Journal of Interactive Advertising

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Leveraging Influencer Relations Professionals for

Sponsorship Disclosure in Social Media Influencer
Marketing

Ruvimbo Musiyiwa & Jenna Jacobson

To cite this article: Ruvimbo Musiyiwa & Jenna Jacobson (2024) Leveraging Influencer Relations
Professionals for Sponsorship Disclosure in Social Media Influencer Marketing, Journal of
Interactive Advertising, 24:1, 66-83, DOI: 10.1080/15252019.2023.2298994

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2023.2298994

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Published online: 26 Jan 2024.

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JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING
2024, VOL. 24, NO. 1, 66–83
https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2023.2298994

Leveraging Influencer Relations Professionals for Sponsorship Disclosure

in Social Media Influencer Marketing
Ruvimbo Musiyiwa and Jenna Jacobson
Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Canada

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This research investigates the role played by influencer relations professionals—also known Compliance; influencer
as influencer intermediaries—in driving upfront and compliant disclosure of sponsorships in marketing; influencer
influencer marketing. Using semistructured interviews with 21 influencer relations professio­ relations; social media
influencer; sponsorship
nals in Canada, the research identifies how influencer intermediaries can support sponsor­ disclosure
ship disclosure in three areas: (1) legal contracts and statements of work, (2) formal and
informal content vetting processes, and (3) intermediary knowledge transfer. Using
Bourdieu’s sociological theory of field as a theoretical lens and analytical tool, the findings
identify how these intermediaries have access to forms of social, cultural, and technical cap­
ital that can influence best disclosure practices. This research has implications for theory
and practice by contributing to research in influencer relations management and by sug­
gesting sponsorship disclosure solutions that emerge directly from the perspectives of influ­
encer relations professionals.

Social media influencer (SMI) marketing is growing at the corporate level, within traditional marketing
dramatically by capitalizing on the online popularity and public relations departments, has led to the need
and self-branding power of social media influencers for influencer intermediaries who are capable of devel­
and web personalities to enhance brand awareness, oping frameworks for effective influencer relationship
endorse brand products, access niche consumer seg­ management in the largely uncharted world of digital
ments, and influence consumer purchasing decisions advertising (Childers, Lemon, and Hoy 2019;
(Childers, Lemon, and Hoy 2019; Enke and Borchers Gallagher 2020; Stoldt et al. 2019). These trends illus­
2019; Khamis, Ang, and Welling 2017; Lou and Yuan trate brands’ and corporations’ growing reliance on
2019). Budgets for influencer marketing are growing influencer marketing to expand their reach to niche
as influencers have shown the ability to drive sales consumers and their need for professionals who can
through more personal, relatable, everyday user– help them build influencer relationships in the ever-
generated content (Jim�enez-Castillo and S�anchez- evolving social media environment.
Fern�andez 2019; Martensen, Brockenhuus-Schack, and Social media helped transform the digital consumer
Zahid 2018; Siekierska 2019). In a survey of almost experience, but they also enable the spread of decep­
5,000 brands, agencies, and industry professionals, tive and misleading marketing practices. Influencer
75% indicated that they planned to have a dedicated marketing–based promotion can be deceptive or mis­
budget for influencer marketing (Geyser 2022). As leading when influencers fail to conspicuously disclose
early entrants in an emerging career, these influencer any material (monetary or nonmonetary) relationships
relations professionals—also known as influencer with sponsoring brands (Ad Standards 2020;
intermediaries—work as liaisons between influencers Competition Bureau Canada 2022a). Such sponsorship
and brands on social media campaigns (Stoldt et al. disclosures are necessary to ensure that consumers
2019). The advent of influencer marketing programs can easily recognize the advertising intention. This is

CONTACT Ruvimbo Musiyiwa [email protected] Communication and Culture Program, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada
Ruvimbo Musiyiwa (M.A., Toronto Metropolitan University) is a proposal writer and researcher, Communication and Culture Program, Toronto
Metropolitan University.
Jenna Jacobson (Ph.D., University of Toronto) is the Eaton Chair of Retailing and Associate Professor, Ted Rogers School of Management, Toronto
Metropolitan University.
� 2024 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the
posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 67

particularly important in user-generated content that collaborate with influencers (Competition Bureau
lacks the clearly visible advertising markers seen in Canada 2019). This means that both businesses and
traditional advertising (Bladow 2018). In many coun­ influencers may be held liable for misleading or
tries, including the United States, the United deceptive marketing practices (Competition Bureau
Kingdom, and Canada, disclosures that are difficult to Canada 2019). Although influencer relations professio­
recognize are prohibited, as they do not pass formal nals are not directly mentioned as being potentially
regulators’ “upfront is best” philosophy (Ad Standards liable, their involvement in disclosures for influencer
2020, p. 7). The recurrence of sponsorship disclosure campaigns and their affiliations with the types of busi­
breaches has prompted both formal regulators (gov­ nesses targeted by the Competition Bureau substanti­
ernments, self-regulatory agencies) and informal regu­ ate why they share responsibility for regulatory and
lators (everyday consumers) to pay closer attention to legal compliance.
the nature, adequacy, and even placement of disclo­ Studying the shared nature of legal and regulatory
sures in branded or sponsored social media content disclosure requirements in the influencer industry is
(Abidin 2021). In recent years, formal regulators critical, as it allows a deeper evaluation of the compli­
around the world have examined how applicable laws ance responsibilities of other actors in the influencer-
are understood and applied in the influencer industry brand relationship and how these responsibilities can
(International Consumer Protection Enforcement be met. Prior scholarly research suggests that influen­
Network (ICPEN) 2016). cer intermediaries may have some leverage over how
Despite efforts to use legislation and formal indus­ influencers and their clients understand and apply dis­
try guidelines to encourage voluntary compliance, closure rules and guidelines (Bladow 2018). However,
many influencers are not implementing disclosures in there is a gap in the understanding of what tools and
accordance with current rules and regulations mechanisms these intermediaries can utilize to sup­
(G€urkaynak, Kama, and Erg€ un 2018; Langford 2020). port disclosure. For example, research suggests the
Recent research into the use of written disclosure need for a deeper investigation into the process of
hashtags (such as #ad, #sponsored, or #gifted) on securing proper sponsorship disclosures (Childers,
Instagram reveals that more than three-quarters of Lemon, and Hoy 2019) to reduce the risk of clients
influencer adverts on that platform have hidden dis­ and influencers being legally penalized for noncompli­
closures (Langford 2020). Some scholars posit that ance. This research analyzes how influencer relations
influencers’ inability to meet the standards of disclos­ professionals can encourage reasonable, adequate, and
ure set by regulators may be due to conflicting sym­ consistent levels of compliance by leveraging the
bolic and legal perceptions of what constitutes ethical power they possess within the influencer-brand rela­
conduct in the influencer industry. Wellman et al. tionship. Specifically, the research asks: What role do
(2020), for instance, assert that influencers tend to use influencer intermediaries play in encouraging compli­
authenticity as an ethical metric for their content cre­ ant sponsorship disclosure in SMI marketing?
ation or disclosure decisions. This approach, which Pierre Bourdieu’s sociological theory of field (and
upholds brand identity and audience perception the subconcepts of capital and cultural intermediaries)
(Wellman et al. 2020), is vastly different from formal serves as the theoretical framework for this research.
regulators’ view of ethics in the influencer industry as Bourdieu’s field theory provides an appropriate theor­
being a largely economic matter requiring targeted etical tool for conceptualizing influencer relations pro­
legal and governmental oversight (Abidin 2021; fessionals as intermediaries who coexist with various
Asquith and Fraser 2020). As a result, formal regula­ actors (influencers, brands, and consumers) in a
tors in Canada and the United States have issued sociocultural field we define as the SMI field. This
warning letters directly to noncompliant influencers, framing of the influencer marketing industry as a field
advising them of the applicability of advertising laws is inspired by Bourdieu’s concept of social life as a
to influencer marketing and on the use of best disclos­ domain comprising different cultural fields (Lareau,
ure practices (Boerman 2020; Competition Bureau Adia Evans, and Yee 2016). Within these fields, inter­
Canada 2019; G€ urkaynak, Kama, and Erg€ un 2018). In mediaries and other actors or institutions compete for
Canada, the Competition Bureau’s targeting of brands various forms of social, cultural, economic, or tech­
and marketing firms was an opportunity for it to nical power or capital (Abidin 2018, 2021; Warren
emphasize that compliance with applicable legislation and Dinnie 2018; Wolf 2007). Backed by the prece­
(the Competition Act) is a shared responsibility that dent of using field theory to assess field dynamics in
rests on influencers and any businesses that different sociocultural domains (e.g., Angers 2017;
68 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

Bathmaker 2015), this research relies on Bourdieu’s influencer relations work, some public relations, social
theory to conduct a theoretically sound investigation media management, talent management, and marketing
of the potential impact of power dynamics within the roles have expanded to incorporate IRM in traditional
SMI field (through the leveraging or harnessing of strategic communication departments (Gallagher 2020).
certain types of capital) on actors’ level of regulatory
compliance and how certain actors (intermediaries)
Influencer Marketing, Native Advertising, and
can encourage compliant sponsorship disclosure.
Implications for Disclosure in Canada
Within our framing, sponsorship disclosure require­
ments result from the SMI field converging with what Influencer marketing is often likened to native adver­
we call the regulatory field. The SMI and regulatory tising (Boerman 2020; Campbell and Grimm 2019; De
fields overlap at the point of laws and guidelines Veirman, Hudders, and Nelson 2019), which is a form
applicable to influencer marketing. of covert promotion “where a brand or a product is
This research contributes to theory and practice by marketed in a way that is similar to the editorial con­
centralizing the lived experiences of influencer rela­ tent on the platform it is presented” (G€ urkaynak,
tions professionals to proffer grassroots solutions for Kama, and Erg€ un 2018, p. 17). If disclosures are not
achieving and maintaining conspicuous and compliant made appropriately, native promotion can hide the
disclosure in the influencer industry. Additionally, this advertising intention from consumers, thus diminish­
work contributes to a niche and less researched area ing their ability to make informed purchasing deci­
of influencer advertising by concentrating on the per­ sions (Boerman 2020; G€ urkaynak, Kama, and Erg€ un
spectives of industry professionals who work closely 2018). Disclosures are written or verbal notices that
with influencers (Childers, Lemon, and Hoy 2019; help consumers easily identify when social media con­
Lou and Jin 2021). tent is sponsored through financial compensation or
gifting (Ad Standards 2019; Kay, Mulcahy, and
Literature Review Parkinson 2020). Influencer marketing is often com­
pared to native advertising because brand-sponsored
SMI Marketing and Influencer Relations content can mimic an influencer’s regular content and
In strategic communications, influencer marketing is editorial aesthetics.
often described as an electronic word-of-mouth In Canada, there have been calls for greater trans­
(eWOM) strategy that optimizes social media influ­ parency in native advertising and online influencer
encers’ popularity to expand brand recognition and marketing since Ad Standards began to assess and set­
affect consumer buying behavior (De Veirman, tle disclosure breaches in 2010 (Asquith and Fraser
Hudders, and Nelson 2019; Lou and Yuan 2019). 2020). Ad Standards (2022) is a not-for-profit self-
Brands and companies often pay influencers to promote regulatory body that monitors the advertising industry
their products or services in social media campaigns in Canada and administers the Canadian Code of
(Jacobson et al. 2019). The growth and corporatization Advertising Standards. Although some scholars have
of influencer marketing have ushered in new core busi­ demonstrated the existence of various algorithmic
ness functions dedicated to influencer relationship challenges to applying sponsorship disclosure stand­
building. Influencer relations, or influencer relationship ards to influencer marketing (Musiyiwa and Jacobson
management (IRM), is a strategic process of building, 2023) and suggest that the narrow focus on the eco­
managing, and preserving relationships with relevant nomic implications of influencer marketing is one
content creators and internet personalities who have drawback of the current top-down approach to indus­
meaningful social media clout (Gallagher 2020; Holt try regulation (Abidin 2021; Asquith and Fraser
2019). Influencer relations is a key component in the 2020), disclosure compliance has some benefits for
influencer marketing ecosystem. Influencer relations influencers and businesses. First, compliance reduces
professionals (1) identify influencers who align with the the risk of being targeted by regulators and subjected
strategic objectives of the campaign, (2) liaise between to protracted governmental enforcement actions and/
brands and influencers with balance and fairness, (3) or financial penalties. In Canada, individuals and cor­
build long-standing relationships with influencers and porations can be asked to stop publishing misleading
brands, and (4) manage branded influencer campaigns content, issue corrective notices, and/or reimburse
with efficiency and transparent communication (Holt buyers of the product or service in question
2019). Although the industry has grown large enough (Competition Bureau Canada 2022b). Individuals and
to accommodate professionals dedicated solely to larger corporations can also be court-ordered to pay
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 69

fines, have their assets frozen, or even be sentenced to through capital accumulation (Bathmaker 2015;
prison for aggressive violation of the criminal provi­ Corciolani, Grayson, and Humphreys 2020). Field
sions (Competition Bureau Canada 2022b). actors often compete to gain or maintain power in the
Second, industry research has found that sponsor­ form of capital (Bathmaker 2015; Wolf 2007).
ship disclosure increases the credibility of influencers Capital, another concept theorized by Bourdieu,
and enhances ad transparency—particularly from the signifies how societies “exercise judgements in taste,
perspective of everyday consumers. Truthfulness, fair­ express aesthetic dispositions, and assign status and
ness, and accuracy are key principles of Canadian distinction towards different social behaviours”
advertising and drive the mission of formal regulatory (Abidin 2018, p. 19). In Bourdieu’s thought, capital is
bodies such as Ad Standards (2022). Research com­ usually economic, social, or cultural. Economic capital
missioned by Ad Standards has investigated how con­ is conceptualized in terms of having access to assets,
sumers feel about advertising transparency in property, or goods with financial value (Abidin 2018;
influencer marketing. Its consumer research report Wolf 2007). Social capital can be realized through the
revealed that the vast majority of Canadians who are effective establishment and maintenance of “stable
aware of influencer marketing strategies “strongly or relationships between people, organizations, or institu­
somewhat agree that there should be transparency tions, through acknowledged membership within these
about sponsored ads” (Ad Standards 2018, p. 21). groups” (Abidin 2018, p. 33). Cultural capital refers to
Seventy-two percent of surveyed Canadians agreed the possession of highly valued personal attributes,
that there should be penalties for regulatory noncom­ qualifications, or thought leadership in a field (Abidin
pliance. The research also indicated that most people’s 2018; Wolf 2007). Abidin (2018, 2021) posits that
brand perceptions would improve with greater trans­ social, cultural, and economic forms of capital func­
parency about advertising intentions (Ad Standards tion in the same way with influencers but adds the
2018). These industry findings substantiate formal reg­ element of technical exceptionalism, which combines
ulators’ focus on disclosure breaches in influencer all three of Bourdieu’s types of capital. Technical cap­
marketing. ital, from the perspective of social media influencers,
refers to power derived from possessing exceptional,
Theoretical Framework extraordinary, uncommon, or expert skills that audi­
ences admire (Abidin 2018).
Bourdieu’s Theory of Field and Forms of Capital Bourdieu’s theory of field and concept of capital
To understand how power can influence or change are useful tools for conceptualizing how the SMI
behaviors in cultural fields, this research applies Pierre industry functions as a sociocultural field where forms
Bourdieu’s theory of field to the influencer industry. of power flow among various actors (influencers,
Bourdieu’s (1992) sociological theory of field describes influencer relations professionals, brands, audiences).
social life as a domain comprising many fields (Lareau, Field theory aids in the exploration of how SMI field
Adia Evans, and Yee 2016). Fields are dynamic and actors can influence one another’s compliance behav­
socially networked spaces where the “modification or iors, particularly in close proximity to the regulatory
conservation of … power relations” is negotiated by field (i.e., the rules of the field) relevant to influencer
actors and institutions within those fields or external to marketing. With respect to influencer relations profes­
(but overlapping) them (Wolf 2007, p. 134). Bourdieu sionals specifically, Bourdieu’s concept of capital pro­
posits that although cultural fields have some autonomy vides a theoretical foundation for the kinds of
in how they operate, their proximity to overlapping influence these professionals may have access to and
fields can affect how field actors behave or coexist can leverage to encourage compliant disclosure per
(Bathmaker 2015; Lareau, Adia Evans, and Yee 2016). existing guidelines.
Additionally, similar to a game, actors compete in the
field under a set of rules. Actors and institutions within
Cultural Intermediaries
(or external to) the field negotiate and often struggle to
decide the rules of the game. In this same process, the Bourdieu’s field theory serves as the foundation for his
resources and benefits at stake in the field are defined writings on cultural intermediaries and the power they
(Bathmaker 2015; Bourdieu and Wacquant 1992). The hold as influential agents within fields. Corciolani,
game analogy also points to the notion of strategy Grayson, and Humphreys (2020) describe cultural
within fields. Field actors have to devise strategies to intermediaries as “people and organizations who medi­
“win” sought-after resources or maintain their power ate between those who produce cultural products and
70 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

those who are the target audience for these products” but also between brands and influencers. Cronin’s
(p. 479). Their definition is built on Bourdieu’s deliber­ (2004) regimes of mediation extend Bourdieu’s original
ations about public myths and the emergence of what characterization of cultural intermediaries as individu­
he calls a new class of petite “bourgeoisie” tastemakers als who mediate solely between the producers of cul­
(Bourdieu and Nice 1984). Bourdieu (1969) theorizes tural products and target consumers (Maguire and
that the new petite bourgeoisie ascribes value to cultural Matthews 2010; Corciolani, Grayson, and Humphreys
products through the effective development of “public 2020). This perspective becomes important when
myths” about these products and the production pro­ assessing how intermediaries between brands and influ­
cess (p. 99). He adds that members of the new petite encers engage a “structured flexibility framework”
bourgeoisie occupy intermediary professions focused (Stoldt et al. 2019, p. 2). This framework involves bal­
on both the creation and the distribution of public ancing “a brand’s need to accomplish specific campaign
myths to audiences within fields (Corciolani, Grayson, goals with an influencer’s commitment to authenticity
and Humphreys 2020; Maguire and Matthews 2010). and audience engagement” (Stoldt et al. 2019, p. 2).
Similar to the Marxian petite bourgeoisie, which posi­ Achieving structured flexibility is about engaging in
tions itself between the interests of the bourgeoisie and effective influencer relations and meaningfully media­
the proletariat, Bourdieu’s cultural intermediaries are ting between various actors in the influencer field
“ardent spokesmen” for the bourgeois directors and (Gallagher 2020). As such, intermediaries—like success­
executives in the fields of cultural production ful entrepreneurial influencers, talent managers, brand­
(Bourdieu and Nice 1984, p. 310). Cultural intermedia­ ing consultants, influencer marketing managers, or
ries are often tasked with “selling [bourgeois] tastes as boutique agencies—have created job opportunities in a
widely as possible” to other less influential individuals niche intermediary space (Scott 2017).
within the cultural field (Maguire and Matthews 2010, Some brands have expanded their public relations
p. 407). Their role as sellers of cultural tastes and values and communications departments to encompass influ­
is coupled with their pedagogic role as advisers and encer relations by adding employee functions or hir­
modelers of lifestyles defined by a culture of consump­ ing new professionals to establish and manage
tion—mostly for the purpose of influencing consumer influencer relationships. The field of influencer rela­
buy-in and behavior (Bourdieu and Nice 1984; Maguire tions is gradually becoming specialized in strategic
and Matthews 2010). corporate communications because of the unique
Some scholars challenge Bourdieu’s description of skills offered by influencer intermediaries; while draw­
cultural intermediaries as extremely influential or ing on traditional forms of marketing, advertising,
powerful tastemakers. They contend that claims about and public relations, they are also creating new ways
the influence of intermediaries in cultural economies to conduct effective relationship management with
are often not empirically supported and are wildly niche consumer groups and online influencers. As
overestimated (Moor 2008; Nixon and Gay 2002). Brooks, Drenten, and Piskorski (2021) maintain, the
Despite their debated power, cultural intermediaries “days of influencer marketing being a niche do-it-
do occupy an interesting position due to their prox­ yourself domain have passed” (p. 544). Influencer
imity to key business executives, their ability to medi­ intermediaries not only design and coordinate influen­
ate between different actors, and their status as cer campaigns but also aid with contract development,
recognized tastemakers. creative direction, content creation, influencer discov­
ery and talent scouting, recruitment, vetting, develop­
ment of influencer payment schedules, audience
Influencer Relations Professionals as
research, impact analysis, and assessment of influencer
Intermediaries in the SMI Field
relevance to clients (Brooks, Drenten, and Piskorski
Although influencers often occupy the prominent pos­ 2021; Gallagher 2020; Stoldt et al. 2019). Influencer
ition of sharing branded content by being the face of a intermediaries can be invaluable to the process of
social media campaign or engaging directly with con­ “winning” the influencer game. They can support
sumers online, they do not always develop independent brands and influencers by researching and strategizing
working relationships with brands. Formalization of the how to achieve key performance indicators (KPIs) and
practice has introduced intermediary organizations and optimize online visibility, labor, algorithmic preferenc­
practitioners that operate across “multiple regimes of ing, or authenticity. Brooks, Drenten, and Piskorski
mediation” (Cronin 2004, p. 357) to broker relation­ (2021) demonstrate that these competencies and
ships not only between brands and consumers at large unique skill sets challenge the notion that power
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 71

within the SMI field lies only with influencers and professional LinkedIn accounts. As the “world’s largest
audiences, as influencer intermediaries often play a professional network on the internet” (LinkedIn 2022,
crucial role in the influencer celebrification process. para. 1), LinkedIn was a good way to directly contact
professionals who would likely be eligible to participate
in the research. LinkedIn was also utilized as a purpos­
Methods
ive sampling search tool to identify relevant professio­
The research uses semistructured interviews with 21 nals by searching the site for “influencer marketing,”
influencer relations professionals who work closely with “social media marketing,” “influencer marketing man­
influencers and brands in an intermediary capacity. To agement,” or “influencer relations.” Snowball sampling
analyze the impact these professionals have on disclos­ was also used to recruit potential candidates from the
ure practices, the research focuses on the subjective and networks of participating professionals; at the end of
unique lived experiences of practitioners who are indus­ their interviews, participants were asked whether they
try “experts” in the SMI field (Childers, Lemon, and knew any colleagues who met the study inclusion crite­
Hoy 2019). This status is based on several factors, ria. If they felt comfortable doing so, they were invited
including educational background, current influencer- to share a digital copy of the recruitment flyer with
related work, years of experience, overlapping industry those individuals.
experience, and other relevant background information.
As such, this research is both qualitative and interpret­
Participants
ive in nature. Bryman, Bell, and Teevan (2012) write
that one of the core objectives of qualitative research is Ultimately, 151 prospective participants were con­
to see and understand a research inquiry “through the tacted, and 21 professionals agreed to participate in
eyes of the people being studied” (p. 140). The subject­ the research (see Table 1). Based on extant research
ivity of qualitative research is what renders it interpret­ on the ideal sample size for qualitative interviews, 21
ive, as interpretive studies often ensure that research is participants was an adequate number to reach data
grounded in the participants’ points of view (Merrigan, saturation. Data saturation is defined as the point at
Huston, and Johnston 2012). which data gathering and analysis produce no new
information and can be discontinued (Guest, Bunce,
and Johnson 2006; Hagaman and Wutich 2017). The
Recruitment of Prospective Participants
point of data saturation in purposive and qualitative
After receiving ethics approval from the Research research is highly debated. However, 10 to 40 inter­
Ethics Board at the Toronto Metropolitan University, views is a consistent range in the relevant scholarly
participants were recruited using purposive and net­ literature (Guest, Bunce, and Johnson 2006; Hagaman
work sampling techniques. Purposive sampling involves and Wutich 2017; Hansen and Machin 2019).
intentionally identifying and approaching potential par­ Due to our focus on the Canadian regulatory and
ticipants in a target or relevant population (Merrigan, legal context, it was imperative to ensure that the par­
Huston, and Johnston 2012). Network or snowball sam­ ticipant pool was diversified by province, type of influ­
pling is an approach whereby participants enlist them­ encer-related work, organization type, years of
selves or recruit other potential participants from their experience, and other relevant background information.
own networks (Merrigan, Huston, and Johnston 2012). The recruitment process resulted in a participant pool
These sampling methods were used to ensure that the consisting of relevant independent consultants or pro­
research included professionals who were eligible to fessionals who worked for talent agencies, social media
participate and able to contribute as a result of their management firms, brands, and digital marketing agen­
relevant experience. An initial list of potential partici­ cies in Ontario (n ¼ 14), British Columbia (n ¼ 4),
pants was compiled by consulting the list of influencer Manitoba (n ¼ 2), and Alberta (n ¼ 1). Research partici­
marketing agencies represented on the 2019 Ad pants were offered a $25 CAD honorarium to thank
Standards’ Influencer Marketing Steering Committee them for their time and willingness to participate in the
and then searching for publicly accessible names of study. Table 1 provides the participants’ profiles.
relevant professionals from those organizations. A
Google search of “influencer marketing agencies in
Interviews and Data Collection
Canada” was also used to access relevant agencies and
professionals outside of this committee. A study Due to public health measures instituted during the
recruitment flyer was posted to one of the researcher’s COVID-19 pandemic, interviews were conducted
72 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

Table 1. Participant profiles.

Pseudonym Scope of Work Overlapping Industry Experience Additional Background
Abigail Talent management Public relations
Belinda Talent and social media management Fitness
Cheryl Influencer relations management Radio, tourism
Dana Social media management Medical, digital marketing
Erin Influencer relations management Public relations, marketing, television, radio, Educator (college level)
industry research
Faye Talent management Beauty, publishing, education Educator (college level)
Gale Influencer relations management Public relations
Hunter Influencer relations management Television
Issa Influencer relations management Blogging
Jade Talent management Global development, marketing, Brand owner (small)
communications
Keegan Social media management Blogging Previous influencer, content creator,
agency founder
Leslie Social media management Public relations, retail, education Educator (college level)
Moira Talent and social media management Retail, banking, customer service, beauty and
fashion, entertainment
Pat Influencer relations management Digital advertising (for children), gaming Influencer, content creator
Robin Social media management Fashion, marketing
Sidney Social media management Advertising, fashion, retail, public relations Previous influencer, content creator,
agency founder
Tory Social media management Communications, public and media relations
Vincent Influencer relations management Digital marketing
William Social media management Television, entertainment, writing Influencer, content creator
Xavier Social media and marketing management Fashion, marketing Influencer, content creator
Zach Social media management Entertainment

remotely in a private setting of the participant’s generated from the 21 audio files recorded during
choice. Most interviews were conducted by video con­ data collection.
ference on Zoom. Based on personal preference or
technical difficulties, some participants chose to be
Data Analysis
interviewed over the telephone or using Zoom audio.
All the interviews were recorded. The interview guide Interview data were analyzed using inductive and
consisted of 16 main questions; as is typical of semi­ deductive approaches and thematic coding. Thematic
structured interviews, 11 possible follow-up questions coding is a type of qualitative analysis in which pri­
were included in the guide for additional probing as mary data are organized and condensed into thematic
needed (Bryman, Bell, and Teevan 2012; Merrigan, codes and categories for further analysis (Bryman
Huston, and Johnston 2012). Participants were asked 2016; Marshall 2023; Thomas 2003). NVivo, software
questions about their professional backgrounds, day- that aids in the management, organization, analysis,
to-day influencer relations and compliance practices, and modeling of qualitative data, was used to code
awareness of the applicability of the Competition Act, and analyze the interview data in two cycles.
and regulatory compliance in an evolving social media For the deductive approach (the first coding cycle),
environment. Based on a research pilot (Gani, the researcher developed a start list of a priori codes
Rathakrishnan, and Krishnasamy 2020), we expected (known as nodes in NVivo) (Azungah 2018; Given
the interviews to take approximately 1 hour. Overall, 2008). This coding frame is a “record of the codes and
interviews lasted between 27 minutes and 1 hour and criteria used to classify observations” in the interview
31 minutes; the average interview duration was data (Given 2008, p. 88). The initial codes were created
54 minutes. Once the interviews were completed, the using the key themes in the interview questions (e.g.,
audio recordings were transferred to an automated influencer relations and disclosure compliance practi­
transcription service, Temi. After verbatim transcripts ces, awareness of the Competition Bureau’s activities in
were generated, the researcher conducted a quality the industry) and salient topics from the literature
check by comparing each transcript against its review. Concepts from the theoretical framework were
respective audio file to verify the transcript’s accuracy also used to generate a start list of thematic codes. For
and to remove any personally identifiable information instance, a thematic code related to intermediary power
such as participants’ names, colleagues, past or present or capital was designed to ensure that the research
employers, clients, and colleges or universities highlighted any participant insights on intermediaries’
attended. In total, 347 pages of transcripts were use of social, cultural, economic, or technical capital to
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 73

influence best disclosure practices during influencer forms of capital can augment the efficacy of these three
marketing collaborations. Developing a priori codes mechanisms as drivers of compliant sponsorship
related to intermediary capital or awareness of the disclosure.
overlapping nature of the SMI and regulatory fields As analyzed below, social capital within the SMI
ensured that the analysis was deeply contextualized field can be harnessed through intermediaries’ role as
and aligned with field theory as the orienting frame­ enforcers of contractual disclosure requirements
work. The researcher ran the first coding cycle by using coupled with their influential positions as mediators
the text search query in NVivo to quickly identify between brands and influencers. Intermediaries’
phrases and passages related to the start list of codes. thought leadership and industry expertise are often
The inductive cycle involved using in vivo (or ver­ the sources of their cultural and technical power,
batim) and axial coding to capture emerging themes which is typically exercised during the content vetting
derived from a line-by-line review of each interview and approval process and in the transfer of knowledge
transcript (Azungah 2018; Given 2008). Given (2008) to the next generation of influencer relations practi­
underscores that in vivo codes “ensure that concepts tioners. Although influencer relations professionals
stay as close as possible to research participants’ own can access economic capital through entrepreneurial
words or use their own terms” (p. 472). The success in the industry, this research does not find
researcher read each transcript and highlighted key that their financial standing has an impact on influ­
phrases that were then used to develop new codes encers’ disclosure practices. Figure 1 illustrates the
reflecting fresh insights from the participants. For connection between Bourdieu’s concept of capital and
example, a new thematic code generated through the findings.
inductive coding was based on the participants’ recur­
ring prioritization of “paid” (i.e., involving monetary
How Influencer Intermediaries Secure Compliant
or financial compensation) partnership disclosures
Sponsorship Disclosure
over gifted collaborations in the development of legal
contracts, content vetting, or education on best dis­ Using Legal Contracts and Statements of Work to
closure practices. Secure Disclosure
Legal contracts serve as a vital link between the influ­
encer industry and formal regulation due to brands’
Results
and agencies’ growing interest in outlining disclosure
The findings indicate that influencer relations profes­ requirements in contractually binding agreements and
sionals play a significant role in how disclosure guide­ clearly establishing all the legalities surrounding col­
lines are understood and applied in the influencer laboration (Gallagher 2020). The contract develop­
industry. In their capacity as intermediaries, these pro­ ment stage is important to ensure that influencers
fessionals often act as a key link between the industry understand what is expected and required of them
and formal regulation, serving as compliance facilita­ (Gallagher 2020). Some influencer intermediaries
tors to support conspicuous disclosure practices. By describe the contract phase as the time when influ­
applying Bourdieu’s concept of capital, the research encers are made aware of applicable laws and regula­
demonstrates that influencer relations professionals tions and the regulatory bodies that mandate these
can leverage social, cultural, and technical forms of guidelines. Influencer relations professionals some­
capital within the SMI field to shift influencers and times participate in drafting these contracts using
brands toward compliant disclosure practices. These online templates or in collaboration with legal profes­
intermediaries can shorten the compliance knowledge sionals. At the influencer contracting stage, influencer
gap between formal regulators and influencers who relations professionals can play an active role in
may have a limited understanding of the legalities of ensuring that applicable laws are clearly articulated
influencer marketing or the value of ad transparency and clarified. Abigail (a talent manager) states that, in
through conspicuous disclosure. Specifically, the her experience, paid partnership disclosure is “always
research identifies how influencer relations professio­ a requirement” in both brand and agency contracts
nals can secure disclosure in three areas: (1) legal con­ with influencers.
tracts and statements of work that codify clear In conjunction with contractual agreements, some
expectations for disclosure, (2) formal and informal influencer relations professionals use statements of
content vetting procedures, and (3) intermediary work (SOWs) and campaign briefing materials to
knowledge transfer. Social, cultural, and technical communicate the disclosure requirements for paid
74 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

Figure 1. Theoretical conceptualization. This figure has been designed using icons created and published by Freepik, nangicon,
Gajah Mada, and Vectorslab on Flaticon.com.

partnerships. Hunter (an influencer relations manager) guidelines are included in contracts, SOWs, and cam­
defines SOWs as documents that “include all the legal paign briefing materials and their consistent enforce­
terms of doing the campaign.” The influencers Hunter ment of these guidelines. In a later section, this work
works with are required to sign her agency’s standard explores the social power that legal contracts and
SOW to demonstrate that they are aware of Ad SOWs confer to intermediaries: what one intermedi­
Standards’ advertising guidelines and disclosure ary describes as being influential “middlemen”
requirements. Her agency recommends that paid part­ between influencers and brands.
nership disclosures be displayed early—either in the
first 30 seconds of a video or in the first three lines of Using Formal and Informal Content Vetting to
a written caption. These recommendations align with Secure Disclosure
Ad Standards’ (2020) view that upfront disclosures are Influencer relations professionals can ensure that
the best practice, even in rapidly evolving digital sponsorship disclosures are checked and verified dur­
environments. ing the content vetting and preapproval phase. It is
Abigail’s and Hunter’s elucidation of how contracts standard practice for intermediaries involved in the
and SOWs are used in the influencer industry demon­ influencer contracting and content creation stages of a
strates that intermediaries have an opportunity to collaboration to assist in formal or informal content
exercise their social capital as the enforcers of disclos­ vetting and approval of branded influencer content.
ure guidelines. As defined in the theoretical frame­ This vetting and approval stage ensures that the paid
work, social capital can be obtained through effectual partnership disclosures required in legal contracts,
relationship management between key stakeholders SOWs, and other briefing materials are fulfilled.
(Abidin 2018). A vital component of influencer rela­ There are both formal and informal methods of
tions practice is the strategic leveraging of social cap­ vetting and approving sponsored content. Hunter
ital to establish and manage relationships with describes her agency’s formal approach: “We have a
influencers and brands (Gallagher 2020; Holt 2019). really thorough preproduction stage. And then from
Vincent (an influencer relations manager) challenges there … the creators would shoot and edit. They send
the underestimation (Nixon and Gay 2002) of influen­ me the content; I’ll review it and then send [it] to the
cer relations professionals’ social power within the client. We get any feedback from clients in terms of
influencer-brand relationship. Vincent asserts that legal, as well as … any notes they have. And … once
when it comes to communicating disclosure require­ we have approval, then we will launch. And … once
ments to influencers, contracts give influencer inter­ it’s launched, I’ll make sure … [to] do a quality check
mediaries “a lot more power [in the SMI field] than that everything is correct.” In Hunter’s experience, the
they think.” As such, influencer intermediaries’ social content and its associated disclosures go through lev­
standing in the eyes of influencers can be greatly els of intermediary, brand, and legal review during the
enhanced by their input into what rules and preproduction and content creation phases. If proper
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 75

disclosures are missing, influencer intermediaries can throughout the duration of the content. Xavier con­
ask influencers to amend the content before post­ tends that the limited availability of ephemeral content
ing it. makes it difficult to check that disclosures have been
As Leslie (a social media management consultant) included and implemented properly. For this reason,
elaborates, “even if [influencers] say they forget it, or legal practitioners in the field recommend that con­
they just sent the caption, I send it back with #ad, tracts outline the consequences of not delivering what
#sponsored and make sure that they copy and paste has been negotiated—especially for ephemeral content
that exact thing word for word.” Belinda (an inde­ (Tobin 2019).
pendent talent and social media management consult­ It is important to highlight that not all influencer
ant) offers an alternative approach to securing relations professionals consider content preapproval a
disclosures. She prefers to publish the content on the reliable mechanism for ensuring voluntary sponsorship
influencer’s behalf to ensure that all the required disclosure. Even if the approval phase provides influen­
deliverables are included. She builds trust with her cer intermediaries an opportunity to ensure that regula­
influencers so that they feel comfortable granting her tory standards for disclosure have been met, the
permission to post branded content on their social influencers ultimately decide whether to be compliant
media accounts. when they publish the sponsored content. Jade (an
Informal content vetting for sponsorship disclosure influencer talent manager), for example, is apprehensive
usually involves a basic review of the content by the about the efficacy of approving and monitoring influen­
influencer intermediaries themselves. Cheryl (an influ­ cer content, asserting that the final steps of publishing
encer relations manager for a brand) and Erin (an are in the hands of the influencers: “Ultimately no mat­
influencer relations consultant) conduct quick infor­ ter how many times I say, ‘you have to change this, you
mal checks to ensure that influencers have correctly have to do this’ I’m not in control of the influencer or
implemented the expected sponsorship disclosures. the brand accounts. I can’t force anyone to do that.
Xavier (a social media and marketing manager for a They ultimately decide they’re just going to forget it
fashion brand) does not specifically monitor influ­ and assume there will be no consequences.” In Jade’s
encers’ content for disclosure; rather, he checks that view, influencers have ultimate control over what is
the brand he works for has been clearly tagged in the published on their platforms. As such, they can decide
content. It is essential to note, however, that in the to post content without the required forms of disclos­
Canadian regulatory context, merely tagging a brand ure. In some cases, it is easy to edit noncompliant con­
or sponsor within the content is not an effective form tent after it is posted, but with some social media
of disclosure, as it may not clarify the material rela­ content types and formats, corrections are impossible
tionship between an influencer and a brand (Ad without removing the content completely. Some brands
Standards 2020). Although informal content vetting and agencies do not like to reshoot or relaunch content
procedures may be necessary due to limited resources, because of project timelines and budgets, so posts with­
this research does not encourage quick and superficial out the proper disclosures often remain published on
checks for disclosure, as they often result in inad­ an influencer’s account. Until proper sponsorship dis­
equate levels of ad transparency. closure is widespread and consistently integrated in
Some influencer intermediaries note that sponsor­ influencer marketing, active intermediary participation
ship disclosure is particularly difficult with ephemeral in content vetting and approval is generally beneficial
social media, for which the disclosure rules are not for normalizing a culture of conspicuous disclosure—
well defined. For example, Instagram Stories are particularly at the early stages of a sponsored campaign.
short-form pieces of social media content that often There are varying perspectives on the effectiveness
disappear after 24 hours (Chen and Cheung 2019). of content vetting and preapproval procedures, but in
Cheryl speaks to the challenge of securing disclosure general, these phases of a campaign can have a posi­
for real-time Instagram Stories that have not been tive impact on compliance outcomes. Like their role
prerecorded and approved prior to publication. At the as enforcers of legal contracts and SOWs, intermedia­
time of the study, stories were posted in 15-second ries can actively participate in the content vetting and
increments, making disclosure integration and place­ preapproval process to ensure that influencers and
ment difficult for influencers who posted longer sto­ brands meet their disclosure obligations. Influencer
ries. Ad Standards (2020) has now provided relations professionals can leverage their cultural and
guidelines for disclosure on Instagram Stories, recom­ technical capital to ensure that content reviewers
mending consistent written and verbal disclosure evaluate branded content against a high standard of
76 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

sponsorship disclosure and legal compliance. As really understand or that they just didn’t want to
described in the theoretical framework, cultural capital acknowledge. That’s … I think what I’ve run into the
is often derived from possessing highly valued creden­ most is people who don’t want to acknowledge that a
trip or this [gift] that you sent to them needs to be
tials or being a thought leader in a certain field disclosed. They think, well, no money, no contract,
(Abidin 2018; Wolf 2007). Similarly, technical capital no disclosure.
focuses on the power of having expert knowledge, but
it also captures the exceptionalism that can come Through intermediary knowledge transfer, Tory is
from having an uncommon skill set (Abidin 2018, able to challenge prevailing misconceptions surround­
2021). Combined, cultural and technical capital can ing disclosures for gifted collaborations by educating
give influencer intermediaries an uncommon mastery clients and influencers on the legal and regulatory def­
and technical understanding of the rules and dynam­ initions of payment in the SMI field.
ics of the SMI field. Influencer relations professionals In addition, some influencer intermediaries operate
can rely on their cultural and technical capital to offer as links between the industry and regulatory compli­
trusted advice to influencers on how best to apply dis­ ance through their roles as formal and informal edu­
closures during the content production, review, and cators. Prior research recognizes the educational
publishing stages of a campaign. As demonstrated in benefit of influencer intermediaries, highlighting their
Table 1, influencer relations professionals are often ability to effectively reconcile the goals of brands and
industry thought leaders with years of overlapping influencers, manage influencer marketing campaigns,
industry expertise and experience. and fulfill a pedagogic function by offering meaningful
advice or educational resources to aspiring influencers
Using Intermediary Knowledge Transfer to Secure (Maguire and Matthews 2010; Stoldt et al. 2019).
Disclosure Faye, Erin, and Leslie teach social media marketing
Influencer intermediaries can drive compliant spon­ courses, and they have taken it upon themselves to
sorship disclosure by taking on the responsibility of expand the syllabi to cover influencer marketing and
educating influencers about the applicable laws and influencer relations. In these courses, they share their
best disclosure practices for both paid and gifted personal experience with communications, advertising,
influencer campaigns. Cheryl and Erin note that they and marketing students who aspire to work with dif­
educate influencers on relevant Canadian and/or ferent types of influencers. Faye extends her know­
American guidelines for disclosure during contracting. ledge transfer role beyond her students by advising
Cheryl often attaches the latest Ad Standards or colleagues on paid partnership disclosure and other
Federal Trade Commission disclosure guidelines to regulatory compliance issues. Her role as an educator
the contracts she sends to influencers. Directly linking in her workplace has been well received, and she has
these resources allows her to reacquaint herself with become the “de facto Ad Standards Canada company
the latest industry guidance while showing influencers figurehead” at the talent agency she works for. This
how to access these regulatory resources directly. type of knowledge transfer can help influencer rela­
Intermediary knowledge transfer is also a valuable tions specialists–in–training develop a strong under­
mechanism for securing disclosure when the applic­ standing of disclosure compliance at the beginning of
able rules are still greatly misunderstood. Tory (a their careers and can also direct seasoned professio­
social media manager) underscores that the gifted nals toward compliance through peer mentorship.
campaign (when influencers receive nonmonetary gifts These findings demonstrate how influencer profes­
as compensation) is one area in which the meaning of sionals can utilize their cultural and technical capital
“material connection” has caused great confusion to encourage disclosure compliance in dynamic ways.
among intermediaries, influencers, and clients: Some intermediaries engage in valuable knowledge
transfer at the influencer contracting or content vet­
I would say the number one [gray area] is “material ting and preapproval stage, while others apply their
connections,” two words that mean a lot. I would say cultural and technical capital to encourage disclosure
that is the biggest one. And any type of events, beyond a brand campaign. Some influencer interme­
products, a gift, any of that, getting [clients] to diaries gain cultural and technical capital by engaging
understand that now with the new regulations, in communal information sharing or in thought lead­
anything we give them is now essentially seen as a
payment. That was something that I think for folks
ership at the management level to support their peers
who weren’t following very closely on the and colleagues. In addition, some influencer relations
development of the disclosure guidelines, I think that professionals build cultural and technical capital
caught them off guard or in a way that they didn’t through teaching in the academic space, advising the
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 77

next generation of influencer relations professionals intermediaries can encourage compliant sponsorship
on compliance with disclosure guidelines. The follow­ disclosure. Cultural and technical forms of capital are at
ing section describes in more detail the avenues the core of how influencer relations professionals drive
through which influencer relations professionals can compliant disclosure practices. Intermediaries build
build cultural and technical capital. cultural and technical capital in the SMI field by focus­
ing on the professional competencies, experiences, and
skills that allow them to operate as effective compliance
The Influence of Intermediary Social, Cultural, and
facilitators. Although there may be other sources of cul­
Technical Capital on Disclosure Practices
tural and technical capital within influencer relation­
Social Capital: Positioning between Brands and ship management, this research identifies three: (1)
Influencers thought leadership and knowledge transfer skills, (2)
Some influencer intermediaries maintain that they educational contributions, and (3) experience related to
have limited control over how influencers ultimately personal content creation and overlapping industry
choose to publish branded content, while others argue experience.
that intermediaries’ influence over disclosure is
unfairly underestimated. In alignment with Vincent’s Thought Leadership and Knowledge Transfer.
view that intermediaries have more social capital than Influencer intermediaries gain cultural and technical
they think, Robin (a social media manager) posits that capital through thought leadership and communal
influencer intermediaries have “a bit of control” over knowledge transfer and information sharing within
how influencers and brands collaborate due to their their field. For example, Faye’s leadership in and
negotiation powers and proximity as “middlemen” in understanding of compliance-related matters is a
the influencer-brand relationship. In Robin’s view, highly valued and admired professional attribute on
being a middleman in an influencer campaign grants her talent management team. Investments in this kind
him some control (or social capital) when it comes to of cultural and technical expertise can inspire fellow
managing the influencer-brand relationship and fulfill­ influencer intermediaries and the influencers and
ing the needs of all parties involved. Robin demon­ brands they collaborate with to work toward consist­
strates that, through effective influencer relationship ent and compliant sponsorship disclosure.
management, this same social capital can be used to In addition, some influencer intermediaries build
ensure compliant sponsorship disclosure and best thought leadership and technical expertise by engaging
industry practices in the SMI field. in communal knowledge and information transfer.
Influencer relations professionals can augment their Within the SMI field, knowledge transfer related to
social capital as advocates or “enforcers” of the disclos­ regulatory guidelines and other salient industry issues
ure requirements in legal contracts and SOWs by capi­ often occurs through the exchange of relevant articles,
talizing on their role as liaisons between influencers newsletters, and industry publications. For instance,
and brands. Intermediaries are empowered when they Keegan (a social media manager and agency leader)
are viewed as the “ardent spokesmen” (Bourdieu and and her team created an internal Slack social network­
Nice 1984) of brands and participate in the inclusion of ing channel to share relevant industry news and
disclosure requirements in legal contracts and SOWs. updates. Slack is a digital platform used by businesses
More importantly, the legal force of a contract or SOW to facilitate organizational communication through
augments intermediaries’ social capital when working features such as direct messaging and private chat
with influencers or brand clients that may want to par­ rooms (Slack Help Center n.d.).
ticipate in covert native advertising. Intermediaries
offer great social value not only by making it easier for Educational Contributions. Cultural and technical
influencers and brands to collaborate within legal boun­ capital can be achieved through teaching in the aca­
daries but also by ensuring that both parties are compli­ demic space. Like Faye, Leslie and Erin demonstrate
ant with applicable regulations. the value of cultural and technical capital by being
thought leaders in the research and academic arenas.
Cultural and Technical Capital: Thought Leadership In addition to their influencer relations work, all three
and Field Expertise teach college-level courses (see Table 1) that introduce
This research demonstrates that through content vet­ influencer marketing and influencer relations. Erin, in
ting and approval and through intermediary knowledge particular, bolsters her teaching with her hands-on
transfer within the community (i.e., the SMI field), consulting experience and scholarly research on
78 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

influencer relations. These influencer intermediaries own agencies and provide valuable advice about how
acquire their cultural and technical capital from edu­ to successfully navigate the SMI field.
cational institutions that recognize their unique In terms of overlapping experience, some influencer
expertise and voices in the industry. It is important to intermediaries started in the more traditional fields of
expand influencer marketing knowledge within trad­ communications and marketing (see Table 1). Their
itional academic spaces. Gale, who recently graduated knowledge and appreciation of regulatory compliance
from a media and communications program, attested are enhanced by lessons learned from radio, television,
to the limited source material on influencer marketing and advertising. This background is a source of cul­
in relevant academic programs: “My school gave me tural and technical knowledge that gives credence to
the writing skills and stuff I have now. And maybe these intermediaries’ advocacy of clear and upfront
the presentation and oral communication skills. We sponsorship disclosure. Pat (an influencer relations
didn’t really learn much about influencer marketing. professional with talent management experience) pre­
It was maybe something that would be brought up in viously worked for a boutique talent agency that
a lecture or if we had a guest speaker, they would talk focused on children and family influencer brands.
about their influencer marketing campaigns. But we This introduced him to the necessity of regulatory
never actually really learned how you outreach, how and legal compliance, as the rules and regulations sur­
you find influencers, how you do the whole process. I rounding family-oriented advertising are extremely
kind of had to learn that as I was going.” Prior to strict. Because of this previous experience, Pat was
entering the field, Gale gained exposure to and pre­ eager to learn about applicable disclosure guidelines
liminary knowledge of the influencer industry through and to rigorously apply them to his current work with
guest speakers, her own undergraduate research, and adult influencers.
mentors at her internships. This perspective reveals
the uniqueness of influencer marketing and relations
Discussion
expertise at the training level. Influencer intermedia­
ries can support students and future influencer rela­ Our research finds that influencer intermediaries can
tions professionals by helping them build foundational have a significant impact on disclosure practices in
knowledge of compliance requirements at an early the SMI field. Influencer intermediaries can play key
stage in their careers. roles as compliance facilitators and catalysts by their
involvement in influencer contracting as well as for­
Personal Content Creation and Overlapping Industry mal and informal content vetting. Through active par­
Experience. Influencer intermediaries can draw cul­ ticipation and intervention in the development of
tural and technical capital from their experience as influencer contracts, SOWs, and briefing materials,
influencers in the SMI field and from overlapping influencer relations professionals can help reduce dis­
industry experience. Some influencer intermediaries closure breaches and normalize regulatory compliance
(e.g., Keegan, Pat, Sidney, William, and Xavier) accu­ at critical points in the establishment of working rela­
mulated cultural and technical capital through their tionships with influencers. Knowledge transfer is also
professional influencer relations work as well as identified as a vital mechanism to encourage sponsor­
through their experience as content creators. Keegan, ship disclosure, as influencer intermediaries can edu­
for instance, did not gain her cultural and technical cate influencers about formal regulatory frameworks
capital as the founder of a talent agency through for­ and best practices guidelines. Furthermore, influencer
mal education or training. To prove to clients that she intermediaries can improve disclosure and compliance
could offer meaningful social media marketing and outcomes by educating influencers, clients, and other
influencer relations advice, she became an influencer intermediaries about the legal and regulatory require­
and content creator herself. Keegan built a community ments applicable to less common forms of influencer
of almost 30,000 Twitter followers and was able to marketing. For example, knowledge transfer related to
monetize her craft and transform it into a viable rev­ the legal definition of material connection can dispel
enue stream. Similarly, Sidney’s fashion blog attracted the misconception that gifts do not constitute a form
a million views per month, and he used this personal of payment. Our findings on the educational role of
success as an influencer to enter the entrepreneurship influencer relations professionals are consistent with
and management side of the business. The cultural extant research that recognizes the pedagogical value
and technical capital gained from personal experience of intermediaries within cultural fields (Maguire and
has given these influencers the power to run their Matthews 2010; Stoldt et al. 2019). Comprehensively,
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 79

our research illustrates that the power of influencer as influential “referees” (referencing Bourdieu’s game
intermediaries is not limited to the influencer celebri­ analogy), assisting in the negotiation, definition, or
fication process (e.g., talent scouting, influencer enforcement of the rules of the influencer game (e.g.,
recruitment, impact analyses) (Brooks, Drenten, and being a member of the Ad Standards Influencer
Piskorski 2021) but extends to the legal and regulatory Marketing Steering Committee).
aspects of influencer marketing that can expose both Our research identifies the value of cultural and
influencers and brand clients to great risk. technical capital within influencer relations. Influencer
Despite influencer intermediaries’ underestimated intermediaries can harness sources of cultural and
power in the SMI field, they have access to forms of technical power through (1) the development of
social, cultural, and technical power that can be maxi­ respect by means of thought leadership and know­
mized to influence best disclosure practices and high ledge transfer, (2) educational and academic contribu­
standards of compliance with formal regulatory guide­ tions through teaching and research within the
lines. The belief that influencer intermediaries have no influencer industry, and (3) personal content creation
or limited power to encourage high standards of dis­ and industry experience. Although some influencer
closure and regulatory compliance comes from an intermediaries do not recognize the positive impact
inability to independently identify the mechanisms their cultural and technical expertise can have on dis­
(e.g., legal contracts, SOWs), unique field positioning closure compliance, we find that these professionals’
(e.g., proximity to brands and influencers), and pro­ personal experiences as industry researchers, college-
fessional and personal experience that grant influencer level educators, content creators, brand owners, and/
intermediaries social, cultural, and/or technical capital or agency leaders can position them as trusted advis­
in the SMI field. Their proximity to brands and influ­ ers on many areas of regulatory compliance relevant
encers means that they can generate enough social to the SMI industry. By locating these forms of social,
capital through their trusted relationships with these cultural, and technical capital within the experience
actors to advocate for upfront, consistent, and con­ and professional competencies of the interviewed pro­
spicuous disclosure in a consequential way. fessionals, this research demonstrates that some influ­
Establishing trust and maintaining a healthy rapport encer intermediaries struggle to independently identify
with both the brand and the influencer make it easier the tools, relationships, and competencies that sub­
to negotiate and reach mutually agreeable compro­ stantiate the value of proper influencer relationship
mises on disclosure. Our findings align with management.
Bourdieu’s conceptualization of social capital, which
posits that social capital can be gained through the
Theoretical Implications
development of strong relationships and networks
between people or groups (Abidin 2018). In addition, This research applies Bourdieu’s field theory to a new
legal agreements and SOWs that outline the necessity environment: the influencer marketing industry. It
of disclosure can augment the social power of influen­ does so by assessing how cultural field dynamics (e.g.,
cer intermediaries—particularly when the influencers the overlapping nature of fields) can affect sponsor­
and clients may intend to violate the requirements for ship disclosure practices and regulatory and legal
ad transparency. Social capital is thus achieved by compliance in the Canadian influencer field. Other
being viewed as standard setters at the point of estab­ scholars have similarly applied Bourdieu’s field theory
lishing a working relationship with influencers, at hir­ (and the concepts it gives rise to) to examine how
ing, during the production of content, or at the actors compete for power or capital in a given field,
publishing of branded content. to contemplate the effect of overlapping fields on their
As our research reveals, social capital is also exem­ autonomy (e.g., Bathmaker 2015), or to assess how
plified through influencer intermediaries’ relational the “rules of the game” within fields are negotiated
proximity to influencers. As influencers’ day-to-day and can change over time (e.g., Angers 2017). In a
representatives or managers, influencer intermediaries similar fashion, this research applies Bourdieu’s field
are often relied on for advice on how to navigate the theory and concepts of capital and cultural interme­
rules of the SMI field. Bladow (2018) contends that diaries to challenge the underestimated power of
this advisory role largely confers the responsibility for influencer intermediaries and investigate how inter­
disclosure compliance to influencer intermediaries. mediary power materializes in the SMI field. For
Furthermore, depending on the type of organizations example, the positioning of influencer relations pro­
they work for, influencer intermediaries can operate fessionals between influencers (consumers) and brands
80 R. MUSIYIWA AND J. JACOBSON

(producers of cultural products) is conceptualized by intermediary professionals—a perspective of advertis­

Bourdieu’s cultural intermediaries concept, while the ing and influencer marketing research that has been
impact of applicable laws on disclosure practices finds greatly understudied (Childers, Lemon, and Hoy 2019;
theoretical support in Bourdieu’s elucidation of how Lou and Jin 2021).
the “rules of the game” govern actors’ behavior.
Together, field theory and the subconcepts of capital
Limitations and Future Research
and cultural intermediaries allowed this research to
frame compliance as an issue of power and contem­ As is typical of any study, this research has some limi­
plate how influencer intermediaries can capitalize on tations. Although extant literature on ideal sample
this power (i.e., capital) to encourage voluntary dis­ pools for qualitative interviews reveals that a sample
closure among influencers and brand clients. of 10 to 40 participants is a reasonable number to
achieve adequate data saturation (Guest, Bunce, and
Johnson 2006; Hagaman and Wutich 2017; Hansen
Managerial Implications
and Machin 2019), a larger sample would generate
The managerial implications of this research are three­ more intermediary contributions that could, in turn,
fold. First, because influencer marketing is still an be extrapolated to a larger group of relevant industry
emergent area of strategic communications at the cor­ professionals. Juxtaposing the qualitative findings
porate level (Childers, Lemon, and Hoy 2019), our against an additional engagement with influencer
study highlights the impact an actively engaged influ­ intermediaries through more semistructured inter­
encer relations professional can have on disclosure views or focus groups would help assess whether our
and regulatory compliance. This is evidenced by the findings are consistent across a larger sample of influ­
discovery that the legal contracting, content vetting encer relations professionals.
and preapproval (formal and informal), and mentor­ In addition, due to the small sample size, our find­
ship and knowledge transfer (to influencers and peers) ings may not be generalizable to other markets or
phases of an influencer marketing campaign provide legal jurisdictions. The generalizability of qualitative
influencer intermediaries an opportunity to normalize inquiry is limited due to the subjectivity of the data
the standard of disclosure at the beginning of a cam­ collected. However, because of the exploratory nature
paign and emphasize the shared responsibility and of the research methodology, external generalizability
legal basis of sponsorship disclosure. Moreover, was not a core objective of this work. The research
through the mechanisms of legal contracts and SOWs, findings are useful for exploratory purposes and can
content vetting, and knowledge transfer, influencer be used as a basis for subsequent quantitative or
intermediaries have the opportunity to close any com­ qualitative research (Clow and James 2014). Our goal
pliance knowledge gaps among clients and influencers. was to ensure the validity and reliability of our
Second, although the influence of intermediaries is research method and analysis within the Canadian
often debated and sometimes underestimated (Nixon context. We aim to rely on the findings of this
and Gay 2002; Moor 2008), our research finds that research as a foundation for future research.
influencer intermediaries have access to forms of The experiences of influencers and brand clients
social (e.g., as trusted “middlemen” between influ­ are absent from the current work, yet they are an
encers and brands), cultural (e.g., as thought leaders integral part of the research because their commercial
and compliance advisers), and technical (e.g., as hold­ relationship is what necessitates the involvement of
ers of uncommon industry competencies) expertise influencer relations professionals and confers the legal
that can position them as trustworthy advisers on duty to disclose on both sides of a collaboration.
industry best practices and mentors who can set high Allowing influencers and brand representatives to par­
compliance standards for influencer relations special­ ticipate in future research through surveys, interviews,
ists–in–training at the start of their careers or for their or focus groups would provide a more holistic under­
colleagues through peer-to-peer mentorship. standing of why compliant and upfront disclosure is
Third, as both a managerial and a scholarly contri­ such a challenging area of influencer marketing–
bution, the research offers industry-led solutions to related work. Moreover, future research can explore in
reduce noncompliant disclosure practices that infringe greater depth the disclosure challenges posed by
on applicable laws and pose consumer protection con­ ephemeral and short-form video formats that have
cerns for formal regulators. These solutions amplify gained popularity on platforms such as Instagram and
the voices and lived experiences of influencer TikTok.
 JOURNAL OF INTERACTIVE ADVERTISING 81

Ethical Approval Bourdieu, P. 1969. “Intellectual Field and Creative Project.”

Social Science Information 8 (2): 89–119. https://doi.org/
Ethical approval was granted on December 8, 2020, by 10.1177/053901846900800205
the Research Ethics Board at Toronto Metropolitan Bourdieu, P., and R. Nice. 1984. “Distinction: A Social
University (REB 2020-406). Critique of the Judgement of Taste.” In Class tastes and
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Disclosure Statement Bourdieu, P., and L. J. Wacquant. 1992. “The Logic of
Fields.” In An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology, 94–114.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
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