Study Notes from a series of lectures by Phil Breneburg of the Washington Street Studios

Clay

Clay is a naturally occurring mixture of fine grain minerals or naturally occurring inorganic compounds. Clay is
made of particles called platelets that are extremely fine, roughly the size of a human red blood cell. The
platelets are stacked together like decks of cards that are oriented randomly through the clay mass. This
structure is responsible for its great ability to absorb water. Water absorption rates contribute to the clay's
plasticity and shrinkage rates in a direct proportion.

Main mineral components of clay are kaolinite (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O), illite and montmorillonite (found naturally in
the form of bentonite). In earth sciences, the word clay is used to refer to the size of a particle. Clay particles
are used to refer to the the finest particles, silt lies somewhere in between and sand is the largest particle
size. Ball clay, fire clay and kaolin are some naturally occurring clays.

Common uses:

- White fire clay is used to coat paper for better printing

- Clay is used industrially to absorb oil and other hazardous liquids
- It is used as a reinforcement or filler in plastic
- It is used as a catalyst in processes such as gasoline production, due to its large surface area
- Pencil leads are usually a mixture of graphite and clay
- It is also used in cosmetics

Material is referred to as clay when it is in its unfired form. Once bisqued, it is now called ceramic.

General types of clay bodies:

- Earthenware: usually red or white, earthenware is a low temperature body. Red clay bodies like
terracotta contain iron and take on its red colour. At low temperatures, the clay body doesn't vitrify,
i.e. no glass is formed, leaving the material porous. This is the main characteristic of earthenware.
 - Stoneware: a high temperature body that usually fires to an off-white or cream colour. Silica is added
to enable vitrification and make the material denser and glossier.

- Porcelain: porcelain contains high amounts of glass formers and is fired to extremely high
temperatures. The high rate of vitrification results in a very glossy body. Very thin porcelain can be
translucent.

- Raku clay: developed especially for raku firings. Usually contains added grog.

- Paper clay: clay with a mixture of paper to add strength and stiffness. Used to make very large
pieces. Can also be used to repair cracks.

- Wood-firing clay: developed especially for wood firings, contains high fireclay.

- Oven clay or flameware: can withstand thermal shock. Used in the kitchen.

- Bone China: made of bone ash.

- Parian Ware: self-glazing body, translucent result. A type of biscuit porcelain that imitates marble.

Clays are found naturally as deposits in the ground. Clay bodies contain a blend of clays, fluxes and silica. It
is a general rude to create a clay blend with clays of a broad range of particle sizes. This packs the material
together and facilitates better plasticity. Fluxes are added to facilitate firings at lower temperatures and silica
is added as a glass former. Silica is found naturally in clay bodies in the form of quartz occurring as
impurities. More silica is added to the clay body to form more glass.

Naturally occurring clay types:

1. Kaolin Clay: contains kaolinite. Also called china clay, it is a very fine, very pure white clay. It requires
a very high temperature to fire by itself, but is usually used in a mixture. EPK or Edgar Plastic Kaolin
is a type of kaolin clay mined in Florida. Grolley is another well-known type mined in England.

2. Stoneware: a high firing clay that fires to an off-white or cream colour. Particles are not so fine as
kaolin and so the final piece has a slight texture.

3. Fireclay: the coarsest naturally occurring clay deposit. Within fireclay, particle sizes ware. Since it is
inexpensive, it is used to make fire bricks and kiln bricks.

4. Ball Clay: a high fired clay, extremely fine and extremely plastic and slippery. Ball clay is usually
added to other clays to make the bodies finer and more plastic. It has a high shrinkage rate since it
absorbs a lot of water.

5. Common Clay: earthenware, terracotta, brickware. These are low fired clays with a lot of naturally
occurring fluxes in the body. This clay is used for bricks, pipes and other industrial products.
 6. Bentonite: a naturally occurring form of montmorillonite, bentonite is the name of the rock or the
deposit where this mineral is found. Bentonite is not used by itself, since the particle sizes are
extremely small. It is used as an additive to make clay bodies more plastic. It is also used as a
processing agent in glazes.

Fluxes:

1. Feldspars: Soda or Potash feldspars are sodium or potassium aluminium silicates.

2. Nepheline Syenite: a rock containing feldspar.
3. Powdered Glass or Fritz
4. Talc: used in white earthenware, to get a low-fired white result.

Grog refers to pre-fired crushed ceramics. Commercial grog is usually made from crushed firebricks.
Malachite is a type of white grog that is made from pre-fired kaolin. Grog adds strength, stiffness and texture
to the clay body. It also reduces shrinkage rates.

Developing a Clay Body

The first step to developing a clay body is to create a blend of different kinds of clay. It is important to have a
broad range of particle sizes in the clay blend to pack the material together. Different mixtures of clay bodies
are tested for its plasticity, water absorption rates, drying and firing shrinkage and colour. Too much
shrinkage in the clay body results in warping and cracking of the piece. The clay blend is chosen optimising
for the product that is being made.

Once the clay blend is chosen, a triaxial blend is created. Silica and fluxes are added to the clay blend and
tested in different combinations using a triaxial blend chart. Different combinations of ingredients are tested to
see what works best - tests in plasticity, shrinkage tests, firing tests, strength and colour tests.

.
Triaxial Blend Chart
Basic Stoneware Recipe (Cone 6 or Higher)

60% Fireclay
20 % Ball Clay
10% Feldspar
10% Silica

Fireclay is not very plastic on its own. Added ball clay for plasticity, but not so much that shrinkage increases
dramatically.

Basic Porcelain Recipe (Cone 6 or Higher)

23% China Clay

25% Ball Clay
25% Feldspar
25% Silica

China Clay is used to make porcelain white. Ballclay added for plasticity, reduces whiteness of china clay.

Properties of Clay

Clay particles, or platelets, are arranged in stacks like decks of cards and are oriented randomly through the
clay mass. Wet clay contains water in the spaces between the stacks and within the stacks, between
platelets. (Further Reading)

Through the capillary action of water, it continually moves to the surface of the clay mass and evaporates,
slowly drying the clay. As the water in the clay body reduces, surface tension in the remaining water forces
clay particles closer together until finally, they collide and can't move anymore. The second stage of the
drying process continues through capillary action of water. However, since there is no more space for the
movement of clay particles, no more shrinkage occurs.

Differential drying refers to unequal drying of clay. This leads to differential shrinking, and in turn, leads to
warping. Residual stresses in the clay can lead to cracks in the firing process. Controlled drying in the first
stage is important, especially with attachments such as handles. The goal is to dry the piece uniformly,
gradually lowering the humidity to equalise water content. This is achieved by covering the piece to facilitate
slower drying.

At the second stage, the clay is still wet but particles cannot move. The clay will sound solid on thumping
and will have lost its plasticity, so marks on the clay will not show up. At this stage, shrinkage and cracks are
not a problem and the piece can dry uncovered. Water loss continues until the piece is bone dry.

Since clay particles are not spherical but flat plate-like particles, their orientation through the clay mass plays
an important role in pottery. When we work with clay, we are orienting the clay particles in a particular
direction. When pressure is applied to wet clay, their orientation changes and tends to align them to a
preferred orientation. Typically, we use the following forces:

1. Compression: When we compress clay, we orient clay particles into a horizontal alignment,
perpendicular to the force applied.

2. Tension: tension or pulling/stretching forces orient the particles parallel to the force applies.

3. Shear (Sliding): force is applied inwards from two different directions, aligning particles parallel to the
forces applied.

When we wedge clay, we apply forces of compression and shear. Similarly with making of coils, slab building
and pulling walls on a wheel-thrown pot. Pulling handles includes a combination of compression and tension.
Burnishing involves compressing the surface of clay until it is smooth and sealed.
Warping of Clay

When clay dries, it doesn't shrink the same in all directions. For example, a slab of clay will shrink more
perpendicular to the alignment of particles, compared to shrinkage in the direction parallel to the alignment of
particles.

When there is a difference in the orientation of the layers at the bottom of the slab, it leads to uneven
shrinkage and as a result, warping of the piece. When we roll slabs, it is important to roll on both slides of the
slab and to roll in different directions. This creates a uniform orientation in the body.

When attaching two pieces with different particle orientations together, it is very important to slip and score
the surface where the attachment occurs. In the example of a handle attachment, particles are oriented
differently at the joints and so, shrink in different directions. This is why joints often don't hold. Scoring and
slipping adds a transition layer to release the stresses of the difference in orientations.

Many times, cracks don't show up in the drying process, but can form in high firings, many times remaining
hidden until glaze firings. This makes diagnosing the problem difficult. Preferred orientation amplifies the
effects of non-uniform drying. Drying slowly and evenly is important. A lot can go wrong when a piece is
dried quickly, nothing goes wrong when drying slowly.
Bisque Firing

Bisque firing strengthens the clay and removes all water. Commercially, bisque firing happens at a higher
temperature, to eliminate any defects before a following low-temperature glaze firing. An initial firing at a lower
temperature is usually called a bisquet, altho the two terms are often used interchangeably.

During a firing, clay mineral changes into ceramic material. It loses its plasticity. For example, changed kaolin
is called metakaolin. Through a process called sintering, clay particles bond to each other. Any organic
impurities burn off, producing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water. Sulphur minerals and
compounds are converted to sulphur oxides and driven off from the clay.

The bisque firing removes three types of water from the clay body -
- absorbed water, or the liquid water that is held inside the clay body.
- adsorbed water, or the film of water molecules on the surface of the clay.
- chemical or structural water, or the hydroxyl OH- ions that are part of the clay structure. Kaolinite
contains 14% water by weight.
-
Loss on ignition, the weight lost during firing, usually refers to this weight of water. Liquid water is removed
first at lower temperatures, since water boils at 100° C. With more heat and time, the adsorbed water starts
to be removed. Structural or chemical water requires high temperatures (between 750 - 1100 F) to be
removed.

The size of clay particles affects the rate of water removal. Fine particles of the clay body slow the process of
water removal, while clay bodies containing grog or paper clay lose water faster. Thicker walls of a pot leads
to slower removal of water, as well as burnishing of the pot's surface. A bisque firing should provide enough
heat and time to allow all water molecules to leave.

Determining a Firing Cycle

Early in the firing process, temperature control is extremely important to avoid steam explosion. Pots that are
not completely dry, lose their water rapidly as steam, that expands and can turn the pot into a bomb.
Through a process called spalling, the surface of the pot can pop off in sheets due to steam explosion.

It is typical to start firing slowly and stay under 100° C until all the water from the clay is removed. This is
called a pre-heating. It is important to note that not just the kiln temperature, but the temperature of all pots
in the kiln should remain under 100° C to avoid steam explosion. The preheating time depends on how
wet/dry the pots are suspected to be. When in doubt, go slower. Of course, its most important to make sure
all pots are completely bone dry before loading. This process is generally done in electric kilns, to achieve
temperature control. In gas kilns, it is important to have oxidation conditions at this stage.

Once the pots are dry, the kiln should be heated up to at least 1200° F to remove chemical water. Time
required depends on how tightly the kiln is packed and the heat distribution through it. The type of clay,
particle size and presence of grog affects firing time. It is important that the kiln heats uniformly - it is
recommended that larger pots with thicker walls are placed at the centre of the kiln to allow for slower
heating.

The kiln temperature is increased further after this stage to clean up the clay by removing impurities. At this
temperature, the clay molecules bond and porosity of the clay decreases as bonds get tighter. The strength
of the material also increases. Certain clay bodies contain more impurities than others and need to be
bisqued at a higher temperature for longer. This is done to avoid the impurities coming through in the glaze
firing and causing defects. Impurities left behind in the clay can create gas and bubble up to the surface,
producing kiln holes or white spots in the glaze. The firing schedule must be planned for the worst pot - the
pot with the thickest walls, or the pot with most impure clay.

Firing Tips:

Lower bisque temperatures produce soft, more porous material that can be fragile on handling. The porosity
of the material in turn results in large rates of glaze absorption by the pots. Under bisquing can also lead to
remaining chemical water in the material, which will come out in the glaze firing. The kiln and room must be
well vented - sulphur fumes are corrosive and need to be let out. They ate also extremely bad to breathe.

Over bisquing causes the porosity to decrease, so glaze absorption may be slower. This problem can be
solved easily by holding the pots in the glaze longer when dipping, or applying a thicker layer of glaze when
spraying.

When performing a single firing, where bisque and glaze firings happen one after another without unloading
the kiln, you still need to perform a bisque. It is important for all the water to leave the clay body before the
glaze melts.

Earthenware is traditionally bisqued at around Cone 04 and glaze fired at Cone 06. Stoneware or Porcelain is
bisqued at Cone 06-07, which is about 1789 - 1850° F.

Very little shrinking or warping occurs in a bisque firing. There is little or no vitrification and the clay doesn't
get sticky. This allows the pots to touch each other and to be stacked when loaded. It is important to leave
room for everything to shrink when loading.

Sidenote: The layer between the clay body and glaze, that forms during a glaze firing, is called the interfacial
layer.

Glaze

It is a good practice to test glazes before using them on final pieces. Glazes should be tested on different
clays, with different application methods, the firing technique and loading methods to optimise the results. It
is also a good practice to plan your pieces from the very beginning - the minute you touch the piece, you
should start to think about how you want to finish it.
If you are glazing unbisqued work, more clay is required in the glaze composition to compensate for the
additional shrinkage of the clay material in the glaze. Crawling is caused by glaze that doesn't contain
enough clay in the recipe. Shrinkage of the clay in the glaze, causes it to lose its bond with the ceramic
underneath, and this shows up during firing. Calcined clay is raw clay powder, heated until there is no water
remaining. The clay powder is now ceramic material. This calcined clay can be substituted for china clay in
glaze recipes to prevent crawling - replace 86% with calcined clay.

Glaze Crawling

Many glazes contain wood ash and soda ash material that can be caustic. Handle with care.
Prep and Mixing:

Powdered ingredients are blended in dry form to ensure proper mixing. Some material, such as bentonite,
tends to be lumpy when wet. Bentonite is used to keep glaze in suspension in wet form. It gets extremely
sticky when wet and thus, needs to be dispersed evenly before adding water.

The dry blend is combined with water. Adding the powder to water (similar to plaster process) is
recommended to avoid lump formation. Mix this thick, as it can be thinned later. Wet mixing is done with a
high shear mixer (a paint mixer) to rip the lumps apart. In case of smaller batches, a hand-held immersion
blender works well. This wet mix is passed through a sieve to remove impurities and screen out grit. It also
breaks up any remaining lumps.

The glaze is then left to sit for a day or two, since clay in the glaze continues to absorb water for a period of
time. Final adjustments to the glaze consistency can be made after this stage. To repeat uniform results in
glaze consistency, specific gravity can be measured. (Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a substance
compared to the weight of an equal volume of water). To check consistency of the glaze, you can perform a
finger test. You are looking for a coating of glaze on your finger where you can still see the creases on the
skin and the line around your fingernail.

Flocculation:

Flocculation is the tendency of clay particles, when suspended in water, to join together loosely and form a
network structure. This prevents glaze from settling down and holds it in suspension. When the structure
collapses, it is called deflocculation.

When a glaze look water, flocculation is recommended. An acid-like substance is added to the mixture. This
changes the electrical charges on the clay molecules and encourages formation of a suspended network of
particles through electrostatic force. This prevents the glaze from running and dripping.
Epsom salts are used as flocculants - MgSo4.7H2O - magnesium sulphate. To prepare an epsom salt
solution, salts are added to water until the water is saturated - this keeps concentration consistent even
when water evaporates. This epsom salt solution is added to glaze while stirring slowly, which makes the
glaze creamier. Do not add epsom salts to glaze recipes as a dry ingredient even when mentioned as too
much can deflocculate the glaze.

Sidenote: Some glazes may appear thick when left to sit for a while. Stir before adding more water - some
glazes, called Thixotropic glazes, thin as you stir.

Surface Prep:

Wax or latex immersions can be used to create resists that repel the glaze. This is used for preventing glaze
from sticking to foot rings, or to create surface decorations. Wax resist burns off during a glaze firing, while
latex is a temporary removable resist. Masking or painter's tape also works well. It is important to let resist
dry thoroughly before glazing.
Always wipe the surface with a damp sponge before glazing. This removes dust and prevents glaze defects.
If the surface of the bisqueware is dusty, the glaze won't adhere to it. Pre-dampening of the surface also
allows for better glaze absorption through adhesion between water molecules on the surface and in the
glaze.

Thick application of underglaze or stains can lead to crawling, as these sit on the surface of bisqueware and
do not melt in the kiln.

Application:

Flocculating a glaze prevents it from running and dripping. This is great for dipping pots or
splashing/spattering the glaze. When brushing, you need a creamier texture that can be achieved cellulose
gum which is a brushing agent. (Found in artificial maple syrup). When spraying, screen with a very fine sieve.
When glazing a complicated shape, glaze in sections and take your time. With a closed form such as a mug
or a vase, glaze the inside first. The glaze layer needs to be thicker when spraying.

When overlapping glazes, don't let the first glaze dry completely before applying the second one as this can
lead to crawling. There is essentially a new glaze being created at the section where the two glazes overlap -
be aware that you may not know the characteristics of this third glaze.

Clear glazes contain borates or boron containing fritz. These tend to get cloudy or milky if applied too thick.

Glazes crawl more easily on thin-walled pots. Water from the glaze can easily saturate a pot, leaving the
glaze on its surface loose. The aim here is to keep the pot unsaturated and glaze in thin layers. Here,
deflocculated glazes work best.

Finishing:

Don't touch lumps, blobs or marks on the surface of an applied glaze. Instead, rub over when the glaze is
completely dry. Rub lightly with a finger and fill in the gaps. For glaze that is coming off the pot on touch, you
can spray a spray starch coating to help keep it in place. Clean off any glaze droplets in areas where resist is
used.

Firing:

Always use pyrometric cones - cones respond to firing conditions and give accurate readings of temperature
and time. Learn your kiln, its hot spots and cold spots, and use these conditions to your advantage rather
than fighting them. Always perform tests.

Cone temperatures can be achieved by firing to a temperature one cone lower and using a hold at the end of
the firing. A 30-minute hold can raise the temperature by one cone. This evens out the temperature through
the kiln. Faster you fire to a certain cone temperature, higher the temperature will be - avoid rapid firing as it
can lead to overfiring. Glazes respond well to slow changes in temperature.
Pyrometric Cones

Pyrometric (measure of heat) cones are moulded spikes made from raw clay bodies. Different compositions
of clay bodies heat and melt at different temperatures, helping to measure the progress of a firing. Each cone
is assigned an approximate temperature designation - the cones soften and bend over when the temperature
reaches the correct point. These cones are watched through the firing process through peepholes.

Cones were invented in the late 1800s by Hermann Seger, director of the Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin.
He was the first to perform a temperature-controlled firing. Cones are numbered from 022 to 01 and then
from 1 to 45, in increasing order of temperature. (Cone 45 refers to the melting point of aluminium oxide).

Cones respond to the firing conditions of the kiln - both the temperature and the time. Rapid firing tends to
heat up the kiln more than is intended. They are used to control firings, and also to map kilns and figure our
their hot and cold spots.

Cones are usually set into a base of soft clay in sets of three - these are called cone packs. Cone packs are
set on the shelf of the kiln where you can see them through the peepholes. When the tip of the cone touches
the base, the cone is down. This indicates that the required temperature has been reached. It is
recommended that cones are set on a scrap of clay to catch the melted cone material.

Guide cone - usually melts one cone lower than required cone - indicate that we are getting close to the
cone temperature. Firing or Witness cone - melts at required cone temperature - indicates temperature has
been achieved. Guard cone - melts at a higher temperature than the required temperature - indicates
overfiring.
Glaze Firing

The glaze firing is the final high temperature firing for stoneware or porcelain - it vitrifies the clay and forms
and melts the glaze. In a glaze firing, first a bisque is repeated, after which, it is slowly heated to hiring
temperatures to form the glaze.

Al2O3.2SiO2.2H20 --------> Al2O3.2SiO2 ------------------> 3Al3O3.2SiO2 + SiO2

- Clay is changed first into metakaolin and then into mullite and silica, water is removed.
- Silica presents in the clay melts.
- Sintering occurs, a process through which molecules bond together, creating a denser clay body.
This is also what causes shrinkage.
- Glaze melts and forms glass.
- Finally, there is a reaction between clay and glaze at the interfacial layer.
- When the kiln is cooled, the piece contracts.

Glaze ingredients melt at different points in the firing.

- At lower bisque temperatures, any fritz in the glaze melts.

- Borates and soda ash (NaCO3) also melt early.
- CaCO3 when heated, changes to CaO and CO2. Calcium oxide acts as a flex while carbon dioxide is
released as gas.
- Sulphates present as impurities are also released as gas in the form of sulphur dioxide or sulphur
trioxide.
- At higher temperatures, glaze melts and forms glass. In the liquid form, molecules in the glass float
around. Melted glaze is corrosive in its liquid state and eats into the clay body. This produces the
interfacial layer.
- When the kiln is cooled, crystals form in the glaze as it solidifies. Eventually, the temperature reaches
a set point, where the glaze freezes and becomes solid. At the set point, crystallisation ends. The
glaze shrinks and contracts as it cools. Slow cooling allows time for homogeneity in the glaze before
it hardens.

When loading the kiln, it is important to keep in mind where the heat is coming from, and to optimise the
arrangement for uniform heating. Always use pyrometric cones to monitor the firing. There are many different
chemical reactions occurring in the kiln, it is important to give them the time to occur. Prioritise uniform
heating and cool slowly. If cooled rapidly, pots can have cracks form due to temperature shock .

Glaze Chemistry

A glaze is essentially a glass, which has a special property of having a liquid-like atom arrangement as a
solid. This gives it a high melting point and makes it resistant to heat. Usually, glazes contain glasses that are
primarily made of silicates. (Obsidian, or volcanic glass, is a naturally occurring glass.) Glaze material melts at
high temperatures to form liquid glass, which crystallises on cooling. Properties of the glaze can be predicted
from its ingredients. Glaze recipes are written in weight percent, with the base glaze forming 100%. Any
additives like colourants or modifiers are added on top of the 100%.

Glazes are composed of glass formers, fluxes and stabilisers. Fluxes lower melting temperatures so it can be
fired in a kiln. Stabilisers thicken the glaze to prevent any running while in the liquid state. Clay is an important
ingredient in glazes since it contains alumina and silica, both of which are important components - with silica
acting as a glass former, and alumina acting as a stabiliser.

* Ferric oxide can act as a stabiliser under certain circumstances. Further Reading.

Common Glaze Ingredients

Glaze ingredients come from rocks, in the form of minerals, or are produced commercially as chemicals.
There usage depends on cost and availability factors.

1. Feldspars: a family of minerals, contain soda (Na+) and potash (K+) feldspar. Custer feldspar and
G200 are brands of potash feldspar commonly available in the US. Minspar 200 - soda feldspar.
Used as a source of sodium and potassium which are needed as fluxes.

2. Nepheline Syenite: is a rock containing two or more minerals. Nepheline syenite rock can have
different compositions depending on its geological origins. Contains nepheline, feldspars - used as a
source of sodium flux - contains sodium oxide.

3. Cornish Stone or Cornwall Stone: is a rock imported from England. Contains felspars, used as a
source of sodium and potassium fluxes.

4. Spodumene or Triphane:, a lithium aluminium silicate mineral (LiAlSi2O6) in the pyroxene family, an
important ore of lithium and a source of ceramic materials. It is ordinarily found in lithium-bearing
granite pegmatites

5. Pidilite: lithium containing mineral, can be substituted for spodumene after adjusting for silica.
6. Flint or Silica or Quartz: these are glass formers that form a bulk of the glaze. In its impure form, silica
is found as quartz. Another form containing even more impurities is flint, found in England at the
Cliffs of Dover, in the form of flint pebbles. The english often list silica as flint. Quartz is the commonly
occurring form of silica in the US.

7. China Clay or Kaolin: is a fairly pure clay. It is used in glaze since it doesn't contain too many
impurities and hence, does not much affect the colour of glaze. It is used as a source of alumina,
which acts as a stabiliser. EPK - in the US - Grolleg - in England. Sizes of particles may vary, but the
substance is usually mostly pure.

8. Ball Clay: is a very sticky clay. It is generally added to the glaze to give it strength in its dry, unfired
form. This is done to enable easier handling of glazed pots. OM-4 is a popular US brand of ball clay.

9. Bentonite: is a very fine clay formed in the ground from volcanic ash. It has a great capacity to
absorb water, which makes it very sticky and difficult to mould. It is added to glazes in small
amounts to prevent it from settling in the water. Usually, not more than 2% is added to the recipe.
Too much bentonite can cause the glaze to get sticky and difficult to apply.

10. Limestone or Whiting or Chalk or Calcite: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is commonly found in the form
of chalk or limestone. It decomposes when heated to form calcium oxide, which acts as a flux.

11. Dolomite: a rock containing the mineral dolomite. It is a source of magnesium carbonate, which
decomposes into magnesium oxide flux. It is used in satin glazes.

12. Wollastonite: is a naturally occurring mineral that is a chemical combination of calcium, silicon and
oxygen, calcium silicate. It is used as a source of calcium oxide at lower temperatures, where calcite
doesn't work.

13. Alberta Slip or Albany Slip: a naturally occurring form of clay that contains a lot of mineral impurities.
It can be used as slip on clay directly to form a glaze, since it contains the right impurities used to
make glaze. Albany Slip is not available anymore, Alberta Slip is a commercially produced replica.

14. Gerstley Borate or Gillespie Borate: naturally occurring dirt containing boron oxide B2O3 - it is a
terrific flux. An ore, originally discovered in a mine in California by Gerstly, it was developed for Cone
6 firings in electric kilns. Cone 6 was developed with the onset of electric kilns with the intention of
achieving Cone 10 results at lower temperatures. As Cone 6 became more popular, Gerstley borate
became more popular. When the original mine was closed down, commercial alternatives such as
Gillespie Borate or Luna Borate were developed for the market. The original mine has since been
reopened and Gerstley Borate is now available, along with the impurities it contains, that can create
specific results. Borax is used in Raku glazes. It is generally not used as the mineral contains water.
This melts and foams/bubbles in the kiln. Before gerstley borate was discovered, regular borax was
the cheap, popular source for boron oxide. It is not used anymore except in special cases.
15. Colemanite: is a hydrated calcium borate mineral mainly constituted by B2O3 and CaO, with
chemical formula 2CaO·3B2O3·5H2O. It is only available in bulk since its not mined in the US.

16. Soda Ash or Washing Soda: Na2CO3 is a water soluble source of sodium. Generally, water soluble
ingredients are not used in glaze. When the glaze dries after application, water travels to the surface,
taking the water soluble soda ash with it to the surface of the glaze. As the water evaporates, the
soda ash is deposited as crusts on the surface of the pot. Essentially, it causes the glaze to unmix
on the pot. As an exception, it is used as a main ingredient in Shino Glazes to make them
carbon-trapping.

17. Red Iron Oxide or Red Ochre or Hematite or Ferric Oxide: the main colourant for glazes. Red Ochre
refers to its mineral form, while Hematite is the name of the mineral.

18. Black Iron Oxide or Magnetite or Ferrous Oxide: can be used as a source of iron in glazes, but is
much less reactive than hematite. Some ferrous oxides can contain special characteristics from
impurities. Normally, not used over ferric hematite.

19. Yellow Ochre or Limonite: a hydrated ferric oxide, FeO(OH). Contains water, and is usually not so
pure. Used specifically for its impurities that can affect colour of glaze.

20. Rutile: an oxide mineral composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2), the most common natural form. Also
contains ferric oxide. Used as a colourant to give an iridescent, watery blue colour. Titanium oxide
forms another glass in the glaze, which creates the watery effect. Also used as a stain or wash.

21. Fritz or Powdered Glass: this is a manufactured glass that is powdered. It is chemically produced to
control the constituents. Used largely in Cone 6 earthenware glazes, as it melts at low temperatures.
Since the ceramic industry uses a lot of fritz - it allows for better control over glass forming - it has
become a common ingredient. Too much fritz can make the glaze settle in the bucket and create a
sludge at the bottom which can be difficult to remove. In this case, additives would have to be put in
the glaze to compensate for this. Fritz is usually more expensive than other glass formers.

22. Pumice or Volcanic Ash: this is a naturally occurring glass and has a similar composition to obsidian
and can function as a glaze in itself - can be used with some added fluxes. Contains silica.

23. Wood Ash: used as a source of flux, wood ashes don't contain a lot of alumina or silica. They
contain potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium oxides, but generally don't tend to be very
pure. This allows for a lot of variations and serendipity in the firing.

24. Tal: a naturally occuring mineral - magnesium silicates. A source of magnesium, it is used at lower
temperature firings in place of dolomite. It has a different melting behaviour and also gives different
characteristics than dolomite.
 25. Bone Ash: source of calcium phosphate, acts as a flux. Phosphorous can also act as a glass former,
which affects the texture and colour of the glaze. Bone ash is no longer made from bones, it is now
chemically produced.

26. Plastic Vitrox: similar to potash feldspar.

27. Barium Carbonate: used as a modifier, can intensify a colour.

Making Adjustments

It is important to know the composition and function of material used in a glaze recipe to be able to
substitute it efficiently. Same glazes can be formed from different materials.

For a glaze that settles quickly in bucket - add clay to aid suspension.

For a glaze that cracks on drying or crawls on firing - reduce clay in recipe. Too much clay means too many
fine particles in the glaze that absorb water. These particles shrink on drying and crack. This causes the glaze
to fall off the pot or crawl on firing.

Bentonite aids suspension of glaze material in water - it easily forms sticky lumps that do not mix well. This
can lead to white spots in the glaze. Always mix bentonite well through the glaze when in dry form.

Fluxes melt at different temperatures are are categorised according to their cone temperatures, based on
where they work best. Nepheline syenite melts at a lower temperature than soda feldspar, which melts at a
lower temperature than potash feldspar. If a glaze is runny, you can substitute the flux with one that melts at
a higher temperature to stabilise it. More clay can also be added as a stabiliser.

It is a general rule to add a mixture of fluxes to a glaze recipe rather than a single one. This allows for a wide
firing-range and makes the glaze less sensitive to temperature.

If a glaze crawls on firing, there can be multiple reasons for this. Too much clay or too many fine particles
causes crawling in a glaze, due to higher rates of water absorption of these particles. Too much opacifier in
the recipe also causes crawling.

Too much sodium in the glaze can cause a fine network of cracks - this effect is called crazing. Too much
sodium causes the glaze to contract more than the clay body when cooling in the kiln, leading to the cracks.

Glaze quality and colours are affected by fluxes and their reactions with the colourants in the glaze. Matte
glazes are created when crystallisation occurs in the glaze - this comes from higher quantities of calcium,
magnesium and lithium, which allow for crystals to form. Glazes with higher quantities of sodium and
potassium do not have a matte effect, as the sodium and potassium doesn't allow for crystallisation to occur.
Too much silica or alumina can also cause a matte effect.

Glazes don't have to be complicated.

Stains

A stain is a thin surface colourant, usually applied to bisqueware or greenware. It is brushed, sponged or
sprayed and can be used with or without glaze. Commonly, oxides mixed in water are used as stains. Stains
made from calcium carbonate or cobalt carbonate convert to their oxide forms when fired. To allow the stains
to melt in the kiln, it is useful to add a flux to it.

1. Mason Stains: these are commercially produced pre-fired and pre-reacted chemical compounds
with particular colours. They are very stable in the firing and were developed to hold their colour
through the process. They were developed for low temperature earthenware firings. When fired at
high temperatures or reduced, they can change colour.

2. Underglaze Stains: meant to be applied under a glaze. These contain mason stains with fluxes and
additives to make them more brushable.

3. Coloured Clay: can be used a a stain. Locally found clay can be made into a stain and brushed
lightly on a pot to create specific colour or other properties.

Stains applied too thick can cause crawling. When used on bare clay, they don't melt and hence don't seal
the clay - the surface will not be food safe. Without a glaze protecting them, stains are leachable and will
whether with environmental conditions. It is best to use stains at low earthenware temperatures, since that's
what they're optimised for. New high-temperature stains are also coming into the market and can be
explored.

Washes

Any thin dilute surface coating on the pot is called a wash. Similar to a watercolour wash, it is used to give a
colour tint or to add a flux to the surface. Flux washes can create a shine on the surface, as the flux will melt
and change the surface texture. Dilute suspensions of borate or soda ash can be used as flux washes. It is
very important to control thickness here.

Underglaze

Produced commercially, they are made as paints for greenware or bisqueware. They sit under the glaze and
are usually pre-mixed. Consist of colourants, frit, opacifiers and a brushing aid (usually cellulose gum). A thin
coating is applied for colour. They can be brushed on top of glazes, or used as stains without glaze.

When applied too thick, cause crawling. On bisqueware and greenware, thick underglaze coatings can cause
the surface of the clay body to seal. Subsequently, when glaze is applied, it will not stick to the pot. Some
underglazes can dissolve in glaze and disappear when applied too think.

Underglazes usually don't have standard characteristics, each manufacture makes them differently, so its
important to test them. Don't mix underglaze by shaking, as it contains cellulose gum and will not mix well on
shaking. Stir instead. It is better to paint in multiple thinner coats than applying a thick coat of underglaze.
Slip

A suspension of clay and water, usually a creamy consistency. Opaque coatings are applied to wet clay,
leather hard clay or greenware. Very thin coatings can be applied to bisqueware. They are applied to chance
the clay surface - colour or texture.

Slips can crack when drying if too thick - different shrinkage and drying rates between clay body and slip will
cause problems. It is important to make sure there is uniform drying - plan ahead when to apply the slip and
how thick to apply it.

Terra Sigillata

A very dilute suspension of very fine particles of clay in water, usually a skim milk consistency. Added for
colour, or in some cases, added to create a more pliable clay surface for burnishing. Generally not used with
glaze.

Engobe

A surface coating to change colour or material, halfway between a glaze and a slip. Contain clay, flux and
colourants. When fired, they get harder and denser than slip, but don't melt or get glassy like glaze. They are
more durable than slip, but not food safe as they don't melt enough to seal the clay surface.

Use by Itself Use under Glaze Use over Glaze

Stain ✓ ✓ ✓

Wash ✓ (✓)* (✓)*

Underglaze ✓ ✓ ✓

Slip ✓ ✓

Terra Sigillata ✓

Engobe ✓ ✓

* Washes can be used under and over glazes, but need to be thicker. Washes that are too dilute will dissolve
in the glaze. When thicker, they are considered stains.