Engineering Physics

UNIT-3 OPTICAL FIBRES

Optical Fibers:

Optical fibers are the light guide used as wave guides in the optical
communication system. Fibers are made up of transparent dielectrics such as glass or plastic.
Fiber is cylindrical in shape. The inner cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index
n1. The outer part is called as cladding of refractive index n2, such that n1>n2. There is
continuity between core and cladding. Cladding is enclosed by a polyurethane jacket.
Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable. Optical signal is transmitted in the fiber
on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and cladding with
an angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection. After series of
such total internal reflections, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical fiber works as a
waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber because at sharp
bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR):

When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal. As
the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also increases.
For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle”, the refracted ray grazes the
surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the same
medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.

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In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n 1 and medium of refractive
index n2, such that, n1> n2.

AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays respectively. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence
and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the refracted
ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θ c is totally
reflected back along OC1.

From Snell’s law, n1sinθ1 =

n2sinθ2 For total internal reflection, θ1= θc and θ2=

90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin(90°)=1)

θc = sin-¹(n2/n1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.

The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total Internal
Reflection.

Expression for Angle of Acceptance, Numerical Aperture (NA) and condition for a ray
to propagate in an optical fiber:

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ 0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ 1’ be the angle of
refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90˚- θ1) at B
grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide
acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

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Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding
respectively.

Applying Snell’s law at O, (i.e. the interface between medium and core)

nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1

Sin n1
 sin ----------------- (1)

0 1
n0

Applying Snell’s law at B, (i.e. the interface between core and cladding)

At B, the angle of incidence is (90 - θ1)

From Snell’s law,
n1 sin(90-θ1) = n2 sin90
n1cosθ1 =𝑛 n2
cosθ1 = 2
𝑛1
√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝑛𝑛2
2
1
2
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃1 = (𝑛2)
𝑛1
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃1 = 1 − (𝑛2)
𝑛1
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = √1 − (𝑛2) ------------------------- (2)
𝑛1
Substituting for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 in eqn. (1) from eqn. (2)
√𝑛2−𝑛2
n n2 1 2
Sin0  1 1 2 = ------------------(3)
n0 n21 𝑛𝑜

If the surrounding medium is air, no = 1

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Sin0  n2
12  n2

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Where, sinθ0 is called numerical aperture.

N.A= √𝑛2 − 𝑛2
1 2

Numerical aperture gives the light gathering capability in optical fiber.

Therefore for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident ray is
able to propagate. θi < θ0

Sini  Sin0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < √𝑛2 − 𝑛2
1 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < 𝑁. 𝐴 is the condition for propagation.

Fractional Index Change Δ:

“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding to the
refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.

n1  n2
Δ=
n1

Relation between N.A and Δ:

Consider Δ = 𝑛1−𝑛2
𝑛1

n1  n2 n1
We have
N.A = √𝑛2 − 𝑛2 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2)(𝑛1 − 𝑛2)
1 2
Considering n1≈n2

= √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2)𝛥𝑛1
𝑁. 𝐴 = √2𝑛12𝛥
𝑁. 𝐴 = 𝑛1√2𝛥
Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A
It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very much
because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.

V- number

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a

parameter called V-number. If the surrounding medium is air, then

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V = 𝜋𝑑 √𝑛2 − 𝑛2
𝜆 1 2

Where, ‘d’ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding
respectively, ‘λ’ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

V = 𝜋𝑑 (𝑁𝐴)
𝜆

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

√𝑛2−𝑛2
1 2
𝜋𝑑
V= 𝜆 𝑛0

For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≈ V2/2.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the refractive index
of core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such that the refractive index
decreases from the axis, radically.

Following are the different types of fibers:

1. Step index single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

1. Single mode step index fiber

It consists of a core made of glass of

uniform refractive index n1. The
diameter of the core is about 10 m.
The core is surrounded by a
cladding made of glass of uniform
refractive index n2 the refractor
index of cladding is slightly lower
than the refractive index of core.
The external diameter of the
cladding is 60 to 70
m. Since the core diameter is very
small therefore it can guide a single
mode as shown in the fig. Lasers can
be used as the source of light. Single
Mode fibers are the best guides the
loss of light energy is very less.
They are used in submarine cables.

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80% of

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the fibers are single mode step index fibers.

2. Step index multimode fiber

It is similar to step index single

mode fiber except for the fact
that the diameter of the core is
very large compared to the single
mode fiber and is of the order of
50 to 200 m. The external
diameter of cladding is 100 to
250 m. Because of larger
diameter of the core, it can guide
large number of modes
(Multimode) as shown in the fig.
Either laser or LED can be used
as the source of light. It is less
expensive of all. It is used in data
links which have lower
bandwidth.

3. Graded index multimode fiber

It is also called GRIN. The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward
direction from the axis. The refractive index profile is shown in figure. The incident rays
bends and takes a periodic path along the axis. The rays have different paths with same
period. Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It is the expensive of all. It is used in
telephone trunk between central offices

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LED’s (Light Emitting Diodes), are among the most widely used of all the different
types of semiconductor diodes available today. They are the most visible type of diode
that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different colored
wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a
forward current is passed through them.

A “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a

specialized type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons
which emit a monochromatic (single color) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable
number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a colored light
output.

The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very

different from that of a normal signal diode. The PN
junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard
plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body
which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that
much light so the epoxy resin body is constructed in such
a way that the photons of light emitted by the junction are
reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to
which the diode is attached and are focused upwards
through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts like
a

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lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light appears to be brightest
at the top of the LED.

However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their epoxy shell.
Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat
surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or arrow. Also, nearly all LEDs have their
cathode, ( K ) terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body, or by one of the
leads being shorter than the other, ( the Anode, A ).

Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of heat when
illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of light which leads to
high efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most of the generated energy radiates
away within the visible spectrum. Because LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be
extremely small and durable and provide much longer lamp life than normal light sources.
Light Emitting Diode Colors.

Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon
Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to
produce a distinct wavelength of color.

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Color VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

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Signal distortion in optical fibers:

The propagation of a signal through the optical fiber involves total internal reflection
of light rays many times. Further, the rays are reflected at various angles. The rays reflected
at higher angles travel greater distances than the rays reflected at lower angles. As a result,
all the rays do not arrive at the end of the fiber simultaneously and the light pulse broadens
as it travels through the fiber. Since the output pulse does not match with the input pulse, the
signal is said to be distorted.

If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, another kind of distortion

occurs. Since radiation of different wavelengths has different velocities, they do not arrive at
the output simultaneously. This distortion is called chromatic or interamodal dispersion

The signal distortion is quite considerable in multimode step index fibers. In graded
index fibers, the light travels with different velocities in different parts of the core as the
refractive index varies radically along the core. The rays travel faster near the interface.
Hence all the rays arrive at the output almost at the same time and the signal distortion is
reduced. In a single mode step index fiber the distortion is less than that in multimode step
index fibers.

Attenuation in optical fibers

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is expressed in
decibel/kilometer [db/km]. If Pin is the input power and Pout is the output power after passing
through a fiber of length ‘L’, the mean attenuation constant or coefficient ‘α’ of the fiber, in
units of db/km is given by
10  pout 
  log10   dB/km
L p
 in 

Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.

1. Absorption losses

a) Absorption by impurities: Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as

iron, chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms. The atoms
are excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different characteristics. Hence it is a
loss of energy. The other impurity such as hydroxyl ions (OH) causes significant
absorption loss.
b) Intrinsic absorption: The absorption of photons by fiber material itself is called
intrinsic absorption.

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2. Scattering losses

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a) Rayleigh scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of
the particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering. This type
of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of wavelength.
b) Others:Scattering of photons also takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not
dissolved at the time of manufacturing.

3. Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic
bends.

a) Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius of
curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of TIR. This causes loss of optical power.
b) Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-uniformity of
the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due to manufacturing defects
and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. The defect due to non uniformity (micro
bending) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a good strengthen
polyurethane jacket.

Block diagram of Point to Point Communication System

A typical point to point communication system as shown in fig. The analog information such
as voice of a telephone user will be converted to electrical signals in analog form coming out
of the transmitter section of the telephone. The analog signal will be converted to binary
data with the help of an electric system called coder. The binary data comes out as a
stream of

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electrical pulses from the Coder. These electrical pulses are received in receiving section of
the optical transmitter and converted into pulses of optical power by modulating the light
emitted by an optical source like LED at the other end of the optical transmitter. Then the
optical power is fed into the optical fiber. Only certain modes out of the incident light which
is funneled into the core within the acceptance angle will be sustained for propagation
through the fiber by means of total internal reflection. The optical signal from the other end
of the fiber is fed into a photo detector where the optical signal is converted to binary
electrical signals. Which is then fed to decoder which converts the stream of binary electrical
signal into an analog signal (that is the information such as voice) which will be received by
another telephone user.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication:

1. The materials used for making optical fibers are silicon dioxide and plastic both of
which are easily available at low cost.
2. Optical fibers are fibers are light weighted; they are much easier for transporting.
3. In case of metallic cables, e.m. waves are the carrier waves which can cause
interference between one communication channel and the other. The optical fibers
are totally protected from interference between different communication channels.
4. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of information in either digital or analog
form.
5. In case of electrical signals there is a chance of generating sparks but in fibers the
signal is optical no sparks are generated.
6. The attenuation is very small therefore optical fibers support signal transmission over
long distances.
7. Disturbance of lightning or sparking is not there.
8. Concept of common ground is not there.
9. It uses less electronic components and is compatible with electronic circuits.
10. No corrosion of fibers, they have long life.

Limitations of Optical Communications:

1. The splicing or joining of two optical fibers strands is a skill full work, if not done
properly the signal loss in more and there is a break in the communication line.
2. The operations required for the reconnection of broken optical fibers due to accidents are
highly skilful, costlier and time consuming.
3. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical
alignments, which lead to loss in signal power.

Applications

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1. Sensing device: Optical fibers can be used as sensing devices where they are
employed to sense parameters (pressure, voltage etc.)
2. Data link: For communication over a distance which is much smaller
than telecommunication.
3. Local Area Networks (LAN): More efficient for LAN where information to be
transmitted between the terminals.

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