventral side of a worker bee's abdomen secrete flakes of beeswax, a soft,
malleable material that bees use to build the comb where honey is stored and larvae are reared. The wax has a
relatively low melting point so it is easy to extract and purify with heat. Beeswax is still used commercially in the
manufacture of cosmetics, candles, furniture waxes, leather dressings, waxed paper, inks, and medicinal ointments.
Annual U.S. production is about 2 million kilograms.
BEE POLLEN AND ROYAL JELLY In recent years, there has been a growing market for bee pollen and royal
jelly, two other products derived from honey bees. The pollen is collected when worker bees squeeze through a
special screen at the hive entrance which dislodges pollen from the hind legs. Some nutritionists regard bee pollen
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as a "complete" dietary supplement. It is sometimes sold in health food stores, often with astonishing claims for its
medicinal or restorative powers. Royal jelly is a glandular secretion that nurse bees feed to larvae of future queens.
It is rich in vitamins and proteins, and is also sold for its curative properties. It has become a major ingredient in
some expensive skin care products that promise to reduce wrinkles and retard aging.
NATURAL SILK: A silkworm, Bombyx mori, is the source of a unique natural fiber used to make silk cloth. This
species now exists only in captivity where it is reared to maturity on a diet of mulberry leaves. Silk is the strongest
of all natural fibers. It is comparable to steel or nylon in tensile strength, but considerably more elastic. It can be
dyed, spun into thread or yarn, and woven into fabrics that are warm in winter, cool in summer, resistant to
wrinkling, and exceptionally light in weight. Until the discovery of nylon in 1938, silk was the only fiber strong
and light enough to be used in the manufacture of parachutes, surgical sutures, and women's hosiery. Although it
has largely been replaced by less expensive synthetic fibers in most manufacturing applications, there is still a
strong demand for silk in today's textile industry.
LAC: Laccifer lacca, a tiny scale insect that grows on soapberry and acacia trees in India and Burma, is the source
of lac, a sticky resin that forms the principle ingredient of commercial shellac. Shellac, made by dissolving the lac
in alcohol, was widely used as a varnish (protective coating) for floors, furniture, draperies, photographs, playing
cards, and dried flower arrangements. .
COCHINEAL: Cochineal is a scarlet pigment extracted from Dactylopius coccus, a scale insect that lives on
prickly pear cacti in Mexico and Central America. The pigment was highly valued for the intensity and permanence
of its color Today, the textile industry has largely replaced cochineal with less expensive aniline dyes, but it is still
used as a coloring agent in foods, beverages, cosmetics (especially lipsticks), and art products.
TANNIC ACID is a chemical compound widely used in the leather industry (for tanning and dying) and in the
manufacture of some inks. Nowadays tannic acid can be extracted more economically from the quebracho tree, a
South American member of the sumac and poison ivy family (Anacardiaceae).

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS
1. Habitat:
They are mostly marine. Many, however, occur in fresh water and some even in damp soil.
2. Body Form:
The body of molluscs is un-segmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump. Neopilina is a segmented
mollusk. Head- anterior part of the body, which contains mouth, eyes and tentacles and other sense organs. Visceral
mass- on dorsal side contains digestive, circulatory and reproductive organ of the body and it forms a hump or dome.
Foot-is ventral in position usually thick and muscular and generally forms the main locomotory organs.
3. Symmetry:
They usually show bilateral symmetry. In some molluscs like Pila, due to torsion (twisting) during growth, the adults
become asymmetrical.
4. Shell:
Shell is secreted by mantle. It is made up of calcium carbonate. Shell may be external (e.g., most of molluscs), internal
(e.g., slug, cuttle fish, squid) or absent (e.g., Octopus).
5. Mantle (Pallium):
It is a thin, muscular, fleshy and glandular fold of dorsal body wall more or less covering the body. It encloses a space,
which is called mantle cavity (= pallial cavity).
6. Body wall:
Single layered epidermis is usually ciliated. Muscles are un-striped and occur in bundles.
7. Body cavity:
Coelom is greatly reduced. It is restricted to pericardial cavity (space around the fieart), and to small spaces within
kidneys and gonads (testes and ovaries). Spaces amongst the viscera (soft organs) contain blood and form haemocoel.
8. Digestive tract:
It is complete, well developed and complex. It has a radula, which is a rasping structure that has chitinous teeth. It is
used in feeding.
9. Blood vascular system:
It is open type. It includes dorsal heart, arteries that open into sinuses; (spaces) and veins. Blood is usually blue due to
the presence of a copper- containing blue respiratory pigment called haemocyanin. Among the molluscs, cuttle fish are
exceptional in having closed blood vascular system.
10. Respirator, organs:
These are gills (cteneidia). Mantle and pulmonary sae (in semi-terrestrial form).
11. Excretory organs:
Excretory organs are one or two pairs of sac- like kidneys. Gills are also excretory in function. Ammonia is chief
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excretory matter.
12. Nervous System:
The nervous system comprises paired cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia joined by the nerve connectives and
commissures. Connectives connect dissimilar ganglia; however, commissures connect similar ganglia
13. Sense Organs:
In many molluscs, eyes are present over stalks called ommatophores. Statocysts (balancing organs) may be present.
Osphradium is present in some molluscs for testing chemical and physical nature of water.
14. Sexes:
The sexes are generally separate but some are hermaphrodite.
15. Development:
They are oviparous. The development is either direct or indirect (metamorphosis). When the development is indirect it
includes a characteristic larva, veliger, trochophore or parasitic stage called glochidium. Asexual reproduction is absent.

Unique Features:
(i) Mantle covers the body,
(ii) Mantle may be surrounded by shell, and
(iii) Nervous system consists of cerebral, visceral, pleural and pedal ganglia.
Advancement over Annelids:
(i) Shell is present in many individuals,
(ii) In some forms, a lungs is present for pulmonary respiration, and
(iii) Better developed sense organs such as eyes, Statocysts and Osphradia.
Study of Mollusca is called Malacology.
The term Mollusca was first applied by Aristotle to cuttle fish.
Lamarck coined the term Molluscus.
Study of molluscan shell is called conchology.
UNIQUE CHARACTERS OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
Mollusks have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion and anchorage, and varies in shape and function,
depending on the type of mollusk under study. In shelled mollusks, this foot is usually the same size as the opening
of the shell. The foot is a retractable as well as an extendable organ. The foot is the ventral-most organ, whereas the
mantle is the limiting dorsal organ. Mollusks are eucoelomate, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a cavity
around the heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity develops independently of the coelomic cavity.

The visceral mass is present above the foot, in the visceral hump. This includes digestive, nervous, excretory,
reproductive, and respiratory systems. Mollusk species that are exclusively aquatic have gills for respiration,
whereas some terrestrial species have lungs for respiration. Additionally, a tongue-like organ called a radula, which
bears Chitinous tooth-like ornamentation, is present in many species, and serves to shred or scrape food.
The mantle (also known as the Pallium) is the dorsal epidermis in mollusks; shelled mollusks are specialized to
secrete a Chitinous and hard calcareous shell.

Most mollusks are dioecious animals and fertilization occurs externally, although this is not the case in terrestrial
mollusks, such as snails and slugs, or in cephalopods. In some mollusks, the zygote hatches and undergoes two
larval stages—trochophore and veliger—before becoming a young adult; bivalves may exhibit a third larval stage,
glochidium.

Classification
Phylum Mollusca is a very diverse (85,000 species) group of mostly marine species, with a dramatic variety of form.
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This phylum can be segregated into 6 classes: Aplacophora, Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, Bivalvia,
Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and Scaphopoda.

CLASS APLACOPHORA
1. Class Aplacophora (“bearing no plates”) includes worm-like animals primarily found in benthic marine
habitats.
2. These animals lack a calcareous shell, but possess aragonite spicules on their epidermis.
3. They have a rudimentary mantle cavity and lack eyes, tentacles, and nephridia (excretory organs).

CLASS MONOPLACOPHORA
1. Members of class Monoplacophora (“bearing one plate”) possess a single, cap-like shell that encloses the
body.
2. The morphology of the shell and the underlying animal can vary from circular to ovate.
3. A looped digestive system, multiple pairs of excretory organs, many gills, and a pair of gonads are present
in these animals.
4. The monoplacophorans were believed extinct and only known via fossil records until the discovery of
Neopilina galathaea in 1952.
5. Today, scientists have identified nearly two dozen extant species.

CLASS POLYPLACOPHORA

1. Animals in the class Polyplacophora (“bearing many plates”) are commonly known as “chitons” and bear an
armor-like, eight-plated dorsal shell.
2. These animals have a broad, ventral foot that is adapted for suction to rocks and other substrates, and a mantle
that extends beyond the shell in the form of a girdle.
3. Calcareous spines may be present on the girdle to offer protection from predators.
4. Chitons live worldwide, in cold water, warm water, and the tropics.
5. Most chiton species inhabit intertidal or subtidal zones, and do not extend beyond the photic zone.
6. Some species live quite high in the intertidal zone and are exposed to the air and light for long periods.

CLASS BIVALVIA
1. Bivalvia is a class of marine and freshwater molluscs with laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell in two
hinged parts.
2. The majority is filter feeders and has no head or radula.
3. The gills have evolved into ctenidia, specialized organs for feeding and breathing.
4. Most bivalves bury themselves in sediment on the seabed, while others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to
rocks or other hard surfaces.
5. The shell of a bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate, and consists of two, usually similar, parts called valves.
These are joined together along one edge by a flexible ligament that, in conjunction with interlocking “teeth” on
each of the valves, forms the hinge.
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6. As the name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (valves are commonly called “shells”) that are
hinged at the dorsal end by shell ligaments as well as shell teeth.
7. The overall morphology is laterally flattened, and the head region is poorly developed.
8. Eyespots and Statocysts may be absent in some species.
9. These animals are suspension feeders—they eat material, such as plankton, that is suspended in the water around
them.
10. Due to their diet, this class of mollusks lacks a radula.
11. Respiration is facilitated by a pair of ctenidia, whereas excretion and osmoregulation are brought about by a pair
of nephridia.
12. Bivalves often possess a large mantle cavity. In some species, the posterior edges of the mantle may fuse to form
two siphons that serve to take in and exude water.
13. One of the functions of the mantle is to secrete the shell. Some bivalves like oysters and mussels possess the
unique ability to secrete and deposit a calcareous nacre or “mother of pearl” around foreign particles that may
enter the mantle cavity. This property has been commercially exploited to produce pearls.
14. Bivalves include clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and numerous other families of shells.

CLASS GASTROPODA
1. Gastropoda includes shell-bearing species as well as species with a reduced shell.
2. These animals are asymmetrical and usually present a coiled shell.
3. Shells may be planospiral (like a garden hose wound up), commonly seen in garden snails, or conispiral
(like a spiral staircase), commonly seen in marine conches.
4. The visceral mass in the shelled species displays torsion around the perpendicular axis on the center of the
foot, which is the key characteristic of this group, along with a foot that is modified for crawling.
5. Most gastropods bear a head with tentacles, eyes, and a style.
6. A complex radula is used by the digestive system and aids in the ingestion of food.
7. Eyes may be absent in some gastropods species.
8. Animals in class Gastropoda (“stomach foot”) include well-known mollusks like snails, slugs, conchs, sea
hares, and sea butterflies

Figure . During embryonic development of gastropods, the visceral mass undergoes torsion, or counterclockwise
rotation of anatomical features. As a result, the anus of the adult animal is located over the head. Torsion is an
independent process from coiling of the shell.

CLASS CEPHALOPODA
Cephalopods are a class of shell-bearing animals as well as mollusks with a reduced shell.
They display vivid coloration, typically seen in squids and octopi, which is used for camouflage.
All animals in this class are carnivorous predators and have beak-like jaws at the anterior end.
All cephalopods show the presence of a very well-developed nervous system along with eyes, as well as a closed
circulatory system.
The foot is lobed and developed into tentacles and a funnel, which is used as the mode of locomotion. Locomotion
in cephalopods is facilitated by ejecting a stream of water for propulsion (“jet” propulsion). Cephalopods, such as
squids and octopi, also produce sepia or a dark ink, which is squirted upon a predator to assist in a quick getaway.
Suckers are present on the tentacles in octopi and squid.
Ctenidia are enclosed in a large mantle cavity serviced by blood vessels, each with its own associated heart.
The mantle has siphonophores that facilitate exchange of water.
A pair of nephridia is present within the mantle cavity.
Sexual dimorphism is seen in this class of animals.
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Members of a species mate, then the female lays the eggs in a secluded and protected niche.
Females of some species care for the eggs for an extended period of time and may end up dying during that time
period.
Reproduction in cephalopods is different from other mollusks in that the egg hatches to produce a juvenile adult
without undergoing the trochophore and veliger larval stages.
In the shell-bearing Nautilus spp., the spiral shell is multi-chambered. These chambers are filled with gas or water to
regulate buoyancy. The shell structure in squids and cuttlefish is reduced and is present internally in the form of a
squid pen and cuttlefish bone,
Class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals) includes octopi, squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus.

CLASS SCAPHOPODA
The Scaphopoda are a distinctive group of molluscs commonly known as the "tusk shells" because their shells are
conical and slightly curved to the dorsal side, making the shells look like tiny tusks (see the photos below).
The scientific name Scaphopoda means "shovel foot," a term that refers to the "head" of the animal, which lacks
eyes and is used for burrowing in marine mud and sediments.
The most distinctive feature of Scaphopoda is that the tubular shell is open at both ends, not just one end as in most
molluscs.
Scaphopods live their adult lives buried in sand or mud, with their head end pointed downwards.
Only the narrow posterior end of the shell sticks up into the seawater for water exchange and waste expulsion.
Gills have been lost in the Scaphopods, so the mantle tissue not only produces the shell, but also serves the function
of gills in obtaining oxygen from seawater.
The mantle is fused into a tube that surrounds the body of the animal, but it is open at both ends.
Water is circulated around the mantle cavity by the action of numerous cilia. When the dissolved oxygen runs low,
the water is ejected through the top end of the shell by contraction of the foot.

UNIQUE FEATURE
The toxin released, known as Conotoxins, is a peptide with internal disulfide linkages. Conotoxins can bring about
paralysis in humans, indicating that this toxin attacks neurological targets. Some Conotoxins have been shown to
block neuronal ion channels. These findings have led researchers to study Conotoxins for possible medical
applications.
Conotoxins are an exciting area of potential pharmacological development, since these peptides may be possibly
modified and used in specific medical conditions to inhibit the activity of specific neurons. For example, these
toxins may be used to induce paralysis in muscles in specific health applications

AFFINITIES
Molluscs are probably closest phylogenetically to the annelids. Several lines of evidence support this view. Both
annelids and molluscs have very similar developmental patterns and a similar type of ciliated larva, called a
trochophore larva. Unlike annelids, molluscs are not segmented, although one very primitive genus, Neopilina,
shows some signs of segmentation. Although molluscs are not descended from annelids, it seems probable that the
two groups evolved from a common ancestor.
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Zoological Name Common Name

Pila Apple snail
Helix Garden snail
Limax Slug
Turbinella Shankha (Chank)
Unio Fresh water mussel
Dentallium Elephant’s tusk shell
Mytilus Sea water mussel
Teredo Ship worm
Pinctada vulgaris Pearl oyster
Sepia Cuttle fish
Octopus Devil fish
Loligo Squid

EXCLUSIVE FEATURES
 Neopilina is considered as connecting link between Annelida and Mollusca. It is primitive with segmented
body.
 2nd largest animal phylum after Arthropoda.
 Unio contains a digestive gland called Green gland, which is comparable to liver of vertebrates.
 Statocysts- for maintaining equilibrium of the body.
 Osphradia- chemoreceptor to test chemical nature of the water.
 Excretion by a pair of kidneys or organs of Bojanus and pericardial gland or Keber’s organ.
 Octopus is known as devil fish. It is a cephalopod having 8 arms and without a shell.
 Heart is myogenic.
 Ink glands are present in Cephalopoda that are concerned with protection.
 Blood consists of copper containing pigment called haemocyanin. So blood color is blue or green.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Some Mollusca are indirectly harmful to man but most of them are beneficial.
2. Molluscs are a great source of human food in various parts of world, millions of mounds of clams,
oysters, scallops and mussels are eaten in China, Japan, Malaya, Europe and America, oysters being
regarded as a delicacy.
3. Other bivalves, octopuses and cuttlefishes furnish large quantities of food in Europe.
4. Shells of freshwater mussels are used in the pearl button industry in all parts of the world; they are
made from the nacreous layer of shells, no other material stands laundering as these buttons Many
freshwater clams and marine oysters produce pearls, but the most valuable natural pearls are produced
by pearl oysters Pinctada margaritifera and Pinctada mertensi which inhabit the warmer parts of Indian
and Pacific Oceans along the coasts of China, India, Sri Lanka and Japan. A pearl is made when a
small foreign object, such as a particle of sand or a parasite, lodges between the shell and the mantle.
In Japan pearl culture is practiced by artificially introducing a small solid or liquid irritant below the
mantle of the oyster, the resultant one year old pearl is then transplanted to another oyster, a pearl of
good size is obtained in three years after transplanting.
5. Shells of oysters are mixed with tar for making roads in America and lime from these shells is used in
feeding poultry for formation of their egg shells. Lime is also used in buildings.
6. In many parts of the world molluscan shells are used for making ornaments and jewelry, in some parts
shells of Cypraea (cowrie) are used as money and as ornaments.
7. Several hundred tons of internal calcareous cuttle fish bone are collected from Sepia and squids along
the shore of Mediterranean Sea and are sold to the manufacturers of tooth paste.
8. For centuries, the ink of Sepia has been used as a brown coloring matter and also as a writing ink.
Nowadays it has been replaced by aniline dyes because Sepia’s ink fades in light.
9. The top shells (Trochus sp.), turbans (Turbo sp.) are used for beautiful shell lamps and are collected
from the rocks and coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The royal tyrian purple dye was the
source of two snails—Murex brandaris and Nucella lapillus and was used by the ancients.
10. The manufacture of the dye was perfected by Phoenicians and the use was known as early as 1600
B.C. in the Mediterranean Islands. This dye was very strong and did not fade after 100 years. The dye
was collected as a fluid first from the hypobranchial gland of the snail situated on the roof of the
mantle. Then it would turn to purple red gradually in presence of direct sunlight.
11. Shell lime is prepared from shells and is used for white washing on the walls of buildings and betels.
12. The most popular sacred Chank is Xancus pyrum belonging to the family xancidae and class
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Gastropoda. The sacred Chank is a white, massive, pear-shaped shell with three spiral ridges on the
inner lip. They are marine and gregarious in nature. They are common in Indian Ocean and are found
in the south-east coast and west coast of India. The Chank beds are found up to the depth of 13 m and
are collected by skilled divers.
MEDICINAL USE
Cockle clam is supposed to be the good for heart trouble. Molluscan food is an important ingredient for good
health and is helpful for sexual activities. Pliny recommended that raw molluscs can be used for sore throat and
cough. It is reported that the extracts of hard-shelled clams are the growth inhibitors of cancers in mice.
Window pane oyster helps in the preparation of “Mouktik Bhasma” which helps in gaining of youth and
vitality. The pearl powder mixing with milk and various herbs are used for the cure of stomach troubles in
China. A virus preventive, Paolin, derived from some oysters, is useful against poliomyelitis and influenza. The
venom from Conus can be used as a muscle relaxant during heart operations.
HARMFUL MOLLUSCS
1. The harmful molluscs are slugs and shipworms. Slugs are injurious in gardens and cultivations; they
not only eat the leaves but also destroy plants by cutting up their roots and stems.
2. Teredo, the shipworm burrows into wooden structures immersed in the sea; it causes serious damage to
wharves, piers and ships.
3. Freshwater snails of Philippines, China, and Venezuela are responsible for the death of thousands of
people because the snails are the intermediate host of blood fluke disease of Schistosomiasis. In India
the disease Fasciolopsiasis is caused because the snails are the intermediate host of the intestinal fluke,
Fasciolopsis.
4. Consuming infected clams and mussels which are carriers of paralytic shell fish poisoning, cause death
to lot of people.
5. The garden snail, Achatina sp., is the most terrestrial destructive gastropod which eats not only leaves
but also destroys tender stems of the gardens. The cone, conus omaria, possesses venomous stings
which can inflict injuries and may even death. Teredo, Bankia, Pholas damage the wooden portion of
the ship immersed in water by boring through it.

PEARL FORMATION
Natural Pearls form when an irritant - usually a parasite and not the proverbial grain of sand - works its way
into an oyster, mussel, or clam. In fact, as soon as a foreign object, somehow, enters the body of a bivalve in
between the shell and mantle, the mantle immediately gets irritated and at once encloses it like a sack. The
mantle wall then starts secreting layers of nacre around the foreign object from defence point of view. As a
defense mechanism, a fluid is used to coat the irritant. Layer upon layer of this coating, called 'nacre', is
deposited until a lustrous pearl is formed.
A cultured pearl undergoes the same process. The only difference is that the irritant is a surgically implanted
bead or piece of shell called Mother of Pearl. These 'seeds' or 'nuclei' are most often formed from mussel shells.
Quality cultured pearls require a sufficient amount of time - generally at least 3 years - for a thick layer of nacre
to be deposited, resulting in a beautiful, gem-quality pearl. Lower-quality pearls have often been 'rushed' out of
the oyster too quickly (sometimes a year or less) and have a too-thin coat of nacre.

Stages in pearl formation

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PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
(From the Greek “echinos” meaning “spiny” and “dermos” meaning “skin”)
This phylum is a collection of about 7,000 described living species. Echinodermata are exclusively marine organisms.
Sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars are all examples of echinoderms. To date, no
freshwater or terrestrial echinoderms are known.
Habitat:
All existing echinoderms are marine. They generally live at sea bottom borne are pelagic (free swimming in open water)
and a few are sessile (attached to the substratum).
2. Body Form:
It varies considerably. The body is star-shaped, spherical or cylindrical. It is un-segmented. The body exhibit pentaradial
symmetry and lacks head.
3. Spines and Pedicellariae:
Many echinoderms bear spines and pincer-like pedicellariae. The spines are protective in function. The pedicellariae
keep the body surface clear of debris and minute organisms.
4. Symmetry:
The symmetry is bilateral in larvae but pentamerous radial in adults i. e., body parts are arranged in fives or multiples of
five.
5. Body Wall:
Epidermis is single layered and ciliated. In many echinoderms there is endoskeleton of calcareous plates in the dermis
which are mesodermal in origin.
6. Body Cavity:
There is a true enterocoelic coelom.
7. Ambulacral System (= Water Vascular System):
Presence of Ambulacral system is the characteristic feature of phylum Echinodermata. A perforated plate called
madreporite is present in this system. The pores of the madreporite allow water into the system Tube feet of this system
help in locomotion, capture of food and respiration. Water vascular system is of coelomic origin.
8. Digestive Tract:
It is usually complete. Brittle stars have incomplete digestive tract.
9. Haemal and Perihaemal Systems:
Instead of blood vascular system, there are present Haemal and Perihaemal systems which are of coelomic origin. Thus
the so called circulatory system is open type and includes Haemal and Perihaemal systems. The so blood is often without
a respiratory pigment. There is no heart.
10. Respiratory Organs:
Gaseous exchange occurs by dermal branchae or papulae in star fishes peristomial gills in sea urchins, genital bursae in
brittle stars, and cloac respiratory ‘trees in holothurians. Exchange of gases also takes place through tnbe feet.

11. Excretory Organs:

Specialized excretory organs are absent. Nitrogenous wastes are diffused out via gills. Ammonia is chief excretory
matter. Podocytes, cells specialized for ultrafiltration of bodily fluids, are present near the center of echinoderms. These
Podocytes are connected by an internal system of canals to an opening called the madreporite.
12. Nervous System:
The nervous system in these animals is a relatively simple structure with a nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves
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extending outward along the arms. Structures analogous to a brain or derived from fusion of ganglia are not present in
these animals.
13. Sense Organs:
They are poorly developed.
14. Sexes and Fertilization:
Except a few individuals, the sexes are separate. There is no sexual dimorphism. Fertilization is usually external.
15. Asexual Reproduction:
Some forms reproduce asexually by self-division.
16. Autotomy and Regeneration:
Phenomena of Autotomy and regeneration are often well marked in echinoderms.
17. Development:
The development is indirect and includes a ciliated, bilaterally symmetrical larva that undergoes metamorphosis to
change into the radially symmetrical adult. Different larval forms are found which are mentioned in the classes of
Echinodermata.

Degenerate Characters: Unique Features:

(i) Lack of head, (i) Presence of spines and pedicellariae.

(ii) Simple sense organs, (ii) Ambulacral system (water vascular system),

(iii) Incomplete digestive tract in some forms, (iii) Haemal system,

(iv) Reduced circulatory system, (iv) Mesodermal endoskeleton of calcareous plates,

(v) Absence of excretory system. (v) Bilateral symmetry in the larva and radial symmetry in
the adult.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Despite their low nutrition value and the abundance of indigestible calcite, echinoderms are the prey of many organisms,
such as crabs, sharks, sea birds and other echinoderms.
Defensive strategies employed include the presence of spines, toxins, which can be inherent or delivered through the tube
feet, and the discharge of sticky entangling threads by sea cucumbers.
Although most echinoderm spines are blunt, those of the crown-of-thorns starfish are long and sharp and can cause a painful
puncture wound as the epithelium covering them contains a toxin. Because of their catch connective tissue, which can
change rapidly from a flaccid to a rigid state, echinoderms are very difficult to dislodge from crevices.
Certain sea cucumbers have a cluster of cuvierian tubules which can be ejected as long sticky threads from their anus and
entangle and permanently disable an attacker.
Another defensive strategy sometimes adopted by sea cucumbers is to rupture the body wall and discharge the gut and
internal organs. The animal has a great regenerative capacity and will regrow the lost parts later.
Starfish and brittle stars may undergo Autotomy when attacked, an arm becoming detached which may distract the predator
for long enough for the animal to escape.
Some starfish species can "swim" away from what may be danger, foregoing the regrowth by not losing limbs. It is not
unusual to find starfish with arms of different sizes in various stages of regrow

CLASSES OF ECHINODERMS
This phylum is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins
and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
CLASS 1. ASTEROIDEA (Gk. aster- star, eidos- form):
Body is star-like. Five arms are usually present which are not sharply marked off from the central disc. Larval forms are
Bipinnaria and Brachiolaria.
Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Pentacews (Star fish), Astrvpecten (Star fish).
CLASS 2. OPHIUROIDEA (Gk. Ophis- snake, Oura- tail, eidos- form):
Body is star-like. Arms are sharply marked off from the central disc. Ambulacral grooves “are absent. Pedicellariae are
absent. Larval form is Ophiopluteus.
Examples:
Ophiothrix (brittle star), Ophioderma (brittle star), Ophiocoma (brittle star), Ophiura (brittle star).
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CLASS 3. ECHINOIDEA (Gk. echinos- hedgehog, eidos- form):

Body is globular or dislike. Biting and chewing apparatus with teeth called Aristotle’s Lantern is present. Ambu lacral
grooves are absent. Larval forms are Platens and Echinopluteus.
Examples:
Echinus (sea-urchin), Clypeaster (cake urchin), Echinarachinus (sand dollar), Echinocardium (heart urchin).
CLASS 4. HOLOTHUROIDEA (Gk. Holothurian- sea cucumber, eidos- form):
Body is elongated and cylindrical. Oral end has mouth surrounded by tentacles. Ambulacral grooves are absent.
Spines and pedicellariae are absent. Larval forms are Auricularia and Doliolaria.
Examples:

Holothuria (sea cucumber), Cucumaria (sea cucumber).

CLASS 5. CRINOIDEA (Gk. Crinon- lily, eidos- form):

Body has a central disc which is attached to the substratum. Arms are branched. Spines and pedicellariae and
madreporite are absent. Larval form is Doliolaria. They are commonly called feather stars or sea lilies.
Example:
Antedon (feather star). Sea lilies.

IMPORTANT ECHINODERMS
Asterias (Star Fish):
It possesses great power of regeneration and shows autotomy. At the terminal end of each ambulacral groove lies a
bright red eye. The aboral surface bears many stout spines distributed irregularly. In between the spines, there are
present soft dermal branchiae.
They act as respiratory and excretory organs. In between two arms near the anus, there is present a perforated
circular plate, the madreporite. There are present microscopic pincer-like structures known as pedicellariae. They
also act as organs of offence.
Ophiura (Brittle star):
Brittle stars also swim like snake with their arms. Anus is absent.
Echinus (Sea urchin):
It moves with the help of spines. The sea urchin has a masticatory apparatus, called Aristotle’s Lantern because of
its resemblance to ancient Greek ship lantern. It is formed by five strong and sharp teeth.
Cucumaria (Sea cucumber):
The sea cucumbers respire by respiratory trees in the cloaca. For this, water is drawn in and expelled through the
anus alternately. The mouth is anterior and is surrounded by tentacles.
Antedon (Feather star):
It has great power of Autotomy and regeneration. The body comprises a cup shaped central disc and five slender
arms. Each arm is bifurcated, bearing a row of pinnules on each side. It is attached to the substratum.
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REGENERATION
The ability to regenerate, or regrow, lost or destroyed parts is well developed in echinoderms, especially sea lilies,
starfishes, and brittle stars, all of which can regenerate new arms if existing ones are broken off. Many echinoderms
have remarkable powers of regeneration
 So long as a portion of a body, or disk, remained associated with an arm, new starfishes regenerated. Some
sea cucumbers can expel their internal organs (auto eviscerate) under certain conditions (i.e., if attacked, if
the environment is unfavorable, or on a seasonal basis), and a new set of internal organs regenerates within
several weeks.
 Sea urchins (Echinoidea) readily regenerate lost spines, pincer like organs called pedicellariae, and small
areas of the internal skeleton, or test.
 Many species routinely autotomize and regenerate arms and viscera.
 Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive themselves to be threatened. The
discharged organs and tissues are regenerated over the course of several months.
 Sea urchins are constantly replacing spines lost through damage.
 Sea stars and sea lilies readily lose and regenerate their arms. In most cases, a single severed arm cannot
grow into a new starfish in the absence of at least part of the disc. However, in a few species a single arm can
survive and develop into a complete individual and in some species, the arms are intentionally detached for
the purpose of asexual reproduction.
 During periods when they have lost their digestive tracts, sea cucumbers live off stored nutrients and absorb
dissolved organic matter directly from the water.
 The regeneration of lost parts involves both epimorphosis and morphallaxis. In epimorphosis stem cells—
either from a reserve pool or those produced by dedifferentiation—form a blastema and generate new tissues.
Morphallactic regeneration involves the movement and remodeling of existing tissues to replace lost parts.
Direct trans differentiation of one type of tissue to another during tissue replacement is also observed.
 The robust larval growth is responsible for many echinoderms being used as popular model organisms in
developmental biology.
WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM
Echinoderms possess a unique Ambulacral or water vascular system, consisting of a central ring canal and radial
canals that extend along each arm.
Water circulates through these structures and facilitates gaseous exchange as well as nutrition, predation, and
locomotion.
The water vascular system also projects from holes in the skeleton in the form of tube feet.
These tube feet can expand or contract based on the volume of water (hydrostatic pressure) present in the system of
that arm.
The madreporite is a light-colored, calcareous opening used to filter water into the water vascular system of
echinoderms.
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Acting as a pressure-equalizing valve, it is visible as a small red or yellow button-like structure (similar to a small
wart) on the aboral surface of the central disk of a sea star.
Close up, it is visibly structured, resembling a “madrepore” colony. From this, it derives its name. Water enters the
madreporite on the aboral side of the echinoderm.
From there, it passes into the stone canal, which moves water into the ring canal.
The ring canal connects the radial canals (there are five in a pentaradial animal), and the radial canals move water into
the ampullae, which have tube feet through which the water moves.
By moving water through the unique water vascular system, the Echinoderm can move and force open mollusk shells
during feeding.

BROOD PROTECTION
In direct development the young usually are reared by the female parent. Parental care or brood protection ranges from
actual retention of young inside the body of the female until they are born as juveniles to retention of the young on the
outer surface of the body. Brood protection is best developed among Antarctic, Arctic, and deep-sea echinoderms, in
which young may be held around the mouth or on the underside of the parent’s body, as in some starfishes and sea
cucumbers, or in special pouches on the upper surface of the body, as in some sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and asteroids.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Role in nature
 Sand dollars and sea cucumbers burrow into the sand, providing more oxygen at greater depths of the sea
floor. This allows more organisms to live there.
 Starfish prevent the growth of algae on coral reefs. This allows the coral to filter-feed more easily.
 Many sea cucumbers provide a habitat for parasites such as crabs, worms, and snails.
 Echinoderms are also an important step in the ocean food chain. Echinoderms are the staple diet of many
animals, including the sea otter.
 Echinoderms are efficient scavengers of decaying matter on the seafloor, and they prey upon a variety of small
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organisms, thereby helping to regulate their numbers.

 When present in large numbers, sea urchins can devastate sea-grass beds in the tropics, adversely affecting the
organisms dwelling within.
 Sea urchins that burrow into rocks and along a shore can accelerate the erosion of shorelines.
 Other tropical species of sea urchins, however, control the growth of seaweeds in coral reefs, thereby
permitting the corals to flourish.
 Removal of the sea urchins results in the overgrowth of seaweeds and the devastation of the coral reef habitat.
 Echinoderms can alter the structure of seafloor sediments in a variety of ways.
 Many sea cucumbers feed by swallowing large quantities of sediment, extracting organic matter as the
sediment passes through the intestine, and ejecting the remainder. Large populations of sea cucumbers in an
area can turn over vast quantities of surface sediments and can greatly alter the physical and chemical
composition of the sediments.
 Burrowing starfish, sand dollars, and heart urchins disturb surface and subsurface sediments, sometimes to
depths of 30 centimeters or more.
 In addition, echinoderms produce vast numbers of larvae that provide food for other planktonic organisms.
 Starfishes that prey upon commercially usable mollusks, such as oysters, have caused extensive destruction of
oyster beds.
 Sea urchins along the California coast have interfered with the regrowth of commercial species of seaweed by
eating the young plants before they could become firmly established.
 The crown-of-thorns starfish, which feeds on living polyps of reef corals, has caused extensive short-term
damage to coral reefs in some parts of the Pacific and Indian oceans.
Relation to human life
 Some of the larger species of tropical sea cucumbers, known commercially as trepang or bêche-de-mer, are
dried and used in soups, particularly in Asia.
 Raw or cooked mature sex organs, or gonads, of sea urchins are regarded as a delicacy in some parts of the
world, including parts of Europe, the Mediterranean region, Japan, and Chile.
 Some tropical holothurians produce a toxin, known as holothurin, which is lethal to many kinds of animals;
Pacific islanders kill fish by poisoning waters with holothurian body tissues that release the toxin. Holothurin
does not appear to harm human beings; in fact, the
 toxin has been found to reduce the rate of growth of certain types of tumors and thus may have medical
significance.
 The eggs and spermatozoa of echinoderms, particularly those of sea urchins and starfishes, are easily obtained
and have been used to conduct research in developmental biology.
 Indeed, echinoids have been collected in such large numbers that they have become rare or have disappeared
altogether from the vicinity of several marine biologic laboratories.
 The hard skeleton of echinoderms is used as a source of lime by farmers in some areas where limestone is
unavailable. Lime is added to the soil to allow plants to take up more nutrients.

AFFINITIES WITH CHORDATES

(i) Radial and indeterminate cleavage,
(ii) Gastrulation by invagination,
(iii) Mouth derived as an ectodermal invagination,
(iv) Adult anus derived from embryonic blastopore,
(v) Mesodermal endoskeleton.
(vi) Enterocoelous coelom.
(vii) Both are deuterostomes.
Tornaria larva is virtually identical to the Bipinnaria of the asteroids. Have sub epidermal nerve
network.Pterobranchs may be similar to common ancestor of chordates and echinoderms. Have arms and tentacles
on dorsal side of collar. Echinoderm water vascular system is believed to have been originally a food-catching
device and may have come from such tentaculated arms.
From these resemblances, it is clearly proved that the Echinoderms are nearer to the Chordates than any other group.
It also indicates that the chordates have been evolved from Echinoderm-like ancestors.

PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
Small phylum with only a 100 known species, with animals having a worm-like appearance.
Some species may be solitary or some occur in colonies.
These animal have a modified proboscis, due to which they have got the name Acorn worms.
They were initially grouped under Phylum Chordata. But, research has proven that none of these organisms does not have
a post-anal tail or even the notochord, which is a distinguishing feature of chordates. Hence, these animals have been
given a separate phylum, called the Hemichordata.
They are typically found in oceans, living on the seafloor. They vary greatly in size, ranging from a few millimeters to
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almost one and a half meters.

These animals show a few chordate characteristics but are not completely chordates. Hence they have been given the
name Hemichordata (Half chordates). Another notable feature of these organisms is the threefold division of the
body, with the preoral lobe, collar, and a trunk. The collar bears the tentacles in a few species. The trunk has the
digestive and reproductive organs.
Characteristic Features of Phylum Hemichordata
Hemichordata is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic animal.
They are exclusively marine animals.
They can be solitary or in colonies.
Hemichordata have a true body cavity or coelom.
The digestive tract is complete with an anus and can be in the form of a U shaped tube or straight.
A buccal diverticulum is present in the proboscis.
Body is divided into three regions – Proboscis, Collar and Trunk.
Circulatory system in open type.
Respiration occurs through gills.
The proboscis has a glomerulus, which is the excretory organ.
A primitive nervous system is present.
Sexes are separate or united.
Reproduction is mostly sexual reproduction.
Fertilization is external.
Development is mostly indirect. But a few species exhibit direct development.
Learn more about Phylum Annelida here.

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA

Phylum Hemichordata is again divided into two classes:

ENTEROPNEUSTA:
This class includes acorn worms.
They have a vermiform body and are found on sandy beaches near seas in warm climates.
Body consists of proboscis, collar and trunk; collar without tentaculated arms.
Alimentary canal straight; mouth and anus at opposite ends.
Numerous pairs of U-shaped gill-slits.
Two pairs of hepatic caeca present in the middle of the trunk.
Sexes separate; gonads numerous, sac-like.
Development with or without Tornaria larva.
Examples:
Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus (= Dolichoglossus), Ptychodera.

PTEROBRANCHIA:
They have a tube-dwelling and live in deep sea waters. They are bottom dwellers who attach to other organisms for
their survival.
Sedentary, solitary or colonial, tubicolous marine animals.
Proboscis with ciliated tentacles to produce ciliary feeding currents of water.
Collar with two or more tentaculated arms bearing tentacles.
One pair of gill-slits or none, never U- shape
Alimentary canal U-shaped with dorsal anus situated near the mouth at the same end.
Sexes separate or united; single or one pair of gonads.
Development direct, may or may not include a free swimming larval stage.
Asexual reproduction by budding in some.
Examples:
Rhabdopleura

BALANOGLOSSUS
Shape, Size and Coloration:
The body of Balanoglossus is soft, elongated, cylindrical, bilaterally symmetrical, being richly ciliated all over and
covered with mucus. The length of animal varies from 2 cm to 2.5 meters according to species. Most forms are drab
coloured, though reddish tints are present, several species are luminescent due to mucus. They have an offensive
odour.
Division of Body:
The body is un-segmented and divided into three regions, viz., proboscis or protosome, collar or mesosome, and
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trunk or metasome (2.2).

Proboscis:
The proboscis forms the anterior part of the body and is either rounded or conical in shape. It is continued
posteriorly into a short, narrow neck or proboscis stalk which is attached with the collar. The proboscis is hollow
and has thick muscular walls. Its cavity the proboscis coelom opens to the outside by means of a small opening
called the proboscis- pore
Collar:
The collar lies posterior to the proboscis and anterior to the trunk. It
is a short cylinder usually about as wide as long as and mostly
shorter than the proboscis although sometimes longer. The funnel-
like anterior part of the collar, the collarette, embraces the
proboscis stalk and usually also the posterior part of the proboscis.
Posteriorly the collar is sharply demarcated from the trunk by a
circular indentation.
The trunk is long and constituted by branchiogenital region,
hepatic region and caudal region. A double row of small pores, the
branchial apertures, are present on the dorsal surface of the anterior
end of the trunk, a row situated in a long furrow. During growth the
apertures increase in number.
A pair of longitudinal genital ridges containing gonads is

present in a considerable part of the trunk in the branchial region and behind. Two rows of prominences formed by
the hepatic caeca constitute hepatic region. The rest of the trunk or the caudal region is nearly uniform in diameter
and marked externally by irregular annulation.
Body wall:
The outermost layer epidermis is made of tall and narrow ciliated cells. Three types of gland cells—reticulate gland
cells, mulberry gland cells and goblet cells, are present in the epidermis.
A thick nervous layer lies beneath the epidermis, the two being separated by a thin layer of connective tissue, the
muscular sheath, supported by a basement membrane. The proboscis and collar contain circular muscle fibres, while
longitudinal muscle fibres are present in the trunk region. The muscle fibres are smooth.
Digestive System of Balanoglossus:
The digestive system consists of a straight alimentary canal starting in mouth and ending in anus and divisible into
pharynx, hepatic region and intestine.
Blood Vascular System of Balanoglossus:
A heart vesicle, blood vessels and sinuses constitute blood vascular system. Main longitudinal vessels are two; the
dorsal vessel lies just below the dorsal nerve cord and the ventral vessel in the ventral mesentery. Blood flows
forward in the dorsal vessel but backward in the ventral vessel.
Nervous System of Balanoglossus:
It consists of dorsal and ventral nerve strands extending throughout the length of the body, at the base of the
epidermis.
Locomotion:
The functional significance of the cavities and water pores in the proboscis and collar may best be explained
through a description of the burrowing habits. When on the surface of the sandy bottom Balanoglossus pushes the
tip of the proboscis into the sand, moving it around by muscular contractions until a shallow, cylindrical hole is
made. Then the proboscis empties its water content through its pore and collapses. This allows the collar to enter the
hole.
Reproductive System of Balanoglossus:
The sexes are separate and often differ in shape and color. Simple or branched saccular organs constitute testes or
ovaries, arranged in a double row along the branchial region of the trunk and further behind. Each gonad opens to
the exterior by a single pore.
Fertilization and development:
Fertilization is external. Development is associated with metamorphosis.
Early development:
Segmentation is complete, fairly regular and a round blastula is produced. Later, it becomes flattened. Gastrula is
formed by invagination. At this stage the embryo is covered with short cilia and a ring of stronger cilia. The embryo
is transformed into a Tornaria larva.

Affinities of Balanoglossus with chordates

The position of Hemichordata, in the scheme of classification of animals, has been controversial. It has always been a
matter of controversy. Sometimes grouped on the basis of affinities of Enteropneusta (Hemichordata) with the
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vertebrates and at times considered as a subphylum of the phylum Chordata. But on the basis of general organization,
it was considered to be removed from phylum Chordata to give it the status of an independent invertebrate phylum.
The name “Hemichordata” is, however, retained for the group because it suggests that its members are related to
chordates, i.e., they are “half or “part” chordates, a fact that is undisputed.

Resemblances: The main differences are:

Presence of the three fundamental chordate characters 1. Chordates do not have the body and coelomic regions
in groups, viz., a notochord, central nervous system, corresponding to those of hemichordates.
and pharyngeal gill-clefts. 2. The circulatory and nervous systems resemble
The structure and function of pharynx and branchial invertebrates.
apparatus are similar 3. There is no post-anal tail in hemichordates.
Origin of coelom is similar in both Hemichordata and 4. Total absence of metameric segmentation in
Cephalochordata, it is Enterocoelous. hemichordates.
But the inclusion of hemichordates in phylum
Chordata cannot be justified on the basis of a few
similarities which are more than outweighed by
important differences.
Resemblances with : The differences:
1. The general body form and burrowing habit of 1. Pharyngeal gill-slits, buccal diverticulum and dorsal
tubicolous forms such as Balanoglossus are alike and tubular nerve cord found in Balanoglossus.
mud is ingested in burrowing. It is passed out from the 2. Paired ventral nerve cord present in annelids is absent in
anus as castings. Balanoglossus. Nephridia found in annelids are absent in
2. The collar of Balanoglossus resembles with the Balanoglossus.
clitellum of earthworm. 3. The larva of Hemichordata and Annelida also differ
3. The proboscis of Balanoglossus and prostomium of in the following ways:
earthworm are similar and both are pre-oral. (i) Nephridia present in trochophore larva are absent in
4. The vascular system of most hemichordates is like Tornaria larva.
that of annelids with blood flowing anteriorly in the (ii) Pre-oral coelom found in Tornaria larva is absent in
dorsal vessel and posteriorly in the ventral vessels. trochophore larva.
5. The hemichordate Tornaria larva appears like a (iii) In trochophore larva blastopore becomes the mouth,
modified trochosphere larva of polychaete worms. while in Tornaria larva it becomes the anus.

Affinities with Echinodermata Objections:

Echinoderms and hemichordates are But Echinoderm larvae differ in lacking apical
Enterocoelous plate with sensory hair, eye spots and telotroch.
Coelom is divided into three different parts Protocoel is single in hemichordate larva and
filled with sea water to serve hydraulic paired in echinoderm larva
mechanism.
Hearth vesicle and glomerulus of
hemichordates are considered homologous to
dorsal sac and axial gland of echinoderms.
Both have common habits, ecological niches
and remarkable power of regeneration.
Larvae of both groups are small, pelagic,
transparent and oval
Similarity in the development of the coelom
Blastopore becomes anus and digestive tract
is complete with mouth, anus and same parts.
Hemichordata status Introduction
Hemichordata was till recently treated as the sub phylum of the phylum Chordate but is now
regarded to be the independent phylum of invertebrates very close to the phylum Echinodermata.
The peculiar characteristics of the animals belonging to Hemichordata are as follows,
Enterocoelous coelom
Pharyngeal gill slits
Buccal diverticulum (earlier considered as notochord)
Vermiform body divisible into three regions

PHYLUM CHORDATA
Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterized by the presence of a notochord, a
dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal [relating to the pharynx] gill slits.
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of organization.
Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
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Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and are exclusively marine.
In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail
region and is persistent throughout their life.

NOTOCHORD
The chordates are named for the notochord, which is a flexible, rod-shaped structure that is found in the embryonic
stage of all chordates and in the adult stage of some chordate species. It is located between the digestive tube and the
nerve cord, and provides skeletal support through the length of the body. In some chordates, the notochord acts as
the primary axial support of the body throughout the animal’s lifetime. In vertebrates, the notochord is present
during embryonic development, at which time it induces the development of the neural tube and serves as a support
for the developing embryonic body. The notochord, however, is not found in the postnatal stage of vertebrates; at
this point, it has been replaced by the vertebral column (the spine).
DORSAL HOLLOW NERVE CORD
The dorsal hollow nerve cord is derived from ectoderm that sinks below the surface of the skin and rolls into a
hollow tube during development. In chordates, it is located dorsally to the notochord. In contrast, other animal phyla
possess solid nerve cords that are located either ventrally or laterally. The nerve cord found in most chordate
embryos develops into the brain and spinal cord, which compose the central nervous system.
PHARYNGEAL SLITS
Pharyngeal slits are openings in the pharynx, the region just posterior to the mouth, that extend to the outside
environment. In organisms that live in aquatic environments, pharyngeal slits allow for the exit of water that enters
the mouth during feeding. Some chordates use the pharyngeal slits to filter food from the water that enters the
mouth. In fishes, the pharyngeal slits are modified into gill supports, and in jawed fishes, jaw supports. In tetrapods,
the slits are further modified into components of the ear and tonsils, since there is no longer any need for gill
supports in these air-breathing animals. Tetrapod means “four-footed,” and this group includes amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals. (Birds are considered tetrapods because they evolved from tetrapod ancestors.)
POST-ANAL TAIL
The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body extending beyond the anus. The tail contains skeletal
elements and muscles, which provide a source of locomotion in aquatic species, such as fishes. In some terrestrial
vertebrates, the tail may also function in balance, locomotion, courting, and signaling when danger is near. In many
species, the tail is absent or reduced; for example, in apes, including humans, it is present in the embryo, but reduced
in size and nonfunctional in adults

CLASSIFICATION
Within Chordata there are five classes of animals: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Three
dividing factors separate these classes:
 Regulation of body temperature: animals are either homeothermic (can regulate their internal
temperature so that it is kept at an optimum level) or poikilothermic (cannot regulate their internal
temperature, the environment affects how hot or cold they are)
 Oxygen Absorption: the way in which oxygen is taken in from the air, which can be through gills, the
skin (amphibians), or lungs
 Reproduction: this factor is particularly varied. Animals can be oviparous (lay eggs) or viviparous
(birth live young). Fertilization can occur externally or internally. In mammals, the mother produces
milk for the young.
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SUBPHYLUM UROCHORDATA (THE TUNICATES)

Habitat: Tunicates are widely distributed in all seas from near the shoreline to great depths. Most of them are
sessile, at least as adults. They are also called sea squirts
Most tunicates live a sessile existence in shallow ocean waters and are suspension feeders.
The primary foods of tunicates are plankton and detritus.
A mucus film is produced by food groove (endostyle)
Development leads to a tadpole larva, which possesses all of the chordate characters.
Adults lack notochord, tubular nerve cord, postanal tail, sense organs and segmented musculature.
Superficially, Look like sponges. This larva is one of the best candidate to qualify for ancestor ship of vertebrates.
characters of Urochordate larva: Adult characters of Urochordata:
1. The body of the adult is covered by a tunic (hence
1. Elongated larva of Urochordata is known as ascidian named Tunicata). The tunic is composed of a protein
tadpole larva. Adult emerges from the larva by the tunicin and a polysaccharide similar to plant cellulose.
process of metamorphosis. 2. Adults are sessile and attached to the substratum of
the sea.
2. Notochord restricted at the caudal end, hence name 3. Incurrent branchial siphon, and ex-current atrial
Urochordata. siphon, form entrance and exit portals for the water that
circulates through the body.
4. Branchial siphon opens into a branchial basket, i.e.
3. Dorsal hollow nerve chord spreads end to end. pharynx.
5. Tiny finger-like sensory tentacles encircle the
4. Pharyngeal gill slits are present. incurrent siphon to examine the incoming water and
prevent large particles from entering.
5. Highly active post anal tail is prominent. 6. These are hermaphrodite animals; reproduce both
sexually and asexually.

Classification of Urochordata:
This subphylum is divided into three classes — Ascidiacea, Thaliacea and Larvacea.
A. Class — Ascidiacea:
General characters:
1. Comprises mostly brightly colored marine animals.
2. Some species are solitary, others are colonial.
3. Adults are sessile, but larvae are planktonic and do not feed.
4. Adults having sac-like body, covered by tunic.
5. Most of the chordate characters that were present during larval period disappear during metamorphosis into
adult.
6. In adult, nervous system transforms into a nerve ganglion.
Examples:
Ascidia , Ciona , Herdmania .
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B. Class — Thaliacea:
General Characters:
1. These are free-living pelagic Urochordates.
2. The tunic is transparent and thin.
3. They possess encircling circumferential bands of muscles within the walls of the test.
4. Incurrent and ex-current siphons are present at opposite end of the body.
5. A few pharyngeal gill slits are present.
6. In the life-cycle polymorphism and clear alternation of generations are evident.
Examples:
Salpa, Doliolum.

C. Class — Larvacea/Appendicularia:
General characters:
1. These are tiny marine planktonic Urochordates found worldwide.
2. Larvacea received their name because the adults retain larval characteristics similar in some way to the ascidian
tadpole with its tail and trunk. The general resemblance of adult larvaceans to asci dian tadpoles suggests that
larvaceans may be neotenous form.
3. They produce a remarkable feeding apparatus (house) that consists of three components: screens, filters and
expanded gelatinous matrix. Disturbed or actively feeding larvaceans abandon their old house and builds a new
one.
4. The trunk holds major body organs.
5. The tail is thin and flat.
6. Muscle bands act on notochord to produce movement.
7. A tubular nerve cord is present.
8. All species, except one, are Monoecious, and most of these are protandrous.
Examples:
Oikopleura, Appendicularia.
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SUBPHYLUM CEPHALOCHORDATA
(from the Greek for "both [ends] pointed,"
Cephalochordates have all the typical chordate features.
Lancelets possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail in the adult stage.
The notochord extends into the head, which gives the subphylum its name (Cephalochordata)
The dorsal nerve cord is supported by a muscularized rod, or notochord.
The pharynx is perforated by over 100 pharyngeal slits or "gill slits", which are used to strain food particles out
of the water.
The musculature of the body is divided up into V-shaped blocks, or myomeres, and there is a post-anal tail.

Cephalochordates also have a well-developed circulatory system and a simple excretory system composed of
paired nephridia.
Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms. Mucus from endostyle
(ciliated food groove) traps food as it goes through gill slits.
Food goes from food groove to intestine where it is separated from the mucus and passed on to the hepatic
cecum, where it is digested.
The sexes are separate, and both males and females have multiple paired gonads.
Eggs are fertilized externally, and develop into free-swimming, fishlike larvae.
The early stages of development strikingly resemble those of both tunicates and vertebrates.
Since cephalochordates have no hard parts, their fossil record is extremely sparse.
Excretion is primitive. Essentially a protonephridial system with numerous nephridia called solenocytes
(resemble modified flame cells). Empty into atrium.
Most important genus Amphioxus is renamed as Brachiostoma (gills + mouth).
Common name is lancelet
All of these features are shared with vertebrates. On the other hand, cephalochordates lack features found in
most or all true vertebrates:
The brain is very small and poorly developed,
Sense organs are also poorly developed, and
There are no true vertebrae.
No centralized brain and no trace of olfactory, optic or auditory sense-organs and nerves.
No liver or pancreas
Importance
Although edible, lancelets are never sufficiently abundant to constitute a significant source of food to humans or
an important part of the food chain in nature. Rather, their significance has to do with their place in evolution,
as invertebrates transitional to vertebrates. More recently, the relationship has been well-supported by gene
sequence comparisons. Lancelets have a structure that illustrates the characteristic features of chordates in
simple form
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SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA
 These animals have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton, allowing a completely different
distribution of muscle attachment points to be used for movement.
 The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.
 The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.
 Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
 Besides the basic chordate characters, vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four
chambers, kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired appendages which may be fins or limbs.
 Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with complex
differentiation of body tissues and organs.
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AMNIOTES
Amniotes are a clade of tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds, and mammals. Amniotes are
characterized by having an egg equipped with an amnion, an adaptation to lay eggs on land or retain the fertilized
egg within the mother.
Amniote embryos whether laid as eggs or carried by the female, are protected and aided by several extensive
membranes. In eutherian mammals (such as humans), these membranes include the amniotic sac that surrounds the
fetus. These embryonic membranes and the lack of a larval stage distinguish amniotes from tetrapod amphibians.
The amniotes—reptiles, birds, and mammals—are distinguished from amphibians by their terrestrially adapted egg,
which is protected by amniotic membranes. The evolution of amniotic membranes meant that the embryos of
amniotes were provided with their own aquatic environment, which led to less dependence on water for
development and thus allowed the amniotes to branch out into drier environments. This was a significant
development that distinguished them from amphibians, which were restricted to moist environments due their shell-
less eggs. Although the shells of various amniotic species vary significantly, they all allow retention of water. The
shells of bird eggs are composed of calcium carbonate and are hard, but fragile. The shells of reptile eggs are
leathery and require a moist environment. Most mammals do not lay eggs (except for monotremes). Instead, the
embryo grows within the mother’s body; however, even with this internal gestation, amniotic membranes are still
present.
THE AMNIOTIC EGG
was one of the evolutionary developments that allowed vertebrates to move permanently onto land and away from
the water, which amphibians need to prevent their eggs from drying out. An amniotic egg is made up of many
components. The extensive membranes found within these eggs allow for gas exchange, waste disposal, water
retention, and protection of the embryo from the outside environment.
The egg is surrounded by a hard shell, usually made of calcium carbonate. Some eggs have a leathery shell. The
watertight shell prevents water loss from inside the egg and also offers some protection from predators. Although it
is watertight, the eggshell has many tiny pores that allow both oxygen to move into the albumen and carbon dioxide
to move out. The albumen is the embryo's water supply, but it also assists with the movement of gases from the
embryo to the shell. In addition, it provides some shock protection. The yolk is a fatty food store for the developing
embryo. The chalaza is a twisted string-like structure that suspends the developing embryo in the albumen and also
ensures that it remains above the yolk. The air sac increases in size during incubation and provides the mature chick
with its first breath of air.
An amnion, chorion, and allantois are membranes that develop during embryonic life. Each one has a different
function. The embryo develops from the blastoderm, the red region of the yolk. The amnion, from which the egg
gets its name, develops from membranes that surround the embryo. The amnion is a thin membrane that contains
fluid which suspends and protects the growing embryo. The chorion surrounds the embryo and other membranes and
helps to protect the developing embryo. The allantois contains many blood vessels and is mostly involved in
nutrition and excretion. The allantois collects nitrogenous wastes from the embryo and also absorbs oxygen through
the eggshell for the embryo.
Reptiles separated from their water-dwelling ancestors and climbed onto land during the Paleozoic era, over 280
million years ago. When that era gave way to the Mesozoic, following a mass planetary extinction, reptiles survived
and continued to evolve. They dominated the earth between 248 and 213 million years ago and live on today as
modern-day snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles and even birds.

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals

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 We have learnt that some animals give birth to young ones while some animals lay eggs which later develop
into young ones.
 The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
 Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
 In some animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults. Recall the life cycle of the silkworm
(egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult) (egg → tadpole (larva) → adult). The transformation of the larva
into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.

Warm Blooded vs. Cold Blooded Animals

Warm Blooded or Endotherms or Homoiothermous Cold Blooded or Ectotherms or Poikilothermous
animals Animals
 All mammals and birds with few exceptions are  All reptiles, insects, arachnids, amphibians and
warm blooded. [Bats, Echidnas, Mole Rats etc. fish are cold blooded.
cannot regulate their body temperature]
 They maintain a constant internal body  Their body temperature changes according to the
temperature irrespective of external environment. [If a cold blooded animal
external environment. [Can regulate their body is taken to the equator its body temperature
temperature by generating their own heat when increases and if taken to the poles its body
they are in a cooler environment, and by cooling temperature decreases]
themselves when they are in a hotter
environment]
 They can survive in a wide of environments as  They cannot survive in a wide of environments.
they are able to regulate their body temperature. [Tropical animals cannot survive in the polar
region and vice versa]
 They require a lot of food for their survival.  Most of the food consumed is converted into
Most of the food consumed is utilized to body mass. So they need less food compared to
maintain a constant body temperature. warm blooded animals.
 They are active in both warm and cold  They are active in warm environments and are
environments. very sluggish in cold environments.
 To stay cool, warm-blooded animals usually  Cold-blooded animals often like to bask in the
sweat. Animals like elephants use their ears to sun to warm up and increase their metabolism.
cool their body [large, thin ears which loose heat  Some cold-blooded animals, such as bees or
quickly]. dragonflies, shiver to stay warm when in a cold
 Some warm-blooded animals, especially birds, environment.
migrate from colder to warmer regions in the
winter.
 Mammals have hair, fur and birds have feathers
to help keep them warm.
 Warm-blooded animals can also shiver to
generate more heat when they get too cold.
 Constant body temperature provide a nice warm  Constantly changing body temperatures make
environment for viruses, bacteria and parasites to life more difficult for the parasites.
live in.

HIBERNATION
 Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in few endotherms [warm blooded animals – bear,
rodents] and Ectotherms [many reptiles like snakes, turtles and amphibians like frogs]. Snakes, lizards, toads,
frogs, salamanders and most turtles will mostly hibernate during harsh winters.
 Hibernating animals usually retreat to a den, a burrow, or a hollow log for protection and shelter.
 During “true hibernation,” the animal’s body temperature drops, and its rate of breathing slows down. These
hibernating animals are very difficult to awaken.
 Some warm-blooded animals such as bears, rodents etc. hibernate during extreme weather seasons and
unfavorable conditions.
 During hibernation these animals live off of stored body fat and can drop their body temperatures significantly.
 Most animals will eat large amounts of food before hibernating.

AESTIVATION
Aestivation or estivation is almost similar to hibernation, but the distinct critical point is that aestivation is the summer sleep.
It occurs to the animals living in deserts or tropical areas. It occurs because of the hot and dry climate as well as due to the
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lack of food and water.

In order to survive under hot climate, the vertebrates like arthropods, Mollusca, reptiles, amphibians, (lady beetles, moths,
salamanders, crocodiles and tortoises of North America, aborigines, swamp turtle greater siren, African hedgehogs) proceed
by going underground in the humid and cold region. This last for the summer season and the animals get active slowly at the
end of the season. The most wonderful aestivation is found in the Lungfish, which is capable of aestivating and surviving
without water even for the three years. These are primitive fish, carrying lungs for breathing air.

At the summer season or when the lake gets dried, the fish gets itself buried into the mud and when the mud of the lake starts
getting dry, the fish secrets lots of mucus to cover the entire body, this mucus work like a sac and provide moisture and
shelter until the whole dry season. During this, the fish breathe through the mucous tube. The primary purpose of these
animals is to save their energy and to prevent the loss of water or from getting dehydrated.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIBERNATION AND AESTIVATION

HIBERNATION AESTIVATION
The state of inactivity and a low metabolic process When animals take rest in shady and moist place during
performed by the animals during the winters is known as summer, it is called Aestivation or Estivation. Aestivation is
Hibernation. It is also known as winter sleep. also known as summer sleep.
BASIS FOR
HIBERNATION AESTIVATION (ESTIVATION)
COMPARISON

Meaning Hibernation is the type of winter sleep, Aestivation is the type of summer sleep,
performed by the warm and cold-blooded performed by cold-blooded animals.
animals.

Duration It is for the whole winter. It is of short duration.

Process As hibernation is the sleep during the winter, Aestivation is a summer sleep, so animals
the animals look out for the warmer place, search for the moist, shady and cool place to
their metabolic activities slow down, and it is sleep.
the dormant stage.

Examples Bats, birds, mammals, insects, etc. Bees, snails, earthworms, salamanders,
frogs, earthworms, crocodiles, tortoise, etc.

Importance Hibernation helps in maintaining the body Aestivation also helps in maintaining the
temperature and thus avoids from any body temperature by avoiding the excessive
internal body damage due to low water loss and any internal body damaged
temperatures. due to high temperatures.
The importance of these sleeps is mainly related to the conservation of energy of one’s body, survival during the extremes
temperature, scarcity of food and water, etc. These sleeps can be of long or short duration. During such naps, the use of
energy by the animals gets reduced to 70-100 times lesser than the usual time or at an active state
ORIGIN OF FISHES
The evolution of fish began about 530 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion. It was during this time that the
early chordates developed the skull and the vertebral column, leading to the first craniates and vertebrates.
The first fish lineages belong to the Agnatha, or jawless fish. Early examples include Haikouichthys. During the late
Cambrian, eel-like jawless fish called the conodonts, and small mostly armored fish known as ostracoderms, first
appeared.

Most jawless fish are now extinct; but the extant lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. Lampreys belong to
the Cyclostomata, which includes the extant hagfish, and this group may have split early on from other agnathans.

The earliest jawed vertebrates probably developed during the late Ordovician period.
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CLASS CYCLOSTOMATA(AGNATHA)
 The first undoubted vertebrate fossils are small Ordovician (505 mya) fishes that do not have jaws. All living
members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites [ive on the outside of its host] on some fishes or are
opportunistic scavengers in the deep sea (hagfish) and so are rather aberrant in many ways.
 They have an elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits for respiration.
 Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
 Their body is devoid of scales and paired fins.
 Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
 Circulation is of closed type.
 Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning [release or deposit eggs] to fresh water.
 After spawning, within a few days, they die. Their larvae, after metamorphosis [transformation from an
immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Example: Larvae → Tadpole → Frog], return to
the ocean.
 Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
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All remaining vertebrates have jaws and are GNATHOSTOMES

CLASS – PISCES
Almost three-quarters of the Earth's surface is covered by water, in which live 20,000 known species of fishes. From
their earliest jawless ancestors in the Silurian period, 450 million years ago, fishes have diversified to inhabit widely
differing aquatic habitats. Despite their similar basic design, fish forms show considerable variety.

 These are fish. Their skin is covered with scales/plates. They lay eggs [oviparous].
 They obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using gills.
 The body is streamlined, and a muscular tail is used for movement.
 They are cold-blooded and their hearts have only two chambers, unlike the four that humans have.
 Some fish skeletons are made entirely of cartilage [Chondrichthyes], such as sharks, and some with a skeleton
made of both bone and cartilage [Osteichthyes]
 Most fishes living in clear waters have good eyesight.
 Nostrils in the snout allow for the sense of smell. Sharks are renowned for their ability to detect blood in the
water from as far as one-third of a mile.
 Many fishes that live in muddy water or are active at night also have an electric sense.
 Fishes are divided into 2 groups: bony fishes (class Osteichthyes) and cartilaginous fishes (class
Chondrichthyes), the main skeletal material is comprised of bone or cartilage.

CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
They are marine animals with streamlined body and have cartilaginous endoskeleton. Mouth is located ventrally.
Notochord is persistent throughout life.
Gill slits are separate and without operculum (gill cover).
The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
Teeth are modified placoid scales which are backwardly directed.
Their jaws are very powerful.
These animals are predaceous [shark].
Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) and some possess poison sting (e.g., Trygon).
They are cold-blooded (Poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack the capacity to regulate their body temperature.
Sexes are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers.
They have internal fertilization and many of them are viviparous [give birth to young ones].
Very successful in the Devonian (408-360 mya) - much of the diversity disappeared at the end of the Permian, but this
group is still around today. They should not be considered primitive but instead they are animals that discovered a
successful way of life 350 million years ago and have not needed to change it.
Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carchaiodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting ray).
About 650 fishes of cartilaginous fishes have been identified. These are divided into two groups:
The chimeras (subclass Holocephali), and the elasmobranchs (subclass Elasmobranchii).
HOLOCEPHALI (Gr. Holos = entire + kephale = head)
is a very small ancient group of highly specialized marine fishes. They are regarded as unusual fish found in deep
water. It comprises of rat-tailed fishes. They appeared first in the lower Jurassic and at present, are represented by a
few marine genera only. There are about 25 species of Chimeras most of them are deep sea fishes. Chimeras differ
from other cartilaginous fishes in possessing only one pair of gill openings. The upper jaw carries tooth plates and is
fixed to the brain case, unlike the mobile jaws of sharks. Chimaeras have long thin tails and swim by flapping their
large pectoral fins. Body appearance is shark-like but the head is large and compressed, having a small mouth.
Operculum is formed by a fold of skin to cover the gill slits so that a single branchial aperture is found.
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ELASMOBRANCHI elasmos (Greek for "metal plate") and branchus (Latin for "gill"). ()
Elasmobranchs includes sharks, dogfish, skates and rays. All have gill slits, and usually in front of these, another
opening called the spiracle. Most sharks and dogfish have a streamlined, torpedo shape. The smallest members of this
group are the dogfishes, many being smaller than 3 feet in length. Dogfishes live in shallow coastal waters, where they
feed on mollusks, worms and other invertebrates. Bony Fishes

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES
It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.
Their body is streamlined. Mouth is mostly terminal.
They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
Heart is two- chambered (one auricle and one ventricle)
They are cold-blooded
Sexes are separate.
Fertilization is usually external.
They are mostly oviparous and development is direct.
About 95% of living fishes belong to the class Osteichthyes (bony fishes), making this the largest vertebrate class. Bony
fishes can be readily distinguished from cartilaginous by the presence of a bony gill cover (operculum). Also, the mouth
is usually at the very front of the head, instead of on the underside as in cartilaginous fishes.
Reproductive strategies also differ from those of cartilaginous fishes. In contrast to the large yolky eggs of the latter,
bony fishes tend to lay numerous small eggs, the number (which can be millions), usually relating to the hazards of the
life style. Because the males do not possess claspers to transfer sperm, fertilization takes place externally.
Examples: Flying fish, Sea horse, Fighting fish, Angel fish etc.
VENOMOUS FISHES
The known venomous fishes are mainly distributed among the catfishes (Siluriformes) and six groups of
"acanthomorphs" or spiny-rayed fishes, like toadfishes and scorpionfishes, in which several thousand of species are
presumed to be venomous.
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So, venomous fish may outnumber the combined diversity of all the other venomous vertebrates.
Many fish species with venomous dorsal spines have distinct anterolateral grooves on the lateral surfaces of the fin
spines, where the venom gland is situated.
There are venomous grooved teeth in the lower jaw of saber-toothed blenny fishes, which deliver the venom.
The venom glands of catfishes are found in association with sharp, bony spines along the leading edge of the dorsal and
pectoral fins.
When a spine enters a potential predator, the integument surrounding the venom gland cells is torn to deliver venom into
the wound.1

LUNG FISHES
The Dipnoi are a group of sarcopterygiian fish, commonly known as the lungfish.
Their "lung" is a modified swim bladder, which in most fish is used for buoyancy in swimming, but in the lungfish
also absorbs oxygen and removes wastes.
As lungfish develop from juveniles to adults, their teeth fuse together to form tooth plates which they use to chew
their food (all lungfishes are omnivorous).
Modern lungfish in Africa and South America are able to survive when their pools dry up by burrowing into the
mud and sealing themselves within a mucous-lined burrow.
During this time, they breathe air through their swim bladder instead of through their gills, and reduce their
metabolic rate dramatically.
These fish will even drown if they are kept underwater and not allowed to breathe air.
There are only three genera of lungfish alive today and each is found on a single continent. The Australian lungfish
is Neoceratodus; in South America lives Leipdosiren; and Protopterus lives in Africa. The largest of these is the
Australian species,

CLASS – AMPHIBIA
As the name indicates (Gr., Amphi : dual, bios, life), amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats.
The amphibian skin is moist without scales [mucus glands in the skin]. The eyes have eyelids. A tympanum
represents the ear.
Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca which opens to the
exterior.
They have a three-chambered heart (two auricles and one ventricle). These are cold-blooded
Respiration is through gills, lungs and through
Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
Sexes are separate. Fertilization is external.
They are oviparous and development is indirect.
Examples: Toad, Frog), Tree frog, Salamander, Limbless amphibia.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPHIBIA
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ORIGIN OF AMPHIBIANS
These first tetrapods were amphibians and they evolved around 395 million years ago during the Devonian period from
lobe-finned fish named sarcopterygiian (class Sarcopterygii, “flesh fins”) within which we find the coelacanth and the
current lungfish.
This group of fish is characterized by its fins which, instead of being formed by rays like in most bony fish, they have a
bony base that allowed the subsequent evolution of the limbs of the first amphibians. Within the sarcopterygiian, the
nearest relatives of the tetrapods are the osteolepiformes (order Osteolepiformes) a group of tetrapodomorph fish that got
extinct about 299 million years ago.
ADAPTATIONS TO LIVE ON LAND
 The conquest of land was not done from one day to the other; it was possible with the combination of multiple
adaptations. Some of the most important characteristics that allowed the first amphibians to leave the water were:
 Evolution of lungs, which are homologous to the gas bladder that allows fish to control its buoyancy. Lungs
appeared as an additional way to get oxygen from the air. In fact, there is actually a sarcopterygiian family the
members of which have lungs to get oxygen from the air, for they live in waters poor on oxygen.
 Development of the choanaes, or internal nostrils.
 Apparition of the quiridium-like limb.
 In short, the relatives of the osteolepiformes developed the tetrapod’s typical characteristics before ever leaving
water, because they probably lived in brackish, shallow waters, poor in oxygen and that dried out quickly and
often.
METAMORPHOSIS IN AMPHIBIANS
Metamorphosis is a post-embryonic extension of the developmental potential and involves dramatic changes in habit,
habitat, morphology, physiology and behavior of larva so that it is transformed into the adult having entirely different
habitat and structure. Metamorphosis is associated with a dramatic change in habitat and consequent way of life. This
wide spread change in environment and activities demand equally rapid transformation of the structure and function of
the living machinery. During the development cycle, metamorphic change is a condensation or acceleration of some
basic processes characteristic of most forms of development. It consists of differential destruction of certain tissues,
accompanied by an increase in growth and differentiation of other tissues.
Metamorphosis in Amphibians:
In amphibians, metamorphosis incorporates ecological, morphological, physiological and biochemical changes.
1. Ecological metamorphic changes:
According to the change of environment, from aquatic to terrestrial mode of life, a change in feeding habit occurs in
anuran amphibians (frogs and toads). Tadpoles of most frogs and toads feed on vegetable matter, which they scrap off
from submerged objects with the help of horny teeth surrounding their mouths. Few anurans are detritus feeders, or
plankton feeders (Xenopus). Adult frogs and toads are carnivorous, feeding upon small insects, worms and small
vertebrates by overpowering then and swallowing the entire animals. In urodele amphibians (salamanders and newts)
there is no substantial change of diet, the larvae being as carnivorous as the adults though naturally they feed on smaller
animals.
2. Morphological metamorphic changes:
The changes in the organization or morphology of the animal during metamorphosis are in part progressive and in part
regressive, and maybe grouped into three categories:
1. Structures or organs necessary during larval life but redundant in the adults are reduced and may disappear
completely.
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2. Some organs develop and become functional only during and after metamorphosis.
3. Third group of structures, while present and functional both before and after metamorphosis, becomes changed so as
to meet the requirements of the adult mode of life. Because the degree of difference between anuran larvae and adults is
profound, anurans undergo more extensive metamorphic changes in organization.

CLASS – REPTILIA
The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion (Latin, repere or reptum, to creep or crawl).
They are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
They do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when present, are two pairs.
Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
Reptiles are poikilotherms [cold-blooded animals].
They lay eggs with tough coverings and do not need to lay their eggs in water, unlike amphibians.
Sexes are separate.
Fertilization is internal.
They are oviparous and development is direct.
Examples: Turtle), Tortoise, Chameleon (Tree lizard), Garden lizard, Crocodile, Alligator, Wall lizard, Poisonous
snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).

CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILIA

ORIGIN OF REPTILES
The origin of the reptiles lies about 310–320 million years ago, in the steaming swamps of the late Carboniferous period,
when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorphs(Reptiliomorphs is a clade containing the amniotes and those
tetrapods that share a more recent common ancestor with amniotes)
The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote is Casineria (though it may have been a temnospondyl). A series
of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia dated to 315 Ma show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales.
[38]
These tracks are attributed to Hylonomus(an extinct genus of reptile that lived 312 million years ago during the Late
Carboniferous period), the oldest unquestionable reptile known. It was a small, lizard-like animal, about 20 to 30
centimeters (7.9 to 11.8 in) long, with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet. Other examples
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include Westlothiana (a genus of reptile-like tetrapod that lived about 338 million years ago, for the moment considered
a reptiliomorph rather than a true amniote)[41] and Paleothyris, both of similar build and presumably similar habit.

REPTILES ARE MOST SUCCESSFUL LAND VERTEBRATE

The Amniotic Egg
The amniotic eggs of reptiles are very different than the eggs of amphibians. Reptiles have many adaptations for living
on dry land that amphibians do not have. For example, the tough waterproof scales that form the outer layer of their skin
(epidermis) are made of keratin, the same protein that your hair and nails are made of. They cannot breathe through their
skin like amphibians can; instead, they breathe entirely through their lungs.
Most reptiles lay amniotic eggs covered with leathery or calcium-containing shells. This allows the eggs to be laid on
land. Amphibian eggs have a jelly-like outer layer and need to be laid in water. Another feature that distinguishes
reptiles from amphibians is that they develop directly into the terrestrial body form with limbs and a thick, scaly skin.
They do not go through metamorphosis from a larval stage into an adult form like amphibians do.
Skin
Reptile skin contains keratin, a water-resistant substance that maintains hydration. Reptiles also have scales to keep in
moisture and help avoid skin damage, though the scales are sometimes too small to be visible. This feature is most
evident in turtles, whose scales fuse to form a shell, while you can see a bird’s scales on its feet and in the form of
feathers.
Kidneys
Living on land means limited access to drinking water, so reptiles’ kidneys have adapted. They conserve water by
producing less urine in more concentrated forms.
Reproduction
Laying soft-shelled eggs is safe in water, but land-dwelling creatures require a different reproductive strategy. Scientists
think this is why reptiles evolved a hard shell around their eggs, and why some no longer lay eggs at all. In many types
of snakes the eggs hatch internally, and babies are born live.
Lungs
Adapting lungs in place of gills was a significant step in reptiles’ migration to land. While amphibians all have gills at
some stage in their development, either temporarily during the larval stage or permanently through adulthood, reptiles
are born with fully developed lungs.
Basking
For cold-blooded creatures on land, survival requires more than just physical changes. Since a reptile’s temperature
depends on its surroundings, it basks on rocks to warm its blood for hunting. Without a place to bask, reptiles can’t get
enough blood flow, as anyone who keeps reptiles as pets can verify. Reptiles kept in captivity must have access to
warming lights and heat-absorbent surfaces to substitute for a natural basking environment.
Legs
Not all reptiles have legs now, but they all needed them to become land-dwelling creatures. This was once a topic for
debate due to the legless nature of snakes. Though scientists knew that snakes once had legs, they could not determine
whether they lost their limbs before or after migrating to land. Scientists at Penn State resolved this issue in 2004 by
comparing DNA between snakes and their closest genetic relatives. They determined that snakes lost their legs after they
left the water, possibly to enable their burrowing habits, but that snakes, like all reptiles, initially required legs to
relocate to land habitats.

CLASS – AVES
 They have a four-chambered heart. They breathe through lungs. All birds fall in this category.
 The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers and most of them can fly except flightless
birds (e.g., Ostrich). The forelimbs are modified into wings.
 The hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or clasping the tree branches.
 Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
 Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
 The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard.
 They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able to maintain a constant body temperature.
 Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilization is internal. They are oviparous and development is direct.
 Examples: Crow, Pigeon, Ostrich), Neophron (Vulture) etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF AVES
Birds have been classified based on their morphology. Comparisons of their beak shape, foot shape, feathers, and
flying abilities have been used to classify
All modern birds lie within the subclass Neornithes, which has two subdivisions: the Paleognathae, containing mostly
flightless birds like ostriches, and the diverse Neognathae, which contains all other birds.
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Class Aves is split up into 23 orders. Birds in an order all share very similar characteristics. More than half of the
Class of Aves is in the order Passeriformes (Passerines)

SUBCLASS ARCHAEORNITHES:
1. Includes all fossil birds from Jurassic, having toothed jaws, scaly limbs, long tail with tail feathers arranged in two
parallel rows.
2. Pygostyle absent, free caudal vertebrate, free metacarpals.
3. Fore limbs with three digits ending in claws.
4. Ribs without uncinate process.
Examples. Archaeopteryx, Archaeornis.
SUBCLASS NEORNITHES:
1. Jaws toothless except in few extinct forms.
2. Short tail, tail feathers arranged in a semicircle.
3. A few terminal caudal vertebrae fuse to form a pygostyle.
4. Metacarpals fused.
5. Ribs with uncinate process.
6. Sternum well developed and mostly keeled.
SUPERORDER PALEOGNATHAE OR RATITAE:
1. Flightless, running large-sized birds with raft-like keel less sternum.
2. Wings are reduced, vestigial or absent.
3. Pygostyle small or undeveloped, coracoid and scapula comparatively small.
4. The rectrices are absent or irregularly arranged but without hooked barbules.
SUPERORDER IMPENNAE:
1. Flightless birds adapted to aquatic life, from Eocene to recent.
2. Forelimbs modified into flippers and feet are webbed.
Example. Aptenodytes, Eudypte’s (Penguins).
SUPERORDER NEOGNATHAE OR CARINATAE:
1. Modern, widely distributed flying birds with well-developed wings, keeled sternum and toothless beak.
2. Feathers with barbs, barbules and hooklets.
3. Pygostyle present.

ARCHAEOPTERYX
The present scientific consensus is that birds are a group of theropod dinosaurs ( characterized by hollow bones and three-
toed limbs, ancestrally carnivorous ) that originated during the Mesozoic Era.
A close relationship between birds and dinosaurs was first proposed in the nineteenth century after the discovery of the
primitive bird Archaeopteryx in Germany. Birds and extinct non-avian dinosaurs share many unique skeletal traits.
[1]
Moreover, fossils of more than thirty species of non-avian dinosaur have been collected with preserved feathers. There
are even very small dinosaurs, such as Microraptor and Anchiornis, which have long, vanned, arm and leg feathers forming
wings.
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FLIGHT ADAPTATION IN BIRDS:

Effective flight is possible only when two requirements are met, light weight of the body and the supply of energy.
Hence, the organs that are modified for effective flight are:
Morphological Adaptations
Body Contour
The birds have a spindle-shaped body to offer less air resistance during flight. This helps the birds to conserve energy
and become more efficient at flying.
Compact Body
The body of a bird is compact, dorsally strong and ventrally heavy to maintain equilibrium in the air. Their wings are
attached on the thorax, the light organs like lungs and sacs are positioned high, the heavy muscles placed centrally are
other features that help in flight.
Body Covered With Feathers
The feathers are smooth, directed backwards, and closely fitting which make the body streamlined and reduce friction
during flight. It lightens the body weight and protects it from the effect of environmental temperature. They also have a
wide surface area for striking the air.
Feathers add to the body buoyancy. It insulates the body and prevents any loss of heat from the body. This helps the
birds to bear low temperatures at higher altitudes. Forelimbs Modified into Wings The forelimbs are modified into wings
which is the only organ of flight. These consist of a framework of bones, muscles, nerves, feathers, and blood vessels.
The wings have a large surface area. They also support the bird in the air. The wings have a thick strong leading edge
with a concave lower surface and a convex upper surface. This helps in increasing the air pressure below and reducing
the air pressure above. Thus the bird can fly upward and forward during flight.
Mobile Neck and Head
The birds have a long and flexible neck which helps in the movement of head important for various functions. They
possess a horny beak which helps them to pick the grains and insects while feeding.
Eyesight
Eyes are well developed having binocular vision in birds whereas the olfactory organs have reduced function. It is
because good sight is necessary for safe flight.
Ovaries and testis are present but the size is reduced, in some only one ovary is functional.
In most of the female birds liver is pushed towards right side in order to balance the weight of the body
Bipedal Locomotion
The anterior part of the body of a bird helps in taking off during flight. The anterior part of the body also helps birds to
land. The hindlimbs help in the locomotion on land. They can support the entire body weight of a bird.
Perching
When a bird sits on the branch of a tree, its toes wrap around the twig. This is known as perching. The muscles are so
well-developed that a bird can sleep in that position without falling.
Short Tail
The tail bears long feathers that spread like a fan and function as a rudder during flight. They also help in balancing,
lifting, and steering while flying and perching.
Anatomical Adaptations
Flight Muscles
The well-developed muscles control the action of the flight muscles. It weighs about 1/6th of the entire bird. The flight
muscles are striated. The muscles on the wings are large. Other muscles help the above muscles in functioning.
Light and Rigid Endoskeleton
The birds have a very stout and light skeleton. The bones are hollow, filled with air sacs. They are provided with a
secondary plastering to increase their rigidity. The bones are fused and lack bone marrow.
The birds lack teeth. The thoracic vertebrae are fused except for the last one. This plays an essential role in the action of
wings striking the air.
Digestive System
The birds have a very high rate of metabolism. Therefore, food digests rapidly. The length of the rectum is reduced
because of the minimum undigested waste. They have no gall bladder which reduces the weight of the bird.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system of birds is designed in such a manner that the food is oxidized rapidly and a large amount of
energy is liberated. Since the metabolism rate is higher, a large number of oxygen molecules are required by the body.
For this, the lungs are provided which occupy the entire space between the internal organs.
Circulatory System
Rapid supply of oxygen is required by the blood due to rapid metabolism rate in birds. Therefore, birds require an
efficient circulatory system. Birds have a four-chambered heart that performs double circulation. This prevents the
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Also, the birds contain a large amount of hemoglobin in their red blood
cells which helps in the quick aeration of body tissues.
Warm Blooded
The temperature of the body of a bird remains high and does not change with the change in the environment. This
facilitates the birds to fly at very high altitudes.
Excretory System
The nitrogenous waste is converted to less toxic organic compounds such as uric acid, and urates. They have no urinary
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bladder. The uriniferous tubules efficiently absorb water.

CLASS – MAMMALIA
 Mammals are warm-blooded animals with four-chambered hearts.
 Most mammals familiar to us produce live young ones. However, a few of them, like the Platypus and
the Echidna lay eggs, and some, like kangaroos give birth to very poorly develop young ones.
 They are found in a variety of habitats – polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, grasslands and dark caves.
Some of them have adapted to fly or live in water.
 The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands (mammary glands) by
which the young ones are nourished.
 They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying.
 The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair. External ears or pinnae are present. Different types of teeth
are present in the jaw.
 Heart is four-chambered. They are homoiothermous [warm-blooded]. Respiration is by lungs.
 Sexes are separate and fertilization is internal.
 They are viviparous with few exceptions and development is direct.
 Examples: Oviparous – Platypus; Viviparous – Kangaroo, Flying fox), Delphinus (Common dolphin),
Balaenoptera (Blue whale), etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS
Mammals are defined as vertebrates that possess hairs and mammary glands for feeding young. They also
possess a four-chambered heart, a large cerebral cortex, three distinctive bones: incus, malleus and stapes in the
middle ear, a diaphragm for breathing, heterodont and thecodont dentition, limbs attached under the body,
dicondylic skull and acoelous vertebrae. The class Mammalia is classified into three subclasses, 28 Orders, 161
Families, 747 Genera and 4939 Species

SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA (EGG-LAYING MAMMALS)

Order Monotremata includes 2 families of mammals that lay eggs with leathery shells and nourish the young
with milk from primitive mammary glands. They possess a cloaca like reptiles, have no urinary bladder but
possess hairs.
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SUBCLASS METATHERIA (MARSUPIAL MAMMALS)

Includes about 300 species grouped under about 240 genera and 15 families, whose young are born in immature
state and then reared in pouches called marsupium. Found in Australia and South America. Opossum has now
spread to North America.
Order Marsupialia (Body covered with fur; pinna well developed; female with marsupium; tympanic bulla
absent; diaphragm and seven cervical vertebrae are present and the marsupial bone (epipubis) present.

SUBCLASS EUTHERIA (PLACENTAL MAMMALS)

True mammals which are completely viviparous, with chorio-allantoic placenta and in which complete
development takes place in uterus.
Subclass Eutheria includes many orders, some major orders include

AQUATIC MAMMALS
The mammals of this category include the beaver (Castor), musk rat (Ondatra), nutria (Myocaster), otter (Lutra),
mink (Mustela) and many others. The amphibious mammals belong to several orders of Mammalia such as
Carnivora, Rodentia, Artiodactyla, Marsupialia, Monotremata, etc.
2. Aquatic Mammals:
The mammals under this category spend most of the time in water and usually come to land for reproduction. The
typical examples are seals and hippopotamus.
3. Marine Mammals:
These mammals never come to land and are perfectly at home in water. The typical examples are whales.
Aquatic Adaptations:
The adaptations or specializations of truly aquatic mammals (Cetacea and Sirenia) are divided into 3 major
categories:
(i) Modifications of original structures,
(ii) Loss of structures, and
(iii) Development of new structures
Modifications of Original Structures:
1. Body Shape:
In aquatic mammals, body shape is of prime importance. The external fishlike form, elongated head, indistinct neck
and tapering streamlined body offers little resistance and swims rapidly through water.
2. Large Size and Weight:
In aquatic mammals, the large size and body weight help the aquatic mammals. Whalebone whale may grow up to
35 meters in length and weigh about 150 tons. Large size reduces skin friction and loss of heat, but creates no
problem for support in water due to buoyancy.
3. Flippers:
In aquatic mammals, the forelimbs are transformed into skin-covered, un-jointed paddles or flippers, having no
separate indication of fingers. These paddles or flippers can move as a whole only at the shoulder joint. The broad
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and flattened paddles or flippers serve as balancers and provide stability during swimming.
4. Hyperdactyly and Hyperphalangy:
In aquatic mammals, extra digits (hyperdactyly) and extra phalanges (hyperphalangy) up to 14 or more in some
forms, serve to increase the surface area of flippers for greater utility for swimming in water.
5. High and Valvular Nostrils:
In aquatic mammals, the nostrils are placed far back on the top of head so that animal can breathe air without raising
head much out of water. The nostrils can also be closed by valves during diving under water.
6. Mammary Ducts:
In aquatic mammals, during lactation, ducts of mammary glands dilate to form large reservoirs of milk, which is
pumped directly into mouth of young by the action of special compressor muscle. This arrangement facilitates
suckling of young under water.
7. Oblique Diaphragm:
In aquatic mammals, oblique diaphragm makes the thoracic cavity larger dorsal and barrel-shaped for providing
more space to lungs for expansion.
8. Large Lungs:
In aquatic mammals, large unlobulated and highly elastic lungs ensure taking down maximum air Lore
submergence. Like swim bladders of fishes, the dorsal lungs also serve as hydrostatic organs in maintaining a
horizontal posture during swimming.
9. Intra-Narial Epiglottis:
In aquatic mammals, elongated, tubular and intra-Narial epiglottis, when embraced by the soft palate, provides a
continuous and separate air-passage, thus, allowing breathing and feeding simultaneously.
10. Endoskeleton:
In aquatic mammals, the cranium becomes small but wider to accommodate the short and wide brain. The facial
part of skull projects forming elongated snout or rostrum
The zygomatic arches are reduced. Due to reduced neck, the cervical vertebrae are fused into a solid bony mass.
Zygapophyses are reduced. Sacrum is also reduced. Ribs become arched dorsally to increase thoracic cavity. Bones
are light and spongy. In Cetacea, bones are filled with oil.
11. Teeth:
In toothed whales, teeth are monophyodont, homodont and numerous, as many as 250. This helps in capturing or
seizing prey, prevent its escape and swallowing it without mastication. Usually, the mobility of jaws is reduced as
they have no function in mastication.

Animal Classification Summary

 Porifera includes multicellular animals which exhibit cellular level of organization and have characteristic
flagellated choanocytes.
 The coelenterates have tentacles and bear Cnidoblasts. They are mostly aquatic, sessile or free-floating. The
ctenophores are marine animals with comb plates.
 The Platyhelminthes have flat body and exhibit bilateral symmetry. The parasitic forms show distinct suckers
and hooks.
 Aschelminthes are pseudocoelomates and include parasitic as well as non-parasitic round worms.
 Annelids are metamerically segmented animals with a true coelom.
 The arthropods are the most abundant group of animals characterized by the presence of jointed appendages.
 The molluscs have a soft body surrounded by an external calcareous shell. The body is covered with external
skeleton made of chitin.
 The echinoderms possess a spiny skin. Their most distinctive feature is the presence of water vascular system.
 The hemichordates are a small group of worm-like marine animals. They have a cylindrical body with
proboscis, collar and trunk.
 Phylum Chordata includes animals which possess a notochord either throughout or during early embryonic
life. Other common features observed in the chordates are the dorsal, hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal
gill slits.
 Some of the vertebrates do not possess jaws (Agnatha) whereas most of them possess jaws (Gnathostomata).
Agnatha is represented by the class, Cyclostomata. They are the most primitive chordates and are ectoparasites
on fishes. Gnathostomata has two super classes, Pisces and Tetrapoda.
 Classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes bear fins for locomotion and are grouped under Pisces. The
Chondrichthyes are fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton and are marine.
 Classes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia have two pairs of limbs and are thus grouped under
Tetrapoda. The amphibians have adapted to live both on land and water.
 Reptiles are characterized by the presence of dry and cornified skin. Limbs are absent in snakes. Fishes,
amphibians and reptiles are Poikilothermous (coldblooded).
 Aves are warm-blooded animals with feathers on their bodies and forelimbs modified into wings for flying.
Hind limbs are adapted for walking, swimming, perching or clasping.
 The unique features of mammals are the presence of mammary glands and hairs on the skin. They commonly
exhibit viviparity.
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NUTRITION

NUTRITION
 A process of obtaining food from external
environment to interior of body is termed as
nutrition.
 All living organisms such as plants and animals
require food. So food is essential for all living
organisms. Plants are capable of making their
food themselves but humans and animals cannot.
 Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and
minerals are essential components of food, these
components are called nutrients.
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Mode of nutrition in plants

 Plants prepare their food by using raw materials like water, carbon dioxide and minerals.
 The process of utilization of food by a living organism to obtain energy is called nutrition.
There are two modes of nutrition

1. Autotrophs or Autotrophic: - In this mode of

nutrition organisms make their food themselves from simple
substances. All green plants are Autotrophs (Auto means self
and trophos means nourishment)
2. Heterotrophs or heterotrophic: - Heterotrophic
organisms are those who obtain food from other organisms.
Since these organisms depend on other organisms for their
food, they are called consumers. All animals and non-green
plants like fungi come under this category.

TYPES OF AUTOTROPHS
The two major types of autotrophs are chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs.

CHEMOAUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
“The mode of autotrophic nutrition in which organic molecules are manufactured from simple inorganic molecules by using
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energy produced by the oxidation of certain inorganic substances such as ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ferrous ions, H2S and
etc. This type of nutrition is called CHEMOTROPHIC NUTRITION and process of manufacturing food is called
CHEMOSYNTHESIS.”
Chemoautotrophs derive energy for their life functions from inorganic chemicals. They feed on chemicals that are good
electron donors, such as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, or iron. Like all autotrophs, chemoautotrophs are able to “fix” carbon. They
take atoms of carbon from inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide, and using it to make organic compounds such as
sugars, proteins, and lipids. Chemoautotrophs are commonly found in environments where plants cannot survive, such as at
the bottom of the ocean, or in acidic hot springs.
Many bacteria serve to carry out chemoautosynthesis by either of these mechanisms:
AMMONIA USING BACTERIA
They derive their energy by oxidation of Ammonia.
NH4+ + O2 -> 2NO2 + 2H2O + 4H+ + energy
BACTERIA CONVERTING NITRITES TO NITRATES
2NO2 + O2 -> 2NO3- + energy
FUNCTION OF CHEMOAUTOTROPH
Basis of Ecosystems Without Sunlight
Chemoautotrophs form the basis of the energy pyramid for ecosystems where photosynthesizers can’t survive. Without
chemoautotrophs, life would only be able to exist where energy could be derived from sunlight. They are the basis of some
deep sea ecosystems, such as those existing around deep sea hydrothermal vents. Scientists have speculated that
chemoautotrophs could form the basis of life on planets which receive less sunlight than earth.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrosomonas plays the crucially important role of fixing nitrogen in the soil of some ecosystems. Like most
chemoautotrophs, Nitrosomonas can take toxic chemicals – in this case ammonia – and turn it into materials for life.
Nitrosomonas harvests nitrogen from ammonia, and fixes it into organic compounds which can then be used to produce amino
acids, proteins, and other crucial materials for life.
Possible Origin of Life
We have no fossils of the first cells on Earth, so we are not able to say at this time what they were like. We know that they had
to be autotrophs, since they would have had to produce all of their own organic materials. Majority of scientists think that the
first cells may have been chemoautotrophs, and that photosynthesis may have evolved later.
Examples of Chemoautotrophs.
Iron Bacteria
Iron bacteria are a type of bacteria that obtain energy by oxidizing ferrous iron which is dissolved in water. Because they
obtain their energy from iron, they can live in water with iron concentrations that would kill most organisms. Iron bacteria can
be found in iron-rich wells, rivers, and hot springs.
In the industry of iron mining, research is being done into how to use these bacteria to capture and purify iron that might not
otherwise be accessible to humans because it is dissolved in water or mixed with other minerals.
Methanogens
Methanogens are bacteria that produce methane. They are chemoautotrophs, which extract energy from the electrons found in
hydrogen gas to produce methane and other organic compounds. Methanogens can be found at the bottom of the ocean, where
they can create huge methane bubbles beneath the ocean floor. They can also be found in swamps and marshes, where they
are responsible for producing methane “swamp gas.” Some methanogens live in the guts of ruminants such as cows, and to a
lesser extent in the guts of humans.

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
“Autotrophic nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organic compounds are manufactured from available inorganic raw
material taking from surroundings”.
In autotrophic nutrition, the nutrients do not require to be pretreated or digested before taking them into their cells.
TWO METHODS OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
On the basis of source of energy, autotrophic nutrition can be sub-divided into following sub-types.
(I) Phototrophic nutrition
(II) Chemotrophic nutrition

PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA
Photosynthetic bacteria are unique because they are the only organisms which are capable of synthesizing the carbohydrate
food without chlorophyll “a”.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA AND GREEN PLANTS
Photosynthesis in bacteria is different from green plants. Some differences are
 Photosynthetic bacteria usually grow in sulphide spring where H2S is normally present.
 Hydrogen is provided by H2S instead of H2O.
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 Free oxygen is not released as a byproduct in bacterial photosynthesis.

 The process takes place at low expenditure of energy.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is food making process in plants from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.
Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.

 This process of photosynthesis only occurs in the daytime in the presence of Sunlight hence it is called Photosynthesis,
photo means light.
 Sun is termed as the ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.
 Since plants use solar energy to make their food. The herbivores animals depend upon the plants for their food. Animals
(carnivores) that do not eat plants depend upon the herbivores animals. Therefore, all of the living organisms directly or
indirectly receive their energy from the Sun.
 There will be no food if the plants would stop conducting the photosynthesis process.

LOCATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 The process of photosynthesis takes place in the green leaves of a plant.
 The food is prepared by the green leaves of a plant in the form of a simple sugar called glucose.
 The extra glucose is changed into another food called starch. This starch is stored in the leaves of the plant.
 The green plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy by making carbohydrates.
The photosynthesis takes place in the following three steps:
1. Absorption of sunlight energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen by light energy.
3. Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrate like glucose by utilizing the chemical energy.
Conditions necessary for photosynthesis:
The conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place are:
1. Sunlight
2. Chlorophyll
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Water
5. Minerals
The plants also need other raw materials such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium, etc., for building their body. The
plants take these materials from the soil. Nitrogen is essential element used by the plants to make proteins and other
compound.
Raw materials for photosynthesis:
The raw materials for photosynthesis are:
Carbon dioxide
Water
ABSORPTION OF WATER FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

 The water required by the plants for photosynthesis is absorbed by the root of the plants from the soil through the
process of osmosis.
 The water absorbed by the roots of the plants is transported upward through the xylem vessels to the leaves where it
reaches the photosynthetic cells.
Site of photosynthesis: Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plants.
 Leaves have green pigment called chlorophyll
 It helps leaves capture the energy of the sunlight which is then used to prepare food from carbon di oxide and
water.
 Solar energy is captured by the leaves and is stored in the plant in the form of food.
 So, we can say that Sun is ultimate source of energy for all living organisms.

LEAVES AND LEAF STRUCTURE

Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves (and not all plants have leaves). A leaf may be viewed as a solar
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collector crammed full of photosynthetic cells.

The raw materials of photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide, enter the cells of the leaf, and the products of
photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf.
Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through specialized plant cells known as xylem vessels. Land plants
must guard against drying out and so have evolved specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and leave
the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf ( cuticle), but it can enter the leaf
through the stoma (the singular of stomata), flanked by two guard cells. Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis
can only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata. Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are moving between
the inside and outside of the leaf, a great deal of water is also lost. Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose 100 gallons
(about 450 dm3) of water per hour during hot desert days.

 There are a large number of tiny pores called stomata on the

surface of the leaves of plants.
 The carbon dioxide gas enters the leaves of the plant through
the stomata present on their surface.
 Each stomatal pore is surrounded by a pair of guard cells.
The opening and closing of stomatal pores is controlled by
the guard cells.

 Photosynthesis in plants can also takes place in other green parts like green stems, green branches.
 Glucose (simple carbohydrates) is the simplest food synthesized by plants. This glucose made by plants is
converted into complex carbohydrates which are known as starch.
 These simple carbohydrates are used to synthesize other components of food such as proteins and fats.
 Proteins are nitrogenous substances. Plants prepare proteins with the help of nitrogen which is obtained from the
soil.
 Plants use the minerals dissolved in water to convert Glucose (simple carbohydrates) into carbohydrates, proteins
and fats.
 Photosynthesis is important because
1. It provides food to animals including human beings
2. It puts oxygen gas into the air which is essential for breathing and respiration in animals including human
beings

STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST
Photosynthetic Structures in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
In all phototrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside a chloroplast, an organelle that arose in eukaryotes by
endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic bacterium (Unique Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells). These chloroplasts are enclosed by
a double membrane with inner and outer layers. Within the chloroplast is a third membrane that forms stacked, disc-shaped
photosynthetic structures called thylakoids (Figure 2). A stack of thylakoids is called a granum, and the space surrounding the
granum within the chloroplast is called stroma.
Photosynthetic membranes in prokaryotes, by contrast, are not organized into distinct membrane-enclosed organelles; rather, they
are infolded regions of the plasma membrane. In cyanobacteria, for example, these infolded regions are also referred to as
thylakoids. In either case, embedded within the thylakoid membranes or other photosynthetic bacterial membranes
are photosynthetic pigment molecules organized into one or more photosystems, where light energy is actually converted into
chemical energy.
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 Chloroplasts are special cell organelles

that are found only in plant cells. They
are called the food producers of the
plant cells.
 The chloroplasts are surrounded by two
membranes called the Inner and Outer
Membrane. The inner membrane
surrounds stroma and thylakoid stacks.
 The chlorophyll molecules are present
on each of the thylakoids. The
chloroplasts convert the sunlight into
sugars that are used by the plant
cells.The thylakoid is the structural unit
of photosynthesis. Both photosynthetic
prokaryotes and eukaryotes have these
flattened sacs/vesicles containing
photosynthetic chemicals. Only
eukaryotes have chloroplasts with a
surrounding membrane.

Figure 2. (a) Photosynthesis in eukaryotes takes place in chloroplasts, which contain thylakoids stacked into grana. (b) A
photosynthetic prokaryote has infolded regions of the plasma membrane that function like thylakoids.
 Thylakoids are stacked like pancakes in stacks known collectively as grana. The areas between grana are referred to as
stroma. While the mitochondrion has two membrane systems, the chloroplast has three, forming three compartments.
 Hence, chloroplasts allow the conduction of the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll that can absorb the sunlight
is present inside the chloroplasts.
 When the light of the sun hits the chloroplasts and the chlorophyll, the light energy is converted into chemical energy
found in compounds such as ATP and NADPH.
 Then these energy molecules move into the stroma where carbon dioxide is attached to them. As a result of the
molecular reactions, oxygen and glucose are created.

PHOTOSYSTEMS
Photosynthetic pigments within the photosynthetic membranes are organized into photosystems, each of which is composed of a
light-harvesting (antennae) complex and a reaction center. The light-harvesting complex consists of multiple proteins and
associated pigments that each may absorb light energy and, thus, become excited. This energy is transferred from one pigment
molecule to another until eventually (after about a millionth of a second) it is delivered to the reaction center. Up to this point,
only energy—not electrons—has been transferred between molecules. The reaction center contains a pigment molecule that can
undergo oxidation upon excitation, actually giving up an electron. It is at this step in photosynthesis that light energy is converted
into an excited electron.
Once the light harvesting complex transfers the energy to the reaction center, the reaction center delivers its high-energy electrons,
one by one, to an electron carrier in an electron transport system, and electron transfer through the ETS is initiated. The ETS is
similar to that used in cellular respiration and is embedded within the photosynthetic membrane. Ultimately, the electron is used
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to produce NADH or NADPH. The electrochemical gradient that forms across the photosynthetic membrane is used to
generate ATP by chemiosmosis through the process of photophosphorylation, another example of oxidative
phosphorylation (Figure 3).

Figure: This figure summarizes how a photosystem works. Light harvesting (LH) pigments absorb light energy, converting it to
chemical energy. The energy is passed from one LH pigment to another until it reaches a reaction center (RC) pigment, exciting
an electron. This high-energy electron is lost from the RC pigment and passed through an electron transport system (ETS),
ultimately producing NADH or NADPH and ATP. A reduced molecule (H2A) donates an electron, replacing electrons to the
electron-deficient RC pigment.

CHLOROPHYLL
Chlorophyll is a complex molecule. Several modifications of chlorophyll occur
among plants and other photosynthetic organisms. All photosynthetic organisms
have chlorophyll a. Accessory pigments absorb energy that chlorophyll a does not
absorb. Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b (also c, d, and e in algae and
protistans), xanthophylls, and carotenoids (such as beta-carotene). Chlorophyll a
absorbs its energy from the violet-blue and reddish orange-red wavelengths, and
little from the intermediate (green-yellow-orange) wavelengths .All chlorophylls
have:

 a lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail (C20H39 -)

 a flat hydrophilic head with a magnesium ion at its Centre; different
chlorophylls have different side-groups on the head

The tail and head are linked by an ester bond.

Different kinds of light-harvesting pigments absorb unique patterns of wavelengths (colors) of visible light. Pigments reflect or
transmit the wavelengths they cannot absorb, making them appear the corresponding color. Examples of photosynthetic pigments
(molecules used to absorb solar energy) are bacteriochlorophylls (green, purple, or red), carotenoids (orange, red, or
yellow), chlorophylls (green), phycocyanins (blue), and phycoerythrins (red). By having mixtures of pigments, an organism can
absorb energy from more wavelengths. Because photosynthetic bacteria commonly grow in competition for sunlight, each type of
photosynthetic bacteria is optimized for harvesting the wavelengths of light to which it is commonly exposed, leading to
stratification of microbial communities in aquatic and soil ecosystems by light quality and penetration.
STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
When chlorophyll a absorbs light energy, an electron gains energy and is 'excited'. The excited electron is transferred to another
molecule (called a primary electron acceptor). The chlorophyll molecule is oxidized (loss of electron) and has a positive charge.
Photoactivation of chlorophyll a results in the splitting of water molecules and the transfer of energy to ATP and reduced
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
The chemical reactions involved include:
 condensation reactions - responsible for water molecules splitting out, including phosphorylation (the addition of a
phosphate group to an organic compound)
 oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions involving electron transfer
Photosynthesis is a two stage process.
The Light dependent reactions, a light-dependent series of reactions which occur in the grana, and require the direct energy of
light to make energy-carrier molecules that are used in the second process:
 light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to make ATP (photophosphorylation)
 at the same time water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions and free electrons:
2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4e- (photolysis)
 the electrons then react with a carrier molecule nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), changing it from
its oxidized state (NADP+) to its reduced state (NADPH):
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NADP+ + 2e- + 2H+ NADPH + H+

The light-independent reactions, a light-independent series of reactions which occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts, when the
products of the light reaction, ATP and NADPH, are used to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (reduction); initially
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (a 3-carbon atom molecule) is formed.

THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS

When light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecule its electrons gain energy and move to higher energy levels in the molecule
(photo excitation). Sufficient energy ionizes the molecule, with the electron being 'freed' leaving a positively charged chlorophyll
ion. This is called photoionization.
In whole chloroplasts each chlorophyll molecule is associated with an electron acceptor and an electron donor. These three
molecules make up the core of a photosystem. Two electrons from a photoionized chlorophyll molecule are transferred to the
electron acceptor. The positively charged chlorophyll ion then takes a pair of electrons from a neighboring electron donor such as
water.
The effect of light on chlorophyll
An electron transfer system (a series of chemical reactions) carries the two electrons to and fro across the thylakoid membrane.
The energy to drive these processes comes from two photosystems:
 Photosystem II (PSII) (P680)
 Photosystem I (PSI) (P700)

A Photosystem is the arrangement of proteins in a plant that allows it to produce energy using chlorophyll and other
proteins. Photosystem 1 and Photosystem 2 are different complexes designed to absorb different wavelengths of light.
The Two Photosystems
Each photosystem, Photosystem 1 and Photosystem 2, is used depending on the light that is being converted to energy for
the plant. Photosystem 1 converts light around the 700 nanometers wavelength, while Photosystem 2 converts light around
the 680 nanometers wavelength. Most plants have both photosystems in their thylakoid membranes, but bacteria that don't
produce oxygen may only contain Photosystem 1.
The Photosystem Components
Chlorophyll turns light energy into chemical energy, but chlorophyll doesn't do it all by itself. The Photosystem captures
light with antennae pigments such as carotene, xanthophyll, Phaeophytin a, Phaeophytin b, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b,
which funnels it light and gradually concentrates it down to a "reaction center." By the time the energy reaches the action
center, it's very concentrated and needs somewhere to dump all the energy it has captured. The reaction center transfers the
extra energy to enzymes, which further carry out work in the plant cell.
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t may seem confusing, but PSII occurs before PSI. It is named because it was the second to be discovered and hence named
second.
The energy changes accompanying the two sets of changes make a Z shape when drawn out. This is why the electron transfer
process is sometimes called the Z scheme. Key to the scheme is that sufficient energy is released during electron transfer to enable
ATP to be made from ADP and phosphate.
Synthesis of ATP from ADP
A condensation reaction has led to phosphorylation.
Non-cyclic phosphorylation (the Z scheme)
Both adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and NADPH are produced.
In the first photosystem (Photosystem II, PSII):
 photoionization of chlorophyll transfers excited electrons to an electron acceptor
 photolysis of water (an electron donor) produces oxygen molecules, hydrogen ions and electrons, and the latter are
transferred to the positively-charged chlorophyll
 the electron acceptor passes the electrons to the electron transport chain; the final acceptor is photosystem PSI
further absorbed light energy increases the energy of the electrons, sufficient for the reduction of NADP + to NADPH
PSII and PSI: the Z scheme

Chemiosmosis As It Operates In Photophosphorylation Within A chloroplast

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CYCLIC PHOSPHORYLATION
The net effect of non-cyclic phosphorylation is to pass electrons from water to NADP. Energy released enables the production of
ATP. But much more ATP is needed to drive the light-independent reactions.
This extra energy is obtained from cyclic phosphorylation. This involves only Photosystem I which generates excited electrons.
These are transferred to the electron transport chain between PSII and PSI, rather than to NADP + and so no NADPH is formed.
The cycle is completed by electrons being transported back to PSI by the electron transport system.

THE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

In the Light-Independent Process (the Dark reaction) carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or water for aquatic/marine organisms)
is captured and modified by the addition of hydrogen to form carbohydrates. The incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic
compounds is known as carbon fixation. The energy for this comes from the first phase of the photosynthetic process. Living
systems cannot directly utilize light energy, but can, through a complicated series of reactions, convert it into C-C bond energy
that can be released by glycolysis and other metabolic processes.
Carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP). A six-carbon sugar forms but is unstable.
Each molecule breaks down to form two glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules.
These glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules are phosphorylated by ATP into glycerate Bisphosphate molecules.
These are reduced by NADPH to two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GALP).
Of each pair of GALP molecules produced:
 one molecule is the initial end product of photosynthesis; it is quickly converted to glucose and other carbohydrates,
lipids or amino acids
 one molecule forms RuBP through a series of chemical reactions

The first steps in the Calvin cycle

The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3-C chemical. The energy from ATP and NADPH
energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to phosphorylate the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of
glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known as phosphoglyceraldehyde or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to
make a glucose. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP energy to reform six RuBP molecules, and thus start the
cycle again.

SUMMARIZED EVENTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages:
In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by pigment molecules in photosynthetic membranes and
converted into stored chemical energy. In the light-independent reactions, the chemical energy produced by the light-dependent
reactions is used to drive the assembly of sugar molecules using CO 2; however, these reactions are still light dependent because
the products of the light-dependent reactions necessary for driving them are short-lived. The light-dependent reactions produce
ATP and either NADPH or NADH to temporarily store energy. These energy carriers are used in the light-independent reactions
to drive the energetically unfavorable process of “fixing” inorganic CO2 in an organic form, sugar.
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Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

The main factors are light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature, known as limiting factors.
As light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent reaction, and therefore photosynthesis generally, increases
proportionately. As light intensity is increased however, the rate of photosynthesis is eventually limited by some other factor.
Chlorophyll a is used in both photosystems. The wavelength of light is also important. PSI absorbs energy most efficiently at 700
nm and PSII at 680 nm. Light with a high proportion of energy concentrated in these wavelengths will produce a high rate of
photosynthesis.
An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into carbohydrate in the light-
independent reaction and so the rate of photosynthesis generally increases until limited by another factor.
Photosynthesis is dependent on temperature. It is a reaction catalyzed by enzymes. As the enzymes approach their optimum
temperatures the overall rate increases. Above the optimum temperature the rate begins to decrease until it stops.

PHOTORESPIRATION
This wasteful metabolic pathway begins when RuBisCO, the carbon-fixing enzyme of the Calvin cycle, grabs O2 rather than CO2
It uses up fixed carbon, wastes energy, and tends to happens when plants close their stomata (leaf pores) to reduce water loss.
High temperatures make it even worse.
Some plants, unlike wheat and soybean, can escape the worst effects of photorespiration. TheC4 and CAM pathways are two
adaptations—beneficial features arising by natural selection—that allow certain species to minimize photorespiration. These
pathways work by ensuring that RuBisCO always encounters high concentrations of CO2 making it unlikely to bind to O2
Photorespiration is a wasteful pathway that occurs when the Calvin cycle enzyme RuBisCO acts on oxygen rather than carbon
dioxide.
The majority of plants are C3plants, which have no special features to combat photorespiration.
C4plants minimize photorespiration by separating initial CO2fixation and the Calvin cycle in space, performing these steps in
different cell types.
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants minimize photorespiration and save water by separating these steps in time
between day and night.

C3 PLANTS
C3 PLANTS
The C3 pathway gets its name from the first molecule produced in the cycle (a 3-carbon molecule) called 3-phosphoglyceric acid.
About 85% of the plants on Earth use the C3 pathway to fix carbon via the Calvin Cycle.
During the one-step process, the enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) causes an oxidation reaction in
which some of the energy used in photosynthesis is lost in a process known as photorespiration.
The result is about a 25% reduction in the amount of carbon that is fixed by the plant and released back into the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide.
The carbon fixation pathways used by C4 and CAM plants have added steps to help concentrate and reduce the loss of carbon
during the process.
Some common C3 plant species are spinach, peanuts, cotton, wheat, rice, barley and most trees and grasses.
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C4 PLANTS
The C4 process is also known as the Hatch-Slack pathway and is named for the 4-carbon intermediate molecules that are
produced, malic acid or aspartic acid.
It wasn’t until the 1960s that scientists discovered the C4 pathway while studying sugar cane.
In C4plants, the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle are physically separated, with the light-dependent reactions
occurring in the mesophyll cells (spongy tissue in the middle of the leaf) and the Calvin cycle occurring in special cells around the
leaf veins. These cells are called bundle-sheath cells.
C4 has one step in the pathway before the Calvin Cycle which reduces the amount of carbon that is lost in the overall process.
First, atmospheric CO2 is fixed in the mesophyll cells to form a simple, 4-carbon organic acid (oxaloacetate). This step is carried
out by a non-RuBisCO enzyme, PEP carboxylase, that has no tendency to bind O2
Oxaloacetate is then converted to a similar molecule, malate, that can be transported in to the bundle-sheath cells
The carbon dioxide that is taken in by the plant is moved to bundle sheath cells by the malic acid or aspartic acid molecules (at
this point the molecules are called malate and aspartate).
The oxygen content inside bundle sheath cells is very low, so the RuBisCO enzymes are less likely to catalyze oxidation reactions
and waste carbon molecules.
The malate and aspartate molecules release the carbon dioxide in the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells and the Calvin Cycle
begins.
Bundle sheath cells are part of the Kranz leaf anatomy that is characteristic of C4 plants.
About 3% or 7,600 species of plants use the C4 pathway, about 85% of which are angiosperms (flowering plants).
C4 plants include corn, sugar cane, millet, sorghum, pineapple, daisies and cabbage.
In C4 plants, PEP Carboxylase quickly brings in CO2 without needing to keep stomata open consistently like in C3 plants. The
enzyme allows CO2 to be directly delivered to RuBisCO, but it has a large ATP requirement.
C4 plants are common among monocots, such as grass and sedges, so they are easy to be planted.
The word Kranz means “wreath” or “ring”. Kranz anatomy is a specialized structure in C 4 plants where the mesophyll cells
are clustered around the bundle-sheath cells in a ring-like fashion. The number of chloroplasts in the bundle-sheath cells is
more than that in the mesophyll cells. This is found in C 4 grasses such as maize and a few dicots. The Kranz anatomy is
developed in three different steps:
 Initiation of procambium
 Bundle sheath and mesophyll cells specification
 Chloroplast development and integration of the C4 cycle

C4 PLANTS CAM PLANTS

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CAM PLANTS
The word crassulacean comes from the Latin word Crassus which means “thick. “Plants that use crassulacean acid metabolism,
also known as CAM plants, are succulents that are efficient at storing water due to the dry and arid climates they live in. CAM
plants keep their stoma close during the day to prevent water loss. Instead, the stoma are opened at night to take in carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is converted to a molecule called malate which is stored until the daylight returns and
photosynthesis begins via the Calvin Cycle.
There are over 16,000 species of CAM plants on Earth including cacti, sedum, jade, orchids and agave. Succulent plants like cacti
have leaves that are thick and full of moisture and can also have a waxy coating to reduce evaporation.
COMPARISON CHART
Plant Characteristic C3 Pathway C4 Pathway CAM Pathway
Very Low /
Photorespiration Rate High Low / Negligible
Negligible
Leaf Anatomy Typical Kranz Xeromorphic
Tropical, elevated daytime temperatures,
Typical Environments All Dry, arid
drought
Stoma Open During the Day? Yes Yes No
Number of Steps in Pathway 1 2 2
First Molecule Produced in 3-phophoglyceric
Malic acid or aspartic acid Malate
Pathway acid
Yes
Uses the Calvin Cycle? Yes Yes
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NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN PLANTS

Plants are unique organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their root system, as well as carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Soil quality and climate are the major determinants of plant distribution and growth. The combination of soil
nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide, along with sunlight, allows plants to grow. In order to develop into mature, fruit -bearing
plants, many requirements must be met and events must be coordinated.
Nutrients
Plant cells need essential substances, collectively called nutrients, to sustain life. Plant nutrients may be composed of either
organic or inorganic compounds. An organic compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon, such as carbon dioxide
obtained from the atmosphere. Carbon that was obtained from atmospheric CO2 composes the majority of the dry mass within
most plants. An inorganic compound does not contain carbon and is not part of, or produced by, a living organism. Inorganic
substances (which form the majority of the soil substance) are commonly called minerals: those required by plants include
nitrogen (N) and potassium (K), for structure and regulation.
Essential Nutrients for Plants
Approximately 20 macronutrients and micronutrients are deemed essential nutrients to support all the biochemical needs of plants.
Essential Nutrients
Plants require only light, water, and about 20 elements to support all their biochemical needs. These 20 elements are called
essential nutrients. For an element to be regarded as essential, three criteria are required:
a plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element
no other element can perform the function of the element
the element is directly involved in plant nutrition
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
The essential elements can be divided into macronutrients and
micronutrients. Nutrients that plants require in larger amounts
are called macronutrients. About half of the essential elements
are considered macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and
sulfur. The first of these macronutrients, carbon (C), is required
to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other
compounds; it is, therefore, present in all macromolecules. On
average, the dry weight (excluding water) of a cell is 50
percent carbon, making it a key part of plant biomolecules.

Macronutrients
Nitrogen is a major component of proteins, hormones, chlorophyll, vitamins and enzymes essential for plant life. Nitrogen
metabolism is a major factor in stem and leaf growth (vegetative growth). Too much can delay flowering and fruiting.
Deficiencies can reduce yields, cause yellowing of the leaves and stunt growth.
Phosphorus is necessary for seed germination, photosynthesis, protein formation and almost all aspects of growth and metabolism
in plants. It is essential for flower and fruit formation. Low pH (<4) results in phosphate being chemically locked up in organic
soils. Deficiency symptoms are purple stems and leaves; maturity and growth are retarded. Yields of fruit and flowers are poor.
Premature drop of fruits and flowers may often occur. Phosphorus must be applied close to the plant's roots in order for the plant
to utilize it. Large applications of phosphorus without adequate levels of zinc can cause a zinc deficiency.
Potassium is necessary for formation of sugars, starches, carbohydrates, protein synthesis and cell division in roots and other parts
of the plant. It helps to adjust water balance, improves stem rigidity and cold hardiness, enhances flavor and color on fruit and
vegetable crops, increases the oil content of fruits and is important for leafy crops. Deficiencies result in low yields, mottled,
spotted or curled leaves, scorched or burned look to leaves.
Sulfur is a structural component of amino acids, proteins, vitamins and enzymes and is essential to produce chlorophyll. It imparts
flavor to many vegetables. Deficiencies show as light green leaves. Sulfur is readily lost by leaching from soils and should be
applied with a nutrient formula. Some water supplies may contain Sulfur.
Magnesium is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll molecule and is necessary for functioning of plant enzymes to
produce carbohydrates, sugars and fats. It is used for fruit and nut formation and essential for germination of seeds. Deficient
plants appear chlorotic, show yellowing between veins of older leaves; leaves may droop. Magnesium is leached by watering and
must be supplied when feeding. It can be applied as a foliar spray to correct deficiencies.
Calcium activates enzymes, is a structural component of cell walls, influences water movement in cells and is necessary for cell
growth and division. Some plants must have calcium to take up nitrogen and other minerals. Calcium is easily leached. Calcium,
once deposited in plant tissue, is immobile (non-translocatable) so there must be a constant supply for growth. Deficiency causes
stunting of new growth in stems, flowers and roots. Symptoms range from distorted new growth to black spots on leaves and fruit.
Yellow leaf margins may also appear.
Micronutrients
Iron is necessary for many enzyme functions and as a catalyst for the synthesis of chlorophyll.
It is essential for the young growing parts of plants.
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Deficiencies are pale leaf color of young leaves followed by yellowing of leaves and large veins.
Iron is lost by leaching and is held in the lower portions of the soil structure.
Under conditions of high pH (alkaline) iron is rendered unavailable to plants.
When soils are alkaline, iron may be abundant but unavailable.
Applications of an acid nutrient formula containing iron chelates, held in soluble form, should correct the problem.

Manganese is involved in enzyme activity for photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen metabolism. Deficiency in young leaves
may show a network of green veins on a light green background similar to an iron deficiency.
In the advanced stages the light green parts become white, and leaves are shed.
Brownish, black, or grayish spots may appear next to the veins.
In neutral or alkaline soils plants often show deficiency symptoms.
In highly acid soils, manganese may be available to the extent that it results in toxicity.
Boron is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, and calcium uptake and may aid in the translocation of sugars.
Boron affects at least 16 functions in plants.
These functions include flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell division, water relationships and the movement of hormones.
Boron must be available throughout the life of the plant.
It is not translocated and is easily leached from soils.
Deficiencies kill terminal buds leaving a rosette effect on the plant.
Leaves are thick, curled and brittle.
Fruits, tubers and roots are discolored, cracked and flecked with brown spots.
Zinc is a component of enzymes or a functional cofactor of a large number of enzymes including auxins (plant growth hormones).
It is essential to carbohydrate metabolism; protein synthesis and internodal elongation (stem growth). Deficient plants have
mottled leaves with irregular chlorotic areas. Zinc deficiency leads to iron deficiency causing similar symptoms. Deficiency
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occurs on eroded soils and is least available at a pH range of 5.5 - 7.0. Lowering the pH can render zinc more available to the
point of toxicity.
Copper is concentrated in roots of plants and plays a part in nitrogen metabolism.
It is a component of several enzymes and may be part of the enzyme systems that use carbohydrates and proteins.
Deficiencies cause die back of the shoot tips, and terminal leaves develop brown spots.
Copper is bound tightly in organic matter and may be deficient in highly organic soils.
It is not readily lost from soil but may often be unavailable.
Too much copper can cause toxicity.
Molybdenum is a structural component of the enzyme that reduces nitrates to ammonia.
Without it, the synthesis of proteins is blocked and plant growth ceases.
Root nodule (nitrogen fixing) bacteria also require it.
Seeds may not form completely, and nitrogen deficiency may occur if plants are lacking molybdenum. Deficiency signs are pale
green leaves with rolled or cupped margins.
Chlorine is involved in osmosis (movement of water or solutes in cells), the
ionic balance necessary for plants to take up mineral elements and in photosynthesis.
Odors in some plants may be decreased.
Chloride, the ionic form of chlorine used by plants, is usually found in soluble forms and is lost by leaching.
Some plants may show signs of toxicity if levels are too high.
Deficiency symptoms include wilting, stubby roots, chlorosis (yellowing) and bronzing.
Nickel is required for the enzyme urease to break down urea to liberate the nitrogen into a usable form for plants.
Nickel is required for iron absorption. Seeds need nickel in order to germinate.
Plants grown without additional nickel will gradually reach a deficient level at about the time they mature and begin reproductive
growth.
If nickel is deficient plants may fail to produce viable seeds.
Sodium is involved in osmotic (water movement) and ionic balance in plants.
Cobalt is required for nitrogen fixation in legumes and in root nodules of nonlegumes.
The demand for cobalt is much higher for nitrogen fixation than for ammonium nutrition.
Deficient levels could result in nitrogen deficiency symptoms.

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Plants which are not capable of manufacturing their own organic molecules entirely or partially depend for these organic
molecular are called “HETEROTROPHIC PLANTS”
Other modes of nutrition in plants
 Some plants do not have chlorophyll and cannot synthesize their own food and are known as Heterotrophic plants
 This type of nutrition can be categorized into
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1. parasitic mode of nutrition

2. Insectivorous mode
3. saprophytic mode of nutrition
4. Symbiotic mode of nutrition
PARASITES
Those heterotrophic plants which depend on living plants and animals for their nutritional requirements are known as
PARASITES.”
 In parasitic mode of nutrition, plants depend on other plants or animals for their nourishment.
 Such dependent plants are called as parasites and the ones on which parasites depend are called as hosts.
 A parasite plant climbs on the host plant from which they get all the food.
 The host does not get any benefit from the parasite.
 Some examples of parasites are Cuscuta (akash-bel), Cassytha (amar-bel) etc.

TYPES OF PARASITES
Parasitic plants can be divided into following types.
A. Obligate or total parasites.
Those parasites which depend for their nutrition entirely on other living organisms
B. Facultative or partial parasites.
Those parasite plants which depend for their nutritional requirements partially on other living organisms are called Falcultave or
partial parasites.”

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
The more than 600 known species of carnivorous plants constitute a very diverse group, in some cases having little more in
common than their carnivorous habit. The conspicuous trapping mechanism, which is always a modified leaf, draws special
attention to these plants. These types of plants are green and carry out photosynthesis to obtain a part of food.

Using enzymes or bacteria, carnivorous plants digest their prey through a process of chemical breakdown analogous to digestion
in animals. The end products, particularly nitrogenous compounds and salts, are absorbed by the plants to enable their survival
under otherwise marginal or hostile environmental conditions. Most carnivorous species are green plants that manufacture food by
photosynthesis from the raw materials of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide in the presence of chlorophyll. The carnivorous habit
augments the diet derived from the poor soil of their environment.
• Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic plants are carnivorous, which possess the green pigments and can
manufacture CHO but are not capable of synthesizing nitrogenous compounds and proteins.
• For their nitrogen requirement, carnivorous plants have to depend on insects, which they catch and digest by specific
devices developed in them.
These plants commonly grow in areas where nitrogen is deficient due to unfavorable atmosphere for nitrifying bacteria but
favorable atmosphere for denitrifying bacteria.
• The insectivorous mode of nutrition is observed in plants like pitcher plant and the Venus fly trap.
• These types of plants purely depend on other insects and small animals for their nutrition.
• Pitcher plants trap small insects inside the pitcher and insects are digested by the digestive juices secreted in the pitcher.
• Insectivorous plants grow in those soils which do not contain sufficient nitrogen mineral.
SOME COMMON EXAMPLES
Nepenthes
Sarracenia
Cephalotus
Neliamphora
Darling tonia
Trapping mechanisms
A variety of trapping mechanisms exist and are designated as active or passive based on whether they move to capture prey. Five
basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants.
1. Pitfall traps, such as those found in pitcher plants, are among the most common types of traps and employ a hollow, lidded leaf
filled with liquid to passively collect and digest prey.
2. Flypaper traps can be active or passive and rely on sticky mucilage, either directly on the leaf surface (butterworts) or on
gland-tipped hairs (sundews), to capture prey.
3. Snap traps, such as those of the Venus flytrap (Dionea muscipula), use rapid leaf movements to actively ensnare insects.
4. Bladder traps are only found in bladderwort plants (genus Utricularia) and actively suck in small organisms using a partial
vacuum.
5. Lobster-pot traps, found predominantly in corkscrew plants (genus Genlisea), employ downward-pointing hairs to force prey
deeper into the trap.
• These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey. For example,
Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture.
Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, which is an expansion of individual cells
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as opposed to cell division. The rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of
prey.
NEPENTHES (ne = not, penthos = grief and, in Greek mythology, is a drug that quells all sorrows with forgetfulness.)
The trap is pitfall type and contains a fluid of the plant's own production, which may be watery or syrupy, and is used to drown the
prey. The viscoelastic fluid in pitchers is especially effective in the retention of winged insects. The lower part of the trap contains
glands which absorb nutrients from captured prey. Along the upper inside part of the trap is a slick, waxy coating which makes the
escape of its prey nearly impossible. Surrounding the entrance to the trap is a structure called the peristome (the "lip"), which is
slippery and often quite colorful, attracting prey, but offering an unsure footing. The prey-capture effectiveness of the peristome is
further enhanced in moist environments, where condensation may cause a thin water film to form on the surface of the peristome.
To keep the plant steady, the upper pitchers often form a loop in the tendril, allowing it to wrap around nearby support.

SUNDEWS are widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions, especially in Australia, and are common in bogs and fens
with sandy acidic soil. The leaves are usually arranged in a rosette and are less than 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter. The upper surface
is covered with flexible, gland-tipped trichomes (plant hairs) that exude a sticky substance to attract and entrap insects and other
small prey. Trapped prey are engulfed in a web of the sticky glands, colloquially known as tentacles, and digested by enzymes.
Following digestion, the leaf unfurls to reset the trap. Carnivory does not provide sundews with energy but rather supplies
nutrients, particularly nitrogen, in poor soil conditions.
VENUS FLYTRAPS
The only member of its genus, the plant is native to a small region of North and South Carolina, where it is common in damp
mossy areas. As photosynthetic plants, Venus flytraps do not rely on Carnivory for energy but rather use the nitrogen-rich animal
proteins to enable their survival in marginal soil conditions. The leaves are 8–15 cm (3–6 inches) long and have blades that are
hinged along the midline so that the two nearly circular lobes, with spiny teeth along their margins, can fold together and enclose
an insect alighting on them. This action is triggered by pressure on six sensitive hairs, three on each lobe. In normal daytime
temperatures the lobes, when stimulated by prey, snap shut in about half a second. Glands on the leaf surface then secrete a red
sap that digests the insect’s body and gives the entire leaf a red, flowerlike appearance. About 10 days are required for digestion,
after which the leaf reopens. The trap dies after capturing three or four insects.

Bladder wort

Bladderwort, (genus Utricularia), genus of carnivorous plants contains 220 widely distributed species of plants characterized by
small hollow sacs that actively capture and digest tiny animals such as insect larvae, aquatic worms, and water fleas. Bladderworts
can be found in lakes, streams, and waterlogged soils around the world and several are invasive species that have spread to novel
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habitats.
Bladderwort plants lack roots and usually have a horizontal floating stem bearing simple or divided leaves. Small carnivorous
bladders are produced along the stem and can range from dark to transparent in color. The flowers are bisexual and bilaterally
symmetrical (two-lipped), with two sepals, five fused petals, two stamens, and a superior ovary (i.e., positioned above the
attachment point of the other flower parts) composed of two ovule-bearing segments (carpels). Each plant produces many seeds at
maturity.
The tropical plant Genlisea commonly known as corkscrew plant is a tiny,
homely rosette of simple green leaves. It lives in white sand and among damp
rock outcrops in South America and tropical Africa. But it doesn't look like a
stereotypical "carnivorous plant", nor does it capture insects.
Genlisea's "roots" are, in fact, highly modified leaves that lack chlorophyll or
virtually any other clue that they were once leaves. The plant also lacks any true
roots. Instead, these leaves perform the duty. They don't do this by sucking
nutrients from the soil with the help of fungi like other upstanding plants. They
do it by luring, trapping, and killing prey in traps along the special leaves.
Each modified leaf is solid on the end near the plant, but as it descends into the
soil, it hollows out and then forks at a Y junction. The spiraling forks are just
200 micrometers wide inside, and they are covered by a series of traps. But
whatever it is these traps have evolved to capture must be vanishingly small. The
openings are slits a mere 400 micrometers wide by 180 micrometers long. At the
opening of the traps are rows of hairs pointing toward the inside of the plant, as
if to prevent the escape of anything so unfortunate as to find itself inside. There
are also numerous glands.
Darwin studied many plants that grow in nutrient-poor substrates, like bogs – the Venus-fly-trap, pitcher plants, bladderworts,
and sundews, to name a few. They have evolved specialized leaves with the power of movement that capture insects and secrete
enzymes to digest animal protein.

SAPROTROPHS
 Mode of nutrition in which organisms or plants that obtain their nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter is called
Saprophytic mode
 The plants which exhibit saprotrophic mode of nutrition are called as saprotrophs
 Saprotrophs secrete digestive juices onto dead and decaying matter to dissolve it and then absorb nutrients from it.
 Examples of saprotrophs are moulds, mushrooms, yeasts and some bacteria.

SYMBIOTIC PLANTS
 In this mode of nutrition there is a close association between two different plants of different categories.
 In such type of association both the plants get benefited.
 For example certain fungi live in the roots of the trees. In this case tree provides nutrients to fungi and in return receives
help from it to take up water and nutrients from the soil.
CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS SOIL FERTILITY
 We know that plants continuously take nutrients from the soil in order to synthesize food. As a result of this amount of
nutrients in the soil decreases.
 Nutrients in the soil are replenished by adding fertilizers and manures.
 Fertilizers and manures contain plants nutrients and minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
 Another way to replenish soil is to grow leguminous crops (for example gram, peas, pulses etc.) in the soil.
 The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a soluble form.
 But Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it lives in the roots of gram, peas, moong, beans and other legumes and
provides them with nitrogen. In return plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria.
 Thus plants and bacteria have a symbiotic relationship here.
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
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SYMBIOTIC NUTRITION :
This is the mode of nutrition in which individuals of two (or more) different species share their shelter and nutrition. Depending
on the degree of benefit and harm, there are 5 types of symbiotic relationships.
Mutualism - both species benefit
Commensalism - one species benefits, the other is unaffected
Parasitism - one species benefits, the other is harmed
Competition - neither species benefits
Neutralism - both species are unaffected

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Animals have evolved different types of digestive systems to break down the different types of food they consume. Animals can
be classified as those that use intracellular digestion and those with extracellular digestion.
Intracellular Digestion
The simplest example of digestion intracellular digestion, which takes place in a gastrovascular cavity with only one opening.
Most animals with soft bodies use this type of digestion, including Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Ctenophora (comb jellies), and
Cnidaria (coral, jelly fish, and sea anemones). The gastrovascular cavities of these organisms contain one open which serves as
both a “mouth” and an “anus”.
Invertebrates with Extracellular Digestion: Invertebrates like grasshoppers have alimentary canals with specialized
compartments for digestion. Their food is broken down in their digestive tract (extracellular digestion), rather than inside their
individual cells (intracellular digestion).
Ingested material enters the mouth and passes through a hollow, tubular cavity. The food particles are engulfed by the cells lining
the gastrovascular cavity and the molecular are broken down within the cytoplasm of the cells (intracellular).
Extracellular Digestion
The alimentary canal is a more advanced digestive system than a gastrovascular cavity and carries out extracellular digestion.
Most other invertebrates like segmented worms (earthworms), arthropods (grasshoppers), and arachnids (spiders) have alimentary
canals. The alimentary canal is compartmentalized for different digestive functions and consists of one tube with a mouth at one
end and an anus at the other.
Once the food is ingested through the mouth, it passes through the esophagus and is stored in an organ called the crop; then it
passes into the gizzard where it is churned and digested. From the gizzard, the food passes through the intestine and nutrients are
absorbed. Because the food has been broken down exterior to the cells, this type of digestion is called extracellular digestion. The
material that the organism cannot digest is eliminated as feces, called castings, through the anus.
Most invertebrates use some form of extracellular digestion to break down their food. Flatworms and cnidarians, however, can use
both types of digestion to break down their food.
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HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR EATING HABITS:
Animals can be classified on the basis of their eating habits as follows:
 Herbivorous animals.
 Carnivorous animals.
 Omnivorous animals.
 Parasites
 Scavengers

ALIMENTARY CANAL OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS

Most of the animals swallow the food whole. This means that their alimentary canal must have structures for softening and
breaking up the food into smaller pieces so that efficient chemical digestion will take place.
Incomplete or sac like digestive tract has only one opening to the outside to the outside world called mouth which serves for
ingestion and egestion. Coelenterates (e.g. hydra) and flatworms (e.g. Panaria) are examples of animals with incomplete digestive
tracts.
Complete or tube like digestive tract has two openings to the outside world called mouth and anus. The mouth serves for ingestion
while the anus is for egestion. Earthworm, bird and goat are examples of animals with complete digestive tracts.
The advantage of a complete digestive tract over incomplete is that incoming food does not mix with outgoing undigested food
materials. In complete digestive tract, different portions of the tract become specialized to perform different functions. For
example, in mammals, the teeth break down large food particles,

DIGESTION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba has both intracellular and extracellular digestion and it feeds on many kind of tiny organisms which live within the fresh
water bodies
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amoeba also feed particular organic matter

food may be ingested at any point on the surface of the body
when the amoeba comes in contact with the food particles it immediately put out pseudopodia that is cytoplasmic projection
around it
the pseudopodia fuse together around the food particle forming a food vacuole
if the food particle is very big that the amoeba encircles it thus forming a large food vacuole
the food vacuole undergo many changes as the digestion proceeds
first it grows smaller than larger and small again lysosomes that contains hydrolytic enzymes fuses with the food vacuole and
enzymes are secreted into it
*the first phase of digestion is killing and softening of food that takes place in the acidic medium approx. pH 5.6 and later its pH
becomes 7.3 during which the digestion is completed
when the digestion is completed the food vacuole membrane is drawn in to numerous fine canals
the products of digestion are passed into the canals and finally in the surrounding cytoplasm
after the use of food the waste material is thrown out from at any point from the body

Sponges are sessile so they cannot pursue their food. Their bodies are covered with pores and canals through which water passes.
The water moves in and out by the beating of flagella which are parts of choanocytes or collar cells. Cells in the sponges wall
capture food that is brought in by the movement of the collar cells. The food is taken in by the process of phagocytosis and each
individual cell digests the food. Phagocytosis is the process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other
cells or particles. Finally, a sponge relies on water flow to enter and leave its orifice. This is how it removes waste , the pressure of
the water current takes away the waste.

DIGESTION IN HYDRA
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introduction
hydra is a aquatic diploblastic coelenterate
digestion
*it has a vase like body composed up of two principal layers of cells
*some of the digestion in hydra is extracellular but most of the digestion is
intracellular
*the animal has a single opening to the outside known as them mouth which is
surrounded by mobile tentacles the digestive cavity of hydra is also known as the
coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity
*its digestive system is called as sac like having a single opening for ingestion and
for egestion
*numerous stinging cells known as the nematocysts are present on the tentacles
each nematocysts hollow thread coiled with in a capsule and a tiny hair like trigger
projecting outside
mechanism of digestion
ingestion
such that when a prey comes in contact with the trigger the hollow thread of the
nematocyst turns inside out eject a poison and then the prey is paralyzed

Or sometimes killed
hydra then grasps its prey with its tentacles and pushes it into the digestive cavity through the open mouth
digestion
the glandular cells in the gastrodermis secrets enzymes which start extracellular digestion
gastrodermal flagellated cells and contraction of body helps in mixing of food with the enzymes and breaking it into fine food
particles
these fine particles are then engulfed by phagocytic action of gastrodermal cells where digestion is completed intracellularly in the
digestive vacuoles
absorption and assimilation
digested food is adsorbed and utilized in the cells ectodermal cells depends on endodermal cells for their food
egestion
indigestible food is expelled out from the gastrovascular cavity through open mouth

ALIMENTARY CANAL OF PLANARIA

The planarian is a type of flatworm found on the bottom of freshwater lakes and streams and in certain moist land-habitats. They
have remarkable regenerative abilities: A planarian cut in half lengthwise will regenerate into two whole worms.
Planaria is a free living, flat, slender gastrovascular. and small worm. The digestive tract consists of a ventrally placed mouth,
muscular pharynx and intestine. The pharynx can be protruded from the mouth when attacking a prey. The pharynx leads into
the intestine. The intestine has three main branches, one anterior and two posterior, with each giving rise to extensive
lateral diverticular cavity. The cavity (anterior and posterior intestines) is lined with phagocytic cells, glandular storage cells
and gland cells.
Planarians are carnivorous in diet, feeding on small animals such as crustaceans, rotifers, nematodes and insects. They capture
their prey by entangling them in mucus glands. The entangled prey is then wrapped with the body of the planarian and the
pharynx is then protruded from the mouth and suck in the small bits of the prey into the intestine. Digestion is
mostly intracellular. that is, the phagocytic cells of gastrodermal cells engulf the food and digest it. The digested food is
distributed by diffusion to all parts of the body by gastrovascular cavity all over the body gives it a large absorptive surface area
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ALIMENTARY CANAL OF EARTHWORM

The earthworm shows the well-developed segmentation that is characteristic of all animals in the phylum
The alimentary canal of earthworm consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesephagus, crop, gizzard, intestine and anus.
Digestion here is mostly extracellular, that is digestion is outside the cells.
Mouth and Buccal cavity
The mouth is in the first segment and is overhung by a fleshy, lip-like structure called prostomium. The mouth leads into a buccal
cavity. Food is sucked into the mouth by the muscular pharynx. The prostomium helps by arranging the food substance in
position for ingestion.
pharynx
The muscular pharynx leads from the buccal cavity to the oesophagus . Glandular cells present, secrete mucus and protein
digesting enzyme into the pharyngeal cavity thus starting the digestion of protein.
Esophagus
The oesophagus is long and connects pharynx with the crop. It contains three pairs of calciferous glands which secrete calcium
tri-oxocarbon (IV) oxide that removes excess calcium taken in with food.
Crop
The crop connects oesophagus with the gizzard. It is relatively thin-walled and enlarged. It functions as a temporary storage
chamber.
Gizzard
The gizzard connects the crop with the intestine. The gizzard. is a large, thick -walled muscular chamber. Food is ground into
small particles by the churning action of the gizzard. Grinding is aided by small stones present in the gizzard.
Intestine
The intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal and terminates as an anus. Digestive enzymes (pepsin, amylase and lipase)
are secreted to digest various types of food. The blood circulating through the intestine absorbs the digested food and distributes it
to all parts of the body. The rear portion of the intestine absorbs some of the water involved in the digestion. The indigestible
materials are removed from the body through the anus as casts.
Advancements of alimentary canal of earthworm over that of planarian.
1. Oesophagus and crop for temporary storage of food are present in earthworm but absent in planaria.
2. A muscular thick-walled gizzard for grinding large particles to smaller bits is present in earthworm but absent in planaria.
3. Earthworm has a long and straight single intestine for efficient digestion and absorption of food while planaria has diffused
diverticular (intestinal branches).
4. Absorption of food by blood and not by diffusion as in planaria.
5. Earthworm has two openings, the mouth and anus while planaria has only one opening, the mouth.
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ALIMENTARY CANAL OF A COCKROACH

Cockroach is an omnivorous animal eating anything ranging from starchy and sweet things to papers, clothes etc. Its alimentary
canal is therefore adapted to suit its type of diet. The alimentary canal consists of foregut, midgut and hindgut.
Foregut
Foregut consists of mouth, esophagus, crop and gizzard.
Mouth
The mouth is modified for cutting and chewing. It consists of the following: labrum, hypopharynx, mandibles,
first maxillae, labium and second maxillae.
Labrum
Labrum is a flap-like structure regarded as the upper lip of the mouth. It is sensitive to various chemical substances and thus acts
as taste buds.
Hypopharynx
This is a membranous tongue-like structure located on the back of the mouth. It helps in swallowing of food.
Mandibles
Two mandibles, one on each side are the jaws of the mouth. They are heavily built and toothed for biting, cutting and chewing.
First maxillae
Under each mandible lies a first maxilla. Each maxilla is toothed and assists the mandible in cutting food. It also helps in directing
food into the mouth. The maxillary palp is sentitive to chemicals and touches and therefore helps in locating food substances.
Labium and second maxillae
Two maxillae are fused at the base to form the labium or lower lip. They also, assist in food cutting and direct the cut food into the
mouth.
Salivary glands
Salivary glands open into the mouth via salivary ducts. The salivary glands secrete digestive enzyme (amylase) which starts the
digestion of starchy food.
Oesophagus
The oesophagus is short, narrow and tubular and connects the mouth with the thin-walled crop. The oesophagus functions as a
passage through which food passes from the mouth to the stomach.
Crop
The crop is thin-walled and large. It acts as a temporary storage chamber and most digestion occurs here. (Note cockroach has no
stomach).
Gizzard(proventriculus)
The gizzard is a highly muscular bag where hard food substances are ground into smaller particles before digestion.
Midgut
The midgut consists of six mesenteric (hepatic or digestive) caeca. The caeca open into the midgut and secrete digestive juice
which contains the three kinds of enzymes that complete the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Digestion and
absorption take place in the midgut.
Hindgut
The hindgut consists of small intestine, rectum and anus. Between the midgut and hindgut are many fine structures
called Malpighian tubules . They excrete nitrogenous wastes. The rectum absorbs water from the faeces and let the dry faeces
pass out through the anus.
Alimentary canal of birds
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ANIMAL NUTRITION
Holozoic nutrition: This mode of nutrition involves the ingestion of liquid or solid organic material. The main steps in holozoic
nutrition process include ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and finally ejection. These holozoic animals can be divided
in to the three major categories depending on the relative size of the food they intake and their feeding mechanisms, namely
1. Microphagous feeders, (Food in form of small particles, animals are mostly aquatic, sessile and suspension feeders use
cilia to extract food from water, EX: sponges, amphioxus )
2. Fluid feeder (feed on liquid food as parasite or saprotrophs, EX: mosquito, leech)
3. Macrophagous feeders (Take food in bulk through mouth,EX: man, tiger, goat)
4. Substrate feeders (Feed upon substrate they live upon, also called deposit feeder, EX: termite, earthworm)

HUMAN GASTRO INTESTINAL TRACT

The human alimentary canal or digestive tract can be divided into 6
parts moving down.

First, the buccal cavity is present in the mouth area, where food is
chewed with the help of teeth. Tongue mixes the saliva with food for
the breakdown of food. Then it passes through the food pipe where
the food is pushed down into the stomach by the movement of food
pipe.

When it reaches the stomach it is mixed with the gastric juice

secreted by the wall of stomach for the further breakdown of food.
At this stage food is transformed to a semi-solid form.

It is then moved to the small intestine. Here food nutrients are

absorbed by the villi, outgrowths of the small intestine and then
transferred to the entire body through blood vessels.

The remaining waste product is then transferred to the large intestine

where excess water and salt is absorbed from the waste product. In
the end, the final waste is ejected out through the anus. The above
parts and process constitute the human digestive system.
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HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The process of digestion is a fascinating and complex one that takes the food we place in our mouth and turns it into energy and
waste products. This process takes place in the gastrointestinal tract, a long, connected, tubular structure that starts with the mouth
and ends with the anus. The food is propelled forward within the system, altered by enzymes and hormones into usable particles
and absorbed along the way. Other organs that support the digestive process are the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The time it
takes for food to travel from entering the mouth to be excreted as waste is around 30 to 40 hours.
Human Digestive system includes Gastrointestinal Tract and other accessory parts like the liver, glands, , stomach, gallbladder. There are
6 main functions of the Human Digestive System Process: Ingestion, Motility, Secretion, Digestion, Absorption, and Excretion. The
food that you eat gives you not only the required energy and nutrients to the body but also is used for cell growth and repair.
The mouth
The mouth is the entry point for food, but the digestive system often gets ready before the first piece of food even enters our
mouth. The anterior opening of the alimentary canal is the mouth. It leads to a buccal cavity or oral cavity, where teeth tongue and
salivary glands are present. Here, ingestion, mastication, and swallowing of food occur.
In humans, there are a total of 32 permanent teeth. There are four different types of teeth, namely, incisors, canines, premolars, and
molars. These help in the chewing of food.
The tongue is a muscular organ in the
mouth. The tongue is covered with
moist, pink tissue called mucosa. Tiny
bumps called papillae give the tongue
its rough texture. Thousands of taste
buds cover the surfaces of the papillae.
Taste buds are collections of nerve-
like cells that connect to nerves
running into the brain.
The tongue is anchored to the mouth
by webs of tough tissue and mucosa.
The tether holding down the front of
the tongue is called the frenum. In the
back of the mouth, the tongue is
anchored into the hyoid bone. The
tongue is vital for chewing and
swallowing food, as well as for
speech.

The four common tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. A fifth taste, called umami, results from tasting glutamate (present in
MSG). The tongue has many nerves that help detect and transmit taste signals to the brain. Because of this, all parts of the tongue
can detect these four common tastes; the commonly described “taste map” of the tongue doesn’t really exist.
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Salivary Glands
They are exocrine glands that produce saliva in the oral cavity. They secrete an enzyme called amylase, which helps in the breakdown
of starch into maltose. There are three types of salivary glands, namely:
 Parotid gland
 Submandibular gland
 Sublingual gland
Saliva is released by the salivary glands into our oral cavity when we smell food. Once the food enters the mouth, chewing
(mastication) breaks food into smaller particles that can be more easily attacked by the enzymes in saliva. Our teeth can perform a
cutting as well as grinding function to accomplish this task. The tongue assists in mixing the food with the saliva and then the
tongue and roof of the mouth (soft palate) help move the food in form of bolus along the pharynx and esophagus.
Once it enters the esophagus, food is moved down the esophagus and into our stomach. The esophagus is a muscular tube that
contracts in a synchronized fashion (peristalsis) to move food down towards the stomach. While the muscles behind the food
product contract, the muscles ahead of the food relax, causing the forward propulsion of the food. Peristalsis is the main
mechanism by which food moves through our digestive system. Once the food approaches the stomach, a muscular valve (the
lower esophageal sphincter) relaxes and lets the food pass into the stomach. This sphincter has the important function of closing
the stomach so no food or stomach acid reenters the esophagus (and therefore avoiding heartburn or regurgitation).
The stomach
From gastric glands that
line the stomach, acid and
enzymes are secreted that
continue the breakdown
process of the food. The
stomach muscles further
mix the food. At the end of
this process, the food you
placed in your mouth has
been transformed to a thick
creamy fluid called chyme.
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SMALL INTESTINE
This thick fluid is then pushed into the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). With the help of enzymes from the
pancreas and bile from the liver, further breakdown of the food occurs in the small intestine. The small intestine has three
segments. The first segment is the duodenum where further breakdown of the food takes place. Here, enzymes from the pancreas
and liver further break down the food. Three segments make up the small intestines, which are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Chemical digestion in the small intestine relies on the activities of three accessory digestive organs: the liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder. The digestive role of the liver is to produce bile and export it to the duodenum. The gallbladder primarily stores,
concentrates, and releases bile. The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions,
and delivers it to the duodenum.
The contractions of the small intestine help in the movement of food, along with its breakdown, after mixing with the digestive
secretions. The jejunum and ileum areas of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of food into the blood, though
their villi.
Pancreas, Liver and Gall Bladder
These organs also play a significant role in the human digestive system. The pancreas secretes enzymes which help in the
breakdown protein, fat, and carbohydrate. The liver secretes bile and cleanses and purifies the blood coming from the small
intestine. The gallbladder stores the bile that the liver produces. It releases bile into the small intestine to aid in the digestion
process.
The small intestine is a long tube, which loosely coils in the abdomen area.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is a long muscular tube that has different parts, which are caecum, colon, and rectum. The waste that is left
over after digestion of food, reaches the rectum through the peristaltic movements of the colon.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CONTROL
Hormones and nerves control the human digestive system. The walls of the alimentary canal have many sensors which regulate
the digestive functions. Even hormones are involved in the digestion process. The main digestive hormone, gastrin is secreted in
response to the presence of food. Gastrin again stimulates the gastric acid secretion. All these regulate the digestion process.
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ACCESSORY ORGANS
Teeth Tongue
Salivary glands
Pancreas
Liver
Gall bladder
STRUCTURE OF THE TOOTH
A tooth consists of enamel, dentin, cementum and pulp tissue. The portion of a tooth exposed to the oral cavity is known as the
dental crown, and the portion below the dental crown is known as the tooth root. The dental pulp cavity exists in the center of the
tooth, through which the dental pulp, called the nerve, runs. In order to receive an impact on the tooth and to absorb and alleviate
the force on the jaw, the surface of the tooth root area (cementum) and the alveolar bone are connected by a fibrous tissue called
the periodontal ligament. The tooth is supported by the tissue consisting of the alveolar bone, gums and the periodontal ligament.

 Enamel: The hardest bodily tissue covering the surface of the dental crown. It is as hard as crystal.
 Dentin: The tissue that forms the tooth from the dental crown to the tooth root, situated inside the enamel and cementum.
It is softer than the enamel. A small tube filled with tissue fluid, called the dentinal tubule, runs inside the dentin.
 Cementum: The tissue covering the surface of the tooth root. It connects the alveolar bone with the tooth by the
periodontal ligament. Its hardness is similar to bone.
 Dental pulp: The tissue is called the nerve. Blood vessels and the lymph vessels, as well as nerve fibers, are located in
the dental pulp, supplying nutrients to the dentin.
 Periodontal ligament: Tissue consisting mainly of the fibrous tissue that connects the tooth root and the alveolar bone. It
prevents force applied to the tooth from being directly imposed on the alveolar bone while chewing food.
 Alveolar bone: The jaw bone supporting the tooth; the tooth is planted into this bone. When a large part of the alveolar
bone is destroyed by periodontal disease or other causes, the tooth becomes loose.
 Gingiva: The soft tissue covering the alveolar bone. It is generally called “gum”.
 Gingival sulcus: The small space between the tooth and the gums. Even people with healthy teeth usually have a depth
of 1 to 2 mm in this space. When this space deepens due to inflammation, it is called the periodontal pocket or gingival
pocket
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Structure of the Tooth

The Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about three pounds in an adult. It is also one of the most important organs. In
addition to being an accessory digestive organ, it plays a number of roles in metabolism and regulation. The liver lies inferior to
the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and receives protection from the surrounding ribs.
The liver is divided into two primary lobes: a large right lobe and a much smaller left lobe. The porta hepatis (“gate to the liver”)
is where the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein enter the liver. The hepatic portal vein delivers partially deoxygenated blood
containing nutrients absorbed from the small intestine and actually supplies more oxygen to the liver than do the much smaller
hepatic arteries. In addition to nutrients, drugs and toxins are also absorbed. The liver has three main components: hepatocytes,
bile canaliculi, and hepatic sinusoids. A hepatocyte is the liver’s main cell type, accounting for around 80 percent of the liver’s
volume. These cells play a role in a wide variety of secretory, metabolic, and endocrine functions. Plates of hepatocytes called
hepatic laminae radiate outward from the portal vein in each hepatic lobule.
The bile ducts unite to form the larger right and left hepatic ducts, which themselves merge and exit the liver as the common
hepatic duct. This duct then joins with the cystic duct from the gallbladder, forming the common bile duct through which bile
flows into the small intestine.
Bile
Bile is a mixture secreted by the liver to accomplish the emulsification of lipids in the small intestine.
Hepatocytes secrete about one liter of bile each day. A yellow-brown or yellow-green alkaline solution (pH 7.6 to 8.6), bile is a
mixture of water, bile salts, bile pigments, phospholipids (such as lecithin), electrolytes, cholesterol, and triglycerides. The
components most critical to emulsification are bile salts and phospholipids which act upon large lipid droplets that get pulled apart
into many tiny lipid fragments of about 1 µm in diameter. This change dramatically increases the surface area available for lipid-
digesting enzyme activity. This is the same way dish soap works on fats mixed with water.
Bile salts act as emulsifying agents, so they are also important for the absorption of digested lipids. Once bile salts reach the
ileum, they are absorbed and returned to the liver in the hepatic portal blood. The hepatocytes then excrete the bile salts into newly
formed bile. Thus, this precious resource is recycled.
Bilirubin, the main bile pigment, is a waste product produced when the spleen removes old or damaged red blood cells from the
circulation. These breakdown products, including proteins, iron, and toxic bilirubin, are transported to the liver In the liver,
proteins and iron are recycled, whereas bilirubin is excreted in the bile. It accounts for the green color of bile. Bilirubin is
eventually transformed by intestinal bacteria into stercobilin, a brown pigment that gives your stool its characteristic color! In
some disease states, bile does not enter the intestine, resulting in white (‘acholic’) stool with a high fat content, since virtually no
fats are broken down or absorbed.
Hepatocytes work non-stop, but bile production increases when fatty chyme enters the duodenum and stimulates the secretion of
the gut hormone secretin. Between meals, bile is produced but conserved.
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The Pancreas
The soft, oblong, glandular pancreas lies transversely behind the
stomach. It is a curious mix of exocrine (secreting digestive
enzymes) and endocrine (releasing hormones into the blood)
functions.
The exocrine part of the pancreas arises as little grape-like cell
clusters, each called an acinus (plural = acini), located at the
terminal ends of pancreatic ducts. These acinar cells secrete enzyme-
rich pancreatic juice into tiny merging ducts that form two
dominant ducts. Scattered through the sea of exocrine acini are small
islands of endocrine cells, the islets of Langerhans. These vital cells
produce the hormones pancreatic polypeptide, insulin, glucagon, and
somatostatin.

Pancreatic Juice
The pancreas produces over a liter of pancreatic juice each day.
Unlike bile, it is clear and composed mostly of water along with
some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several digestive enzymes.
Sodium bicarbonate is responsible for the slight alkalinity of
pancreatic juice (pH 7.1 to 8.2), which serves to buffer the acidic
gastric juice in chyme, inactivate pepsin from the stomach, and
create an optimal environment for the activity of pH-sensitive
digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Pancreatic enzymes are
active in the digestion of sugars, proteins, and fats.
The pancreas produces protein-digesting enzymes in their inactive
forms. These enzymes are activated in the duodenum. If produced in
an active form, they would digest the pancreas (which is exactly
what occurs in the disease, pancreatitis). The intestinal brush border
enzyme enteropeptidase stimulates the activation of trypsin from
trypsinogen of the pancreas, which in turn changes the pancreatic
enzymes procarboxypeptidase and chymotrypsinogen into their
active forms, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin.
The enzymes that digest starch (amylase), fat (lipase), and nucleic
acids (nuclease) are secreted in their active forms, since they do not
attack the pancreas as do the protein-digesting enzymes.
Pancreatic Secretion
Regulation of pancreatic secretion is the job of hormones and the
parasympathetic nervous system. The entry of acidic chyme into
the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin, which in turn
causes the duct cells to release bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice.
The presence of proteins and fats in the duodenum stimulates the
secretion of CCK, which then stimulates the acini to secrete
enzyme-rich pancreatic juice and enhances the activity of
secretin. Parasympathetic regulation occurs mainly during the
cephalic and gastric phases of gastric secretion, when vagal
stimulation prompts the secretion of pancreatic juice.
Usually, the pancreas secretes just enough bicarbonate to
counterbalance the amount of HCl produced in the stomach.
Hydrogen ions enter the blood when bicarbonate is secreted by
the pancreas. Thus, the acidic blood draining from the pancreas
neutralizes the alkaline blood draining from the stomach,
maintaining the pH of the venous blood that flows to the liver.
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THE GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder is 8–10 cm (~3–4 in) long and is nested in a
shallow area on the posterior aspect of the right lobe of the
liver. This muscular sac stores, concentrates, and, when
stimulated, propels the bile into the duodenum via the
common bile duct. It is divided into three regions. The fundus
is the widest portion and tapers medially into the body, which
in turn narrows to become the neck. The neck angles slightly
superiorly as it approaches the hepatic duct. The cystic duct is
1–2 cm (less than 1 in) long and turns inferiorly as it bridges
the neck and hepatic duct. The simple columnar epithelium of
the gallbladder mucosa is organized in rugae, similar to those
of the stomach. There is no submucosa in the gallbladder
wall. The wall’s middle, muscular coat is made of smooth
muscle fibers. When these fibers contract, the gallbladder’s
contents are ejected through the cystic duct and into the bile
duct. Visceral peritoneum reflected from the liver capsule
holds the gallbladder against the liver and forms the outer coat
of the gallbladder. The gallbladder’s mucosa absorbs water
and ions from bile, concentrating it by up to 10-fold.

Figure . The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and

releases it into the two-way cystic duct when it is needed by the
small intestine.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATED TO GIT

1. Mucus - Mucus is a thick secretion composed mainly of water, electrolytes, and a mixture of glycoproteins - an excellent
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lubricant and a protectant for the wall of the gut - mucus has adherent qualities that make it adhere tightly to the food or other
particles and to spread as a thin film over the surfaces - it coats the wall of the gut and prevents contact of most food particles with
the mucosa
2. Mucus - mucus is strongly resistant to digestion by the gastrointestinal enzymes - they are capable of buffering small
amounts of either acids or alkalis - moderate quantities of bicarbonate ions which specifically neutralize acids - when the salivary
glands fail to secrete saliva, it is difficult to swallow solid food even when it is eaten along with large amounts of water
3. Secretion of Saliva - Daily secretion of saliva ranges between 800 and 1500 milliliters - (1) serous secretion that contains
ptyalin (an alpha amylase), which is an enzyme for digesting starches - (2) mucus secretion that contains mucin for lubricating and
for surface protective purposes - Parotid - serous - Submandibular, sublingual glands – serous & mucus - 0.5 milliliter of saliva,
almost entirely of the mucous type, is secreted each minute; but during sleep, secretion becomes very little
4. Secretion of Saliva- This secretion plays an exceedingly important role for maintaining healthy oral tissues. - The mouth
is loaded with pathogenic bacteria that can easily destroy tissues and cause dental caries. - the flow of saliva itself helps wash
away pathogenic bacteria as well as food particles that provide their metabolic support - thiocyanate ions - Lysozyme - (a) attack
the bacteria, - (b) aid the thiocyanate ions in entering the bacteria where these ions in turn become bactericidal - protein antibodies
5. Nervous Regulation - salivary glands are controlled mainly by parasympathetic nervous signals
6. Esophageal Secretion - The esophageal secretions are entirely mucous in character and principally provide lubrication for
swallowing - simple mucous glands - At the gastric end and in the initial portion of the esophagus, there are also many compound
mucous glands - upper esophagus - prevents mucosal excoriation by newly entering food, - Lower esophagus - protect the
esophageal wall from digestion by acidic gastric juices - peptic ulcer - at the gastric end of the esophagus
8. Gastric Secretion - The oxyntic (Gastric) glands secrete- HCL, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor and mucus for protection of
the pyloric mucosa from the stomach acid
9. Pepsin functions as an active proteolytic enzyme in a highly acid medium (optimum pH 1.8 to 3.5) - above a pH of about
5 it has almost no proteolytic activity and becomes completely inactivated in a short time - HCL is as necessary as pepsin for
protein digestion in the stomach
11. Intrinsic Factor - Essential for absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum, is secreted by the parietal cells along with the
secretion of HCL - When the acid-producing parietal cells of the stomach are destroyed (chronic gastritis), - the person develops
achlorhydria (lack of stomach acid secretion) - pernicious anemia because of failure of maturation of RBCs in the absence of
vitamin B12 stimulation of the bone marrow
12. Histamine Secretion - The ECL (Entero Chromaffin Like) cells lie in the deep parts of the oxyntic glands and release
histamine in direct contact with the parietal cells of the glands. –
13. Acid Secretion by Gastrin - Gastrin cells - G cells - in the pyloric glands in the distal end of the stomach produce gastrin
hormone- meats or other protein-containing foods and Histamine stimulate gastric HCL secretion
19. Pancreatic Digestive Enzymes - large quantities of bicarbonate ions, which play an important role in neutralizing the
acidity of the chyme - The most important of the pancreatic enzymes for digesting proteins are trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypolypeptidase - Trypsin and chymotrypsin split whole and partially digested proteins into peptides of various sizes but do
not cause release of individual amino acids - carboxypolypeptidase split some peptides into individual amino acids
21. Digestive Enzymes - Inactive forms trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypolypeptidase - Enterokinase
activates trypsinogen → trypsin - Trypsin activates trypsinogen → trypsin - Trypsin activate chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin -
Trypsin activate procarboxypolypeptidase →
22. Trypsin Inhibitor - Proteolytic enzymes of the pancreatic juice not become activated until after they have been secreted
into the intestine, - Otherwise the trypsin and the other enzymes would digest the pancreas itself - trypsin inhibitor prevents
activation of trypsin & so other enzymes inside the secretory cells and in the acini and ducts - When the pancreas becomes
severely damaged or when a duct becomes blocked - digest the entire pancreas within a few hours - acute pancreatitis
23. Digestive Enzymes - The pancreatic enzyme for digesting carbohydrates is pancreatic amylase, which hydrolyzes -
starches, glycogen and most other carbohydrates (except cellulose) to form disaccharides and trisaccharides - The main enzymes
for fat digestion are - (1) pancreatic lipase, which is capable of hydrolyzing neutral fat into fatty acids and monoglycerides; - (2)
cholesterol esterase, which causes hydrolysis of cholesterol esters; - (3) phospholipase, which splits fatty acids from phospholipids
24. Secretion of HCO3 Ions - enzymes of the pancreatic juice - the acini of the pancreatic glands - bicarbonate ions and
water - the ductules and ducts that lead from the acini - Neutralizes HCL - Carbonic anhydrase - HCO3 + Na + Water
25. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion -cholecystokinin, stimulate the acinar cells of the pancreas, causing production of
large quantities of pancreatic digestive enzymes - Secretin stimulates secretion of large quantities of water solution of sodium
bicarbonate by the pancreatic ductal epithelium
26. Intestinal Phase - Secretin is a polypeptide, containing 27 amino acids , present in an inactive form, prosecretin, S cells in
the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum - Acid chyme with pH less than 4.5 to 5.0 enters the duodenum – HCL – potent
stimulus - Large quantities of fluid containing a high concentration of HCO3 ion & a low concentration of chloride ion - HCl
+NaHCO3 → NaCl +H2CO3
27. Intestinal Phase- the H2CO3 (carbonic acid) immediately dissociates into CO2 and H2O - The CO2 is absorbed into the
blood and expired through the lungs - a neutral solution of NaCl remains in the duodenum - further peptic digestive activity by the
gastric juices in the duodenum is immediately blocked. - Because the mucosa of the small intestine cannot withstand the digestive
action of acid gastric juice, this is an essential protective mechanism to prevent development of duodenal ulcers - pancreatic
digestive enzymes, which function optimally in a slightly alkaline or neutral medium, at a pH of 7.0 to 8.0
28. Cholecystokinin - a polypeptide containing 33 amino acids, to be released from the I cells, in the mucosa of the
duodenum and upper jejunum - This release of cholecystokinin results especially from the presence of proteoses and peptones
(products of partial protein digestion) and long chain fatty acids in the chyme - much more pancreatic digestive enzymes by the
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acinar cells - 70 to 80 % of the total secretion of the pancreatic digestive enzymes after a meal
29. Biliary Tree - Bile: 600 and 1000 ml/day - Bile acids - (1) they help to emulsify the large fat particles of the food into
many minute particles, the surface of which can then be attacked by lipase enzymes secreted in pancreatic juice, - (2) they aid in
absorption of the digested fat end products through the intestinal mucosal membrane - Excretion of waste products from the blood
- bilirubin, cholesterol
30. Bile in the Liver - The initial portion is secreted by the hepatocytes; this initial secretion contains large amounts of bile
acids, cholesterol - Additional secretion is a watery solution of sodium and bicarbonate ions secreted by secretory epithelial cells
that line the ductules and ducts – Secretin - Bile is secreted continually by the liver cells, but most of it is normally stored in the
gallbladder until needed in the duodenum
31. Bile - water, sodium, chloride, and most electrolytes are continually absorbed through the gallbladder mucosa, -
concentrating the remaining bile constituents that contain the bile salts, cholesterol, lecithin and bilirubin - absorption is caused by
active transport of sodium through the gallbladder epithelium, and this is followed by secondary absorption of chloride ions, water
32. Emptying of the Gallbladder - When food begins to be digested in the upper GIT, the gallbladder begins to empty,
especially when fatty foods reach the duodenum about 30 minutes after a meal - rhythmical contractions of the wall of the
gallbladder - simultaneous relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi, which guards the exit of the common bile duct into the duodenum -
Fatty foods – CCK – GB contractions - Ach
33. Bile Salts- detergent action on the fat particles - decreases the surface tension of the particles and allows agitation in the
intestinal tract to break the fat globules into minute sizes - emulsifying function - bile salts help in the absorption of (1) fatty acids,
(2) monoglycerides, (3) cholesterol, and (4) other lipids from the intestinal tract - very small physical complexes with lipids –
micelles - About 94 % of the bile salts are reabsorbed into the blood from the small intestine, - about half by diffusion through the
mucosa in the early portions of the small intestine and the remainder by an active transport process through the intestinal mucosa
in the distal ileum
35. Enterohepatic Circulation - Reabsorbed from intestine – portal vein – liver sinusoids – hepatic cells – bile – intestine –
reabsorbed…………………………………………….. - about 94 % of all the bile salts are recirculated into the bile, so that on the
average these salts make the entire circuit some 17 times before being carried out in the feces - The quantity of bile secreted by the
liver each day is highly dependent on the availability of bile salts
36. Cholesterol & Gallstone - In the process of secreting the bile salts, about 1 to 2 grams of cholesterol are removed from
the blood plasma and secreted into the bile each day - When the bile becomes concentrated in the gallbladder, the bile salts and
lecithin become concentrated along with the cholesterol, which keeps the cholesterol in solution - Under abnormal conditions, the
cholesterol may precipitate in the gallbladder, resulting in the formation of cholesterol gallstones
37. Gallstone - people on a high fat diet over a period of years are prone to the development of gallstones - Inflammation of
the gallbladder epithelium – low grade chronic infection, may also change the absorptive characteristics of the gallbladder mucosa
- excessive absorption of water and bile salts but leaving behind the cholesterol in the bladder in progressively greater
concentrations - the cholesterol begins to precipitate, first forming many small crystals of cholesterol on the surface of the
inflamed mucosa, but then progressing to large gallstones
38. compound mucous glands, called Brunner’s glands, is located in the wall of the first few centimeters of the duodenum -
secrete large amounts of alkaline mucus in response to - (1) tactile or irritating stimuli on the duodenal mucosa; - (2) vagal
stimulation, - (3) secretin - the mucus contains a large excess of bicarbonate ions - Sympathetic – duodenal ulcer
39. The intestinal secretions are formed by the enterocytes of the crypts at a rate of about 1800 ml/day - pH in the range of
7.5 to 8.0 - (1) active secretion of chloride ions into the crypts - (2) active secretion of bicarbonate ions ↓ electrical drag of
positively charged sodium ions ↓ osmotic movement of water
41. Digestive Enzymes - The enterocytes of the mucosa, especially those that cover the villi, contain digestive enzymes that
digest specific food substances while they are being absorbed through the epithelium - (1) peptidases for splitting small peptides
into amino acids, - (2) sucrase, maltase, isomaltase and lactase — for splitting disaccharides into monosaccharides - (3) small
amounts of intestinal lipase for splitting neutral fats into glycerol and fatty acids - The life cycle of an intestinal epithelial cell is
about 5 days
42. Large Intestine Secretions- crypts of Lieberkühn - no villi – no enzymes - mucous cells secrete mucus - bicarbonate ions
- pelvic nerves from the spinal cord - parasympathetic innervation – increase in mucus secretion + motility - Mucus in the large
intestine protects the intestinal wall against excoriation – an adherent medium for holding fecal matter together - it protects the
intestinal wall from the great amount of bacterial activity that takes place inside the feces, - the mucus plus the alkalinity of the
secretion provides a barrier to keep acids formed in the feces from attacking the intestinal wall
43. Diarrhea - Whenever a segment of the large intestine becomes intensely irritated - bacterial infection - enteritis, - the
mucosa secretes large quantities of water and electrolytes in addition to the normal viscid alkaline mucus - This acts to dilute the
irritating factors and to cause rapid movement of the feces toward the anus – diarrhea - loss of large quantities of water and
electrolytes - the diarrhea also washes away irritant factors, which promotes earlier recovery from the disease

DENTAL DISEASES
Oral bacteria can cause viruses, tooth decay, gum disease and other common mouth infections in both children and adults. Some
of these infections are preventable with good oral hygiene, and many only last a few days – especially those that are common in
childhood. Other dental conditions, however, are more advanced and can stick around much longer.
1. Dental Caries
Dental caries is the primary result of tooth decay, and one of the most common oral infections out there. Known as the leading
cause of tooth loss in children under 12, according to Dr. Neal R. Chamberlain at A.T. Still University, and is caused by the
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bacteria, "Streptococcus mutans."

2. Gingivitis
A variety of bacteria cause gingivitis – the medical term for early gum disease – and when they settle in the gum's crevices (at the
gum line and below it), these bacteria produce toxins. The gums react to these toxins with inflammation and swelling, which is
why your gums may bleed when you brush your teeth. Between 50 and 90 percent of adults have gingivitis, which, if left
untreated, leads to periodontal disease. The American Academy of Periodontology (AAP) states that when certain bacteria are
breathed into the lungs, they can cause pneumonia.
3. Periodontal Disease
Gingivitis that spreads below the gum line and affect the bone and supporting tissues which can cause periodontal disease to
occur. Pockets form around the teeth, giving way to inflammation and bone loss, at which point these teeth can loosen due to this
bone destruction. Eight to 10 percent of adults have periodontal disease, and it is the most common cause of tooth loss. It can also
make a chronic lung condition worse, even if it's already present.
Plaque develops when foods containing carbohydrates (sugars and starches), such as milk, soft drinks, raisins, cakes, or candy are
frequently left on the teeth. Bacteria that live in the mouth thrive on these foods, producing acids as a result. Over a period of time,
these acids destroy tooth enamel, resulting in tooth decay. Plaque can also develop on the tooth roots under the gum and cause
breakdown of the bone supporting the tooth.

GASTROINTESTINAL DISORDERS
Gastrointestinal disorders include such conditions as constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, hemorrhoids, anal fissures, perianal
abscesses, anal fistulas, perianal infections, diverticular diseases, colitis, colon polyps and cancer. Many of these can be prevented
or minimized by maintaining a healthy lifestyle, practicing good bowel habits, and submitting to cancer screening.
Many factors may upset the GI tract and its motility (or ability to keep moving), including:
Eating a diet low in fiber
Not enough exercise
Traveling or other changes in routine
Eating large amounts of dairy products
Stress
Resisting the urge to have a bowel movement
Resisting the urge to have bowel movements due to pain from hemorrhoids
Overusing laxatives (stool softeners) that, over time, weaken the bowel muscles
Taking antacid medicines containing calcium or aluminum
Taking certain medicines (especially antidepressants, iron pills, and strong pain medicines such as narcotics)
Pregnancy

Constipation
Constipation is usually caused by inadequate "roughage" or fiber in the diet, or a disruption of the regular routine or diet.
Constipation is the term used to describe difficulty or infrequency in passing stools (feces). Not everybody has a daily bowel
movement, so the passage of time between bowel motions before constipation occurs varies from person to person.
When somebody is constipated their stools are usually small, hard, dry, and difficult to pass. Other symptoms may include
bloating or distention in the stomach and pain during a bowel movement. Hemorrhoids frequently occur with constipation. There
are many different causes of constipation, such as dehydration, a lack of fiber in the diet, pregnancy, inactivity, or certain
medications (such as antidepressants, iron supplements, or opioids). Laxatives can help relieve constipation and lifestyle changes
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can help prevent it from recurring. Constipation causes a person to strain during a bowel movement. It may cause small, hard
stools and sometimes anal problems such as fissures and hemorrhoids. Constipation is rarely the sign of a more serious medical
condition.
Constipation can be treated by:
• Increasing the amount of fiber
• Exercising regularly
• Defecation when needed (resisting the urge causes constipation)
If these treatment methods don't work, laxatives are a temporary solution.
Hemorrhoids
Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels that line the anal opening. They are caused by chronic excess pressure from straining
during a bowel movement, persistent diarrhea, or pregnancy.
Anal fissures
Anal fissures
are splits or cracks in the lining of the anal opening. The most common cause of an anal fissure is the passage of very hard or
watery stools. The crack in the anal lining exposes the underlying muscles that control the passage of stool through the anus and
out of the body. An anal fissure is one of the most painful problems because the exposed muscles become irritated from exposure
to stool or air, and leads to intense burning pain, bleeding, or spasm after bowel movements.
Initial treatment for anal fissures includes pain medicine, dietary fiber to reduce the occurrence of large, bulky stools, and sitz
baths (sitting in a few inches of warm water). If these treatments don't relieve pain, surgery might be needed to repair the sphincter
muscle.
Crohn’s Disease
Crohn’s disease is a chronic bowel disease that causes patches of inflammation in the GI tract anywhere between the mouth and
the anus, although the area where the small intestine joins the large intestine is most commonly affected. The exact cause remains
unknown; however, it is more common in “Westernized” countries, tends to run in families, and diet and stress may aggravate the
disease.
Symptoms may include diarrhea that persists for several weeks, abdominal pain and weight loss. Around 50% of people with
Crohn’s disease notice blood or mucus in their feces and some may report an urgent need to move their bowels or a sensation of
incomplete evacuation. Drug treatments may include aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, immunomodulators, and biologics. Surgery
may also be an option.
Diarrhea
Symptoms of diarrhea include frequent, loose, watery stools (feces) which are usually accompanied by an urgent need to go to the
toilet. Abdominal pain or cramping may also occur, and sometimes nausea or vomiting. Viruses are a common cause of diarrhea,
particularly nor viruses which are a common cause of diarrhea and vomiting outbreaks on cruise ships. Other common causes
include bacteria, such as salmonella, campylobacter, or Escherichia coli; giardia; certain medical conditions (such as Celiac
disease or Crohn’s disease); Anti-diarrhea medications such as loperamide or diphenoxylate help slow down bowel movements,
and electrolyte solutions are beneficial for treating dehydration, which commonly occurs with excessive diarrhea. Sometimes
other medications, such as antibiotics, may also be needed.
Lactose intolerance
People with lactose intolerance do not produce enough of the enzyme lactase, and find it difficult to digest lactose, which is a type
of sugar found in cows’, goats’ and sheep milk. It is more common in people of Asian, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, South
American, or African descent, and can also be brought on by gut damage (such as that following gastroenteritis or surgery) or with
conditions such as Celiac or Crohn’s disease.
Symptoms usually include wind, bloating, tummy pain, nausea, or diarrhea within 30 minutes to 2 hours after eating something
with lactose.
Malabsorption syndromes
Malabsorption syndromes refers to a number of different conditions in which the small intestine is unable to absorb nutrients, such
as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins or minerals. There are numerous causes of malabsorption syndrome, such as prolonged
use of antibiotics, diseases of the gallbladder, liver, or pancreas, conditions such as Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, chronic
pancreatitis, and cystic fibrosis, and birth defects. Treatment depends on the underlying condition and the extent of malabsorption.
Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)
Peptic ulcer disease is an umbrella term used to describe both gastric and duodenal ulcers, which are small holes that can occur in
the lining of your stomach (gastric ulcer) or upper part of your small intestine (duodenal ulcers). Duodenal ulcers are the most
common type and are more likely in men aged between 30 and 50 years. Gastric ulcers most often affect middle-aged or elderly
people.
The most common cause is an infection with a bacteria called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), that is usually acquired in
childhood; although most people never develop ulcers. Overuse of anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or
diclofenac, excessive acid production in the stomach, and smoking are also common causes. Symptoms typically include
abdominal pain and heartburn. The pain of duodenal ulcers tends to be relieved by food, whereas the pain with gastric ulcers is
worsened by eating. Treatment usually consists of medications to reduce acid production in the stomach or to protect the stomach,
and therapy to eradicate H. pylori infection.
Vomiting
Vomiting is when the contents of the stomach are forcefully expelled through the mouth, usually involuntarily. Nausea is the term
used to describe feeling sick – or like you are just about to vomit. Infection from bacteria, viruses, or other micro-organisms is one
of the most common causes of vomiting. Overindulgence in alcohol, food allergies, migraines, and pregnancy may also cause
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vomiting. Treatment depends on the cause and may include antiemetic’s and rehydration solutions, depending on how suitable
these are for the person with the vomiting.
PSYCHOLOGICAL GIT DISORDERS
Bulimia nervosa, commonly called bulimia, is a serious, potentially life-threatening eating disorder. People with bulimia may
secretly binge — eating large amounts of food with a loss of control over the eating — and then purge, trying to get rid of the
extra calories in an unhealthy way.
Gastrointestinal infections are viral, bacterial or parasitic infections that cause gastroenteritis, an inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract involving both the stomach and the small intestine. Symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal
pain. Dehydration is the main danger of gastrointestinal infections, so rehydration is important, but most gastrointestinal infections
are self-limited and resolve within a few days. However, in a healthcare setting and in specific populations (newborns/infants,
immunocompromized patients or elderly populations), they are potentially serious. Rapid diagnosis, appropriate treatment and
infection control measures are therefore particularly important in these contexts.
Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by a large number of microorganisms, including:
Adenovirus
Adenovirus can cause diarrhea, fever, conjunctivitis, bladder infections and rashes, but the most common symptom is respiratory
illness. After rotavirus, it is the most common cause of pediatric diarrhea.
Campylobacter
Campylobacter is one of the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide and is frequent in children under two. It
can cause diarrhea (sometimes bloody), abdominal cramps, vomiting and fever. It is usually food-borne through raw or
undercooked meat (especially poultry) or through contaminated milk.
Clostridium difficile
Clostridium difficile infection is responsible for up to 25% of cases of antibiotic-associated diarrhea most often contracted in
hospitals or healthcare institutions3. Elderly and immunocompromized patients are most at risk. The recent emergence of highly
toxigenic and resistant C. difficile strains has led to more frequent and severe outbreaks, increased morbidity and mortality.
Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is a Shiga toxin-producing form of E. coli bacteria, which causes gastrointestinal infections with symptoms
including bloody diarrhea and vomiting. Though it usually resolves after a few days, it can sometimes (5-10%4 of infections) lead
to hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which can result in kidney failure if untreated.
Helicobacter pylori
Helicobacter pylori, called H. pylori, is a cause of gastritis and is associated with the development of gastric and duodenal ulcers.
It can cause stomach pain or nausea, but in many cases there are no symptoms. Infected people have a 10-20% lifetime risk of
developing peptic ulcers and a 1 to 2% risk of stomach cancer5.
Rotavirus
Rotavirus is the most frequent cause of diarrhea in young children and infants and it is responsible for the most severe cases.
There is a vaccine for rotavirus, but globally it causes more than ½ million deaths per year in children less than five years old.6
Most of these are in emerging countries.
Salmonella and Shigella
Salmonella and Shigella are food-borne GI illnesses. Salmonella is common and is found in raw meats, poultry, seafood and eggs,
as well as milk and dairy products. Acute symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, fever, and headache.
Shigella is frequently found in water polluted with human feces. Symptoms of shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) include abdominal
pain, cramps, diarrhea, fever, vomiting, and blood, pus, or mucus in stool.
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of food intoxication, characterized by abrupt/violent onset, severe nausea,
cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea using lasting 1-2 days. This opportunistic pathogen can be found on humans (skin, infected cuts,
noses and throats) and has been associated with a wide range of foods including meat and meat products, poultry and egg
products, salads, bakery products, and dairy products.
Yersinia enterocolitica
Yersinia enterocolitica, called Y. enterocolitica, is a relatively infrequent cause of diarrhea and abdominal pain. Infection is most
often acquired by eating contaminated food, especially raw or undercooked pork products, as well as ice-cream and milk.
Common symptoms are fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, which is often bloody.
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GASEOUS EXCHANGE

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (FERMENTATION)

Fermentation is the name given to many different types of anaerobic respiration, which are performed by different species of
bacteria and archaebacteria, and by some eukaryotic cells in the absence of oxygen.
These processes can use a variety of electron acceptors and produce a variety of byproducts. A few types of fermentation are:
 Alcoholic fermentation – This type of fermentation, performed by yeast cells and some other cells, metabolizes
sugar and produces alcohol and carbon dioxide as byproducts. This is why beers are fizzy: during fermentation, their
yeasts release both carbon dioxide gas, which forms bubbles and ethyl alcohol.
 Lactic acid fermentation – This type of fermentation is performed by human muscle cells in the absence of oxygen,
and by some bacteria. Lactic acid fermentation is actually used by humans to make yogurt. To make yogurt, harmless
bacteria are grown in milk. The lactic acid produced by these bacteria gives yogurt its distinctive sharp-sour taste and
also reacts with milk proteins to create a thick, creamy texture.
 Proprionic acid fermentation – This type of fermentation is performed by some bacteria, and is used to make Swiss
cheese. Proprionic acid is responsible for the distinctive sharp, nutty flavor of Swiss cheese. The gas bubbles created
by these bacteria are responsible for the holes found in the cheese.
 Acetogenesis – Acetogenesis is a type of fermentation performed by bacteria, which produces acetic acid as its
byproduct. Acetic acid is the distinctive ingredient in vinegar which gives it its sharp, sour taste and smell.
Interestingly, the bacteria that produce acetic acid use ethyl alcohol as their fuel. This means that to produce vinegar,
a sugar-containing solution must be first fermented with yeast to produce alcohol, then fermented again with bacteria
that turn the alcohol into acetic acid!
Methanogenesis
Methanogenesis is a unique type of anaerobic respiration that can only be performed by archaebacteria. In Methanogenesis, a fuel
source carbohydrate is broken down to produce carbon dioxide and methane.
Methanogenesis is performed by some symbiotic bacteria in the digestive tracts of humans, cows, and some other
animals. Some of these bacteria are able to digest cellulose, a sugar found in plants that cannot be broken down through cellular
respiration. Symbiotic bacteria allow cows and other animals to obtain some energy from these otherwise indigestible sugars!

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

In low O2 concentrations, a partial breakdown of sugar occurs that
results in just a bit of energy, enough to keep a cell alive or working for
a while, but not as efficiently. This process is called fermentation,
or anaerobic respiration. Usually the process goes only as far
as glycolysis (2 ATPs), and does not enter the mitochondria for further
breakdown
In our cells, anaerobic respiration results in the production of lactic
acid. The lactic acid, plus the hydrogens (2H) released, cause the
muscle to become more acidic, causing pain and burning in the muscle.
In yeast cells, fermentation results in the production of 2 ATPs and a
waste product, ethyl alcohol.

Alcohol fermentation is similar to lactic acid fermentation in that oxygen is not the final electron acceptor. Here, instead of
oxygen, the cell uses a converted form of pyruvate to accept the final electrons. This creates ethyl alcohol, which is what is
found in alcoholic beverages. Brewers and distillers use yeast cells to create this alcohol, which are very good at this form of
fermentation.
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2 ADP (depleted ATP) + 2 Pi (phosphate groups)→ 2 C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol) + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Eukaryotes, including all multicellular organisms and some single-celled organisms, use aerobic respiration to produce
energy. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen – the most powerful electron acceptor available in nature.
Aerobic respiration is an extremely efficient process allows eukaryotes to have complicated life functions and active lifestyles.
However, it also means that they require a constant supply of oxygen, or they will be unable to obtain energy to stay alive.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Cellular respiration is the process through which cells convert sugars into energy. To create ATP and other forms of energy to
power cellular reactions, cells require fuel and an electron acceptor which drives the chemical process of turning energy into a
useable form.
During Cellular Respiration, sugar is broken down to CO2 and H2O, and in the process, ATP is made that can then be used for
cellular work.
The overall reaction for cellular respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -------------------> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ~38 ATP
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Essentially, sugar (C6H12O6) is burned, or oxidized, down to CO2 and H2O, releasing energy (ATP) in the process. ALL
cellular work -all the activities of life - requires energy, either from ATP or from related molecules. A lot of oxygen is required
for this process! The sugar AND the oxygen are delivered to cells via your bloodstream.
This process occurs partially in the cytoplasm, and partially in the mitochondria. The mitochondrion is another organelle in
eukaryotic cells. Like the chloroplast, the mitochondrion has two lipid bilayers around it, and its own genome (indicating that it
may be the result of endosymbiosis long ago). In some ways similar to the chloroplast, the mitochondria also have two main sites
for the reactions: The matrix, a liquid part of the mitochondrion, and the cristae, the folded membranes in the mitochondrion.
1: Glycolysis ("splitting of sugar"): This step takes place in the cytoplasm.
One Glucose (C6H12O6) is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid. Results in the production of 2 ATPs for every glucose.
2: Transition Reaction: Pyruvic Acid is shuttled into the mitochondria, where it is conveyed to a molecule called Acetyl CoA for
further breakdown.
3: The Krebs Cycle, or Citric Acid Cycle: Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, the liquid-y part of the mitochondria.
In the presence of Oxygen gas (O2), all the hydrogens (H2) are stripped off the Acetyl CoA, two by two, to extract the electrons
for making ATP, until there are no hydrogens left - and all that is left of the sugar is CO2 - a waste product - and H2O (exhale).
The Krebs cycle results in the production of only ~4 ATPs, but produces a lot of NADH, which will go on to the next step... Hans
Krebs won the Nobel Prize in 1953 for his discovery of the Citric Acid Cycle.
4: The Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis ("the big ATP payoff"). Occurs in the cristae of the
mirochondria, the folded membranes inside the chloroplast.
Electrons from Hydrogen are carried by NADH and passed down an electron transport chain to result in the production of ATP.
Results in the production of ~32 ATPs for every glucose.
Peter Mitchell won the Nobel Prize in 1978 for his work on energy production in mitochondria, called the Chemiosmotic Theory.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION DETAIL PROCESS

Cellular Respiration gives both plant and animal cells the
useable energy, as known as ATP, that they need to do stuff.
This is the overall equation:
C6H12O6(glucose) + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ≈38 ATP
1. Glycolysis
The name “glycolysis” comes from the Greek “glyco,” for
“sugar” and “lysis” for “to split
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells, outside of
mitochondria
 Glycolysis requires glucose and 2 ATP to split the
glucose molecule, 2 NAD+ that will become electron
carrier molecules, and 4 ADP + P that will become 4
ATP
 The 2 ATP are used to split the glucose into 2
pyruvic acids, or pyruvates, and as those pyruvates
are formed, 4 ATP are created as well as 2 NADH
electron carrier molecules
 The 2 pyruvic acids each contain 3 carbon atoms
(the original glucose molecule had 6) , and there is a
net gain of 2 ATP (2 are invested to split the
glucose, and 4 are formed from ADP and P) that the
cell can now use as energy, as well as 2 NADH that
each carry two electrons and a hydrogen to the
Electron Transport Chai
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 If the cell has access to oxygen (aka is in an aerobic

environment), then the 2 pyruvic acids will become
Acetyl CoA and go inside the mitochondria to
perform the Krebs cycle for more ATP
2. Krebs Cycle
• The Krebs Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
• The Krebs Cycle uses 2 Acetyl CoA (each with 2 carbons), a 4-carbon acceptor molecule that powers the cycle, 8 NAD+ and 2
FAD that will become electron carrier molecules, and 2 ADP + P that will become 2 ATP, and 6 O2 that provide necessary oxygen
(remember, Krebs Cycle is aerobic)
• After the two pyruvic acids is converted to acetyl CoA, 2 carbon dioxide molecules are produced, then the 2-carbon Acetyl CoA
attach to the 4-carbon acceptor molecule (one at a time) and go through a cycle where they produce CO2 and electron carrier molecules
• In total, 6CO2 are produced by combining the carbons from the pyruvic acids with the oxygen molecules, as well as 8 NADH
and 2 FADH2 electron carrier molecules, and 2 ATP that the cell can use for energy
• Note: the 4-carbon acceptor molecule does not change and merely returns to its initial state to accept another Acetyl CoA in
another round of the Krebs Cycle
All the carbons are now taken care of and have become carbon dioxide, so all that’s left from the initial glucose are the hydrogen atoms
and electrons on NADH and FADH2,which go to the ETC for the most energy-rich part of cellular respiration
3. Electron Transport Chain
 The ETC occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, within the cristae (folds of the mitochondrion
 The ETC uses 10 NADH electron carrier molecules (2 from Glycolysis, 8 from the Krebs Cycle), 2 FADH2 (from the
Krebs Cycle), plus the 6 oxygen atoms from the original glucose molecule, and, most importantly, 34 ADP and P that are
waiting to be combined by the ATP Synthase (an enzyme that makes ATP)
 The electrons from the electron carrier molecules hop down the electron transport chain and the H+ ions from the electron
carrier molecules to go across the inner membrane through active transport, then they charge back out through facilitated
diffusion through the ATP synthase
 The ETC makes 34 ATP (30 from 10 NADH, 4 from FADH2), returns the electron acceptor molecules (10 NAD+ and 2
FAD) so that they can be used again in cellular respiration, and combines the H+ ions with electrons and oxygen atoms to
make 6H2O
 Cellular respiration will keep occurring again and again unless the cell runs out of oxygen, in which place it will now
perform fermentation to get the energy it needs to move enzymes and other stuff around and stay healthy


KREBS CYCLE
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
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What if the body runs out of sugar for glycolysis? Can the body still make ATP?
Answer: Yes, this is what the Lo-carb Atkins and South Beach diets are based on...draining the carbohydrate levels and reserves
of your body, so that to make daily energy (ATP), your body has to turn to an alternate source of fuel...fats and proteins
Fats as fuel: Triacylglycerol reserves (located in unpleasantly strategic locations on your body ...) tend to be stored in adipose
cells. Lipases are released into the bloodstream and break down fats in the bloodstream (from the fats and oils we eat) or travel to
adipose cells.
 Lipases break the glycerol head away from the fatty acids.
 Glycerol is converted to an intermediate in glycolysis called "PGAL", and enters cellular respiration in the cytoplasm.
 The fatty acid tails are converted to Acetyl CoA and enter the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria
 Result: Still ~32-38 or so ATPs, but from fats, not glucose!
Proteins as fuel: Excess proteins in our diets cannot be stored like glycogen or fats can, and must be broken down by the body.
 Proteases break the peptide bonds of proteins back down to amino acids
 Deaminases break the amino group off the amino acids, releasing ammonia. This toxic ammonia is converted to urea, and
is excreted in urine.
 The remainder of the amino acid (mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), and can be rearranged in cells to enter
cellular respiration either as pyruvate, as acetyl CoA, or directly into the Krebs cycle.
 Result: Still ~32-38 or so ATPs, but from proteins, not glucose!

The process of aerobic respiration produces a huge amount of ATP from each molecule of sugar. In fact, each molecule of
sugar digested by a plant or animal cell yields 36 molecules of ATP! By comparison, fermentation usually only produces 2-4
molecules of ATP.
ATP
The main product of any cellular respiration is the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This molecule stores the energy
released during respiration and allows the cell to transfer this energy to various parts of the cell. ATP is used by a number
of cellular components as a source of energy. For example, an enzyme may need energy from ATP to combine two molecules.
ATP is also commonly used on transporters, which are proteins that function to move molecules across the cell membrane.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a universal product created by cellular respiration. Typically, carbon dioxide is considered a waste product and
must be removed. In an aqueous solution, carbon dioxide creates acidic ions. This can drastically lower the pH of the cell, and
eventually will cause normal cellular functions to cease. To avoid this, cells must actively expel carbon dioxide.
Other Products
While ATP and carbon dioxide are regularly produced by all forms of cellular respiration, different types of respiration rely on
different molecules to be the final acceptors of the electrons used in the process.
Purpose of Cellular Respiration
All cells need to be able to obtain and transport energy to power their life functions. For cells to continue living, they must be
able to operate essential machinery, such as pumps in their cell membranes which maintain the cell’s internal environment
in a way that’s suitable for life.
The most common “energy currency” of cells is ATP – a molecule which stores a lot of energy in its phosphate bonds. These
bonds can be broken to release that energy and bring about changes to other molecules, such as those needed to power cell
membrane pumps.
Because ATP is not stable over long periods of time, it is not used for long-term energy storage. Instead, sugars and fats are used
as a long-term form of storage, and cells must constantly process those molecules to produce new ATP. This is the process of
respiration.
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MECHANISMS FOR GAS EXCHANGE

All living things obtain the energy they need by metabolizing energy-rich compounds, such as carbohydrates and fats. In the
majority of organisms, this metabolism takes place by respiration, a process that requires oxygen (see Chapter 6). In the process,
carbon dioxide gas is produced and must be removed from the body.
In plant cells, carbon dioxide may appear to be a waste product of respiration, too, but because it is used in photosynthesis (see
Chapter 5), carbon dioxide may be considered a by-product. Carbon dioxide must be available to plant cells, and oxygen gas must
be removed. Gas exchange is thus an essential process in energy metabolism, and gas exchange is an essential prerequisite to life,
because where energy is lacking, life cannot continue.
The basic mechanism of gas exchange is diffusion across a moist membrane. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a
region of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration, in the direction following the concentration gradient. In living
systems, the molecules move across cell membranes, which are continuously moistened by fluid.

SIMPLE ORGANISMS
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are in constant contact with their external environment. Gas exchange
occurs by diffusion across their membranes. Even in simple multicellular organisms, such as green algae, their cells may be close
to the environment, and gas exchange can occur easily.
In larger organisms, adaptations bring the environment closer to the cells. Liverworts, for instance, have numerous air chambers in
the internal environment. Sponges and hydras have water-filled central cavities, and planaria have branches of their gastrovascular
cavity that connect with all parts of the body

PLANTS
Although plants are complex organisms, they exchange their gases with the environment in a rather straightforward way. In
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aquatic plants, water passes among the tissues and provides the medium for gas exchange. In terrestrial plants, air enters the
tissues, and the gases diffuse into the moisture bathing the internal cells.
In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants need a supply of carbon dioxide and a means of disposing of oxygen. In order to
carry on cellular respiration, plant cells need oxygen and a means of disposing of carbon dioxide (just as animal cells do). Unlike
animals, plants have no specialized organs for gas exchange (with the few inevitable exceptions!). The are several reasons they
can get along without them:
 Each part of the plant takes care of its own gas exchange needs. Although plants have an elaborate liquid transport
system, it does not participate in gas transport.
 Roots, stems, and leaves respire at rates much lower than are characteristic of animals. Only during photosynthesis are
large volumes of gases exchanged, and each leaf is well adapted to take care of its own needs.
 The distance that gases must diffuse in even a large plant is not great. Each living cell in the plant is located close to the
surface. While obvious for leaves, it is also true for stems. The only living cells in the stem are organized in thin layers
just beneath the bark. The cells in the interior are dead and serve only to provide mechanical support.
 Most of the living cells in a plant have at least part of their surface exposed to air. The loose packing of parenchyma cells
in leaves, stems, and roots provides an interconnecting system of air spaces. Gases diffuse through air several thousand
times faster than through water. Once oxygen and carbon dioxide reach the network of intercellular air spaces (arrows),
they diffuse rapidly through them.
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide also pass through the cell wall and plasma membrane of the cell by diffusion. The diffusion
of carbon dioxide may be aided by aquaporin channels inserted in the plasma membrane.
Leaves
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf (as well as the loss of water vapor in transpiration) occurs through pores
called stomata (singular = stoma).
In the leaf of the plant, an abundant supply of carbon dioxide must be present, and oxygen from photosynthesis must be removed.
Gases do not pass through the cuticle of the leaf; they pass through pores called stomata in the cuticle and epidermis. Stomata are
abundant on the lower surface of the leaf, and they normally open during the day when the rate of photosynthesis is highest.
Physiological changes in the surrounding guard cells account for the opening and closing of the stomata (see Chapter 20).

Normally stomata open when the light strikes

the leaf in the morning and close during the
night. The immediate cause is a change in the
turgor of the guard cells. The inner wall of
each guard cell is thick and elastic. When
turgor develops within the two guard cells
flanking each stoma, the thin outer walls bulge
out and force the inner walls into a crescent
shape. This opens the stoma. When the guard
cells lose turgor, the elastic inner walls regain
their original shape and the stoma closes.

Opening stomata
The increase in osmotic pressure in the guard cells is caused by an uptake of potassium ions (K+). The concentration of K+ in
open guard cells far exceeds that in the surrounding cells. This is how it accumulates:
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 Blue light is absorbed by phototropin which activates a proton pump (an H +-ATPase) in the plasma membrane of the
guard cell.
 ATP, generated by the light reactions of photosynthesis, drives the pump.
 As protons (H+) are pumped out of the cell, its interior becomes increasingly negative.
 This attracts additional potassium ions into the cell, raising its osmotic pressure.
Closing stomata
Although open stomata are essential for photosynthesis, they also expose the plant to the risk of losing water through
transpiration. Some 90% of the water taken up by a plant is lost in transpiration.
In angiosperms and gymnosperms (but not in ferns and Lycopsids), Abscisic acid (ABA) is the hormone that triggers closing of
the stomata when soil water is insufficient to keep up with transpiration
The density of stomata produced on growing leaves varies with such factors as:
• the temperature, humidity, and light intensity around the plant;
• the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air around the leaves. The relationship is inverse; that is, as the concentration
of CO2 goes up, the number of stomata produced goes down, and vice versa. Some evidence:
o Plants grown in an artificial atmosphere with a high level of CO2 have fewer stomata than normal.
o Herbarium specimens reveal that the number of stomata in a given species has been declining over the last 200 years —
the time of the industrial revolution and rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.

ANIMALS
Along the evolutionary tree, different organisms have devised different means of obtaining oxygen from the surrounding
atmosphere. The environment in which the animal lives greatly determines how an animal respires. The complexity of the
respiratory system correlates with the size of the organism. As animal size increases, diffusion distances increase and the ratio of
surface area to volume drops.
In unicellular (single-celled) organisms, diffusion across the cell membrane is sufficient for supplying oxygen to the cell.
Diffusion is a slow, passive transport process. In order to be a feasible means of providing oxygen to the cell, the rate of oxygen
uptake must match the rate of diffusion across the membrane. In other words, if the cell were very large or thick, diffusion would
not be able to provide oxygen quickly enough to the inside of the cell. Therefore, dependence on diffusion as a means of obtaining
oxygen and removing carbon dioxide remains feasible only for small organisms or those with highly-flattened bodies, such as
flatworms (Platyhelminthes). Larger organisms have had to evolve specialized respiratory tissues, such as gills, lungs, and
respiratory passages, accompanied by a complex circulatory system to transport oxygen throughout their entire body.
In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by diffusion across
moist membranes.
Direct Diffusion
For small multicellular organisms, diffusion across the outer membrane is sufficient to meet their oxygen needs. Gas exchange by
direct diffusion across surface membranes is efficient for organisms less than 1 mm in diameter. In simple organisms, such as
cnidarians and flatworms, every cell in the body is close to the external environment. Their cells are kept moist so that gases
diffuse quickly via direct diffusion. Flatworms are small, literally flat worms, which ‘breathe’ through diffusion across the outer
membrane. The flat shape of these organisms increases the surface area for diffusion, ensuring that each cell within the body is
close to the outer membrane surface and has access to oxygen. If the flatworm had a cylindrical body, then the cells in the center
would not be able to get oxygen.
Single-celled organisms exchange gases directly across their cell membrane. However, the slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative
to carbon dioxide limits the size of single-celled organisms. Simple animals that lack specialized exchange surfaces have
flattened, tubular, or thin shaped body plans, which are the most efficient for gas exchange. However, these simple animals are
rather small in size.
Respiratory Surfaces
Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by diffusion across their outer surface. They developed a variety of respiratory
surfaces that all increase the surface area for exchange, thus allowing for larger bodies.
A respiratory surface is covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange. Those gases
can only cross cell membranes when they are dissolved in water or an aqueous solution, thus respiratory surfaces must be moist.
Methods of Respiration
Sponges and jellyfish lack specialized organs for gas exchange and take in gases directly from the surrounding water. Flatworms
and annelids use their outer surfaces as gas exchange surfaces. Arthropods, annelids, and fish use gills; terrestrial vertebrates
utilize internal lungs.
In simple animals, the exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with complex animals, such as mammals, the exchange
occurs between the environment and the blood. The blood then carries oxygen to deeply embedded cells and transports carbon
dioxide out to where it can be removed from the body.
The lungs of mammals are divided into millions of microscopic air sacs called alveoli (the singular is alveolus). Each alveolus is
surrounded by a rich network of blood vessels for transporting gases. In addition, mammals have a dome-shaped diaphragm that
separates the thorax from the abdomen, providing a separate chest cavity for breathing and pumping blood. During inhalation, the
diaphragm contracts and flattens to create a partial vacuum in the lungs. The lungs fill with air, and gas exchange follows.

The Characteristics of a Respiratory Surface are :

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thin walls
a moist inner surface
a huge combined surface area
highly vascularized

FLATWORMS AND ANNELIDS

Earthworms exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide directly through their skin. The oxygen diffuses into tiny blood vessels in the
skin surface, where it combines with the red pigment hemoglobin. Hemoglobin binds loosely to oxygen and carries it through the
animal’s bloodstream. Carbon dioxide is transported back to the skin by the hemoglobin. Flatworms and annelids use their outer
surfaces as gas exchange surfaces. Earthworms have a series of thin-walled blood vessels known as capillaries. Gas exchange
occurs at capillaries located throughout the body as well as those in the respiratory surface.

ARTHROPODS
Terrestrial arthropods have a series of openings called spiracles at the body surface. Spiracles open into tiny air tubes
called tracheae, which expand into fine branches that extend into all parts of the arthropod body.
Insect respiration is independent of its circulatory system; therefore, the blood does not play a direct role in oxygen transport.
Insects have a highly-specialized type of respiratory system called the tracheal system, which consists of a network of small tubes
that carries oxygen to the entire body. The tracheal system, the most direct and efficient respiratory system in active animals, has
tubes made of a polymeric material called chitin.
Insect bodies have openings, called spiracles, along the thorax and abdomen. These openings connect to the tubular network,
allowing oxygen to pass into the body, regulating the diffusion of CO2 and water vapor. Air enters and leaves the tracheal system
through the spiracles. Some insects can ventilate the tracheal system with body movements.
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Gills
Fishes use outward extensions of their body surface called gills for gas exchange. Gills are flaps of tissue richly supplied with
blood vessels. As a fish swims, it draws water into its mouth and across the gills. Oxygen diffuses out of the water into the blood
vessels of the gill, while carbon dioxide leaves the blood vessels and enters the water passing by the gills.
Gills greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange. They occur in a variety of animal groups including arthropods (including
some terrestrial crustaceans), annelids, fish, and amphibians.
Gills typically are convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by a thin epithelial layer. Typically gills are organized
into a series of plates and may be internal (as in crabs and fish) or external to the body (as in some amphibians).
Gills are very efficient at removing oxygen from water: there is only 1/20 the amount of oxygen present in water as in the same
volume of air. Water flows over gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite direction through gill capillaries. This
countercurrent flow maximizes oxygen transfer.
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Air can hold 33 times more oxygen than water, so fish have to be much more efficient breathers than terrestrial animals.
Fortunately, fish have evolved a clever way to overcome their oxygen-deprived environment through their highly specialized gills.
Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism occurring in nature in which there is a relation between two liquids or gases flowing in
opposite directions to each other.
Countercurrent oxygen exchange (shown in the figure above) means the blood flows through the gills in the opposite direction as
the water flowing over the gills. This flow pattern ensures that as the blood progresses through the gills and gains oxygen from the
water, it encounters increasingly fresh water with a higher oxygen concentration that is able to continuously offload oxygen into
the blood. The low-oxygen blood, which is just entering the gill, meets low-oxygen water. Since there is more oxygen in the
water, the oxygen can flow from water to blood. Likewise, the high-oxygen blood, which has nearly passed the entire length of the
gill, meets fresh, high-oxygen water, and oxygen continues to flow from water to blood.

RESPIRATION IN TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES

Terrestrial vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have well-developed respiratory systems with lungs. Reptiles
have folded lungs to provide increased surface area for gas exchange. Rib muscles assist lung expansion and protect the lungs from
injury.
AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians have evolved multiple ways of breathing. Young amphibians, like tadpoles, use gills to breathe, and they do not leave the
water. As the tadpole grows, the gills disappear and lungs grow (though some amphibians retain gills for life). These lungs are
primitive and are not as evolved as mammalian lungs. Adult amphibians are lacking or have a reduced diaphragm, so breathing
through the lungs is forced. The other means of breathing for amphibians is diffusion across the skin. To aid this diffusion, amphibian
skin must remain moist. It has vascular tissues to make this gaseous exchange possible. This moist skin interface can be a detriment
on land, but works well under water.
Frogs swallow air into their lungs, where oxygen diffuses into the blood to join with hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Amphibians
can also exchange gases through their skin.
Amphibians use their skin as a respiratory surface. Frogs eliminate carbon dioxide 2.5 times as fast through their skin as they do
through their lungs. Eels (a fish) obtain 60% of their oxygen through their skin. Humans exchange only 1% of their carbon dioxide
through their skin. Constraints of water loss dictate that terrestrial animals must develop more efficient lungs.

1. Gills
For many frogs, their life cycle includes a "tadpole" or larval stage
of
development. Eggs are laid into ponds or lakes, and upon hatching
the tadpole uses internal and external gills in order to respire within
their aquatic environment. The gills filter oxygen from the water
and dispose of respiratory waste products. Upon maturation from a
tadpole into a frog, these gills are lost
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Lungs- Postive Pressure Breathing

Many frogs use lungs to respire, bringing in air through
their nares and mouth, into the trachea and then to the
lungs for gas exchange and uptake of oxygen. However,
frogs lack the diaphragm that is an anatomical structure
present in many other species. The diaphragm is a muscle
used to create a pressure gradient to draw air into the
lungs. This is negative pressure breathing. Because they
lack this feature, frogs use positive pressure breathing and
must actively push air into their lungs.

3. Cutaneous Respiration
The skin of many frogs is thin and highly vascular to allow for gas exchange.
Because of their thin skin, frogs must live in moist environments and secrete
mucous from their skin to avoid desiccation. Cutaneous respiration also allows for
the frog to remain almost completely submerged under water for long periods of
time, while still oxygenating their blood.

4. Buccopharyngeal Membrane
Frogs can also have gas exchange across the thin, highly vascular buccopharyngeal
membrane, a lining along the mouth. This type of respiration can only occur while
the frog is not submerged in water, as it requires opening of the mouth

BIRDS
Birds are different from other vertebrates, with birds having relatively small lungs and nine air sacs that play an important role in
respiration. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas
exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli.
Flight poses a unique challenge with respect to breathing. Flying consumes a great amount of energy; therefore, birds require a lot
of oxygen to aid their metabolic processes. Birds have evolved a respiratory system that supplies them with the oxygen needed to
sustain flight. Similar to mammals, birds have lungs, which are organs specialized for gas exchange. Oxygenated air, taken in
during inhalation, diffuses across the surface of the lungs into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into
the lungs, and is then expelled during exhalation. The details of breathing between birds and mammals differ substantially.
Birds have large air spaces called air sacs in their lungs. When a bird inhales, its rib cage spreads apart and a partial vacuum is
created in the lungs. Air rushes into the lungs and then into the air sacs, where most of the gas exchange occurs. This system is
birds’ adaptation to the rigors of flight and their extensive metabolic demands.
In addition to lungs, birds have air sacs inside their body. Air flows in one direction from the posterior air sacs to the lungs and out
of the anterior air sacs. The flow of air is in the opposite direction from blood flow, and gas exchange takes place much more
efficiently. This type of breathing enables birds to obtain the requisite oxygen, even at higher altitudes where the oxygen
concentration is low. This directionality of airflow requires two cycles of air intake and exhalation to completely get the air out of
the lungs.
The avian respiratory system is physically distinct from the mammalian respiratory system, both in structure and in its ability to
exchange gas as efficiently as possible.
The bird’s respiratory system consists of paired lungs, which contain static structures with surfaces for gas exchange, and
connected air sacs, which expand and contract causing air to move through the static lungs. A breath of oxygen-rich inhaled air
remains in the respiratory system for two complete inhalation and exhalation cycles before it is fully spent (used) and exhaled out
the body.
When fresh air is first inhaled through a bird’s nares (nostrils), it travels through the trachea (a large tube extending from the
throat), which splits into left and right primary bronchi (a.k.a. mesobronchi, with each bronchus leading to a lung). The inhaled air
travels down each primary bronchus and then divides: some air enters the lungs where gas exchange occurs, while the remaining
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air fills the posterior (rear) air sacs. Then, during the first exhalation, the fresh air in the posterior sacs enters the lungs and
undergoes gas exchange. The spent air in the lungs is displaced by this incoming air and flows out the body through the trachea.
During the second inhalation, fresh air again enters both the posterior sacs and the lungs. Spent air in the lungs is again displaced
by incoming air, but it cannot exit through the trachea because fresh air is flowing inward. Instead, the spent air from the lungs
enters anterior (forward) air sacs. Then, during the second exhalation, the spent air in the anterior sacs and in the lungs flows out
through the trachea, and fresh air in the posterior sacs enters the lungs for gas exchange.
This pattern of airflow through the respiratory system creates unidirectional (one-way) flow of fresh air over the gas exchange
surfaces in the lungs. Furthermore, fresh air passes over the gas exchange surfaces during both inhalation and exhalation, resulting
in a constant supply of fresh air enabling the bird to experience a near-continuous state of gas exchange within the lungs. This
contrasts with mammalian lungs, which experience bidirectional airflow over the gas exchange surfaces.
The efficiency of the avian respiratory system is owed in part to its unidirectional nature and the structure of its parabronchial
system (the smaller passages within the lungs). The air capillaries in the walls of the parabronchial system have a much larger
overall surface area than that found in the mammalian respiratory system. The greater the surface area, the more oxygen and
carbon dioxide can be passed between blood and tissues, which makes for more efficient breathing.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM PRINCIPLES

1. Movement of an oxygen-containing medium so it contacts a moist membrane overlying blood vessels.
2. Diffusion of oxygen from the medium into the blood.
3. Transport of oxygen to the tissues and cells of the body.
4. Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into cells.
5. Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path.
Lungs
Lungs are ingrowths of the body wall and connect to the outside by a series of tubes and small openings. Lung breathing probably
evolved about 400 million years ago. Lungs are not entirely the sole property of vertebrates, some terrestrial snails have a gas
exchange structures similar to those in frogs

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

This system includes the lungs, pathways connecting them to the outside environment, and structures in the chest involved with
moving air in and out of the lungs.
Air enters the body through the nose, is warmed, filtered, and passed through the nasal cavity. Air passes the pharynx (which has
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the epiglottis that prevents food from entering the trachea).The upper part of the trachea contains the larynx. The vocal cords are
two bands of tissue that extend across the opening of the larynx. After passing the larynx, the air moves into the bronchi that carry
air in and out of the lungs.

The lungs and alveoli and their relationship to the diaphragm and capillaries
Bronchi are reinforced to prevent their collapse and are lined with ciliated epithelium and mucus-producing cells. Bronchi branch
into smaller and smaller tubes known as bronchioles. Bronchioles terminate in grape-like sac clusters known as alveoli. Alveoli
are surrounded by a network of thin-walled capillaries. Only about 0.2 µm separate the alveoli from the capillaries due to the
extremely thin walls of both structures.
The lungs are large, lobed, paired organs in the chest (also known as the thoracic cavity). Thin sheets of epithelium (pleura)
separate the inside of the chest cavity from the outer surface of the lungs. The bottom of the thoracic cavity is formed by the
diaphragm.
Ventilation is the mechanics of breathing in and out. When you inhale, muscles in the chest wall contract, lifting the ribs and
pulling them, outward. The diaphragm at this time moves downward enlarging the chest cavity. Reduced air pressure in the lungs
causes air to enter the lungs. Exhaling reverses these steps.
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Gas exchange across capillary and alveolus walls. Inhalation and exhalation
The Alveoli and Gas Exchange
Diffusion is the movement of materials from a higher to a lower concentration. The differences between oxygen and carbon
dioxide concentrations are measured by partial pressures. The greater the difference in partial pressure the greater the rate of
diffusion.
Respiratory pigments increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Humans have the red-colored pigment hemoglobin as
their respiratory pigment. Hemoglobin increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood between 65 and 70 times. Each red
blood cell has about 250 million hemoglobin molecules, and each milliliter of blood contains 1.25 X 10 15 hemoglobin molecules.
Oxygen concentration in cells is low (when leaving the lungs blood is 97% saturated with oxygen), so oxygen diffuses from the
blood to the cells when it reaches the capillaries.
Carbon dioxide concentration in metabolically active cells is much greater than in capillaries, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the
cells into the capillaries. Water in the blood combines with carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate. This removes the carbon dioxide
from the blood so diffusion of even more carbon dioxide from the cells into the capillaries continues yet still manages to
"package" the carbon dioxide for eventual passage out of the body.
In the alveoli capillaries, bicarbonate combines with a hydrogen ion (proton) to form carbonic acid, which breaks down into
carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the alveoli and out of the body with the next exhalation.
Protective Mechanisms
The air that organisms breathe contains particulate matter such as dust, dirt, viral particles, and bacteria that can damage the lungs.
The respiratory system has protective mechanisms to avoid damage. In the nasal cavity, hairs and mucus trap small particles,
viruses, bacteria, dust, and dirt to prevent entry. If particulates make it beyond the nose or enter via the mouth, the bronchi and
bronchioles contain several protective devices. The lungs produce mucus that traps particulates. The bronchi and bronchioles
contain cilia, small hair-like projections that line the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. These cilia move mucus and particles
out of the bronchi and bronchioles back up to the throat where it is swallowed and eliminated via the esophagus.
In humans, tar and other substances in cigarette smoke destroy or paralyze the cilia, making the removal of particles more
difficult. In addition, smoking causes the lungs to produce more mucus, which the damaged cilia are unable to move. This causes
a persistent cough, as the lungs try to rid themselves of particulate matter, making smokers more susceptible to respiratory
ailments.

Details of gas exchange

Control of Respiration
Muscular contraction and relaxation controls the rate of expansion and constriction of the lungs. These muscles are stimulated by
nerves that carry messages from the part of the brain that controls breathing, the medulla. Two systems control breathing: an
automatic response and a voluntary response. Both are involved in holding your breath
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Diseases of the Respiratory System

The condition of the airways and the pressure difference between the lungs and atmosphere are important factors in the flow of air
in and out of lungs. Many diseases affect the condition of the airways.
 Asthma narrows the airways by causing an allergy-induced spasms of surrounding muscles or by clogging the airways
with mucus.
 Bronchitis is an inflammatory response that reduces airflow and is caused by long-term exposure to irritants such as
cigarette smoke, air pollutants, or allergens.
 Cystic fibrosis is a genetic defect that causes excessive mucus production that clogs the airways.

Although the automatic breathing regulation system allows you to breathe while you sleep, it sometimes malfunctions. Apnea
involves stoppage of breathing for as long as 10 seconds, in some individuals as often as 300 times per night. This failure to
respond to elevated blood levels of carbon dioxide may result from viral infections of the brain, tumors, or it may develop
spontaneously. A malfunction of the breathing centers in newborns may result in SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome).
As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. Above 10,000 feet decreased oxygen pressures causes loading of oxygen
into hemoglobin to drop off, leading to lowered oxygen levels in the blood. The result can be mountain sickness (nausea and loss
of appetite). Mountain sickness does not result from oxygen starvation but rather from the loss of carbon dioxide due to increased
breathing in order to obtain more oxygen.
ASTHMA
Asthma is a condition in which the airways of the lungs become either narrowed or completely blocked, obstructing normal
breathing. Once the airways have become obstructed, it takes more effort to force air through them and breathing becomes
labored. This forcing of air through constricted airways can make a whistling sound, called wheezing. Because exhaling through
the obstructed airways is difficult, too much stale air remains in the lungs after each breath. This decreases the amount of fresh air
which can be taken in with each new breath, so not only is there less oxygen available for the whole body. This obstruction of the
lungs, however, is reversible, either spontaneously or with medication.
EMPHYSEMA
It is a condition in which there is over-inflation of structures in the lungs known as alveoli or air sacs. This over-inflation results
from a breakdown of the walls of the alveoli, which causes a decrease in respiratory function and often, breathlessness. The walls
of the air sacs are thin and fragile. As air sacs are destroyed, the lungs are able to transfer less and less oxygen to the bloodstream,
causing shortness of breath. The lungs also lose their elasticity. The patient experiences great difficulty exhaling.
LUNG CANCER
Cancer means the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. The abnormal cells may no longer do the work of normal cells, and they
destroy healthy tissue. Lung cancer is the most common cancer-related cause of death among men and women. Lung cancer takes
many years to develop. However, changes in the lung can begin almost immediately upon exposure to carcinogens. Soon after
exposure begins, microscopic examination of the tissue lining the bronchi will reveal a few unusual cells. With continued
exposure, more abnormal cells appear. These cells may be on their way to becoming cancerous and forming a tumor.
The symptoms of the cancer vary depending on several factors, including where in the lung the tumor is found. If the cancer is
located in one of the bronchi, it can irritate the lining of the bronchus and cause a chronic cough. The cancerous area may bleed
when a person coughs.

If the tumor grows larger, it may gradually fill the bronchus so that air can't pass in or out. A blocked bronchus may also cause
repeated lung infections or pneumonia.

NEGATIVE VS. POSITIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION

Negative Pressure Ventilation
Mammals like humans use negative pressure ventilation as opposed to amphibians like frogs that use positive pressure ventilation.
Frogs gulp the air and force it in down their throat to breathe. Even though this is inefficient, gas exchange also happens through
their skin. Mammals use negative pressure to suck air in. The diaphragm contracts and move down, the intercostal muscles
contract and move up and out. This causes the lungs to expand. The pressure inside the lungs drops. The negative pressure sucks
air in. For us humans, negative pressure ventilation is the normal physiologic way we breathe.
Positive Pressure Ventilation
Positive pressure ventilation is mechanical. Instead of negative pressure created by the contraction of the diaphragm and
intercostal muscles pulling air into the lungs to fill the alveoli like a vacuum, it helps in expansion of the lungs and result in
delivery of oxygen to the alveoli.
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TRANSPORT

Transportation In Plants
Plants are the type of organisms that have an autotrophic mode
of nutrition. By taking in carbon dioxide from the air, minerals,
and water from the soil, plants make their own food. After that,
they release oxygen and water vapor. This process
is Photosynthesis. By this process, plants synthesize their food
in the leaves. For trees, leaves are considered to be food
factories. For the process of photosynthesis, raw materials
should be transported to the leaves. For transport in plants, they
need a transport system to move food, water, and minerals
around because for them no heart, no blood, and since these
plants do not have a circulatory system, transportation makes
up for it.
To circulate water, essential nutrients, excretory products, and
gases within the plants for various purposes, transportation in
plants is necessary. In vascular tissues, this transportation in the
plant takes place. By a suction force, water and minerals are
transported to various parts of the plant. Vascular tissues are
normally conducting tissues. The formation of these tissues can
be done by xylem and phloem of a plant. Without the use of
pump how water moves up the plant against gravity in tubes
made of dead xylem cells can be explained by only the
transportation process

The Process of Transportation

In plants, there are pipe-like vessels through which water and minerals can enter the plants. These vessels are made up of elongated
cells and thick walls. A group of cells forms a tissue that performs a specialized function within the organisms. These are conducting
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tissues. These conducting tissues are divided into two types which are xylem and phloem.
Xylem: It is a vascular tissue that spreads from the top to bottom of the plant. For the transport of water molecules, it makes a
continuous column. It also plays a vital role in the case of dissolved substances from the root hairs to aerial parts of the plant. It
transfers water in one direction. Commonly, xylem occupies the central part of the vascular bundle. It mainly includes different
types of cells such as tracheid, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibers.
In a mature flowering plant or tree, most of the cells that make up the xylem are specialized cells called vessels.
a. Tracheids:
They are elongated tube-like dead cells (without protoplasm) having tapering ends.
The walls are hard and lignified but not much thick and enclose a wide empty lumen.
In the beginning, these cells possess living protoplasm but due to lignification and deposition of thickening materials in wall, they
become dead at maturity.
Tracheids possess various types of wall thickenings; annular (ring like), spiral (helical), scalariform (ladder like), reticulate
(network) and pitted. The pits may be simple or bordered.
The end walls are perforated by the presence of bordered pits which permit flow of water from one cell to another.
Functions:
They conduct water and dissolved mineral elements from roots to the leaves.
They also provide mechanical support due to the presence of hard and firm secondary walls.
b. Vessels or tracheae:
They are long tubes consisting of a series of drum-shaped cells placed one above the other with their walls perforated or dissolved.
Vessels are syncytes formed by the fusion of cells. Each cell appears circular, oval or sometimes polygonal with a very wide lumen
which later becomes lignified and dead. Vessels like tracheids possess various types of thickenings like scalariform, reticulate and
Functions:
They are the chief conducting tissues of vascular plants, particularly in angiosperms. They translocate water and minerals from
roots to the leaves. They also provide mechanical support to the plants.
c. Xylem fibers or wood fibers:
The xylem fibers develop from the same meristematic tissues as the other xylem cells.
They have lignified secondary walls and narrow cell lumen.
They are usually longer than the tracheids of the same plant and present both in primary as well as secondary xylem.
Functions:
It conducts water and minerals from root to leaves and also provides mechanical support to the plant.
d. Xylem parenchyma:
These are living parenchymatous cells present as component of the xylem, both in primary and secondary xylem.
Wood parenchyma and ray parenchyma are two types of parenchyma present in secondary xylem. The wood parenchyma is formed
from fusiform cambium initials whereas ray parenchyma is formed from ray initials of the cambium.
Both of them have thin walls and living protoplasm.
Functions:
Their main function is storage of food in the form of starch or fats.
They also help in conduction of water and minerals.

 It is the chief food-conducting tissue of vascular plants responsible for translocation of organic solutes.
 The phloem is composed of four components; sieve elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibers.
 A fifth kind of cell type, the transfer cell has recently been reported from the phloem.
a. Sieve elements:
 These are the main components of the phloem which are placed one above the other forming sieve tubes.
 They are long tubular structures which consist of living cells without nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
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plastids etc.
 Cytoplasm occurs in the form of thin lining enclosing a big central vacuole which is filled with albuminous substance.
 There is presence of sieve areas (group of pores present in walls) and sieve plates (the portion of cross wall with sieve
areas) in sieve elements.
 The sieve plates may be simple or compound.
 The sieve tubes are syncytes (formed by fusion of cells) and allow free diffusion of organic substances.
Functions:
 They help in translocation of organic solutes (prepared food) from leaves to different body parts.
b. Companion cells:
 These are living cells, each cell always associated with one sieve tube or sometimes more.
 The cell consists of thin cellulose cell wall and active protoplast with all important cellular components; nucleus, plastid,
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes etc.
 The common wall between companion cell and sieve tube shows presence of fine pits which are traversed
by plasmodesmata.
 They are present in angiosperms (both monocots and dicots) but are absent in pteridophytes and gymnosperms.
Functions:
 They assist the sieve tubes in the process of translocation of solutes.
c. Phloem parenchyma:
 They are living parenchymatous cells which are elongated with rounded ends and primary cellulose cell walls.
 They are present in most of the dicots and absent in monocots.
 Phloem ray cells are present in secondary phloem which become lignified as soon as the sieve tubes cease to function.
Functions:
 The cells store food in the form of starch and fats. Sometimes they contain resins and tannins.
 They also help in the translocation of organic solutes.
d. Phloem fibers:
 They are non-living cells also called bast fibers and mostly occur in secondary phloem.
 These fibers have both cellulose and lignified thickenings.
 Secondary phloem consists of elongated lignified cells with simple pits.
 The ends of these cells may be pointed needle-like or blunt.
Functions:
 They provide mechanical support and give strength and rigidity to the plant parts.

Characteristic Xylem Phloem

Type of transport Physical process Requires energy
Substances Water and Products of photosynthesis, including sugars and amino acids dissolved
transported minerals in water
Direction of transport Upwards Upwards and downwards
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some important terms:

Epidermis: The outer layer of the cells in the root of a plant is called epidermis. The thickness of epidermis is equal to one cell.
Endodermis: It is the layer of cells around the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) in the root of a plant. Endodermis is the
innermost layer of cortex.
Root cortex: It is the part of root between the epidermis and endodermis.
Root xylem: It is the xylem tissue present in the roots. It is present at the centre of the root.
Epidermis, root cortex and endodermis are present between the root hair and root xylem. So, the water which is absorbed by the
root hairs from soil first passes through epidermis, root cortex and endodermis and then finally reaches to root xylem.
Also, minerals are present in soil. Plants take these minerals from soil in inorganic form such as nitrates and phosphates.
Minerals from soil gets dissolve in water to form an aqueous solution. So, when water is transported from roots to leaves,
minerals dissolved in water is also transported.
Mechanism of transport of water and minerals in a plant
Root hair absorbs the water containing dissolved minerals from the soil. Root hair is directly in contact with the film of water
present in-between the soil particles. Water containing minerals gets into the root hair and passes from cell to cell through the
process of osmosis and reaches epidermis, root cortex, endodermis and root xylem.
Xylem vessels of the root are connected with the xylem vessel of the stem of a plant. So the water enters from root xylem vessel
to the stem xylem vessel and further reaches into the leaves of the plant from petiole. The plant uses only one or two per cent of
the water in photosynthesis. The remaining water is lost in air as water vapor
Water is sucked up by the xylem vessel
The pressure at the top of the plant (in the leaves) is low
whereas pressure at the bottom of the plant is high. It is
due to transpiration that the pressure is low at the top of a
plant. And it is because of low pressure at the top of the
plant that water flows up the xylem vessel into the leaves
of a plant.
The continuous evaporation of water from the leaves of a
plant is called transpiration. The leaves of a plant have
tiny pores called stomata. It is through them that the water
evaporates into the air. This reduces the pressure at the top
of xylem vessels and thus water flows up into them.
Transport of food and other substances
The food which is prepared by the process of
photosynthesis in the leaves of a plant has to be
transported to other parts like stem, roots, branches etc.
Therefore this food is transported to other parts of the
plant through a kind of tubes called phloem. The transport
of food from leaves to other parts of a plant is called
translocation. The food made by the leaves is in the form
of simple sugar.
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Comparison of transport in the xylem and phloem

Plant organization
The xylem and phloem are distributed differently in roots and stems. In the root, the xylem forms a central column, forming a
solid support. The phloem is towards the Centre, outside the xylem.
In the stem, the transport tissues of the xylem and phloem are grouped into vascular bundles.
Root hair cells
The root hairs are where most water absorption happens. They are long and thin so they can penetrate between soil particles and
they have a large surface area for absorption of water.
Water passes from the soil water to the root hair cell's cytoplasm by osmosis. This happens because the soil water has a
higher water potential than the root hair cell cytoplasm:
Solution Water concentration Concentration of dissolved solutes
Soil water High Low
Root hair cell cytoplasm Low High
Root hair cells - Higher
To maintain the concentration gradient and so the constant movement of water into the root hair cell by osmosis, the root hair
cell actively transports mineral salts into the cell.
This means it uses energy - these cells are actively respiring in order to move mineral salts from low concentration outside of the
cell to the high concentration in the cell. Thus ensuring osmosis and the transpiration stream continues.
Plant tissues - epidermis, palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll
The structure of a leaf
Plant leaves are adapted for photosynthesis and the exchange of gases required for the process. The xylem transports water and
mineral ions to the leaves from the roots and the phloem transports sugars made in photosynthesis away from the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
The structure of the tissues is related to their functions in the plant.
Absorbing light energy
The palisade mesophyll layer of the leaf is adapted to absorb light efficiently. The cells:
 are packed with many chloroplasts
 are column-shaped and arranged closely together
 are towards the upper surface of the leaf
Gas exchange
Spongy mesophyll tissue is packed loosely for efficient gas exchange. The spongy mesophyll cells are covered by a thin layer of
water. Gases dissolve in this water as they move into and out of the cells.
When the plant is photosynthesizing during the day, these features allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the spongy mesophyll
cells and oxygen to diffuse out of them.
To enter the leaf, gases diffuse through small pores called stomata. As the stomata opens, water is lost by the process
of transpiration. Closing the stomata helps to control water loss.
Structure and function of stomata
The stomata control gas exchange in the leaf. Each stoma can be open or closed, depending on how turgid its guard cells are.
The stomata can open and close to:
 control water lost by transpiration
 allow gas exchange
Diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaf for photosynthesis and oxygen and water vapor out of the leaf, is greatest when the
stomata are open during the day.
Stomata are found mainly on the lower surface of the leaf to reduce water loss by transpiration.

Transpiration
When the plant opens its stomata to let in carbon dioxide, water on the surface of the cells of the spongy mesophyll and palisade
mesophyll evaporates and diffuses out of the leaf. This process is called transpiration.
Water is drawn from the cells in the xylem to replace that which has been lost from the leaves.
Water molecules inside the xylem cells are strongly attracted to each other. A continuous column of water is therefore pulled up
the stem in the transpiration stream by evaporation from the leaves.
As water travels through the xylem in the stem and leaf, it is being replaced by water taken up by the roots.
Transpiration is an unavoidable consequence of photosynthesis – only five percent of the water taken up by the plant is used for
photosynthesis - but it does have its purposes:
 provides the water for photosynthesis
 transports mineral ions
 cools the leaf as water evaporates
 provides water that keeps the cells turgid, which supports herbaceous plants
Water uptake and transport across the root
Root hairs are single-celled extensions of epidermal cells in the root. They grow between soil particles and absorb water and
minerals from the soil.
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Water enters the root hair cells by osmosis. This happens because soil water has a higher water concentration than the cytoplasm
of the root hair cell. Minerals enter by active transport.
Soil water moves into the root hair cell by osmosis and across the root cortex to the xylem
A summary of water uptake, water transport and transpiration:
Factors affecting transpiration
The rate of transpiration is affected by several factors. These include:
 temperature
 humidity
 air movement
 light intensity
The table below explains how factors increase the rate of transpiration:
Change in factor that
Factor Explanation
increases transpiration rate
Increases molecular movement so that more water molecules evaporate
Temperature Increase from cell surfaces. The rate of diffusion of water molecules from the
leaf is increased.
Reduces the concentration of water molecules outside the leaf.
Humidity Decrease
Diffusion of water from the leaf increases.
Air Removes water vapour from leaf surfaces. More water diffuses from the
Increase
movement leaf.
Light Increases the rate of photosynthesis. Stomata open so that water diffuses
Increase
intensity out of the leaf.

Circulatory System in Animals

Living things must be capable of transporting nutrients, wastes and gases to and from cells. Single-celled organisms use their cell
surface as a point of exchange with the outside environment. Multicellular organisms have developed transport and circulatory
systems to deliver oxygen and food to cells and remove carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Sponges are the simplest animals,
yet even they have a transport system. Seawater is the medium of transport and is propelled in and out of the sponge by ciliary
action. Simple animals, such as the hydra and planaria, lack specialized organs such as hearts and blood vessels, instead using their
skin as an exchange point for materials. This, however, limits the size an animal can attain. To become larger, they need
specialized organs and organ systems.
Multicellular animals do not have most of their cells in contact with the external environment and so have developed circulatory
systems to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Components of the circulatory system include
blood: a connective tissue of liquid plasma and cells
heart: a muscular pump to move the blood
blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins that deliver blood to all tissues
Sponges, Cnidarians, and nematodes lack a separate circulatory system -Sponges circulate water using many incurrent pores and
one excurrent pore -Hydra circulates water through a gastrovascular cavity (also for digestion) Pseudocoelomates use body cavity
to circulate. Nematodes are thin enough that the digestive tract can also be used as a circulatory system
Fishes evolved a true chamber-pump heart in response to gills. Four structures are arrayed one after the other to form two
pumping chambers Four structures are arrayed one after the other to form two pumping chambers First chamber consists of the
sinus venosus and atrium, and the second, of the ventricle and conus arteriosus These contract in the order listed in all vertebrates.
Blood is pumped through the gills, and then to the rest of the body Blood is pumped through the gills, and then to the rest of the
body
The frog has a three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria and one ventricle -Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix very
little Amphibians living in water obtain additional oxygen by diffusion through their skin Reptiles have a septum that partially
subdivides the ventricle, thereby further reducing the mixing of blood in the heart
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ANNELIDS
Majority of Annelids have a closed circulatory system which
means that the blood is contained in blood vessels. Although,
marine Annelids have an open circulatory system. An open
circulatory system is when blood flows to all the empty
sinuses of the body. Annelids with a closed circulatory system
have a five hearts instead of one like humans do.

ARTHROPODS

COCKROACH
Heart and Aorta:
The heart of cockroach is an elongated contractile, narrow
tube lying along the mid-dorsal line of thorax and abdomen
just beneath the terga. The heart is enclosed in a pericardial
sinus and is closed behind but is continued forward as a short
and narrow tube without Ostia called the aorta. This aorta and
segmental arteries finally open within the haemocoelic spaces.
Haemocoel:
The body cavity of cockroach is not a true coelom but a
haemocoel containing blood (haemolymph).
Haemolymph:
In cockroach, the circulating fluid does not always flow
through the vessels, rather comes in direct contact with the
tissues while flowing in the haemocoel.
It is colorless, as it lacks the respiratory pigment hemoglobin
and does not take part in respiration. It consists of a clear fluid
plasma in which are suspended nucleated cells or haemocytes.
The contraction of alary muscles enlarges the pericardial space
so that the haemolymph flows into it from the underlying
perivisceral sinus. When the alary muscles relax, the
haemolymph is forced through the ostia into the heart.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

Fish heart: The conus arteriosus (in more primitive species), contracts to
The circulatory systems of all vertebrates are closed. Fish have assist blood flow to the aorta. The bulbus anteriosus does not
the simplest circulatory system, consisting of only one circuit, contract. The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills where it
with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills is oxygenated and flows, through the dorsal aorta, into the rest
and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as of the body.
single cycle circulation.
Fish have a two-chambered heart consisting of one atrium to
receive blood and one ventricle to eject it. Entry and exit
compartments are often referred as accessory chambers. The four
compartments are arranged sequentially. The sinus venosus (first
accessory chamber), collects deoxygenated blood through the
incoming hepatic and cardinal veins. The atrium, a thicker-
walled, muscular chamber sends blood to the ventricle.
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Amphibian heart:
Amphibians have a three-chambered heart consisting on two atria and one ventricle. The two atria receive blood from the two
different circuits (the lungs and the systemic circulation). Mixing of the blood in the heart's ventricle reduces the efficiency of
oxygenation. This is partially mitigated by a ridge within the ventricle that diverts oxygen-rich blood through the systemic
circulatory system and deoxygenated blood to the pulmocutaneous circuit where gas exchange occurs.
Blood leaves the heart from the ventricle through a single truncus arteriosus which is short and soon branches into two aortic
arches which loop left and right and dorsal to the heart to rejoin as a single aorta in the mid dorsal region of the body cavity. Each
aortic arch has a branch leading to the lungs and skin where oxygenation occurs. Carotid arteries also branch off the aortic arches
and supply the head region. Veins bring blood to the left and right atria. Both atria then empty into the single ventricle.
The pacemaker is the sinus venosus, an enlarged region between the vena cava and the right atrium. This the cells of the
pacemaker are termed “leaky”, meaning that calcium ions leak into the cells. Leaking of positive ions causes a slow depolarization
to threshold, thus initiating an action potential that quickly spreads throughout the muscle. The atria are very conductive, and the
action potential spreads readily across these two chambers. The major route for the transmission of action potentials from the SA
node to the ventricle(s) is by way of a set of modified conductive muscle cells that compose the bundle of His embedded in the
septum separating the two atria.

Reptilian heart:
The cardiac structure of non-crocodilian reptiles is significantly different from that of mammals. Most reptiles have three
chambered hearts with two atria and one common ventricle. The right atrium receives blood returning from the systemic
circulation via the sinus venosus, which is formed by the confluence of the right and left precaval veins and the single postcaval
vein. The walls of the sinus venosus contain cardiac muscle and the pacemaker of the heart. The left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. The atrioventricular valves are bicuspid, membranous structures. Under normal
conditions the three chambered heart functions much like a four chambered structure, therefore relatively little mixing of
oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood occurs. The right and left aortic arches come together to form a single aorta at variable
distances caudal to the heart. Differential blood flow and separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood is maintained by
pressure differences of the outflow tracts and the muscular ridges that partially divide the ventricle. In most non-crocodilian
reptiles the ventricle functions as a single pump, meaning that the same pressures are generated by both the cavum pulmonale and
cavum venosum. Due the unique anatomy, both right to left and left to right shunts are possible in the reptilian heart for example
during apnea.
Avian heart:
Birds, like mammals, have a four-chambered heart. Two atria and two ventricles allow for complete separation of oxygenated and
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de-oxygenated blood. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body.
Because the left ventricle must generate greater pressure to pump blood throughout the body (in contrast to the right ventricle that
pumps blood to the lungs), the walls of the left ventricle are much thicker and more muscular. Birds tend to have larger hearts than
mammals (relative to body size and mass). The relatively large hearts of birds is probably required to meet the high metabolic
demands of flight. Among birds, smaller birds have relatively larger hearts than larger birds. Hummingbirds have the largest hearts
(relative to body mass) of all birds, probably because hovering takes so much energy. Cardiac output for birds is typically greater
than that for mammals of the same body mass. Cardiac output is influenced by both heart rate and stroke volume (blood pumped
with each beat). 'Active' birds increase cardiac output primarily by increasing heart rate.

OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

There are several types of circulatory systems. The open Vertebrates, and a few invertebrates, have a closed circulatory
circulatory system, is common to molluscs and arthropods. Open system, shown in Figure 2. Closed circulatory systems
circulatory systems (evolved in insects, mollusks and other (evolved in echinoderms and vertebrates) have the blood
invertebrates) pump blood into a haemocoel with the blood closed at all times within vessels of different size and wall
diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells. Blood is thickness. In this type of system, blood is pumped by a heart
pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where tissues are through vessels, and does not normally fill body cavities.
surrounded by the blood. The resulting blood flow is sluggish. Blood flow is not sluggish. Hemoglobin causes vertebrate
blood to turn red in the presence of oxygen; but more
importantly hemoglobin molecules in blood cells transport
oxygen. The human closed circulatory system is sometimes
called the cardiovascular system. A secondary circulatory
system, the lymphatic circulation, collects fluid and cells and
returns them to the cardiovascular system.
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HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

While in smaller organisms, diffusion and osmosis help in the transportation of substances, it is not the case in larger animals and
organisms. As the organism grows bigger, the processes become more and more complex and thus, there is a need for a more
structured system for the transportation of various substances.
The human circulatory system is mainly composed of three main components. These are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. l.
Blood Circulatory System
Blood is the major tissue in the human body that is responsible for carrying substances and materials to different parts of the body. It is
the main carrier of substances to other organs and parts of the body. Blood further has various components to it. Let us discuss them
first. Blood is primarily composed of the following components:

BLOOD
PLASMA PLASMA - FUNCTIONS
The plasma of the blood consists of 90% of water and remaining The plasma maintains acid base equilibrium of the blood.
10% is constituted by organic and inorganic substances. The fibrinogen of plasma brings about coagulation of blood.
The organic substances are plasma proteins, glucose, urea, Albumins and globulins help in retention of water in the
creatinine, amino acids, lipids, antibodies, vitamins, enzymes, plasma, by their osmotic effect and are also protective in
Antitoxins, cholesterol etc. function.
The plasma proteins are fibrinogen, albumins and globulins. A fall in the level of these proteins leads to the filtering out of
The inorganic substances constitute Na, K, Mg, Cl ~ HPO4, excessive volumes of water from the blood into the tissues,
HCO3 etc. leading to edema.
The plasma is slightly saltish and possesses a pH of about 7.2.
Red blood cells or Erythrocytes (RBC) White blood cells or Leucocytes
The red blood cells are biconcave circular and enucleated. The white blood cells are larger than R.B.C. but they are few
The cell organelles like Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, RNA, in number.
centriole are present. They are nucleated blood cells. The ratio of red cells to white
The average diameter is 7.5 u . The average number of RBC is blood cells is 600 to 1.
about 5 million/mm3 of blood. The number of leucocytes varies from 5000 to 9000/mm3 of
The number of R.B.C. increases in acute exercises and high blood.
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altitudes. The number increases at times of stress and pain.

The red blood cells consist of a respiratory pigment called The increase in the number of leucocytes is called
Hemoglobin. Leukocytosis.
It is a conjugated protein composed of a protein called globin, In certain diseases the leucocytes decrease in number.
united to a prosthetic group called haeme. Haeme is a porphyrin The reduction in the leucocyte count below the normal level is
derivative and consists of four iron atoms. called Leucopenia.
The amount of hemoglobin is 14-16 gm/100 ml of blood. Abnormal increase in the number of leucocytes with plenty of
The oxygen combines with hemoglobin to form immature cells is called Leukemia.
oxyhaemoglobin in the form of which it is transported to The W.B.C. are of two types basing on the nature of cytoplasm
different tissues of the body. and nucleus.They are
Carbon dioxide is also transported in the blood in the form of 1. Granula leucocytes and
carbamino compounds when combines with hemoglobin. 2. Agranular leucocytes.
The life span of R.B.C. is 120 days.
The spleen helps in trapping the old cells and broken fragments.
The dead cells are disposed by macrophages present in the liver,
bone marrow and spleen.
The hemoglobin of dead R.B.C. is also broken down into haeme
and globin.
The iron is liberated from the haeme and once again used in the
formation of R.B.C.
The development of R.B.C. is called erythropoiesis. In the
foetus the liver, red bone marrow and spleen are centres for the
formation of R.B.C.
After birth they are developed exclusively from red bone
marrow.
The red bone marrow consists of precursors of R.B.C. like
proerythroblasts or haemo erythroblasts, which transform into
erythrocytes. The vitamins B12 and folic acid are necessary for
erythrocyte production.
Decrease in the total count of RBC causes anaemia and the
increase in RBC causes polycythemia
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BLOOD VESSELS
The next important component of the circulatory system is the network of blood vessels. Blood vessels are of three main types. They
are arteries, veins, and capillaries.
 Arteries: Arteries have relatively thicker walls and are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to different
organs. An exception to this mechanism is the pulmonary artery as it is responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs.
 Veins: Veins are made of relatively thin walls compared to arteries. They carry out the function of transporting deoxygenated
blood from different organs to the heart. Pulmonary vein is an exception because it carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the heart.
 Capillaries: These are nothing but very fine branches of arteries and veins.
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The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart. The system of blood vessels resembles a tree:
The “trunk” – the main artery (aorta) – branches into large arteries, which lead to smaller and smaller vessels. The smallest
arteries end in a network of tiny vessels known as the capillary network.

HEART
The heart consists of four chambers:
Atria: the two upper chambers (they receive blood).
Ventricles: the two lower chambers (they discharge blood).
The left atria and left ventricle are separated from the right atria and right ventricle by a wall of muscle called the septum.
The wall of the heart consists of three layers of tissue:
Epicardium — protective layer mostly made of connective tissue.
Myocardium — the muscles of the heart.
Endocardium — lines the inside of the heart and protects the valves and chambers.
These layers are covered in a thin protective coating called the pericardium.
How the heart works
The heart contracts at different rates depending on many factors. At rest, it might beat around 60 times a minute, but it can
increase to 100 beats a minute or more. Exercise, emotions, fever, diseases, and some medications can influence heart rate. For
more information on what is "normal," read this article.
The left and right side of the heart work in unison. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood and sends it to the
lungs; the left side of the heart receives blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.
The atria and ventricles contract and relax in turn, producing a rhythmical heartbeat:

Right side Left side

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body Newly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
through veins called the superior and inferior vena cava (the pulmonary vein.
largest veins in the body). The left atrium contracts, pushing blood into the left ventricle.
The right atrium contracts and blood passes to the right Once the left ventricle is full, it contracts and pushes the blood
ventricle. back out to the body via the aorta.
Once the right ventricle is full, it contracts and pumps the
blood through to the lungs via the pulmonary artery, where it
picks up oxygen and offloads carbon dioxide.
Each heartbeat can be split into two parts:
Diastole: the atria and ventricles relax and fill with blood.
Systole: the atria contract (atrial systole) and push blood into the ventricles; then, as the atria start to relax, the ventricles contract
(ventricular systole) and pump blood out of the heart.
When blood is sent through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, it travels through tiny capillaries on the surface of the lung's alveoli
(air sacs). Oxygen travels into the capillaries, and carbon dioxide travels from the capillaries into the air sacs, where it is breathed
out into the atmosphere.
The muscles of the heart need to receive oxygenated blood, too. They are fed by the coronary arteries on the surface of the heart.
Where blood passes near to the surface of the body, such as at the wrist or neck, it is possible to feel your pulse; this is the rush of
blood as it is pumped through the body by the heart The heart has four valves that help ensure that blood only flows in one
direction:
Aortic valve: between the left ventricle and the aorta.
Mitral valve: between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
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Pulmonary valve: between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
Tricuspid valve: between the right atrium and right ventricle.
Most people are familiar with the sound of a human heartbeat. It is often described as a "lub-DUB" sound. The "lub" sound is
produced by the tricuspid and mitral valves closing, and the "DUB" sound is caused by the closing of the pulmonary and aortic
valves.
The heart's electrical system
To pump blood throughout the body, the muscles of the heart must be coordinated perfectly — squeezing the blood in the right
direction, at the right time, at the right pressure. The heart's activity is coordinated by electrical impulses.
The electrical signal begins at the sino-atrial (or sinus, SA) node — the heart's pacemaker, positioned at the top of the right atrium.
This signal causes the atria to contract, pushing blood down into the ventricles.
The electrical impulse travels to an area of cells at the bottom of the right atrium called the atrioventricular (AV) node. These cells
act as a gate; they slow the signal down so that the atria and ventricles do not contract at the same time — there needs to be a
slight delay.
From here, the signal is carried along special fibers called Purkinje fibers within the ventricle walls; they pass the impulse to the
heart muscle, causing the ventricles to contract.
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Pulse rate is the number of heart beats per minute. The resting pulse rate for an average adult is between 60 and 80 beats per
minute
CARDIAC CYCLE
The period of time that begins with contraction of the atria and ends with ventricular relaxation is known as the cardiac cycle . The
period of contraction that the heart undergoes while it pumps blood into circulation is called systole. The period of relaxation that
occurs as the chambers fill with blood is called diastole. Both the atria and ventricles undergo systole and diastole, and it is
essential that these components be carefully regulated and coordinated to ensure blood is pumped efficiently to the body.
The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the ending of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists
of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole, followed by a period of robust
contraction and pumping of blood, dubbed systole.

Heart rate is controlled by the two branches of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones
(catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
releases the hormone acetylcholine to slow the heart rate. Such factors as stress, caffeine, and excitement may temporarily
accelerate your heart rate, while meditating or taking slow, deep breaths may help to slow your heart rate.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES:
Cardiovascular diseases actually point to a group of diseases or disorders that affect the heart and the major blood vessels attached
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to it. The disease may affect just the heart, a blood vessel or sometimes both of them at the same time.
The blood vessel here refers to the one that supplies blood from the heart to other parts of the body like arms, and legs, or the
brain and vice versa. The heart and the blood vessels together form the cardiovascular system, which helps circulate blood
throughout the entire body.
In addition, CVDs includes congenital heart disease, pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis, and rheumatic heart disease as
well. Thus, the following are the groups of diseases that fall under the category of cardiovascular diseases:
Pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis: These
diseases are characterized by the presence of a blood clot in
the veins of the leg. The clot may dislodge from its original
location and move to the heart and the lungs. This may lead
to fatal conditions such as stroke.
Coronary heart disease or coronary artery disease: This
refers to the disease of the main artery that supply blood to
the cardiac muscles.
Cerebrovascular disease: This refers to the disease of the
blood vessels that supplies blood to the brain.
Peripheral arterial disease: This refers to the disease of the
vessels that supply blood to the arms and legs.

Common cardiac diseases Common vascular diseases The symptoms of a heart The symptoms of a stroke
include : include the following: attack are as follows: are as follows:
Angina Blood Clotting Disorder Pain in the chest (angina) Sudden weakness, mostly
Irregular Heartbeat or Atherosclerosis Discomfort in the chest on the one side of the body
Arrhythmia Renal Artery Disease Pain in the arms and other Severe headache
Heart Attack or Failure Aneurysm body parts such as elbows, Confusion
Pulmonary Stenosis Peripheral Arterial Disease back, jaw, and left Difficulty speaking and
Mitral Valve Prolapse or Peripheral Venous Disease shoulder understanding things
Regurgitation Stroke Difficulty breathing and Difficulty walking and
Atrial Fibrillation shortness of breath dizziness
Rheumatic Heart Disease Cold sweat Problems walking straight
Coronary Artery Disease Light-headedness and loss of balance
Dilated or Hypertrophic Paleness Problem seeing from one
Cardiomyopathy or both the eyes
Congenital Heart Disease Vomiting Unconsciousness

SYMPTOMS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES

The symptoms of cardiovascular diseases vary from one condition to another. The symptoms most often depend on the underlying
condition that the patient could be suffering from.
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Mostly, there are no specific symptoms that a patient may experience when he or she suffers from a disease of the blood vessels.
In a majority of the cases, a heart attack or a stroke is often the first sign of the disease.
CAUSES OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Certain types of cardiovascular disease have a direct cause. For example, heart attack and stroke primarily result because of
disruption in the flow of blood to the heart or the brain caused due to a blockage. The blockage could be deposition of fatty
material on the inside of the arterial wall or the presence of a blood clot.
But a majority of cardiovascular diseases do not have a direct cause. Instead, they are triggered by a combination of risk factors
such as unhealthy eating habits, sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity, smoking, excessive alcohol and tobacco use, obesity,
and the presence of an underlying condition such as diabetes and hypertension.
Cardiovascular Disease Recommended Line of Treatment

 Medications (anti-clotting and blood thinning)

 Lifestyle changes
Heart Attack
 Percutaneous coronary intervention
 Cardiac rehabilitation

 Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) clot-busting medication

 Mechanical clot removal
Stroke
 Angioplasty and stent placement
 Carotid endarterectomy

 Lifestyle changes
 Medications – beta-blockers, aspirin, cholesterol-lowering drugs
Coronary Artery Disease
 Angioplasty and stent placement
 Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)

 Medications
 Cardioversion
 Catheter ablation
Arrhythmia  Pacemaker Implantation
 Implantable Cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD)
 Coronary bypass surgery
 Maze procedure

 Drug therapy
 Electrical cardioversion
 Catheter ablation
Atrial Fibrillation
 Maze procedure
 Atrioventricular (AV) node ablation
 Anticoagulant administration

 Mitral valve repair

Mitral Valve Prolapse  Mitral valve replacement
 Medications – beta-blockers, diuretics, blood-thinners, and aspirin

 Medications – anti-seizure, pain relievers, and calcium-channel blockers

Aneurysm  Surgical clipping
 Endovascular coiling

 Open-Heart Surgery
Pulmonary Stenosis
 Balloon Valvuloplasty
Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and the lymphatic system.
Many types of leukemia exist. Some forms of leukemia are more common in children. Other forms of leukemia occur mostly in
adults.
Leukemia usually involves the white blood cells. Your white blood cells are potent infection fighters — they normally grow and
divide in an orderly way, as your body needs them. But in people with leukemia, the bone marrow produces abnormal white blood
cells, which don't function properly.
Treatment for leukemia can be complex — depending on the type of leukemia and other factors. But there are strategies and
resources that can help to make your treatment successful.
Risk factors for leukemia
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The causes of leukemia aren’t known. However, several factors have been identified which may increase your risk. These include:
 a family history of leukemia
 smoking, which increases your risk of developing acute myeloid leukemia (AML)
 genetic disorders such as Down syndrome
 blood disorders, such as myelodysplastic syndrome, which is sometimes called “preleukemia”
 previous treatment for cancer with chemotherapy or radiation
 exposure to high levels of radiation
 exposure to chemicals such as benzene

THALASSEMIA
Thalassemia is when a person's body does not make enough of a red blood cell protein called hemoglobin. This lowers the number
of healthy red blood cells that can carry oxygen to the body.
Alpha thalassemia is when the alpha part of hemoglobin is faulty. Beta thalassemia is when the beta part is faulty.
Causes
Thalassemia is caused by problems in specific genes that are passed from the parents. The type of thalassemia a person has
depends on how many genes are passed.
Risk
Thalassemia is more common in people who have a family history of it. Some types are more common in people with certain
ancestry:
 Alpha thalassemia—Middle East, areas around the Mediterranean Sea, Southeast Asia, Malaysia, and Southern China
 Alpha hydrops fetalis—Southeast Asia, China, and Philippines
 Beta thalassemia—Africa, areas around the Mediterranean Sea, and Southeast and Central Asia
Symptoms
Some people do not have symptoms. People who do will have mild to severe depending on the type of thalassemia:
 Feeling tired
 Pale or yellow skin color
 Yellowing of the whites of the eyes
 Lack of hunger
 Slowed growth and delayed puberty
 Dark urine
 Belly swelling
 Bone fractures
Diagnosis
Thalassemia is often found during childhood. The doctor will ask about your symptoms and health history. A physical exam will
be done. Thalassemia is diagnosed with blood tests.
Treatment
Treatment will be based on the type of thalassemia a person has. Mild forms may not need to be treated. More severe forms may
need:
Blood transfusions
Blood is collected from a donor and delivered through the vein of a person with thalassemia. It is done to raise the person's level
of healthy red blood cells with normal hemoglobin. It may need to be done again whenever red blood cells are low.
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CYANOSIS
Hemoglobin is a blood protein that is responsible for carrying oxygen around the body and delivering it to the different cells and
tissues.
When the blood is unable to carry oxygen around the body, the baby turns blue (cyanotic).
Blue baby syndrome is rare in industrialized countries, but it does occasionally occur in rural areas. Babies born in developing
countries with poor water supply continue to be at risk for the condition
Blue baby syndrome is a condition some babies are born with or develop early in life. It’s characterized by an overall skin color
with a blue or purple tinge, called cyanosis.
This bluish appearance is most noticeable where the skin is thin, such as the lips, earlobes, and nail beds. Blue baby syndrome,
while not common, can occur due to several congenital (meaning present at birth) heart defects or environmental or genetic
factors.
Causes
The baby takes on a bluish hue because of poorly oxygenated blood. Normally, blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs,
where it receives oxygen. The blood is circulated back through the heart and then throughout the body.
When there’s a problem with the heart, lungs, or blood, blood may not be oxygenated properly. This causes the skin to take on a
blue color. The lack of oxygenation can occur for several reasons. Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF)
While a rare congenital heart defect, TOF is a primary cause of blue baby syndrome. It’s actually a combination of four heart
defects that can reduce blood flow to the lungs and allow oxygen-poor blood to flow out into the body.
TOF includes conditions like having a hole in the wall that separates the left and right ventricles of the heart and a muscle
obstructing the flow of blood from the right ventricle into the pulmonary, or lung, artery.
Methemoglobinemia
This condition stems from nitrate poisoning. It is can happen in babies who are fed infant formula mixed with well water or
homemade baby food made with nitrate-rich foods, like spinach or beets.

The condition occurs most often in babies under 6 months of age. When this young, babies have more sensitive and
underdeveloped gastrointestinal tracts, which are more likely to convert nitrate into nitrite. As nitrite circulates in the body, it
produces methemoglobin. While methemoglobin is oxygen-rich, it doesn’t release that oxygen into the bloodstream. This gives
babies with the condition their bluish hue.

Methemoglobinemia can also rarely be congenital.

Other congenital heart defects

Genetics cause most congenital heart defects. For example, babies born with Down syndrome often have heart problems.

Issues with maternal health, such as underlying and poorly controlled type 2 diabetes, can also result in a baby developing heart
defects.

Some heart defects are also caused for no apparent reason at all. Only a few congenital heart defects cause cyanosis.

Atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis occurs when the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients from your heart to the rest of your body (arteries)
become thick and stiff — sometimes restricting blood flow to your organs and tissues. Healthy arteries are flexible and elastic, but
over time, the walls in your arteries can harden, a condition commonly called hardening of the arteries.
Atherosclerosis is a specific type of arteriosclerosis, but the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Atherosclerosis refers to
the buildup of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on your artery walls (plaque), which can restrict blood flow.
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The plaque can burst, triggering a blood clot. Although atherosclerosis is often considered a heart problem, it can affect arteries
anywhere in your body. Atherosclerosis may be preventable and is treatable.
The exact cause of atherosclerosis isn't known. However, studies show that atherosclerosis is a slow, complex disease that may
start in childhood. It develops faster as you age.
Atherosclerosis may start when certain factors damage the inner layers of the arteries. These factors include:
Smoking
High amounts of certain fats and cholesterol in the blood
High blood pressure
High amounts of sugar in the blood due to insulin resistance or diabetes
Plaque may begin to build up where the arteries are damaged. Over time, plaque hardens and narrows the arteries. Eventually, an
area of plaque can rupture (break open).
When this happens, blood cell fragments called platelets (PLATE-lets) stick to the site of the injury. They may clump together to
form blood clots. Clots narrow the arteries even more, limiting the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your body.
Major Risk Factors
Unhealthy blood cholesterol levels. This includes high LDL cholesterol (sometimes called "bad" cholesterol) and low HDL
cholesterol (sometimes called "good" cholesterol).
High blood pressure. Blood pressure is considered high if it stays at or above 140/90 mmHg over time. If you have diabetes or
chronic kidney disease, high blood pressure is defined as 130/80 mmHg or higher. (The mmHg is millimeters of mercury—the
units used to measure blood pressure.)
Smoking. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels, raise cholesterol levels, and raise blood pressure. Smoking also doesn't
allow enough oxygen to reach the body's tissues.
Insulin resistance. This condition occurs if the body can't use its insulin properly. Insulin is a hormone that helps move blood
sugar into cells where it's used as an energy source. Insulin resistance may lead to diabetes.
Diabetes. With this disease, the body's blood sugar level is too high because the body doesn't make enough insulin or doesn't use
its insulin properly.
Overweight or obesity. The terms "overweight" and "obesity" refer to body weight that's greater than what is considered healthy
for a certain height.
Lack of physical activity. A lack of physical activity can worsen other risk factors for atherosclerosis, such as unhealthy blood
cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, diabetes, and overweight and obesity.
Unhealthy diet. An unhealthy diet can raise your risk for atherosclerosis. Foods that are high in saturated and trans fats,
cholesterol, sodium (salt), and sugar can worsen other atherosclerosis risk factors.
Older age. As you get older, your risk for atherosclerosis increases. Genetic or lifestyle factors cause plaque to build up in your
arteries as you age. By the time you're middle-aged or older, enough plaque has built up to cause signs or symptoms. In men, the
risk increases after age 45. In women, the risk increases after age 55.
Family history of early heart disease. Your risk for atherosclerosis increases if your father or a brother was diagnosed with heart
disease before 55 years of age, or if your mother or a sister was diagnosed with heart disease before 65 years of age.

A thrombus is a blood clot in the circulatory system. It attaches to the site at which it formed and remains there, hindering blood
flow.
Doctors describe the development of a thrombus as thrombosis.
A thrombus is most likely to occur in people who are immobile and in those with a genetic predisposition to blood clotting.
A thrombus can also form after damage occurs in an artery, vein, or surrounding tissue.
A blood clot is usually a normal physical response to injury.
It quickly forms a plug that can reduce or prevent bleeding. However, a thrombus can cause severe health problems, as it
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interrupts the function of a blood vessel.

A section of a blood clot that breaks free from the thrombus and circulates in the bloodstream is called an embolus.
An embolus moves through the vascular system until it lodges in a different part of the body.
An embolus is a dangerous and potentially fatal complication of thrombosis. It is especially dangerous if it reaches the heart,
lungs, or brain (embolism).
Doctors categorize thrombi based on the type of blood vessel in which they develop:
When a thrombus forms in an artery, such as in the heart or brain, it is called an arterial thrombosis.
When a thrombus occurs in a vein, it is called a venous thrombosis. When this happens in the deep veins of the leg, it is
called deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Causes
Clotting occurs due to a series of chemical reactions between blood cells known as platelets and proteins called clotting factors.
When a person is in good health, the body regulates the clotting process according to its needs.
However, a clot can form more easily when a person:
 uses tobacco
 has high cholesterol
 has obesity or is overweight
 has cancer
 has diabetes
 is stressed
 has an inactive lifestyle
Some of these factors also increase the risk of atherosclerosis, a condition wherein fatty plaque deposits line the blood vessels and
clog them.
Atherosclerosis makes blood clots more likely to block the arteries and the veins.

Myocardial infarction (MI) (ie, heart attack) is the irreversible death (necrosis) of heart muscle secondary to prolonged lack of
oxygen supply (ischemia). Approximately 1.5 million cases of MI occur annually in the United States. See the images below.
Acute myocardial infarction is the medical name for a heart attack. A heart attack is a life-threatening condition that occurs when
blood flow to the heart muscle is abruptly cut off, causing tissue damage. This is usually the result of a blockage in one or more of
the coronary arteries. A blockage can develop due to a buildup of plaque, a substance mostly made of fat, cholesterol, and cellular
waste products. While the classic symptoms of a heart attack are chest pain and shortness of breath, the symptoms can be quite
varied. The most common symptoms of a heart attack include:
 pressure or tightness in the chest
 pain in the chest, back, jaw, and other areas of the upper body that lasts more than a few minutes or that goes away and
comes back
 shortness of breath
 sweating
 nausea
 vomiting
 anxiety
 a cough
 dizziness
 a fast heart rate
It’s important to note that not all people who have heart attacks experience the same symptoms or the same severity of symptoms.
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Chest pain is the most commonly reported symptom among both women and men. However, women are more likely than men to
have:
 shortness of breath
 jaw pain
 upper back pain
 lightheadedness
 nausea
 vomiting
In fact, some women who have had a heart attack report that their symptoms felt like the symptoms of the flu.

HYPERTENSION
Hypertension is another name for high blood pressure. It can lead to severe health complications and increase the risk of heart
disease, stroke, and sometimes death.

Blood pressure is the force that a person's blood exerts against the walls of their blood vessels. This pressure depends on the
resistance of the blood vessels and how hard the heart has to work.

Almost half of all adults in the United States have high blood pressure, but many are not aware of this fact.

Hypertension is a primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including stroke, heart attack, heart failure, and aneurysm.
Keeping blood pressure under control is vital for preserving health and reducing the risk of these dangerous conditions.

In this article, we explain why blood pressure can increase, how to monitor it, and ways to keep it within a normal range.

Management and treatment

Lifestyle adjustments are the standard, first-line treatment for hypertension. We outline some recommendations here:
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HEART STROKE
The most common type of stroke is an ischemic stroke:
• A blood clot in an artery within the brain can cut off circulation to the brain. This can cause a stroke.
• The carotid arteries carry blood to the brain. Plaque buildup in a carotid artery can have the same result.
The other main kind of stroke is a hemorrhagic stroke. This occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures and blood leaks into
surrounding tissue. High blood pressure that strains the walls of your arteries can cause a hemorrhagic stroke.
Ischemic stroke
About 80 percent of strokes are ischemic strokes. Ischemic strokes occur when the arteries to your brain become narrowed or
blocked, causing severely reduced blood flow (ischemia). The most common ischemic strokes include:
Thrombotic stroke. A thrombotic stroke occurs when a blood clot (thrombus) forms in one of the arteries that supply blood to
your brain. A clot may be caused by fatty deposits (plaque) that build up in arteries and cause reduced blood flow (atherosclerosis)
or other artery conditions.
Embolic stroke. An embolic stroke occurs when a blood clot or other debris forms away from your brain — commonly in your
heart — and is swept through your bloodstream to lodge in narrower brain arteries. This type of blood clot is called an embolus.
Symptoms
Watch for these signs and symptoms if you think you or someone else may be having a stroke. Pay attention to when the signs and
symptoms begin. The length of time they have been present can affect your treatment options:
 Trouble with speaking and understanding. You may experience confusion. You may slur your words or have difficulty
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understanding speech.
 Paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg. You may develop sudden numbness, weakness or paralysis in your face,
arm or leg. This often happens just on one side of your body. Try to raise both your arms over your head at the same
time. If one arm begins to fall, you may be having a stroke. Also, one side of your mouth may droop when you try to
smile.
 Trouble with seeing in one or both eyes. You may suddenly have blurred or blackened vision in one or both eyes, and
you may see double.
 Headache. A sudden, severe headache, which may be accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or altered consciousness, may
indicate you're having a stroke.
 Trouble with walking. You may stumble or experience sudden dizziness, loss of balance or loss of coordination.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-
soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the
movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid,
bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
The lymphatic system plays a key role in the immune system, fluid balance, and absorption of fats and fat-soluble
nutrients.
As lymph vessels drain fluid from body tissues, this enables foreign material to be delivered to the lymph nodes for
assessment by immune system cells.
The lymph nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and
immune system cells.
Lymph nodes can also become infected, in a condition known as lymphadenitis.
If lymph nodes remain swollen, if they are hard and rubbery, and if there are other symptoms, you should see a doctor.
The lymphatic system has three main functions:
 It maintains the balance of fluid between the blood and tissues, known as fluid homeostasis.
 It forms part of the body's immune system and helps defend against bacteria and other intruders.
 It facilitates absorption of fats and fat-soluble nutrients in the digestive system.
The system has special small vessels called lacteals. These enable it to absorb fats and fat-soluble nutrients from the gut.
They work with the blood capillaries in the folded surface membrane of the small intestine. The blood capillaries absorb other
nutrients directly into the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels, ducts, nodes, and other tissues.
Around 2 liters of fluid leak from the cardiovascular system into body tissues every day.
The lymphatic system is a network of vessels that collect these fluids, or lymph. Lymph is a clear fluid that is derived from blood
plasma.
The lymph vessels form a network of branches that reach most of the body's tissues. They work in a similar way to the blood
vessels. The lymph vessels work with the veins to return fluid from the tissues.
Unlike blood, the lymphatic fluid is not pumped but squeezed through the vessels when we use our muscles. The properties of the
lymph vessel walls and the valves help control the movement of lymph. However, like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves inside
them to stop fluid from flowing back in the wrong direction.
Lymph is drained progressively towards larger vessels until it reaches the two main channels, the lymphatic ducts in our trunk.
From there, the filtered lymph fluid returns to the blood in the veins.
The vessels branch through junctions called lymph nodes. These are often referred to as glands, but they are not true glands as
they do not form part of the endocrine system.
In the lymph nodes, immune cells assess for foreign material, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungus.
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Lymph nodes are not the only lymphatic tissues in the body. The tonsils, spleen, and thymus gland are also lymphatic tissues.

are tonsils. These produce lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, and antibodies.
They have a strategic position, hanging down from a ring forming the junction between the mouth and pharynx. This enables them
to protect against inhaled and swallowed foreign bodies. The tonsils are the tissues affected by tonsillitis.
What is the spleen?
The spleen is not connected to the lymphatic system in the same way as lymph nodes, but it is lymphoid tissue. This means it
plays a role in the production of white blood cells that form part of the immune system.
Its other major role is to filter the blood to remove microbes and old and damaged red blood cells and platelets.
The thymus gland
The thymus gland is a lymphatic organ and an endocrine gland that is found just behind the sternum. It secretes hormones and is
crucial in the production, maturation, and differentiation of immune T cells.
It is active in developing the immune system from before birth and through childhood.
The bone marrow
Bone marrow is not lymphatic tissue, but it can be considered part of the lymphatic system because it is here that the B cell
lymphocytes of the immune system mature. Liver of a fetus
During gestation, the liver of a fetus is regarded as part of the lymphatic system as it plays a role in lymphocyte development.

DISEASES
The lymphatic system can stop working properly if nodes, ducts, vessels, or lymph tissues become blocked, infected, inflamed, or
cancerous.
Lymphoma
Cancer that starts in the lymphatic system is known as lymphoma. It is the most serious lymphatic disease.
Hodgkin lymphoma affects a specific type of white blood cell known as Reed-Sternberg cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma refers to
types that do not involve these cells.
Cancer that affects the lymphatic system is usually a secondary cancer. This means it has spread from a primary tumor, such as the
breast, to nearby or regional lymph nodes.
Lymphadenitis
Sometimes, a lymph node swells because it becomes infected. The nodes may fill with pus, creating an abscess. The skin over the
nodes may be red or streaky.
Localized lymphadenitis affects the nodes near the infection, for example, as a result of tonsillitis.
Generalized lymphadenitis can happen when a disease spreads through the bloodstream and affects the whole body. Causes range
from sepsis to an upper respiratory tract infection.
Lymphedema
If the lymphatic system does not work properly, for example, if there is an obstruction, fluid may not drain effectively. As the
fluid builds up, this can lead to swelling, for example in an arm or leg. This is lymphedema.
The skin may feel tight and hard, and skin problems may occur. In some cases, fluid may leak through the skin.
Obstruction can result from surgery, radiation therapy, injury, a condition known as lymphatic Filariasis, or—rarely—a congenital
disorder.
Why do lymph nodes swell?
The "swollen glands," that occur, for example, in the neck during a throat infection, are in fact enlarged lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes can swell for two common reasons:
Reaction to an infection: The lymph nodes react when foreign material is presented to immune cells through the lymph that is
drained from infected tissue.
Direct infection of the lymph nodes: The nodes can become infected and inflamed as a result of certain infections that need
prompt antibiotic treatment. This is lymphadenitis.
Most people who have swollen glands with a cold or flu do not need to see a doctor.
However, medical advice should be sought if:
lymph nodes stay swollen for longer than 1 to 2 weeks
a swollen lymph node feels hard or fixed in place
swelling is accompanied by fever, night sweats, or unexplained weight loss
Swollen lymph nodes can be symptoms of numerous conditions.
Glandular fever: Also known as infectious mononucleosis, or mono, this is a viral infection that can one cause longer-lasting
swelling, a sore throat, and fatigue.
Tonsillitis: This is more common in children than in adults. It occurs when the lymph nodes at the back of the mouth are fighting
infection, usually viral, but sometimes bacterial.
Pharyngitis: This bacterial infection is commonly called "strep throat." It is caused by group A streptococcus bacteria, and it can
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cause lymph nodes to swell.

Children are more prone to swollen lymph nodes because their immune systems are still developing their responses to infectious
microbes.
The lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is almost equivalent to the blood vessels, only instead of carrying blood through the body, the lymphatic
system carries a substance called ‘lymph’. Lymph is excess tissue fluid that has been drained from the body compartments.
Lymphatic fluid is usually clear, watery, and has the same constitution as the blood, but without any cells. The lymphatic system
is a complex network of lymphatic vessels (that carry the lymph), along which there are occasional lymph nodes. After the
lymphatic system has collected all the lymph, this passes through the lymph nodes before being put back into the blood via a large
vein just below the neck. In the lymphatic system there are lots of cells called lymphocytes (the T and B cells) that circulate
around and are part of the acquired immune system.
Lymphoid tissue
Lymphoid tissue is scattered throughout the body and is home to the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are packed into clusters in the
walls of parts of the body that are often exposed to foreign substances. These sites include the gastrointestinal system as well as
the tonsils which play a role in protecting the body from any air-borne infections.
Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes are small, oval structures that can be anywhere from 1mm to 25mm big. Blood vessels and nerves attach to the
lymph nodes, as well as two sets of lymphatic vessels – those that enter the lymph node and those that leave it.
The lymph enters from one side and slowly moves past all the cells of the lymph node before leaving through the other lymphatic
vessel. This allows the lymph time to access as many of the lymphatic cells as possible. In the lymph node there is a dense
packaging of immune cells such as macrophages. These are the ‘big eaters’ and will engulf and destroy anything dangerous that
they can. They also play a role in showing these substances to the T and B cells. There are also areas of the lymph node called
‘germinal centres’ where all the b cells multiply to fight off infection. In another part of the lymph node, there are mostly T cells.
When they need to, the lymphocytes leave the lymph node and enter the circulation to fight infection.
The lymph nodes are there as a filter for the lymph before it re-enters the venous system. 99% of all the foreign substances that
arrive at the lymph node are removed. Lymph nodes are found in regions such as the base of the neck, the armpit and the groin.
Swelling or inflammation of these nodes is usually in response to an infection in one of the areas that is drained by the lymph
node. This is often what is meant when someone says that they have ‘swollen glands’.
Thymus
The thymus is a lymphoid organ located in the lower part of the neck and the front of the chest. With age, the thymus becomes
smaller and loses most of its active immune cells. The outside of the thymus contains lymphoid stem cells (which are immature
cells, still capable of growing) that divide rapidly, producing cells that mature into T cells. These T cells then migrate to the
middle of the thymus. Detail of their growth is discussed under the Acquired Immune System. There are also cells in the thymus
that release hormones (signaling chemicals) that cause T cells to grow.
Spleen
The spleen is the largest of the lymphoid organs. The spleen contains large amounts of blood that is periodically pushed into the
circulation by contraction of some tiny muscles that surround it.
There are two different ‘parts’ to the spleen, each with a different function. The ‘red pulp’ is named because of its color and its
role is to filter the blood. It does this by having tiny holes in its blood vessels that only allow some types of blood cells through.
The blood cells that are a little older or in any way defective are not flexible enough to squeeze through these holes and so gets
stuck. These stuck cells are then eaten by the macrophages.
The ‘white pulp’ is basically areas of lymphoid tissue in the middle of the spleen. There are areas filled with T cells and B cells.
These make up about 5-20% of the spleen. There are lots more of the B cells in younger people than there are in older people, and
their numbers in the spleen decrease with age.
LEUKOCYTES
White blood cells (WBCs) are a part of the immune system that helps fight infection and defend the body against other foreign
materials. Different types of white blood cells are involved in recognizing intruders, killing harmful bacteria, and creating
antibodies to protect your body against future exposure to some bacteria and viruses.
Types
• Granular leucocytes are provided with granular cytoplasm and lobed nucleus.
• Hence they are called granularpolymorphonuclear leucocytes.
• They constitute upto 64.7% of the total leucocytes. The granular leucocytes are divided into three types basing on
Staining properties.
Neutrophils –
The neutrophils constitute about 62% of the total leucocytes.
 The nucleus is many lobed. They are phagocytic in function.
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 They protect the body against infection, hence they are called Microscopic policemen
 Roughly half of white blood cells are neutrophils.
 Neutrophils are usually the first cells of the immune system to respond in response to an invader such as a bacteria or a
virus.
 As first responders, they also send out signals alerting other cells in the immune system to respond to the scene
 Once released from the bone marrow these cells live for only around eight hours, but around 100 billion of these cells are
produced by your body every day.

Eosinophils –
Eosinophils also play an important role in fighting off bacteria and are very important in responding to infections with parasites
(such as worms).
 They are perhaps best known, however, for their role in allergy symptoms, when they essentially go overboard in
mounting an immune response against something (like pollen) which it mistakenly believes is an invader.
 These cells account for no more than 5 percent of the white blood cells in your bloodstream but are present in high
concentrations in the digestive tract.
 They help in destruction of foreign bodies and toxins produced from them.
 They are stained with acidic dye like eosin.
 During infection their number increases and this condition is called eosinophilia.
 Decrease in the total count of eosinophils is called eosinopaenia.

Basophils –
Basophils, also accounting for only around 1 percent of white blood cells, are important in mounting a non-specific immune
response to pathogens.
These cells are perhaps best known for their role in asthma.
When stimulated these cells release histamine among other chemicals. The products can result in inflammation and
bronchoconstriction in the airways.
These cells constitute upto 0 .4%. The cytoplasm consists of bluish-black granules of variable size.
 They are stained with alkaline dye like methylene blue. Nucleus is bilobed or ribbon-like.
 It is believed that they are transported to tissues where they become mast cells.
 Lymphocytes (B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes) –
 The lymphocytes are round, nongranular with large nucleus.
 They constitute about 27% of the total leucocytes.
 Lymphocytes are also very important in the immune system, with T cells being responsible for directly killing many
foreign invaders.
 B lymphocytes (B cells), in contrast to the other types of white blood cells, are responsible for humoral immunity (in
contrast to the non-specific immunity of other white blood cells.) They produce the antibodies that "remember" an
infection and stand ready in case body should be exposed. 4 B lymphocytes play the main role in the efficacy of the
majority of the current vaccines but in some cases (i.e. tuberculosis and pertussis vaccines), T lymphocytes are also very
important.
 Monocytes - Monocytes are the garbage trucks of the immune system. Around 5 to 12 percent of white blood cells in
bloodstream are monocytes, but their most important function is to migrate into tissues and clean up dead cells (among
other functions.)
 These are larger leucocytes with a horse-shoe shaped nucleus that is eccentrically situated.
 These cells constitute 5.3% of the leucocytes and are phagocytic in function.
 They clean the blood from debris. Hence they are called Internal scavengers.

Blood Platelets
Platelets are small colorless bodies which are spherical, oval or rod shaped.
They measure upto 2.5 u- in diameter. Their number varies from 2,50,000 to 5,00,000/mm3.
The giant cells or megakaryocytes in red bone marrow are broken down into pieces called blood platelets.
The life span of platelets is few days. They are destroyed in the spleen.
The blood platelets produce thromboplastin that helps in coagulation of blood.
They also help to close the vascular wounds by forming platelet plug.
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IMMUNITY
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The immune system is made up of special organs, cells and chemicals that fight infection (microbes). The main
parts of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the lymphatic system, the
spleen, the thymus, and the bone marrow. These are the parts of your immune system that actively fight infection.
The immune system and microbial infection
The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated, in types of white blood cells (B- and Tlymphocytes) kn
own as memory cells. This means it can recognise and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the
body again, before it can multiply and make you feel sick.
Some infections, like the flu and the common cold, have to be fought many times because so many different
viruses or strains of the same type of virus can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold or flu from one virus does
not give you immunity against the others.
PARTS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
The main parts of the immune system are:
White blood cells
White blood cells are the key players in your immune system. They are produced in bone marrow and are part of
the lymphatic system. White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout body, looking for foreign invaders
(microbes) such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. When they find them, they launch an immune attack. White
blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural killer cells), and many other types of immune cells.
Antibodies
Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce. They do this by recognising
substances called antigens on the surface of the microbe, or in the chemicals they produce, which mark the
microbe or toxin as being foreign. The antibodies then mark these antigens for destruction. There are many cells,
proteins and chemicals involved in this attack.
Complement system The complement system is made up of proteins whose actions complement the work done by antibodies.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes throughout the body. The main roles of the lymphatic system are to:
manage the fluid levels in the body
react to bacteria
Deal with cancer cells
Deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or disorders Absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.
The lymphatic system is made up of:
lymph nodes (also called lymph glands) -- which trap microbes
lymph vessels -- tubes that carry lymph, the colourless fluid that bathes body's tissues and contains
Infection-fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).
Spleen The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys old or damaged red blood cells. It also
makes disease-fighting components of the immune system (including antibodies and lymphocytes). Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your bones. It produces the red blood cells our bodies need to
carry oxygen, the white blood cells we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help our blood clot. Thymus
The thymus filters and monitors your blood content. It produces the white blood cells called T-lymphocytes.
The body's other defenses against microbes
As well as the immune system, the body has several other ways to defend itself against microbes, including:
skin - a waterproof barrier that secretes oil with bacteria-killing properties
lungs - mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign particles, and small hairs (cilia) wave the mucous upwards
so it can be coughed out digestive tract - the mucous lining contains antibodies, and the acid in the stomach can kill most microbes
other defences - body fluids like skin oil, saliva and tears contain anti-bacterial enzymes that help reduce the
risk of infection. The constant flushing of the urinary tract and the bowel also helps.
Fever is an immune system response
A rise in body temperature, or fever, can happen with some infections. This is actually an immune system
response. A rise in temperature can kill some microbes. Fever also triggers the body's repair process.
Common disorders of the immune system It is common for people to have an over- or underactive immune system.
Overactivity of the immune system can take many forms, including:
allergic diseases - where the immune system makes an overly strong response to allergens. Allergic
diseases are very common. They include allergies to foods, medications or stinging insects, anaphylaxis (lifethreatening allergy), h
ay fever (allergic rhinitis), sinus disease, asthma, hives (urticaria), dermatitis and eczema
autoimmune diseases - where the immune system mounts a response against normal components of the
body. Autoimmune diseases range from common to rare. They include multiple sclerosis, autoimmune thyroid
disease, type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic vasculitis.
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FORMATION OF LEUKOCYTES
White blood cells are also known as "leukocytes."
The development of leucocytes is called Leucopoiesis.
In the embryonic stage the leucocytes are derived from the mesodermal cells.
In the adult the granulocytes are produced exclusively from the red bone marrow.
The lymphocytes and monocytes are developed from the lymphoid tissues of the body and to some extent from the
bone marrow.
The primitive white blood cells present in the bone marrow are called Myelocytes.
These are precursors of white blood cells. The life span of W.B.C. is one day.
White blood cells begin in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis. All blood cells, including white blood
cells, red blood cells, and platelets, descend from a common hematopoietic stem cell, or "pluripotent" stem cell.
These stem cells evolve (differentiate) in different stages.
The lymphoid stem cell gives rise to lymphocytes specifically B lymphocytes or "B cells" and T lymphocytes (T
cells).

Type of WBC Normal percentage of overall WBC count

neutrophil 55 to 73 percent
lymphocyte 20 to 40 percent
eosinophil 1 to 4 percent
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monocyte 1 to 4 percent
basophil 0.5 to 1 percent

Conditions Involving Elevated White Blood Cell Counts Conditions With Low White Blood Cell Counts
Though you may think of infections, there are many causes of Conditions which may result in a low white blood cell count
an elevated white blood cell count. These can be increased by include:
overproduction, or rather by the body releasing white blood  Severe infections
cells early from the bone marrow. Stress of any form can also  Bone marrow damage or disorders including aplastic
result in this release of white blood cells. Some causes of an anemia, bone marrow "takeover" by blood cancers or
increased white blood cell count include:8 metastatic cancer, or drug or chemical-related damage
• Infections to the bone marrow
• Cancers such as leukemias, lymphomas, and  Autoimmune diseases such as lupus
myelomas in which a greater number of white blood cells are  Splenic "sequestration" where white blood cells are
manufactured. accumulated in the spleen.
• Inflammation such as inflammatory bowel disease and
autoimmune disorders
• Trauma ranging from fractures to emotional stress
• Pregnancy - In pregnancy, the number of white cells is
"normally" elevated
• Asthma and Allergies - With allergies, you will often
see an increase in the type of white blood cells known as
eosinophils
• Exercise

HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM

The human immune system is divided into two broad groups called the Acquired Immune System and the Innate Immune System.
The immune system is typically divided into two categories--innate and adaptive--although these distinctions are not mutually
exclusive.
Innate immunity
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's
appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system
cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate immune response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen.
Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immunity refers to antigen-specific immune response. The adaptive immune response is more complex than the innate.
The antigen first must be processed and recognized. Once an antigen has been recognized, the adaptive immune system creates an
army of immune cells specifically designed to attack that antigen. Adaptive immunity also includes a "memory" that makes future
responses against a specific antigen more efficient.
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The cellular system

• T-cells differentiate in the thymus, and have a specific receptor for a fragment of antigen..
• Cytotoxic T-cells contain a surface protein called CD8 and destroy pathogen infected cells, cancer cells, and foreign cells
(transplanted organs).
• Helper T-cells contain a surface protein called CD4 and regulate both the cellular and humoral immune systems. This
regulation reduces autoimmunity.
• Autoimmune disease- self immunity. Some examples include rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis,
myasthenia gravis, etc.
Immunological response
When first exposed to antigen "A", we begin to make low levels of antibody in about a week However; a second exposure to
antigen "A" produces a much faster response, and several orders of magnitude higher levels of antibody. The ability of antibody to
bind antigen also increases dramatically in the secondary response. a memory or prior exposure is required for the accelerated
response. The memory of antigen and the stimulated response is the basis for success in vaccination programs.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
In order to be effective, the immune system needs to be able to identify which particles are foreign, and which are a part of your
body. Let’s define some terms before we jump in to how this works:

Self refers to particles, such as proteins and other molecules that are a part of, or made by, your body. They can be found
circulating in your blood or attached to different tissues. Something that is self should not be targeted and destroyed by the
immune system. The non-reactivity of the immune system to self-particles is called tolerance.

Non-self refers to particles that are not made by your body, and are recognized as potentially harmful. These are sometimes
called foreign bodies. Non-self-particles or bodies can be bacteria, viruses, parasites, pollen, dust, and toxic chemicals. The non-
self-particles and foreign bodies that are infectious or pathogenic, like bacteria, viruses, and parasites, make proteins called
antigens that allow the human body to know that they intend to cause damage.

Antigens are anything that causes an immune response. Antigens can be entire pathogens, like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
parasites, or smaller proteins that pathogens express. Antigens are like a name tag for each pathogen that announces the
pathogens’ presence to your immune system. Some pathogens are general, whereas others are very specific. A general antigen
would announce “I’m dangerous”, whereas a specific antigen would announce “I’m a bacterium that will cause an infection in
your gastrointestinal tract” or “I’m the influenza virus”.
Cytokines are molecules that are used for cell signaling, or cell-to-cell communication. Cytokines are similar to chemokines,
wherein they can be used to communicate with neighboring or distant cells about initiating an immune response. Cytokines are
also used to trigger cell trafficking, or movement, to a specific area of the body.
Chemokines are a type of cytokines that are released by infected cells. Infected host cells release chemokines in order to initiate
an immune response, and to warn neighboring cells of the threat.

INNATE IMMUNITY
The innate immune system is always general, or nonspecific, meaning anything that is identified as foreign or non-self is a target
for the innate immune response. The innate immune system is activated by the presence of antigens and their chemical properties.
Cells of the Innate Immune System
There are many types of white blood cells or leukocytes that work to defend and protect the human body. In order to patrol the
entire body, leukocytes travel by way of the circulatory system.
The following cells are leukocytes of the innate immune system:
Phagocytes or Phagocytic cells: Phagocyte means “eating cell”, which describes what role phagocytes play in the immune
response. Phagocytes circulate throughout the body, looking for potential threats, like bacteria and viruses, to engulf and destroy.
You can think of phagocytes as security guards on patrol.
Innate immunity operates through three lines of defence
Macrophages: Macrophages, commonly abbreviated as “Mφ”, are efficient phagocytic cells that can leave the circulatory system
by moving across the walls of capillary vessels. The ability to roam outside of the circulatory system is important, because it
allows macrophages to hunt pathogens with less limits. Macrophages can also release cytokines in order to signal and recruit other
cells to an area with pathogens.
Mast cells: Mast cells are found in mucous membranes and connective tissues, and are important for wound healing and defense
against pathogens via the inflammatory response. When mast cells are activated, they release cytokines and granules that contain
chemical molecules to create an inflammatory cascade. Mediators, such as histamine, cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing
blood flow and cell trafficking to the area of infection. The cytokines released during this process act as a messenger service,
alerting other immune cells, like neutrophils and macrophages, to make their way to the area of infection, or to be on alert for
circulating threats.
Neutrophils: Neutrophils are phagocytic cells that are also classified as granulocytes because they contain granules in their
cytoplasm. These granules are very toxic to bacteria and fungi, and cause them to stop proliferating or die on contact. The bone
marrow of an average healthy adult makes approximately 100 billion new neutrophils per day. Neutrophils are typically the first
cells to arrive at the site of an infection because there are so many of them in circulation at any given time.
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Eosinophils: Eosinophils are granulocytes target multicellular parasites. Eosinophils secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and
free radicals that kill bacteria and parasites. The use of toxic proteins and free radicals also causes tissue damage during allergic
reactions, so activation and toxin release by eosinophils is highly regulated to prevent any unnecessary tissue damage.
While eosinophils only make up 1-6% of the white blood cells, they are found in many locations, including the thymus, lower
gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes.
Basophils: Basophils are also granulocytes that attack multicellular parasites. Basophils release histamine, much like mast cells.
The use of histamine makes basophils and mast cells key players in mounting an allergic response.
Natural Killer cells: Natural Killer cells (NK cells), do not attack pathogens directly. Instead, natural killer cells destroy infected
host cells in order to stop the spread of an infection. Infected or compromised host cells can signal natural kill cells for destruction
through the expression of specific receptors and antigen presentation.
Dendritic cells: Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells that are located in tissues, and can contact external environments
through the skin, the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. Since dendritic cells are located in tissues
that are common points for initial infection, they can identify threats and act as messengers for the rest of the immune system by
antigen presentation. Dendritic cells also act as bridge between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system
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NEUTROPHIL ACTIVITIES

The Immune System: Three Lines of Defense

The immune system can be divided into three basic lines of defense against pathogenic infection:
 The first line of defense against infection are the surface barriers that prevent the entry of pathogens into the body
 The second line of defense are the non-specific phagocytes and other internal mechanisms that comprise innate
immunity
 The third line of defense are the specific lymphocytes that produce antibodies as part of the adaptive immune response

First Line of Defense

 The primary defence against infectious disease are the surface barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body
 These surface barriers include intact skin (protect external boundaries) and mucous membranes (protect internal
boundaries)
 Both the skin and mucous membranes release chemical secretions which restrict the growth of microbes on their surfaces
If pathogens cannot enter the host body, they cannot disrupt normal physiological functions and cause disease
Second Line of Defense
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 The second line of defence against infection are the non-specific cellular and molecular responses of the innate immune
system
 These defenses do not differentiate between different types of pathogen and respond the same way upon every infection
 Phagocytic leukocytes migrate to infection sites and engulf foreign bodies (dendritic cells then present antigens to
lymphocytes)
 Inflammatory responses increase capillary permeability at infected sites, recruiting leukocytes but leading to localized
swelling
 Antimicrobial proteins (such as cytokines and complement proteins) regulate immune activity within the body
Fever increases body temperatures to activate heat-shock proteins and suppress microbial growth and propagation
Third Line of Defense
 The final line of defence against infection are the lymphocytes that produce antibodies to specific antigenic fragments
 Each B cell produces a specific antibody, and the body has millions of different B cells capable of detecting distinct
antigens
 Helper T cells regulate B cell activation, ensuring that antibodies are only mass-produced at the appropriate times
 Both B and T cells will differentiate to form memory cells after activation, conferring long-term immunity to a particular
pathogen
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ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
The adaptive immune system, also called acquired immunity, uses specific antigens to strategically mount an immune response.
Unlike the innate immune system, which attacks only based on the identification of general threats, the adaptive immunity is
activated by exposure to pathogens, and uses an immunological memory to learn about the threat and enhance the immune
response accordingly. The adaptive immune response is much slower to respond to threats and infections than the innate immune
response, which is primed and ready to fight at all times.
Cells of the adaptive immune system
Unlike the innate immune system, the adaptive immune system relies on fewer types of cells to carry out its tasks:
B cells and T cells.
Both B cells and T cells are lymphocytes that are derived from specific types of stem cells, called multipotent hematopoietic stem
cells, in the bone marrow. After they are made in the bone marrow, they need to mature and become activated. Each type of cell
follows different paths to their final, mature forms.
B cells
After formation and maturation in the bone marrow (hence the name “B cell”), the naive B cells move into the lymphatic system
to circulate throughout the body. In the lymphatic system, naive B cells encounter an antigen, which starts the maturation process
for the B cell. B cells each have one of millions of distinctive surface antigen-specific receptors that are inherent to the organism’s
DNA. For example, naive B cells express antibodies on their cell surface, which can also be called membrane-bound antibodies.
When a naive B cell encounters an antigen that fits or matches its membrane-bound antibody, it quickly divides in order to
become either a memory B cell or an effector B cell, which is also called a plasma cell. Antibodies can bind to antigens directly.
The antigen must effectively bind with a naive B cell’s membrane-bound antibody in order to set off differentiation, or the process
of becoming one of the new forms of a B cell.
Memory B cells express the same membrane-bound antibody as the
original naive B cell, or the “parent B cell”. Plasma B cells produce the
same antibody as the parent B cell, but they aren’t membrane bound.
Instead, plasma B cells can secrete antibodies. Secreted antibodies work to
identify free pathogens that are circulating throughout the body. When the
naive B cell divides and differentiates, both plasma cells and memory B
cells are made.
B cells also express a specialized receptor, called the B cell receptor
(BCR). B cell receptors assist with antigen binding, as well as
internalization and processing of the antigen. B cell receptors also play an
important role in signaling pathways. After the antigen is internalized and
processed, the B cell can initiate signaling pathways, such as cytokine
release, to communicate with other cells of the immune system. For more
information on cell signaling

T cells
Once formed in the bone marrow, T progenitor cells migrate to the thymus (hence the name “T cell”) to mature and become T
cells. While in the thymus, the developing T cells start to express T cell receptors (TCRs) and other receptors
called CD4 and CD8 receptors. All T cells express T cell receptors, and either CD4 or CD8, not both. So, some T cells will
express CD4, and others will express CD8.
Unlike antibodies, which can bind to antigens directly, T cell receptors can only recognize antigens that are bound to certain
receptor molecules, called Major Histocompatibility Complex class 1 (MHCI) and class 2 (MHCII). These MHC molecules are
membrane-bound surface receptors on antigen-presenting cells, like dendritic cells and macrophages. CD4 and CD8 play a role in
T cell recognition and activation by binding to either MHCI or MHCII.
T cell receptors have to undergo a process called rearrangement, causing the nearly limitless recombination of a gene that
expresses T cell receptors. Mature T cells should recognize only foreign antigens combined with self-MHC molecules in order to
mount an appropriate immune response.
1. Positive selection ensures MHC restriction by testing the ability of MHCI and MHCII to distinguish between self and nonself
proteins. In order to pass the positive selection process, cells must be capable of binding only self-MHC molecules. If these cells
bind nonself molecules instead of self-MHC molecules, they fail the positive selection process and are eliminated by apoptosis.
2. Negative selection tests for self-tolerance. Negative selection tests the binding capabilities of CD4 and CD8 specifically. The
ideal example of self-tolerance is when a T cell will only bind to self-MHC molecules presenting a foreign antigen. If a T cell
binds, via CD4 or CD8, a self-MHC molecule that isn’t presenting an antigen, or a self-MHC molecule that presenting a self-
antigen, it will fail negative selection and be eliminated by apoptosis.
After positive and negative selection, we are left with three types of mature T cells:
Helper T cells,
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Cytotoxic T cells and

T regulatory cells
Helper T cells express CD4, and help with the activation of T and B cells, and other immune cells.
Cytotoxic T cells express CD8, and are responsible for removing pathogens and infected host cells.
T regulatory cells express CD4 and another receptor, called CD25. T regulatory cells help distinguish between self and nonself
molecules, and by doing so, reduce the risk of autoimmune diseases.
Humoral vs. Cell Mediated Immunity
Immunity refers to the ability of your immune system to defend against infection and disease. There are two types of immunity
that the adaptive immune system provides, and they are dependent on the functions of B and T cells, as described above.
Humoral immunity is immunity from serum antibodies produced by plasma cells. “Humoral” refers to the bodily fluids where
these free-floating serum antibodies bind to antigens and assist with elimination.
Cell-mediated immunity can be acquired through T cells from someone who is immune to the target disease or infection. “Cell-
mediated” refers to the fact that the response is carried out by cytotoxic cells. Much like humoral immunity, someone who has not
been exposed to a specific disease can gain cell-mediated immunity through the administration of T cells from someone that has
been exposed, and survived the same disease. The T cells act to activate other immune cells, while the T cells assist with the
elimination of pathogens and infected host cells.
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Immunological memory
Because the adaptive immune system can learn and remember specific pathogens, it can provide long-lasting defense and
protection against recurrent infections. When the adaptive immune system is exposed to a new threat, the specifics of the antigen
are memorized so we are prevented from getting the disease again. The concept of immune memory is due to the body’s ability to
make antibodies against different pathogens.
A good example of immunological memory is shown in vaccinations. A vaccination against a virus can be made using either
active, but weakened or attenuated virus, or using specific parts of the virus that are not active. Both attenuated whole virus and
virus particles cannot actually cause an active infection. Instead, they mimic the presence of an active virus in order to cause an
immune response, even though there are no real threats present. By getting a vaccination, you are exposing your body to the
antigen required to produce antibodies specific to that virus, and acquire a memory of the virus, without experiencing illness.
Some breakdowns in the immunological memory system can lead to autoimmune diseases. Molecular mimicry of a self‐antigen
by an infectious pathogen, such as bacteria and viruses, may trigger autoimmune disease due to a cross-reactive immune response
against the infection. One example of an organism that uses molecular mimicry to hide from immunological defenses
is Streptococcus infection.
Immunization Immunisation works by copying the body's natural immune response. A vaccine (a small amount of a specially
treated virus, bacterium or toxin) is injected into the body. The body then makes antibodies to it.
If a vaccinated person is exposed to the actual virus, bacterium or toxin, they won't get sick because their body will
recognise it and know how to attack it successfully. Vaccinations are available against many diseases, including
measles and tetanus.
The immunisations you may need are decided by your health, age, lifestyle and occupation. Together, these factors
are referred to as HALO, which is defined as:
health - some health conditions or factors may make you more vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases.
For example, premature birth, asthma, diabetes, heart, lung, spleen or kidney conditions, Down syndrome
and HIV will mean you may benefit from additional or more frequent immunisations
age - at different ages you need protection from different vaccine-preventable diseases. Australia's National
Immunisation Program sets out recommended immunisations for babies, children, older people and other
people at risk, such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Most recommended vaccines are available at
no cost to these groups
lifestyle - lifestyle choices can have an impact on your immunisation needs. Travelling overseas to certain
places, planning a family, sexual activity, smoking, and playing contact sport that may expose you directly to
someone else's blood, will mean you may benefit from additional or more frequent immunisations
occupation - you are likely to need extra immunisations, or need to have them more often, if you work in an
occupation that exposes you to vaccine-preventable diseases or puts you into contact with people who are
more susceptible to problems from vaccine-preventable diseases (such as babies or young children, pregnant
women, the elderly, and people with chronic or acute health conditions). For example, if you work in aged
care, childcare, healthcare, emergency services or sewerage repair and maintenance, discuss your
immunisation needs with your doctor. Some employers help with the cost of relevant vaccinations for their
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