Name- Vansh

Sawlani
Class- XIth
Section- C
Roll No.- 57
Project-Physics
 INDEX

[Link] Title Page No.

1 Introduction 1
2 Ackowledgement 2
3 Content 3-33
4 Bibilography 34
Acknowledgement
The completion of this project undertaking could not have
been possible without the participation and assistance of
so many people whose names may not all be enumerated.
Their contributions are sincerely appreciated and
gratefully acknowledged.

I extend my most grateful and sincere thanks to our math

teacher Mr. Rajesh Kumar for guiding us throughout our
assignment and for all the valuable suggestions given to
us during the assignment.

A special thanks goes to all my classmates and family

members, especially to my friends for spending their time,
helping and giving support whenever I need it in
fabricating my assignment.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
A body is said to execute simple harmonic motion when it experiences a restoring force which is
proportional to its displacement from equilibrium position and is directed to the equilibrium
position.

Periodic Motion

A motion which repeats itself identically after a fixed interval of time is called periodic motion.
e.g., orbital motion of the earth around the sun, motion of arms of a clock, motion of a simple
pendulum etc.

Oscillatory Motion

A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back and forth about a fixed point, is called
oscillatory motion, e.g., motion of a simple pendulum, motion of a loaded spring etc.

Note Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion but every periodic motion is not oscillatory
motion.

Harmonic Oscillation

The oscillation which can be expressed in terms of single harmonic function, i.e., sine or cosine
function, is called harmonic oscillation.

Simple Harmonic Motion

A harmonic oscillation of constant amplitude and of single frequency under a restoring force
whose magnitude is proportional to the displacement and always acts towards mean Position is
called Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).

A simple harmonic oscillation can be expressed as

y = a sin ωt

Where a = amplitude of oscillation.

 Some Terms Related to SHM
Time Period Time taken by the body to complete one oscillation is known as time period. It is
denoted by T.

Frequency The number of oscillations completed by the body in one second is called frequency.
It is denoted by v.

Its SI unit is ‘hertz’ or ‘second-1‘.

Frequency = 1 / Time period

Angular Frequency The product of frequency with factor 2π is called angular frequency. It is
denoted by ω.

Angular frequency (ω) = 2πv

Its SI unit is ‘hertz’ or ‘second-1‘.

Displacement A physical quantity which changes uniformly with time in a periodic motion. is
called displacement. It is denoted by y.

Amplitude The maximum displacement in any direction from mean position is called amplitude.
It is denoted by a.

Phase A physical quantity which express the position and direction of motion of an oscillating
particle, is called phase. It is denoted by φ.

Simple harmonic motion is defined as the projection of a uniform circular motion on any
diameter of a circle of reference.
Some Important Formulae of SHM
(i) Displacement in SHM at any instant is given by

y = a sin ωt

or y = a cos ωt

where a = amplitude and

ω = angular frequency.

(ii) Velocity of a particle executing SHM at any instant is given by

v = ω √(a2 – y2)

At mean position y = 0 and v is maximum

vmax = aω

At extreme position y = a and v is zero.

(iii) Acceleration of a particle executing SHM at any instant is given by

A or α = – ω2 y

Negative sign indicates that the direction of acceleration is opposite to the direction in which
displacement increases, i.e., towards mean position.

At mean position y = 0 and acceleration is also zero.

At extreme position y = a and acceleration is maximum

Amax = – aω2

(iv) Time period in SHM is given by

T = 2π √Displacement / Acceleration
Graphical Representation
Force in SHM
We know that, the acceleration of body in SlIM is α = -ω2 x

Applying the equation of motion F = ma,

We have, F = – mω2 x = -kx

Where, ω = √k / m and k = mω2 is a constant and sometimes it is called the elastic constant.

In SHM, the force is proportional and opposite to the displacement.

Energy in SHM
The kinetic energy of the particle is K = 1 / 2 mω2 (A2 – x2)

From this expression we can see that, the kinetic energy is maximum at the centre (x = 0) and
zero at the extremes of oscillation (x ± A).

The potential energy of the particle is U = 1 / 2 mω2 x2

From this expression we can see that, the potential energy has a minimum value at the centre (x
= 0) and increases as the particle approaches either extreme of the oscillation (x ± A).

Total energy can be obtained by adding potential and kinetic energies. Therefore,

E=K+U

= 1 / 2 mω2 (A2 – x2) + 1 / 2 mω2 x2

= 1 / 2 mω2 A2
where A = amplitude

m = mass of particle executing SHM.

ω = angular frequency and

v = frequency

Changes of kinetic and potential energies during oscillations.

The frequency of kinetic energy or potential energy of a particle executing SHM is double than
that of the frequency in SHM.

The frequency of total energy of particles executing SHM is zero as total energy in SHM remains
constant at all positions.

When a particle of mass m executes SHM with a constant angular frequency (I), then time period
of oscillation

T = 2π √Inertia factor / Spring factor

In general, inertia factor = m, (mass of the particle)

Spring factor = k (force constant)

How the different physical quantities (e.g., displacement, velocity, acceleration, kinetic energy
etc) vary with time or displacement are listed ahead in tabular form.
Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of
an elastic inextensible string.

The time period of the simple pendulum is given by :

T = 2π √l / g

where l = effective length of the pendulum and g = acceleration due to gravity.

Vibrations of a Loaded Spring

When a spring is compressed or stretched through a small distance y from mean position, a
restoring force acts on it.

Restoring force (F) = – ky

where k = force constant of spring.

If a mass m is suspended from a spring then in equilibrium,

mg = kl

This is also called Hooke’s law.

Time period of a loaded spring is given by

T = 2π √m / k

When two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are connected in parallel to mass m as
shown in figure, then

(i) Effective force constant of the spring combination

k = k1 + k2

(ii) Time period T = 2π √m / (k1 + k2)

When two springs of force constant k1 and k2 are connected in series to mass m as shown
in figure, then

(i) Effective force constant of the spring combination

1 / k = 1 / k1 + 1 / k2

(ii) Time period T = 2π √m(k1 + k2) / k1k2

Free, Damped and Forced Oscillation

Free Oscillations

When a body which can oscillate about its mean position is displaced from mean position and
then released, it oscillates about its mean position. These oscillations are called free oscillations
and the frequency of oscillations is called natural frequency.

Damped Oscillations

Oscillations with a decreasing amplitude with time are called damped oscillations.

The displacement of the damped oscillator at an instant t is given by

x = xoe– bt / 2m cos (ω’ t + φ)

where xoe– bt / 2m is the amplitude of oscillator which decreases continuously with time t and
ω’.

The mechanical energy E of the damped oscillator at an instant t is given by

E = 1/ 2 kx2oe– bt / 2m

Forced Oscillations

Oscillations of any object with a frequency different from its natural frequency under a periodic
external force are called forced oscillations.

Resonant Oscillations

When an external force is applied on a body whose frequency is an integer multiple of the
natural frequency of the body, then its amplitude of oscillation increases and these oscillations
are called resonant oscillation.
Wave

A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one point to another
point without any actual movement of the medium.

There are three types of waves

Mechanical Waves

Those waves which require a material medium for their propagation, are called mechanical
waves, e.g., sound waves, water waves etc.

Electromagnetic Waves

Those waves which do not require a material medium for their propagation, are called
electromagnetic waves, e.g., light waves, radio waves etc.
Matter Waves

These waves are commonly used in modern technology but they are unfamiliar to us. Thses
waves are associated with electrons, protons and other fundamental particles.
Nature of Waves

(i) Transverse waves A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate at right
angles to the direction of propagation of wave, is called a transverse wave.

These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.

(ii) Longitudinal waves A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in the same
direction in which wave is propagating, is called a longitudinal wave.

These waves travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

Some Important Terms of Wave Motion

(i) Wavelength The distance between two nearest points in a wave which are in the same phase
of vibration is called the wavelength (λ).

(ii) Time Period Time taken to complete one vibration is called time period (T).

(iii) Frequency The number of vibrations completed in one second is called frequency of the
wave.

Its SI unit is hertz.

(iv) Velocity of Wave or Wave Velocity The distance travelled by a wave in one second is
called velocity of the wave (u).

Relation among velocity, frequency and wavelength of a wave is given by v = fλ.

(v) Particle Velocity The velocity of the particles executing SHM is called particle velocity.
 Sound Waves

Sound waves of all the mechanical waves that occur in nature, the most important in our
everyday lives are longitudinal waves in a medium, usually air, called sound waves.

Sound waves are of three types

(i) Infrasonic Waves The sound waves of frequency lies between 0 to 20 Hz are called
infrasonic waves.

(ii) Audiable Waves The sound waves of frequency lies between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called
audiable waves.

(iii) Ultrasonic Waves The sound waves of frequency greater than 20000 Hz are called
ultrasonic waves.
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves and require medium for their propagation.
Sound waves can travel through

[sound waves cannot propagate through vacuum. If Vs, Vi and Vg are speed of sound waves in
solid, liquid and gases, then Vs > Vi > Vg Sound waves (longitudinal waves) can reflect, refract,
interfere and diffract but cannot be polarised as only transverse waves can polarised.]

Velocity of Longitudinal (Sound) Waves

Velocity of longitudinal (sound) wave in any medium is given by

where, E is coefficient of elasticity of the medium and ρ is density of the medium.

Newton’s Formula
According to Newton, the propagation of longitudinal waves in a gas is an isoth. ermal process.
Therefore, velocity of longitudinal (sound) waves in gas should be where, ET is the isothermal
coefficient of volume elasticity and it is equal to the pressure of the gas.

Laplace’s Correction

According to Laplace, the propagation of longitudinal wave is an adiabatic process. Therefore,

velocity of longitudinal (sound) wave in gas should be

where, ES, is the adiabatic coefficient of volume elasticity and it is equal to γ p.

Factors Affecting Velocity of Longitudinal (Sound) Wave

(i) Effect of Pressure The formula for velocity of sound in a gas.

Therefore, (p/ρ) remains constant at constant temperature.

Hence, there is no effect of pressure on velocity of longitudinal wave.

(ii) Effect of Temperature Velocity of longitudinal wave in a gas

Velocity of sound in a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.

If v0 and vt are velocities of sound in air at O°C and t°C, then

(iii) Effect of Density The velocity of sound in gaseous medium

The velocity of sound in a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the gas.

(iv) Effect of Humidity The velocity of sound increases with increase in humidity in air.
Shock Waves

If speed of a body in air is greater than the speed of sound, then it .s called supersonic speed.
Such a body leaves behind it a conical “egion of disturbance which spreads continuously. Such a
disturbance is Called a shock wave.

Speed of Transverse Motion

On a stretched string v = √(T/m)

where, T = tension in the string and m = mass per unit length of the string.

Speed of transverse wave in a solid v = √(η/ρ)

where, η is modulus of rigidity and ρ is density of solid.

Plane Progressive Simple Harmonic Wave

Equation of a plane progressive simple harmonic wave

where,

y = displacement,

a = amplitude of vibration

λ = wavelength of wave, of particle,

T = time period of wave,

x = distance of particle from the origin and

u = velocity of wave.

Relation between phase difference and path difference and time difference

Echo

The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound waves is called an echo.

Sound persists on ear for 0.1 s.

The minimum distance from a sound reflecting surface to hear an echo is 16.5 m.

If first echo be heard after It second, second echo after ~ second, then third echo will be heard
after (t1 + t2)s.
Superposition of Waves

Two or more progressive waves can travel simultaneously in the medium without effecting the
motion of one another. Therefore, resultant displacement of each particle of the medium at any
instant is equal to vector sum of the displacements produced by two waves separately. This
principle is called principle of superposition.

Interference

When two waves of same frequency travel in a medium simultaneously in the same direction,
then due to their superposition, the resultant intensity at any point of the medium is different
from the sum intensities of the two waves. At some points the intensity of the resultant wave is
very large while at some other points it is very small Or zero. This phenomenon is called
interference of waves.

Beats

When two sound waves of nearly equal frequencies are produced simultaneously, then intensity
of the resultant sound produced by their superposition increases and decreases alternately with
time. This rise and fall intensity of sound is called beats.

The number of maxima or minima heard in one second is called beats frequency.

[The difference of frequencies should not be more than 10. Sound persists on human ear drums
for 0.1 second. Hence, beats will not be heard if the frequency difference exceeds 10]

Number of beats heard per second = n1 – n2 = difference of frequencies of two waves.

Maximum amplitude = (a1 + a2)

Maximum intensity = (Maximum amplitude)2 = (a1 + a2)2

Stationary or Standing Waves

When two similar waves propagate in a bounded medium in opposite directions, then due to their
superposition a new type of wave is obtained, which appears stationary in the medium. This
wave is called stationary or standing waves.
Characteristics of Musical Sound

Musical sound has three characteristics

(i) Intensity or Loudness Intensity of sound is energy transmitted per second per unit area by
sound waves. Its SI unit is watt/metre2. Intensity is measured in decibel (dB).

(ii) Pitch or Frequency Pitch of sound directly depends on frequency.

A shrill and sharp sound has higher pitch and a grave and dull sound has lower pitch.

(iii) Quality or Timbre Quality is the characteristic of sound that differentiates between two
sounds of same intensity and same frequency .

Quality depends on harmonics and their relative order and intensity.

Doppler’s Effect

The phenomena of apparent change in frequency of source due to a relative motion between the
source and observer is called Doppler’s effect.

(i) When Source is Moving and Observer is at Rest When source is moving with ‘velocity
towards an observer at rest, then apparent frequency

(ii) When Source is at Rest and Observer is Moving When observer is moving with velocity VO’
towards a source at rest, then apparent frequency.

(iii) When Source and Observer Both are Moving

(a) When both are moving in same direction along the direction of propagation of sound, then

Transverse Doppler’s Effect

(i) The Doppler’s effect in sound does not take place in the transverse direction.

(ii) As shown in figure, the position of a source is S and of observer is O. The component of
velocity of source towards the observer is V cos θ. For this situation, the approach frequency is

f ‘ which will now be a function of θ so, it will no more constant.

Similarly,
if the source is moving away from the observer as shown above, with velocity component Vs cos
θ then,

(iii) If θ = 90°, the Vs cos θ = 0 and there is no shift in the frequency.

Thus, at point P, Doppler’s effect does not occur.

Effect of Wind

If wind is also blowing with a velocity w in the direction of sound, then its velocity is added to
the velocity of sound. Hence, in this condition the apparent frequency is givenby

Applications of Doppler’s Effect

The measurement of Doppler shift has been used

by police to check overspeeding of vehicles.

at airports to guide the aircraft.

to study heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the body.

by astrophysicist to measure the velocities of plants and stars.

 Biblography

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