What is Inorganic Chemistry?

• A branch of chemistry concerned with the

properties and behavior of inorganic
compounds (metals, minerals, and
organometallic compounds)
• If organic chemistry deals with carbon-
containing compounds, inorganic chemistry
deals with everything else.
Some important inorganic compounds
 Some important inorganic compounds
Is NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) organic or
inorganic?
• It is an inorganic compound despite having a C.
• Organic compounds are carbon compounds with
lots of H. Other elements common to organic
compounds are O, N, P, S, the halogens (F, Cl, Br,
I).
• Other examples of inorganic compounds with C
are: CaCO3, CaC, H2CO3
 Matter and Measurement
• Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass,
i.e. table, electron, proton, gases
 Matter and Measurement
• Atom - The smallest building block of matter
• Pure substance – matter that has
and has
throughout the sample; either element or
compound
• Element - Matter that contains only one type of
atom (iron, sodium, hydrogen)
• Compound - Matter that contains combinations
of elements in specific ratios (H2O, CO2, NaCl);
components cannot be separated by physical
means (evaporation, sieving, freezing,
magnetism, etc.)
• Compounds have properties that are different
from the properties of the individual
components.
 Matter and Measurement
• Mixture – a combination of 2 or more different
compounds in no definite ratio (1 spoon salt + 1
glass water or 1.5 spoons salt + 1 pail water)
• Homogeneous mixture (solution) – the same
composition throughout
 Air – O2 + N2 + Ar + CO2
 Vodka – 40% ethanol + 60% water
 Brass – Cu + Zn
 Ruby – Al2O3 + Cr2O3
 Heterogeneous mixture – different components
can be observed by naked eye
• The components of mixtures retain their
individual properties.
 Matter and Measurement
• Components of mixtures can
be separated through
physical means. Components
of compounds can be
separated by chemical
means only.

Electrolysis of water  a chemical

reaction; using electricity to separate
the hydrogen and oxygen in water
Matter and Measurement
Changes in matter
 Matter and Measurement
Properties of matter (characteristics)

• Physical Property – can be observed without

matter undergoing any chemical reaction
(color, odor, height, mass)

• Chemical property – matter has to undergo

chemical reaction before this is observed
(combustibility, ability to form rust)
Matter and Measurement
 Matter and Measurement
• Kinds of Physical Properties
 Matter and Measurement
• Changes in temperature, pressure, or
composition can change the state of matter
1 Bose-Einstein condensate – formed at almost zero Kelvin
2 solid
3 liquid
4 gas
5 plasma – ionized gases formed at very high temperatures
 Matter and Measurement
• Measurement - quantifying
Matter and Measurement
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Democritus – called the smallest piece of matter
“atomos” (indivisible) – was later proven wrong
(discovery of sub-atomic particles)
John Dalton – his observations were based on
experiments (based on masses of gases); his
theories were:
1. All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are
indivisible and indestructible (was later proven
wrong by the discovery of subatomic particles).
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in
mass and properties (later proven wrong
because of the discovery of isotopes)
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
3. Compounds are formed by a combination of
two or more different kinds of atoms (this backs
up Joseph Proust’s Law of Definite Composition:
a compound is always composed of the same
proportions of elements by mass; because of
this, Dalton also made the Law of Multiple
Proportions: elements in compounds can
combine in different ratios).
4. A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of
atoms (basis for this was Lavoisier’s Law of
Conservation of Mass: matter cannot be created
nor destroyed).
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Joseph John Thomson – discovered
electrons in 1897 through his cathode ray
tube experiment; he proposed the plum-
pudding model: An atom is a uniform
sphere of positive charges and electrons
are embedded throughout.
Earnest Rutherford – did the alpha
scattering experiment; proposed the
nuclear model of an atom: an atom is
almost an empty sphere with a tiny center
of positive charge and electrons are
outside the center (nucleus)
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Robert Millikan – discovered mass-to-charge ratio
of electron through his oil-drop experiment
Neils Bohr – modified the nuclear model of an
atom; based his findings on calculations. They are:
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in
orbits that have a set size and
energy.
2. The energy of the orbit is related
to its size. The lowest energy is found
in the smallest orbit.
3. Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an
electron moves from one orbit to another
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
• The atomic number is defined as the number
of protons.
• In a neutral atom, the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons, which is
why, we can also take the atomic number as
equal to the number of electrons. It would not
be the same with ions (charged atoms)
• The mass of an electron is negligible, which is
why the mass of an atom is contributed by the
masses of only the neutrons and protons.
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Isotopes – atoms of the same element but they
differ in their number of neutrons. In effect,
they differ in their masses.
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Quantum mechanical model of an atom – what
we now believe as how the atom looks like
Quantum numbers
1. Principal quantum number (n) - describes
the size of the atom; tells the
energy level (or shell) of an
electron (electrons occupying
the higher energy levels
have higher energies);
values are 1, 2, 3, 4, …
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
2. angular quantum number (l) or azimuthal
quantum number - describes the shape of the
orbital (region in the atom where the electron
stays most of the time); values are 0 to n-1. (s=0,
spherical; p=1, dumbbell; d=2, clover-leaf; f=3,
complex shape)
3. magnetic quantum number (ml) - describes the
orientation in space (x, y, z) of a particular orbital
• The number of ml values is the number of orbitals. (l = 2
has ml values of -2, -1, 0, 1, 2. There are 5 ml values. In
l=2, there are 5 orbitals. This is the d subshell.)
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
4. Spin quantum number (ms) – describes the spin
(clockwise, ½, ↑, or counterclockwise, -½, or ↓)
Electron configuration – arrangement of electrons
in an atom
Rules:
1. Aufbau's Principle – electrons occupy orbitals of
lowest energy first
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
2. Hund's rule: every orbital in a subshell is
singly occupied with one electron before any
one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons
in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
3. Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons
can have the same four electronic quantum
numbers. As an orbital can contain a maximum
of only two electrons, the two electrons must
have opposing spins
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Valence electrons – electrons
occupying the outermost
energy level (the highest n
value)
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
The periodic table
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Periodic Properties and Trends
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Atomic radius
• describes the size of an atom
• the total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the
outermost orbital of electron
• The atomic size is the distance from the nucleus of
one atom to the nucleus of another atom of the
same kind (homonuclear diatomic molecule)when
they are b onded together.
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Ionization energy – the energy needed when an
electron is removed from a neutral atom in its
gaseous phase
• The ionization energy of the elements within a
period generally increases from left to right. This
is due to valence shell stability.
• The ionization energy of the elements within a
group generally decreases from top to bottom.
This is due to electron shielding.
• The noble gases possess very high ionization
energies because of their full valence shells
Helium has the highest ionization energy of all
the elements.
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Electronegativity – ability of an atom to attract
electrons in a bond towards itself
• Smaller atoms can better attract electrons
towards itself because the positive charge of the
nucleus is felt more.
• In larger atoms, the positive nucleus is deep into
the atom, so its attraction for electrons outside it
is less.
• Atoms that are nearest to having an octet (i.e.,
has 7 valence electrons) are the strongest to
attract electrons
• Size is inversely proportional to electronegativity
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Electron affinity – the energy released when an
electron is added to an atom
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Anomalies in Electron affinity
 Atoms, Molecules, Periodic Table
Metallic character – the “metal” characteristics;
associated with how readily an atom loses
electrons to form cations.
• Metallic tendency increases going down a
group, decreases across a period.
• Non-metallic tendency increases going from
left to right across the periodic table,
decreases going down a group.
 Chemical Bonding
• Valence electrons are the ones that participate
in chemical bonding, core electrons do not.
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
 Chemical Bonding
Some oxidations states (charges)
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
 Molecular Structure
Lewis electron-dot symbol – the symbol of an
element with dots around it representing its
valence electrons
 Molecular Structure
Octet rule – atoms prefer to have 8 valence electrons
 Molecular Structure
Formal charge - formal charge (FC) is the charge assigned
to an atom in a molecule, assuming that electrons in all
chemical bonds are shared equally between atoms,
regardless of relative electronegativity.
Molecular Structure
Molecular Structure
 Molecular Structure
• The best Lewis structure or resonance
contributing structure has the least number of
atoms with formal charge, the smallest formal
charges, and electronegative atoms not having
positive FC
Resonance
• In certain cases, molecules can be represent by more
than one reasonable Lewis structure that differ only
in the location of π electrons.
• Electrons in σ bonds have a fixed location and so they
are said to be localized.
• In contrast, π electrons that can be drawn in different
locations are said to be delocalized.
• Collectively these Lewis diagrams/structures are then
known as resonance structures or resonance
contributors or resonance canonicals.
• The "real" structure has characteristics of each of the
contributors, and is often represented as the
resonance hybrid. In a way, the resonance hybrid is a
mixture of the contributors.
 Molecular Structure
Molecular geometry - the three-dimensional
arrangement of the atoms that constitute a
molecule (governed by VSEPR theory)
Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
theory - assumes that each atom in a molecule
will achieve a geometry that minimizes the
repulsion between electrons in the valence shell
of that atom.
Repulsion strength: lone pair-lone pair > lone
pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair
Molecular Structure
Molecular Structure
Molecular Structure
Molecular Structure
Polar/Nonpolar Bonds and Compounds
Polar/Nonpolar Bonds and
Compounds
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Properties of Water - Boiling and Freezing point
• Water has unusually high boiling and freezing
point because of its “perfect” hydrogen
bonding system
• Its strong H-bonds enable the molecules of
water to come together and freeze
• Its strong H-bonds makes it difficult separate
one molecule of water to another in the case
of boiling
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

• In water, one water molecule is capable of 4 H-bonds

• In ammonia, there is only one lone pair of electrons on nitrogen
(there are 2 on the oxygen of water). There is not enough lone
pairs of electrons to accept H-bonds
• In methane, the most dominant IMF is the weak London dispersion
forces of attraction because it is a nonpolar molecule.
 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Properties of Water – surface tension
• Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which
makes it acquire the least surface area possible.
• A molecule within the bulk of a liquid experiences attractions to
neighboring molecules in all directions, but since these average out
to zero, there is no net force on the molecule. For a molecule at the
surface, the situation is quite different; it experiences forces only
sideways and downward, and this is what creates the stretched-
membrane effect.
 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Properties of Water – Ice floats on water
• When frozen, the H-bonds that has become “rigid”
allows water to have “air spaces”, making it less
dense
• With water, the H-bonds are not “rigid”, so molecules
can slide past one another, making the molecules
more condensed to one another, giving it greater
density.
 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Properties of Water - Boiling and Freezing point
• Water has unusually high boiling and freezing
point because of its “perfect” hydrogen
bonding system
• Its strong H-bonds enable the molecules of
water to come together and freeze
• Its strong H-bonds makes it difficult separate
one molecule of water to another in the case
of boiling
Types of Chemical Reactions
 Types of Chemical Reactions

This is used to
determine if a
metal can replace
another metal in
a reaction.
 Types of Chemical Reactions
More types…
 Types of Chemical Reactions
Redox reactions
Rules of oxidation numbers
 Types of Chemical Reactions
Balancing:
Types of Chemical Reactions
 Nuclear Reactions
• a change in the identity or characteristics of an
atomic nucleus that results when it is bombarded
with an energetic particle, as in fission, fusion, or
radioactive decay.
• 2 types: nuclear decay reaction (radioactive decay)
and nuclear transmutation reaction
• Radioactive decay - an unstable nucleus emits
radiation and is transformed into the nucleus of one
or more other elements. The resulting daughter
nuclei have a lower mass and are lower in energy
(more stable) than the parent nucleus that decayed.
• Nuclear transmutation reaction - a nucleus reacts
with a subatomic particle or another nucleus to form
a product nucleus that is more massive than the
starting material.
 Nuclear Reactions
• Classes of radioactive nuclei
1. Neutron-rich nuclei - These nuclei decay by a
process that converts a neutron to a proton,
thereby decreasing the neutron-to-proton ratio.
2. Neutron-poor nuclei. These nuclei decay by
processes that have the net effect of converting
a proton to a neutron, thereby increasing the
neutron-to-proton ratio.
3. Heavy nuclei. With very few exceptions, heavy
nuclei (those with A ≥ 200) are intrinsically
unstable regardless of the neutron-to-proton
ratio, and all nuclei with Z > 83 are unstable.
 Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear decay emissions and their symbols
 Nuclear Reactions
• Alpha decay - Many nuclei with mass numbers
greater than 200 undergo alpha (α) decay,
which results in the emission of a helium-4
nucleus as an alpha (α) particle,
 Nuclear Reactions
• Beta decay - Nuclei that contain too many
neutrons often undergo beta (β) decay, in which a
neutron is converted to a proton and a high-
energy electron that is ejected from the nucleus
as a β particle:
 Nuclear Reactions
• Positron emission - Because a positron has the
same mass as an electron but opposite charge,
positron emission is the opposite of beta decay.
Thus positron emission is characteristic of
neutron-poor nuclei, which decay by transforming
a proton to a neutron and emitting a high-energy
positron:
 Nuclear Reactions
• Electron capture - A neutron-poor nucleus can
also decay by electron capture (EC), in which an
electron in an inner shell reacts with a proton to
produce a neutron:
 Nuclear Reactions
• Gamma emission - Many nuclear decay reactions produce
daughter nuclei that are in a nuclear excited state, which is similar
to an atom in which an electron has been excited to a higher-
energy orbital to give an electronic excited state. Just as an
electron in an electronic excited state emits energy in the form of
a photon when it returns to the ground state, a nucleus in an
excited state releases energy in the form of a photon when it
returns to the ground state. These high-energy photons are γ rays.
The asterisk denotes an excited state:
 Nuclear Reactions
• Spontaneous fission - Only very massive nuclei with high
neutron-to-proton ratios can undergo spontaneous
fission, in which the nucleus breaks into two pieces that
have different atomic numbers and atomic masses. This
process is most important for elements, with Z ≥ 104.
Accompanied by the release of large amounts of energy,
it is usually accompanied by the emission of several
neutrons as well.
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical Kinetics
 Chemical Kinetics
Factors affecting rates of reactions – surface area
 Chemical Kinetics
Factors affecting rates of reactions – concentration
 Chemical Kinetics
Factors affecting rates of reactions – pressure
 Chemical Kinetics
Factors affecting rates of reactions – temperature
At higher temperatures, particles collide more
frequently and with greater intensity.
 Chemical Kinetics
Factors affecting rates of reactions – temperature
Chemical Kinetics
 Chemical Kinetics
Rate of reaction
 Chemical Kinetics
Order of reactions
Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
Colligative Properties
 Colligative Properties
k
Colligative Properties
 Colligative Properties
Osmotic pressure
END