Automatic Control Systems

2023Handout 1: Control System Fundamental Concepts

Course Purpose:
To equip trainees with Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes required to enable them apply
Automatic Control principles during their work operations

Course Learning Outcomes:

On completion of this course the trainee will be able to:
1. Install Automatic Control System
2. Control Automatic Operations
3. Test Automatic Control Circuit
4. Commission Automatic Control System
5. Maintain Automatic Control System

Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following
six problems in the most efficient manner possible.

srl problem remarks

1 Identification problem To measure the variables and convert data for analysis
2 Representation problem To describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical model
3 Solution problem To determine the above system model response
4 Stability problem General qualitative analysis of the system
5 Design problem Modification of an existing system or develop a new one
6 Optimisation problem From a variety of design to choose the best

The two basic approaches to solving these six problems are conventional and modern
approach.
The electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function theory.
The modern approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable
theory.

Therefore, control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil and electrical
engineering.
For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical and chemical
components.
Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of business, social and political
systems increases; the ability to control these systems will also increase.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 1
Concept of a Control System
Control means a specific action to reach the desired behaviour of a system.
Control methods should be used whenever some quantity must be kept at a desired
value.
Control systems are everywhere in our surroundings. A control system is realised e.g.,
when taking a shower, where the temperature of the shower is to be kept at a
comfortable value.

shower-bath as a control task

If the temperature sensed by our body differs from its desired value, we intervene by
opening the cold-water tap or the warm-water tap. After being mixed, the water goes
through the shower pipe. The effect of the change takes place after a delay. The effect
of the delay has to be considered when deciding on a possible newer execution.

In the manufacturing production processes of material goods, mass and energy

conversion takes place. Appropriate control is to be applied to ensure the suitable
starting, maintenance and stopping of these processes.
To maintain the processes in a desired manner means keeping different physical
quantities at constant values or altering them according to given laws.
A process is a system which is connected to its environment in many ways.
For example, a thermal power station converts the chemical energy of the fuel to
electrical energy. The system consists of several pieces of interconnected equipment
(furnace, turbine, synchronous generator, auxiliary equipment).
If the operation of the turbine is investigated, then the relation of the system and its
environment is considered in a different way.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 2
 the system and its environment

the system and its environment

In this case the system is the turbine, which converts the thermal energy of the steam
into electrical energy.
The quantities going from the environment into the system are the inputs, while the
quantities going from the system into the environment are the outputs. With control—
by appropriately manipulating the input quantities—the output quantities are to be
maintained according to the given requirements.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 3
Basic Concepts
Control means the specific actions to influence a process in order to start it, to
appropriately maintain it, and to stop it.
Control is based on information obtained from the process and its environment
through measurements. Measuring instruments are needed to measure the different
physical quantities involved in the control. Based on the knowledge of the control’s
aim and on the information obtained from the process and its environment, a decision
is made about the appropriate manipulation of the process input.
The methodology of control is that specifically designed external equipment is
connected to the process and then, based on data obtained by measurements, it
directly modifies the input variables and in that way influences indirectly the output
variables.
The control system is the joint system made up of the interconnected plant to be
controlled and the control equipment.
Control can be performed manually or automatically.
In manual control the operator makes a decision and manipulates the input quantity
of the process based on the observed output quantity.

level control by hand

The operator observes the level of the liquid in the tank and sets the required level by
the valve position of the tap influencing the amount of the outlet liquid.

In automatic control automatic devices execute the functions of decision making

and executing the manipulation.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 4
 automatic level control in a water tank

The level of the liquid is sensed by a floating sensor. If the level differs from its
required value, the valve influencing the input flow will be opened more or less.

Control engineering deals with the properties and behaviour of control systems, with
the methods for their analysis and design, and with the question of their realisation.

The Basic Elements of a Control Process

functional diagram of a control system

Sensing: gaining information about the process to be controlled and its environment
Decision making: processing the information and, based on the aim of the control
taking decisions about the necessary manipulations
Disposition: giving a command for manipulation
Signal Processing: determine the characteristics of intervention, acting
Intervention, Acting: the modification of the process input according to the
disposition.
The individual operations are executed by the appropriate functional units.

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Signals and Their Classification
To control a process it is required to measure its changes.
Changes of the process occur as consequences of external and internal effects. The
features of the process which manifest its motion, and also the external and internal
effects, are represented by signals.
The signal is a physical quantity, or a change in a physical quantity, which carries
information. The signal is capable of acquiring, transferring, as well as storing
information. Signals can be observed by measurement equipment.

Signals have a physical form (e.g., current, voltage, temperature, etc.)—this is the
carrier of the signal.
Signals also have informational content—which shows the effect represented by the
signal (e.g., change of the current versus time).

A Signal can be classified in any of the following different ways:

According to its temporal evolution

a signal is continuous if it is continuously maintained without interruption over a
given range of time,
a signal is discrete-time or sampled if it provides information only at determined
points in time in a given duration of time.

According to its set of value

a signal is contiguous if its set of value is contiguous,
a signal is fractional if its set of value is non-contiguous and can take only definite
values.

According to the form of representation of the information

a signal is analogue if the value of the signal carrier directly represents the
information involved,
a signal is digital if the information is represented by digits which are the coded
digital values of the signal carrier.

According to the definiteness of the signal value

a signal is deterministic if its value can definitely be given by a function of time,
a signal is stochastic if its evolution is probabilistic, which can be described using
statistical methods.

The characteristic signals of a process are its inputs, outputs, and internal signals.
Those input signals which are supposed to be used as inputs modifying the output of
the process are called manipulated variables or control variables. The other input
variables are disturbances.

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Representation of System Engineering Relationships
The various parts of a control system are in interaction with each other. The relations
of the individual parts can be represented by different diagrams. A piece of equipment
which performs some control task is called functional unit (e.g., sensor, actuator,
etc.).

The symbols for the functional units also appear in the diagrams characterising the
connections of the elements of the control system.

A structural diagram gives an overview of the pieces of equipment forming the

system and shows their connections. First of all it highlights those parts of the system
which are substantial from the control viewpoint. Generally, a structural diagram uses
the standard notation of the specific field under consideration.
Considering the performance of a control system, what is of primary interest is not
the operation of the individual functional units, but rather the spreading effect of the
information induced by their operation.

An operational block diagram shows the connection and interaction of the

individual control units disregarding their physical characteristics. In a block diagram
the units are represented by rectangles.
A line supplied with an arrow directed to a rectangle symbolises the input signal, while
a directed line going out of a rectangle represents the output signal. The direction of
the arrow is also the direction of the flow of information. In the rectangles the
functions of the structural units are indicated (e.g., sensor, actuator element,
controller, etc.).

When realising a control system, the requirements for the process and the aim of the
control have to be formulated first. Then, to solve the control problem, the individual
structural control units are chosen. These units are connected to the process and to
each other according to the control structure. It has to be analysed whether the control
system meets the quality specifications. To do this it is required to examine the signal
transfer properties of the individual elements and also the signal transfer in the
interconnected system.

In a block diagram the individual elements of the operational diagram are described
by their signal transfer properties, i.e., by the mathematical formula giving the
relationships between the outputs and inputs. These relationships can be
mathematical equations, tables, characteristics, operation commands, etc. The signal
transfer properties of the individual elements can be given by a mathematical
description of the physical operation of the element, where the values of the
parameters involved in the equations are also given. To indicate some frequently used
operations, accepted symbols are written inside the rectangles (e.g., the symbol of
integration).

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 7
 symbols of summation and subtraction

A chain of effect is a set of connected elements along a given direction.

A block diagram can be considered as the mathematical model of the control system.
In this model, mainly the signal transfer properties of the system are kept in view,
other properties are ignored.
The static and dynamic behaviour of the control system can be investigated based on
the block diagram. The block diagram also provides the basis for the design of the
control system.

Open- and Closed-Loop Control, Disturbance Elimination

If the information is not gained directly from the measurement of the controlled signal,
an open-loop control is realised. If the information is derived by directly measuring
the controlled signal, a closed-loop control or feedback control is obtained.
The distinction between the open-loop and closed-loop control system is determined
by the control action, which is that quantity responsible for activating the system to
produce the output.

Open-Loop Systems

plant inputs and outputs

The main problem with open-loop is that the controlled variable is sensitive to changes
in disturbance inputs.
For example, if a gas fire is switched on in a room, and the temperature climbs to
200C, it will remain at that value unless there is a disturbance. This could be caused

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 8
by leaving a door to the room open, for example. Or alternatively by a change in
outside temperature.
In either case, the internal room temperature will change. For the room temperature
to remain constant, a mechanism is required to vary the energy output from the gas
fire.

The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop system is that it cannot compensate

for any disturbances that add to the controller’s driving signal.

Advantages of Open-Loop Control Systems

1. Simple construction and ease of maintenance
2. Less expensive in comparison with corresponding closed-loop systems
3. There is no stability problem
4. Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output precisely is
economically not feasible.

Disadvantages of Open-Loop Control Systems

1. Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the output may be
different from what is desired.
2. To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary from time
to time.

Closed-Loop Systems

closed-loop control system

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 disturbance 1 disturbance 2
input + + output
or input + controller + process + or
reference transducer or plant controlled
variable

output
transducer
or sensor

Closed-Loop Control System

A closed-loop control system measures the output and feeds back part of this signal
to compare it with the input (reference or command).

The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the controller.
An output transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into
the form used by the controller.

For a room temperature control system, the first requirement is to detect or sense
changes in room temperature. The second requirement is to control or vary the energy
output from the gas fire, if the sensed room temperature is different from the desired
room temperature.
In general, a system that is designed to control the output of a plant must contain at
least one sensor and controller.

The controller and plant lie along the forward path, and the sensor in the feedback
path. The measured value of the plant output is compared with the desired value at
the summing point. The difference or error is fed to the controller which generates a
control signal to drive the plant until its output equals the desired value.
Such an arrangement is sometimes called an error-actuated system.

Closed-loop control systems are more commonly called feedback control systems.
In a closed-loop (feedback) control the controlled signal itself is measured.
The control error, i.e., the deviation between the actual and the desired value of the
controlled signal, influences the input of the process. The functional units are the
sensor (measuring equipment), the unit providing the reference signal, the subtraction
unit, the amplifier and signal forming unit, and the executing and actuator unit. The
characteristic signals of the processes are measured by sensors.
The measuring instruments provide signals which are proportional to the different
physical quantities measured.

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The requirements set for the sensors are the following:
1. reliable operation in the range of the measurements
2. linearity in the range of the measurements
3. accuracy
4. small dead-time compared to the time constants of the process
5. low measurement noise.

operational block diagram of the closed-loop control system

A sensor measures the physical quantity which is to be controlled and transforms it

to another physical quantity which is proportional to the actual value of the controlled
signal, and can be compared to the reference signal provided by the reference unit.
The error signal operates the controller. The output signal of the controller is amplified,
formed and operates the acting element (actuator) which provides the input signal
(manipulated variable) for the process. The error signal gives the deviation of the
actual output signal from its desired value. If it is different from zero, the system input
is to be modified to eliminate the error.
The different functional units are selected according to practical considerations.
The control system is built from the individual control elements (sensors which
measure the given physical variables in the required range, controllers, actuators,
miscellaneous elements) available on the market.
The basis of a closed-loop control system is negative feedback. The command for
modifying the input of the process is performed based on comparing the reference
signal and the actual value of the output signal to be controlled. (There are different
schemes for realizing control systems, but all of them are based on negative
feedback.)
Because of the dynamics of the plant and the individual elements of the control
system, signals need time to go through the control loop. A well designed controller
takes the dynamics of the closed-loop system into consideration and ensures the
fulfilment of the quality specifications imposed on the control system.

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Advantages of Closed-Loop Systems
1. Greater accuracy when compared to open-loop systems
2. They are less sensitive to noise, disturbances, and changes in the environment
3. Transient response and steady-state error can be controlled more conveniently and
with greater flexibility in closed-loop systems, often by an adjustment of gain
(amplification) in the loop and sometimes by redesigning the controller.
We refer to the redesign as compensating the system and to the resulting hardware
as a compensator.

Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Systems

1. Closed-Loop Systems are more complex and expensive than open-loop systems.

Comparison of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control

If the relationship between the control signal (manipulated variable) and the controlled
signal (process variable) is known and reliable information is available on all the
elements and all the disturbances in the control circuit, then open-loop control can
ensure good control performance. But if our knowledge about the plant and about the
disturbances is inaccurate, then the performance of the open-loop control will not be
satisfactory. Open-loop control provides a cheap control solution, as it does not apply
expensive sensors to measure the controlled quantity, but instead it uses apriori
information or information gained about external physical quantities for decision
making. In open-loop control there are no stability problems.

Closed-loop control is more expensive than open-loop control. The controlled

variable is measured by sensor equipment, and manipulation of the input signal of the
plant is executed based on the deviation between the reference signal and the
measured output signal. Closed-loop control is able to track the reference signal and
to reject the effect of the disturbances. As the actual value of the controlled signal is
influenced by the disturbances, closed-loop control rejects the effect of the
disturbances which are not known in advance, and also compensates the effect of the
parameter uncertainties of the process model. If any kind of effect has caused the
difference between the output signal and its required value, the closed-loop control is
activated to eliminate the deviation. But because of the negative feedback stability
problems may occur, oscillations may appear in the system. The stability of the control
system can be ensured by the appropriate design of the controller.

If the disturbance is measurable, then closed-loop control is often supplemented by

feedforward using the measured value of the disturbance.

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 Feedforward control (disturbance compensation)

srl Open-loop control systems Closed-loop control systems

1 No feedback is given to the control system A feedback is given to the control system
2 Cannot be intelligent Intelligent controlling action
3 There is no possibility of undesirable system Closed loop control introduces the
oscillation (hunting) possibility of undesirable system oscillation
(hunting)
4 The output will not very for a constant input, In the system the output may vary for a
provided the system parameters remain constant input, depending upon the
unaltered feedback
5 System output variation due to variation in System output variation due to variation in
parameters of the system is greater and the parameters of the system is less.
output very in an uncontrolled way
6 Error detection is not present Error detection is present
7 Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
8 More stable Less stable or prone to instability
9 Affected by non-linearities Not affected by non-linearities
10 Very sensitive in nature Less sensitive to disturbances
11 Simple design Complex design
12 Cheap Costly

A block diagram of the feedforward principle is shown above. A signal depending on

the measured disturbance variable is fed forward to some appropriate summation
point of the control loop. This means an open-loop path which relieves the closed-loop
control in disturbance rejection. This forward path tries to compensate the effect of
the disturbance. This manipulation works in open-loop, the disturbance variable
influences the controlled variable, but the manipulation does not affect the disturbance
variable.
A good example of feedforward compensation is the compound excitation of a direct
current (DC) generator.

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 DC generator with compound excitation

The armature voltage is the controlled variable; the excitation is the control
(manipulated) variable. The load current (disturbance variable) decreases the
armature voltage of the generator. With compound excitation, part of the excitation
is created by the load current itself, thus the disturbance variable directly produces
the effect of eliminating itself. In this way the armature voltage of the generator is
greatly stabilised. For more accurate voltage
control, an additional closed-loop configuration can be applied.

Example:
In a CD player the disc has to be rotated at steady speed. A DC motor can be used as
actuator. The angular velocity is proportional to the terminal voltage of the motor.

Open-loop angular velocity control of a CD player

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Figure above shows the solution of the task in open-loop control. The terminal voltage
of the motor is provided by a direct current power supply through an amplifier. The
velocity is proportional to the terminal voltage.
Figure below schematically presents the solution using closed-loop control.

Closed-loop angular velocity control of a CD player

Figure (a) gives the structural diagram, while (b) shows the operational diagram. The
speed of the motor is measured with a tachometer generator, whose output voltage
is proportional to the velocity. The measured voltage is compared to the reference
signal voltage set by the power supply, which is proportional to the prescribed value
of the speed. The error signal operates the actuator DC motor.

With closed-loop control more accurate and more reliable operation can be reached.
Closed-loop control ensures not only reference signal tracking, but eliminates speed
changes resulting from possible changes in the load, as well.
In practice, besides closed-loop control, open-loop control systems are also given an
important role. When starting and stopping a complex system, a series of complex
open-loop control operations has to be executed. Generally, intelligent Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC) equipment is used to realize the open-loop control. To keep
various physical quantities at their required constant values closed-loop control
systems are applied.

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General Specifications for Closed-Loop Control Systems
The main goal of a closed-loop control system is to track the reference signal and to
reject the effect of the disturbances. Regarding the quality of the performance of the
control system static and dynamic requirements are prescribed. First of all a closed-
loop control has to be stable, i.e., oscillations of steady or increasing amplitude in the
loop variables are not allowed. After the change of the input signals a new balance
state has to be reached. The problem of instability comes from the negative feedback
realizing the closed-loop control. As after the appearance of the control error the
manipulation of the process input can be executed only in a delayed fashion, it may
occur that undesired transients do appear in the system (e.g when taking a shower
the water can be too hot or too cold, the desired temperature is not settled.) Stable
behaviour can be ensured by appropriate controller design.

The Control Systems Engineering Problem

The nature of control systems engineering is the consideration of two problems: the
analysis and the design of a control system configuration.

Analysis is the investigation of the properties of an existing system. The design

problem is the choice and arrangement of control systems components to perform a
specific task.

Design by Analysis or Design by Synthesis:

Design by Analysis is accomplished by modifying the characteristics of an existing or
standard system configuration.
Design by synthesis is accomplished by defining the form of the system directly from
its specifications.

Representation of the Problem: the Model

In order to solve a systems problem, the specifications or description of the system
configuration and its components must be put into a form suitable for analysis, design,
and evaluation.
In the study of control systems, the following basic representations (models) of
physical components and systems are extensively employed:

1. Differential Equations and other mathematical relations

2. Block Diagrams
3. Signal Flow Graphs

Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs are shorthand, graphical representations of
either the schematic diagram of a physical system, or the set of mathematical
equations characterising its parts.
Mathematical models, in the form of system equations, are employed when detailed
relationships are required. Every control system may theoretically be characterised by
mathematical equations. The solution to these equations represents the system’s
behaviour.

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Systems and Models
Building a model is a significant part of analysing a control system.
The model describes the signal transfer properties of a system in mathematical form.
With a model, the static and dynamic behaviour of a system can be analysed without
performing experiments on the real system. Based on the model, calculations can be
executed and the behaviour of the system can be simulated numerically. A model of
the system can also be used for controller design.
The choice of the elements of a control system is based on practical considerations.
The operation of a control system can be followed in the structural diagram, which
shows the connections and interactions of the individual units building the control
system. The mathematical model of the elements of the control loop describes their
signal transfer properties. In a control loop the signal transfer properties of all the
elements are given by mathematical relationships.

A block diagram can be considered as a mathematical model of the control loop.

With a block diagram, the static and dynamic properties of the control system can be
analysed, and it can be determined whether the system satisfies the quality
specifications.
The signal transfer properties of the individual elements can be given by mathematical
relationships describing their physical operation. A deep understanding of the physical
operation is required to derive its mathematical description.
The parameters in the mathematical equations can be determined by calculations or
by measurements.
The static and dynamic behaviour of a system can also be obtained by analysing the
input signals and the output signals resulting from the effect of the input signals. For
the execution of an experiment providing information for system analysis, it is
important to choose the input signals appropriately. This procedure requires some
form of a system model, and determines the parameters in such a way that the outputs
of the system and that of the model be closest to each other in terms of a cost function.
This procedure is called identification.
As the values of the parameters are generally determined by measurements, their
values are not quite accurate, but usually the range of the parameter uncertainties
can be given.

To obtain a model of a system generally physical modelling and identification are

used together.

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 creation of a model of a system

The model is reliable if its output for a given input approximates well the real output
of the system. The domain of validity of the model can be obtained (e.g., in which
range of the input signal it is valid).

Types of Models
A model is static if its output depends only on the actual value of its input signal.
For example, a resistance where the input signal is the voltage and the output signal
is the current being a static system.

A model is dynamic if its output depends on previous signal values as well. An

electrical circuit consisting of serially connected resistor and capacitor is a dynamical
system, since the voltage drop on the capacitance depends on the charge, and thus
on the previous values of the current.

A model can be linear or non-linear. The static characteristic plots the steady values
of an output signal versus the steady values of an input signal.
If the static characteristics are straight lines, the system is linear, otherwise it is non-
linear.

A model can be deterministic or stochastic.

The signals of a deterministic model can be described by analytical relationships. In a
stochastic model, the signals can be given by probabilistic variables and contain
uncertainties.

Spatially, a model can have either lumped or distributed parameters.

Lumped parameter systems can be described by ordinary differential equations, while
distributed parameter systems can be described by partial differential equations.

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A model can be a continuous-time (CT) or a discrete-time (DT) model.
A continuous-time model gives the relationship between its continuous input and
output generally in the form of a differential equation.
If the input and the output are sampled, the system is a discrete-time or sampled data
system, where the relationship between the input and the output signals is described
by a difference equation.

Considering the number of the input and the output signals, the model can be Single
Input Single Output (SISO), Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO), Single Input Multi
Output (SIMO) or Multi Input Single Output (MISO).

Besides the input and the output signals state variables of the system can also be
defined. The state variables are the internal variables of the system, whose current
values have evolved through the previous changes of the signal in the system. Their
values cannot be changed abruptly when the input signals change abruptly. The
current values of the input signals and that of the state variables determine the further
motion of the system.

The Properties of a System

Some important system properties—which characterise the relationship between
the input and the output—are linearity, causality and time invariance.

Linearity:
A system is linear if the superposition and homogeneity principles are applicable to it.
If for an input signal u1 the output signal of the system is y1 = f(u1), and for the input
signal u2 the output signal is y2 = f(u2), then the superposition principle means that
y1 + y2 = f(u1 + u2).
According to the homogeneity principle, a k-fold change in the input signal yields a k-
fold change in the output signal: ky = f(ku). It can also be stated that for the input
signal αu1 + βu2 the output signal is αy1 + βy2.

Causality:
At a given time instant the output depends on the past and the current input values,
but it does not depend on future input values.

Time invariance:
A system is time invariant if its response to the input signal does not depend on the
time instant of applying the input signal: to an input signal shifted by a dead-time of
τ, it gives the same response shifted by the dead-time τ.

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 Time invariant system

In a time invariant system, for the delayed output the following relationship holds:
y𝜏(t) = y(t – τ).
Linear time invariant systems generally are referred by the acronym LTI.

Example: A mechanical system

Let us consider the mechanical system shown in the figure below, which can model a
part of the chassis of a car.

Scheme of a mechanical system

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 m denotes the mass, c1 and c2 are spring constants, and k is the damping coefficient
of the oil brake. A concentrated mass is supposed. In the springs, forces proportional
to the position are created.
The damping piston provides a braking force proportional to the velocity.

The following force balance equations can be written.

The force created by the upper spring is expressed as c1(x1 - x2) = f.
The equation expressing the balance of forces acting on the mass is

It can be seen that the behaviour of the system is described by a differential equation.
By solving the differential equation, the motions x1 and x2 as function of time can be
calculated as the responses to the given force.

Example: Direct current (DC) Generator

Scheme of an externally excited direct current generator

Let us investigate the signal transfer of the externally excited DC generator shown in
the figure above, between its input signal, the excitation voltage u g, and its output
signal, the armature voltage uk. The resistance of the excitation coil is Rg and its
inductance is Lg. The following differential equation can be written for the excitation
circuit:

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Assume that the machine works within the linear section of its magnetic characteristic,
thus Lg can be considered constant. The generator is not loaded. The terminal voltage
of the generator is proportional to the excitation flux, or supposing a linear magnetic
characteristic the terminal voltage is proportional to the excitation current: u k = Kgig,
where Kg is a constant depending on the structural data of the machine, its units are
[V/A].

Basic Terminologies in Control System

System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components
to form a whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
Plant or Process: The part or component of a system that is required to be
controlled.
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control
system.
Control System:
1. A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to achieve
a certain goal.
2. An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide
a desired response.
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means
Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the
device that provides the motive power to the process.
Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system
to achieve a specified purpose.
Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behaviour of a system
by utilising actual input signals.
Optimisation: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favourable or
advantageous design.

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Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control
the system.
Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input
signal.
Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer
functions of the elements of the system.
Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several
directed branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.
Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be
and to do. It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.
Open-loop control system: A system that utilises a device to control the process
without using feedback. Thus the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.
Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the
output and compares it with the desired output.
Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs
are more or less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.
Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the
input command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output
is out of control or increases without bound.
Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more
than one output variable.
Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be
made between conflicting criteria.

Additional Definitions

A System is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a

manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit.

A Control System is an arrangement of physical components connected or related

in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system. Stated
differently, a control system is an interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired system response.

In engineering the term control system is restricted to those systems whose major
function is to dynamically or actively command, direct, or regulate.

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Control Systems can be defined as devices which regulate the flow of energy, matter,
or other resources.

Control Systems are used to maintain process conditions at their desired values by
manipulating certain process variables to adjust the variables of interest.

Example:
The figure shown below is an example of a control system which consists of a mirror
pivoted at one end and adjusted up and down with a screw at the other end. The
angle of reflected light is regulated by means of the screw.

The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external
energy source, usually in order to produce a specified response from the control
system.

The output is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not
be equal to the specified response implied by the input.

input / stimulus output / response

Control
desired response system actual response

The purpose of the control system usually identifies or defines the output and input.
Given the output and input, it is possible to identify or define the nature of the system’s
components.
In identifying a system, spurious inputs producing undesirable outputs are not
normally considered as inputs and outputs in the system description.

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A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for
the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a
specified input.

Automation is the technology by which a process or a procedure is accomplished

without human assistance. It is implemented using software instructions combined
with a control system that executes the instructions.

An Automatic Control System is a combination of components that act together in

such a way that the overall system behaves automatically in a pre-specified desired
manner.

The objective of an automatic process control system is to adjust the manipulated

variable to maintain the controlled variable at its set point in spite of disturbances.

An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the
reference input (desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a control
signal that will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value.
The manner in which the automatic controller produces the control signal is called the
control action.

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