CONTENT

CHAPTER
NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 STUDY AREA

3.2 METHODOLOGY

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
 LIST OF TABLES

Table no. Title

1. Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Gharana wetland.
2. Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Pargwal wetland.
3. Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Makwal wetland.
4. Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Sangral wetland.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title

3.1 Map of Jammu and Kashmir showing wetlands

3.2 Gharana wetland site 1
3.3 Satellite image of Gharana wetland site 1
3.4 Gharana wetlan d site 2
3.5 Satellite image of Gharana wetland site 2
3.6 Gharana wetland site 3
3.7 Satellite image of Gharana wetland site 3
3.8 Pargwal wetland site 1
3.9 Satellite image of Pargwal wetland site 1
3.10 Pargwal wetland site 2
3.11 Satellite image of Pargwal wetland site 2
3.12 Pargwal wetland site 3
3.13 Satellite image of Pargwal wetland site 3
3.14 Makwal wetland site 1
3.15 Satellite image of Makwal wetland site 1
3.16 Makwal wetland site 2
3.17 Satellite image of Makwal wetland site 2
3.18 Sangral wetland site 1
Sangral wetland site 2
Air temperature variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Water temperature variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
pH temperature variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Electrical Conductivity variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Total Dissolved solids variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Dissolved Oxygen variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Biological oxygen demand variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Carbonate variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Bicarbonate variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Total Alkalinity variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Calcium variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Magnesium variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Total Hardness variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Chloride ion variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Potassium variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Sodium variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Phosphate variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Nitrate variation during different seasons of studied wetlands
Trophic status of different wetlands during different seasons
Overall trophic status during different seasons of studied wetlands
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

Water is vital to our health. It plays a key role in many of our body functions, including bringing
nutrients to cells, getting rid of wastes, protecting joints and organs, and maintaining body
temperature. About 71% of the earth’s surface is water covered, and the oceans hold about 97%
of all earth’s water. Water also exists in the air as water vapour, in rivers and lakes, in ice caps
and glaciers, in the ground as soil moisture and in aquifers. 3% of earth’s water is fresh (US
Geological Survey 2019). More than 68% of the fresh water on earth is found in ice caps and
glaciers, and just over 30% is found as groundwater. Only about 0.35% of our fresh water is
found in the surface water of lakes, rivers, and swamps (National geographic Headquarters,
2008). Approximately 163 million people of India lack access to safe drinking water (World
bank statistics, 2023). There are several types of water that meet human water supply needs
including surface water and groundwater. Groundwater is found in underground aquifers located
beneath the ground. The Ganga-Brahmaputra alluvial province is the richest source of ground
water, holding above 40% of the country’s ground water (Geoscience Frontiers, 2021). The
Ganga-Brahmaputra alluvial province covers Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Assam and parts of Rajasthan. Surface water includes any fresh water that flows into
wetlands, river systems and lakes. In India, there are around 10,360 rivers and their tributaries
with a length of more than 1.6 kilometres (Anjali Patel mam, IGKV Raipur, C.G 2021). India is a
water rich country with 4% of world’s water resources but around 70% of surface water in India
is unfit for human consumption (World Economic Forum, 2019). Jammu and Kashmir is drained
by five main rivers namely Jhelum, Chenab, Indus, Ravi and Tawi (Shukla and Ali, 2018). It has
ample water resources in the form of lakes, glaciers and rivers. Many rivers and other water
bodies in Jammu and Kashmir have become the prime target of pollution due to an inadequate
system of waste disposal The case of river Tawi in Jammu, the river Jhelum and the Dal Lake in
Kashmir, which despite their world famed beauty have been turned into receivers of direct
sewage.

Surface water is any body of water above ground, including streams, rivers, wetlands, reservoirs,
and creeks. Surface water is closely associated with ground water. Some surface water percolates
deep into the ground through the cracks and porous spaces within rocks, sand, and soil. The
surface water eventually reaches underground springs and wells to become groundwater.
Groundwater is fresh and naturally uncontaminated, since the water gets filtered as it trickles
through the sediment. However, groundwater is not easily accessible as it is usually located in
deeper parts of the earth, often requiring tools or machinery to access it. Surface water is more
readily available, but since it is not filtered like groundwater, it is often contaminated by
pollution, microbes and harmful minerals, and must be treated before it is safe to use or ingest.
The naturally-occurring water cycle helps regulate water and facilitates the exchange between
the groundwater, atmosphere, and surface water. Precipitation such as rainfall or snowfall
increases the amount of surface water. This surface water will either evaporate into the
atmosphere until it condenses enough to form precipitation again, or percolate into the earth to
become groundwater. This is how the total volume of water is maintained on Earth.
Humans have wrestled with water quality for thousands of years, as far back as the 4th and 5th
centuries BC when Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, linked impure water to disease
and invented one of the earliest water filters. Today, the challenge is sizeable, creating existential

threats to biodiversity and multiple human communities, as well as threatening economic

progress and sustainability of human lives.

As India grows and urbanizes, its water bodies are getting polluted. Every day about 40 million
litres of waste water enter the water bodies and pollute it with only a tiny fraction adequately
treated. Another study estimates that being downstream of polluted stretches in India is
associated with a 9% reduction in agricultural revenues and a 16% drop in downstream
agricultural yield. Preventing contamination of surface water can reduce the cost of treating
communal drinking water (especially from surface water sources) before it enters the home and
mitigate the hazards to public health. We all live in a watershed, defined as an area that drains
into a shared waterway such as a stream, lake, wetlands, or the ocean. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and many other agencies engage with communities to maintain surface
water resources.

Wetlands, among the surface water resources, inhabit a significant position as a natural resource
(Mitsch and Gosselink, 2015). Wetlands are amongst the most productive ecosystems on the
Earth (Ghermandi et al., 2008), and provide many important services to human society (Ten
Brink et al., 2012). However, they are also ecologically sensitive and adaptive systems (Turner et
al., 2000). Wetlands are considered to have unique ecological features which provide numerous
products and services to humanity (Prasad et al., 2002). They are highly supported by many
creatures, including birds. The diversity of any wetland depends upon the water quality and the
vegetation around the wetland for the survival of the species (Buckton, 2007). Wetlands are also
called marshes, bogs, swamps, fens, pocosins, and other names (Tiner, 1999). They are neither
truly aquatic nor terrestrial. Wetlands can be defined as the lands transitional between terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems, where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is
covered by shallow water (Mitch and Gooselink, 1986). Wetlands known as “the kidneys of the
landscape,” (due to its role in hydrological and chemical cycles) and as “biological
supermarkets” (due to its role in extensive food webs and rich biodiversity they support) (Barbier
et al.,1997), regulate ecological processes that contribute to a healthy environment. They supply
genetic resources, basic materials, and even medications. They also aid in protecting coasts,
storing and sequestering carbon, and reducing floods.

One of the widely used wetland classifications systems (devised by Cowardin et al., 1979)
categorized wetlands into marine (coastal wetlands), estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes,
and mangrove swamps), lacustrine (lakes), riverine (along rivers and streams), and palustrine
(marshy-marshes, swamps and bogs) based on their hydrological, ecological and geological
characteristics. However, Ramsar Convention, signed in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971
primarily focuses on wetlands. It is the only international treaty that focus on wetlands. Since it
went into effect in 1975, 170 nations have signed on as Contracting Parties. To ensure wetlands
achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the Paris Agreement on
Climate Change, and other related commitments, works globally for their conservation and
sensible use.
The Ramsar Convention defines wetlands rather broadly as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres”. Ramsar recognizes 42 wetland types in three categories: marine and coastal
wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2010a).
As per the Ramsar Convention definition most of the natural water bodies (such as rivers, lakes,
coastal lagoons, mangroves, peat land, coral reefs) and man-made wetlands (such as ponds, farm
ponds, irrigated fields, sacred groves, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals)
in India constitute the wetland ecosystem. Globally, the areal extent of wetland ecosystems come
to 570 million hectares (Ramsar Secretariat, 2013) with an estimated economic value of about
US$ 15 trillion a year (Ministry of external affairs, 2005).

Wetlands are estimated to cover about 4 to 6% of the world’s land (Junk et al., 2013; Demissie &
Addis, 2015). India, with its varying topography and climatic regimes, supports diverse and
unique wetland habitats (Prasad et al., 2002). In India, there are roughly 757.06 thousand
wetlands covering a total area of 15.3 million hectares, which accounts for about 4.7% of the
nation’s overall land area. Among these, about 69% are inland wetlands, 27% are coastal
wetlands, and the remaining 4% are smaller wetlands having area less than 2.25 hectares (Space
Application centre, 2011). Wetlands play a vital role in supporting biodiversity, managing water
flow, and providing essential ecosystem services for both the environment and human well-
being. The water spread area of wetlands varies greatly. Overall, inland wetlands have a water
spread area of 7.4 m ha in post monsoon and 4.8 m ha in pre-monsoon; and coastal wetlands
have 1.2 m ha and 1 m ha in post monsoon and pre-monsoon respectively (Space Application
Centre, 2011). There are 80 Ramsar sites in India (MOEFCC, 2024) and five wetlands of
international importance in Jammu and Kashmir, identified under the Ramsar convention. These
include Shallabugh, Haigam, Surinsar- Mansar, Hokersar and Wular lake (Asian Waterbird
Census, 2023).

Significance of wetlands

Wetlands provide many ecological services like carbon sequestration, flood control, recharge
underground water level and maintenance to the biodiversity (Turner et al., 2000). Functions of
wetlands include water quality enhancement, floodwater storage, fish and wildlife habitat,
aesthetics, and biological. Following are the various functions performed by wetlands:

Water storage: Wetlands act like natural pools or sponges, storing water and slowly releasing it.
This process slows water velocity and erosion potential, lowers flood heights, and allows
groundwater recharge, which Contributes to base flow to surface water systems during dry
periods.

Flood control: The majority of wetlands are able to hold excess water or floodwater, which helps
to protect areas downstream from flooding. Along rivers and streams, wetlands absorb energy
and retain water during storms, lowering the risk of flash floods and minimizing downstream
flood damage. During dry spells, the gradual release of this stored water can help maintain
stream flow.
Wetland habitat: Numerous species of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals with special
adaptations to aquatic conditions find home in wetlands. Wetlands are a common source of food
and shelter for upland animals including deer, elk, and bears. Particularly important to many
migratory bird species are wetlands.

Fish and shellfish habitat: Wetlands provide food, cover, spawning grounds, and nidification
areas for a variety of freshwater and marine species, such as trout, striped bass, pike, sunfish,
crappie, crab, and shrimp.

Habitat for Threatened and Endangered species: Wetlands are essential to the survival of about
one-third of all plants and animals classified as threatened or endangered.

Recreational opportunities: A variety of plants, animals, and water features may be found in
many wetlands, making them ideal locations for hiking, fishing, hunting, boating, bird watching,
and photography.

Education: Wetlands are rich in ecological, cultural, and historic resources, which present a
plethora of chances for environmental education and public awareness campaigns.

Threats

Wetlands are among the most fragile ecosystems on this planet (Erwin, 2009; Kumar and Singh,
2020). In India, the maximum degradation of wetlands occurs due to excessive use of chemicals,
pesticides, fertilizers for increasing the yield and the discharge of untreated wastes from
industries and municipal areas into these water bodies (Arya et al., 2020). Industrial and
agricultural activities are the main causes that contribute to the pollution of wetlands resulting in
complex biogeochemical effect whereas intensive agriculture, planting, livestock, poultry and
aquaculture activities are the aggravating factors for the deterioration of wetland ecosystems
(Vandergragt et al., 2020). The main cause of wetland loss are urbanization and land use;
agricultural, municipal and industrial pollution; global climate change.

Urbanization: Development pressure for residential, commercial, and industrial facilities is

pushing wetlands close to urban centres to become developed. Public water sources must be
preserved, and this requires urban wetlands.

Agriculture: Paddy fields have replaced vast expanses of marshes. The hydrology of the
surrounding marshes was dramatically changed by the construction of numerous reservoirs,
canals, and dams for irrigation.

Pollution: Wetlands purify water naturally. They cannot, however, remove pollutants such as
mercury from industrial sources or other sources of pollution; they can only remove pesticides
and fertilizers from agricultural runoff. Concern over how industrial pollution affects wetlands’
biological variety and sources of drinking water is on the rise.

Climate change: Climate change is another factor resulting in temperature increase which leads
to increased greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands, particularly in permafrost regions (Liu et
al., 2017). Rising sea levels, altered precipitation patterns, more frequent storms, droughts, and
floods, elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, and elevated air temperatures can all
have an impact on wetlands.

Invasive species: Exotic invasive plant species like Salvinia and Water Hyacinth pose a threat to
Indian wetlands. They impede streams and supplant natural vegetation.

Significance of the study

As wetlands are getting affected by natural as well as anthropogenic influences, extensive
monitoring and significant information related to physico-chemical parameters are
required. Among the studied wetlands, Gharana is a home to various residents and
migratory birds especially during winters. All the wetlands are under great ecological
stress due to residential as well as agricultural wastes that changes their physical,
chemical, and biological properties. The present study aimed at assessing the physico-
chemical parameters of the selected wetlands so that proper management plans can be
devised conservation of the wetlands.
The present study was carried with the following goals:
To determine the seasonal variations in water quality of the studied wetlands.
To assess the impact of pollution and trophic status of the studied wetlands, and devise
management strategies.
 CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Dixit et al. (2021) conducted a hydrological assessment of the four different wetlands (Lost-W1,
Sultanpur-W2, Damdana-W3 and Basai-W4) of Gurugram, Haryana in India. Water samples
were analysed for parameters like temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved organic carbon, major cations,
trace metals, and major anions. The results of the study revealed that all water samples were
alkaline, with the dominance of Bicarbonates (HCO 3-) and Calcium ions (Ca2+) in W1, W2 and
W3, whereas Chloride (Cl-) and Sodium ions (Na+) ions were dominant in W4, indicating
anthropogenic influence in the wetland. It was concluded from the study that, W4 is the most
polluted wetland, whereas W2 and W3 are the least polluted. The study recommended
continuous monitoring and timely measures for the restoration of wetlands.

Pimpakar et al. (2023) assessed the water quality of the wetlands of Aurangabad district,
Maharashtra. A total of 28 samples were collected from Pangara Talav (PT) and Girija Talav
(GT), in pre-monsoon season, which were tested for major physiological parameters (pH,
temperature, turbidity, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended
solids (TSS), dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total
alkalinity, (TA) total hardness (TH), calcium ions (Ca 2+), magnesium ions (Mg 2+), chloride ions
(Cl-), sulfate ions (SO42-), phosphate ions (PO43-), acidity, alkalinity, and nitrate (NO3-). Results
showed increased values of COD/BOD in the PT compared to GT indicating polluted urban
wetlands. Additionally, the findings of the study concluded that water can’t be used for domestic
purposes and also recommended continuous monitoring for the conservation of the wetland.

Imdad et al. (2023) assessed wetland health, its water quality and resident perception of the
declining ecosystem services of Mount Abu in Rajasthan, India. Water samples were taken from
10 selected wetlands, to check water quality on parameters like total dissolved solids, dissolved
oxygen, pH, oxidation-reduction potential and conductivity. Land use land cover change from
1992 to 2020, and a questionnaire-based household survey was used to assess wetland
health, using geospatial data. The results of the study showed, that large-scale land use changes
were the major factor for declined water quality, decreased spatial extent and sharp qualitative
and quantitative degradation of wetlands.
Akhter et al. (2021) assessed limnological parameters and water quality indices of Harike
wetland (Ramsar site), Punjab (India). The study was conducted from June 2018 to August 2019
and divided into five seasons. WQI was calculated based on the studied parameters like water
temperature, pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, nitrate and phosphate. It
was concluded from the results, that the water quality at Harike wetland was poor (53.56) and
unsafe for human consumption, which was attributed to pollution load and human activities. The
study also recommended regular monitoring and reduction in anthropogenic activities to
conserve the wetland.

Brraich and Saini (2015) studied the water quality index of the Ranjit Sagar wetland on the Ravi
River System. WQI was calculated using various physiological parameters like air temperature,
water temperature, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide
(CO2), pH, alkalinity, phosphate, sulphate, nitrate, silicates, nitrite, total hardness, chloride,
salinity, calcium and magnesium hardness was carried monthly for two years. The results of the
WQI indicated water under the poor category (66.06) and declared it unsafe for human
consumption.

Soni and Thomas (2013) conducted a preliminary assessment of the surface water quality of the
Dakur Sacred Wetland (DSW) of Central Gujrat (India). Study of various physiological
parameters like potassium, temperature, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, free
CO2, pH, alkalinity, phosphate, sulphate, nitrate, silicates, nitrite ions, total hardness, chloride,
salinity, sodium, calcium ions and magnesium hardness of DSW, showed that among all studied
sites of DSW, D3 was observed as the least polluted site whereas D2 was the moderately
polluted site and D1 was an intensely polluted site due to anthropogenic pollution. Suggestions
were made to prohibit the access and use of such areas by traditional communities, effective
action is required for biodiversity conservation.

Pandey and Ansari (2017) conducted biological and physico-chemical studies of some wetlands
in Balrampur, district of Uttar Pradesh. Various physico-chemical parameters viz., pH, turbidity,
hardness, free CO2, calcium, magnesium hardness, sodium, potassium, chloride, alkalinity and
nitrate were used to analyse the water quality. The results of the analysis showed that the
selected ponds were highly polluted and not suitable for human use. The study also
recommended the need for further study of aquatic ecosystems for proper management and
survival of aquatic life and ecological balance.

Devi (2022) assessed the water quality and overall biodiversity of certain wetlands in Sivasagar
District of Assam. Various physico-chemical parameters like pH, DO, free CO 2, alkalinity, air
temperature and water temperature were studied from April 2017 to April 2018 taken from
different sites. The studies further revealed that the water quality of Morbeel wetland was poor
and it can’t be used for various domestic uses and requires proper maintenance.

Priyadarshini and Dhanlakshmi (2016) assessed the water quality of Theroor wetland in
Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu). Various limnological parameters like rainfall, pH, total hardness,
dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and air and water temperature were studied for
monsoon, pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and summer seasons. The results showed that the wetland
was getting eutrophic due to increased and unplanned urbanization and untreated sewage thrown
in the wetland. Stringent actions should be taken to prevent the anthropogenic activities to
conserve the wetland as soon as possible.

Yousuf et al. (2015) compared physio-chemical parameters of two wetlands of Kashmir viz.
Hokersar and Hygam wetlands to discover their health and pollution status. Results of the study
revealed that eutrophic conditions were more prevalent in Hygam than in Hokersar due to the
presence of excess nutrients. Moreover, the study recommended, proper monitoring and creation
of buffer zones for the conservation of the wetland.

Rahmani et al. (2021) studied the water quality and eutrophication status of Gharana wetland in
Jammu, using the water quality index (WQI). Water quality was assessed as per the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking purposes, which showed that water samples during pre-
monsoon were of very poor quality, while post-monsoon samples were observed unsuitable for
drinking. WQI readings in the present study ranged from 58.92 to 106.66. Furthermore, the
excess of macronutrients viz. nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium established the eutrophic
conditions of the wetland.

Fathi et al. (2016) assessed the water quality in Choghakhor wetland using WQI. Eleven
parameters were studied viz. turbidity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, alkalinity, hardness,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, pH and biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD5). The results were reported in two categories i.e., very poor and inappropriate which
makes the water of wetland not suitable for human use (drinking).

Singh et al. (2022) examined the water quality of Kusheshwar Asthan wetlands for agriculture. A
total of 57 water samples were analysed for parameters like electrical conductivity, pH,
temperature, DO, major cations (Ca 2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+) and major anions (PO43-, SO42-, N-NO3-,
Cl-, HCO3-). The water was found to be alkaline and the results showed higher concentrations in
most of the parameters during pre-monsoon, except for pH, DO, nitrate, phosphate and chloride
ions. The results showed that wetland water can be categorized as good to excellent quality. The
study suggested that regular water quality monitoring, control of weed growth, stopping dumping
of solid wastes, and restricting the release of untreated effluents and sewage could conserve the
wetland.

Vidya et al. (2024) examined the hydrogeochemical character of Thrissur Kole wetland,
Southwest India. Low pH values were reported during post-monsoon season, which was
attributed to freshwater discharge and mineralization of organic matter. Besides natural
resources, agriculture activities and dropping from birds contributed to the excess nutrients. The
average relative abundance of major cations and anions was K +>SO42->HCO3->Ca2+ and Cl-
>Na+>Mg2+> respectively. Hydro-chemical faces study identified Ca-Mg-HCO 3 type, Ca-Mg-Cl-
SO42- type and Na-K-Cl-SO42- as the major water types. Overall, the results of the study revealed
that water was suitable for irrigation.

Joshi et al. (2020), examined the water quality and pollution status of four urban wetlands viz.,
Sanjay Lake, Okhla Bird Sanctuary, Indira Gandhi Stadium Lake and Bhalswa Lake. Several
surface water samples were analysed during the summer and winter seasons, for various
physicochemical properties (temperature, pH, DO, BOD, EC, alkalinity, major cations and
anions) including trace metals. The results revealed that the water from all these wetlands was
alkaline and their chemical composition varied seasonally. Hydrogeochemical analysis
established Na+-SO42- and Ca2+-Mg2+-SO42- type water in Bhalswa Lake, and showed dominance
of rock-water interaction. Moreover, the water quality index revealed that the water of all these
wetlands was unsuitable for drinking. It was also observed that drinking and irrigation water
quality deteriorated during summer in both the lakes and urgent measures were suggested to
address the deteriorating health of wetlands.

Dar et al. (2021) examined the tropic state of the Anchar wetland of Kashmir based on an
integrated analysis of land use land cover, morphometry, bathymetry, and water quality. The
study indicated that the wetland had lost an area of approximately 93 hectares from 1980-2017
and urban area within the wetland increased from 0.04% to 13.5%. Morphometric analysis
revealed that the maximum length of the wetland decreased by 77 m while the width decreased
insignificantly. The bathymetric analysis revealed that the depth of the wetland varied from 25-
246 cm, with a mean depth of 101.6 cm. The Carlson’s TSI ranged between 71 and 80.4,
indicating the hypereutrophic nature of the wetland. The study suggested an immediate policy
intervention to safeguard or reclaim the wetland.

Abishika et al. (2023) conducted a study on the restoration and rejuvenation of the Suchindram
wetland in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu. Being the southernmost wintering ground for
migratory birds in the Indian peninsula and hosting various globally threatened wetland birds this
wetland is globally significant. However, the study revealed that the wetland is facing lots of
pressure due to water pollution, garbage dumping, eutrophication and urbanization. The study
suggested that restoration and rejuvenation can enhance the ecosystem and help to improve the
well-being of wetland-dependent flora and fauna and human beings.

Chandra et al. (2009) monitored the physico-chemical water quality of the Coimbatore wetland
in Tamil Nadu, India. Parameters like pH, TDS, phosphate, sulphate, BOD, COD, alkalinity and
Cl- were analysed to assess the water quality. Comparison with decade-old data revealed that the
pH and TDS values were different. The concentration of phosphate and sulphate was much lower
than those reported earlier whereas alkalinity and chloride concentrations increased three times
more than the previous findings. The study further suggested that regular water quality
monitoring, control of weed growth, stopping dumping of solid wastes, and prevention of release
of untreated effluents and sewage could conserve the wetland.

Kumar et al. (2019) studied the influence of water quality on the aquatic macrophyte diversity in
seasonal wetlands of Palk Bay in southeast coast of India. Water quality parameters such as
temperature, pH, salinity, TDS, DO, turbidity, electrical conductivity and the aquatic macrophyte
diversity were estimated in all three stations. The result revealed no statistical difference in water
quality parameters among the three stations. A total of seven submerged macrophytes were
discovered in the study. The EC, TDS and turbidity had negative influence on the aquatic
macrophytes. Therefore, some measure should be adapted to maintain the water quality for more
extended period for domestic use.
Bassi and Kumar (2017) conducted an experiment in Delhi on the water quality index (WQI) is a
tool to analyze large amount s of data on different water quality parameters. The results revealed,
in winter the lake water quality falls into the bad category and in summer and monsoon water
quality was just above the range of being bad. The study shows that how these findings can be
used for informing policies on management of wetlands. The study also shows the establishment
of a community based on water quality monitoring and surveillance. System which was backed
by infrastructural support from the state, in order to restore wetlands in urban areas.
Singh et al. (2022) conducted a study on the water quality and spatio-temporal patterns in seven
wetlands (two natural and five man-made) of Punjab. The assessment was done using different
statistical techniques on water quality parameters which showed temporal variations for all
parameters except for pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand,
and phosphate content.

Dutta et al. (2016) analyzed water samples from 10 different wetlands of the Brahmaputra valley
for pH, electrical conductivity, TDS, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, Ca, Na, K, and total
hardness (TH). Based on the hydro-geochemistry and WQI, Deepor Beel and the wetlands of
Kaziranga National Park showed poor water quality. Principal component analysis used for
source apportionment of the parameters indicated pH, TH, TDS, Cl -, Na and K as the mineral
components of wetland, whereas Mg2+ originated from anthropogenic sources such as
agricultural runoffs, nearby tea gardens and sewage sludge.

Chandra et al. (2010) carried out a study on the water quality of the Coimbatore wetlands of
Tamil Nadu. He investigated four urban wetlands of Coimbatore and reported that the pH and
TDS values of the lakes were different from those reported a decade back and also the alkalinity
and chloride concentrations of the lake were found to be three times higher than the previous
findings.

Gogoi et al. (2015) conducted a study on the assessment of water quality from fishery
perspective in the flood plain of wetlands of the Subansiri river basin in Assam. The seasonal
variations of water quality parameters i.e. DO, BOD, free carbon dioxide (FCO 2), alkalinity, total
hardness, chloride, pH and water temperature in three different categories of flood plains were
analyzed for two years and the values that were recorded stand for favourable water quality for
fish and fisheries development.

Bhat et al. (2015) studied the variability in water quality and phytoplankton community during
dry and wet periods in the tropical wetlands of Bhopal. They investigated 9 stations and revealed
that there was higher algal diversity [294 species] during the year 2008-2009. The higher
abundance of Closterium, Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Navicula etc, and nutrient concentration i.e.
nitrate-nitrogen and phosphorous during the dry and wet periods reflect higher organic pollution
in the Bhoj wetland

Sarkar et al. (2010) analyzed the water quality of the coastal regions of Sundarban mangrove
wetland in India using multivariate statistical techniques. Detailed hydro-chemical research was
carried out to evaluate different processes and mechanism s involved in polluting water. The
results were compiled into a large data matrix. The rising sea level and the modifications from
the tilting of the GB delta towards the east had led to the suffering in the balance between salt
water and fresh water in the wetland. The results revealed a well-defined spatial and temporal
heterogeneity in distribution of different water quality parameters in the studied regions.

Kumar et al. (2018) studied the physicochemical and microbiological water quality of the Assam
wetland of Garhwal Himalaya. The physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of the
lakes were recorded monthly for two continuous years and the results revealed the poor quality
of the lake water. These results can be used for the restoration of the water quality of the lake.

Badra et al. (2022) conducted a study on water quality and macrophyte diversity in three
wetlands of Sambalpur district, Odisha. They assessed two lentic and one lotic wetland present in
the periphery of Sambalpur town. In the phytosociological study, 43 species of macrophytes
were recorded. Various parameters were also analyzed i.e. TSS, TDS, NO 3- and BOD. The study
emphasized the immediate management of wetlands, especially the small lotic wetlands.

Tuboi et al. (2018) studied the different spatio-temporal variations in the water quality
parameters using multivariate statistical analysis of a tropical wetland dominated by floating
meadows and its implication for the conservation of Ramsar wetlands. The study revealed that
the range of physicochemical parameters varied within and among the seasons and Loktak lake
was in hypereutrophic condition and has an adverse impact on the ecosystem-level process. Lake
restoration requires an integrated approach in the reduction of nutrient inputs, enhanced flushing
mechanism and restoration of environmental flow that has been disrupted due to damming.
Sunil and Rajesh (2015) conducted a study to determine the geographical and temporal
fluctuation in the water quality of Bhindawas wetland and its recipient drain no. 8 at two-month
intervals over one year period from July 2010 to May 2011. Variation in dissolved oxygen was
from 2.8 to 8.6 mg/l. Variation in dissolved oxygen, total phosphorus, ammonia, nitrate, total
alkalinity and total hardness were in the range of 2.8 to 8.6 mg/l, below detection limit (BDL)-
0.99, BDL-0.69, BDL-2.04, 40-576 and 54-576 mg/l, respectively. Heavy metals like copper,
nickel, lead and total chromium were also found as BDL. Overall, the Bhindawas wetland's
water quality revealed increased levels of turbidity, total phosphorus, nitrate, and TDS.

Chandran et al. (2015) conducted a study to determine the water quality and its seasonal changes
in Koothapar wetland. Five sampling stations were used to gather water samples for over four
months, August, November, February, and May to represent the four seasons in the southwest
monsoon, northeast monsoon, winter monsoon, and summer monsoon from August 2013 to July
2014. Standard methods were followed to determine the physicochemical and microbiological
parameters, including pH, EC, TDS, Total Hardness, DO, BOD, chloride, fluoride, nitrate,
sulphate, calcium, magnesium, iron, and total coliform. The results of the study revealed that in
all seasons, the Koothapar wetland was severely contaminated and hence the water could be used
only for recreational, agricultural, and animal propagation purposes and not suited for human
consumption, such as drinking or bathing.

Sonowal et al. (2020) conducted study in Bordoibam Bilmukh wetland ecosystem from June
2018 to May 2019. Water quality assessment was conducted for temperature, pH, conductivity,
DO, BOD, total coliform, chloride, nitrate, turbidity, TDS and total hardness of water. In the
monsoon season, maximum water temperature 28 °C and DO 8.77 mg/L were observed. In post-
monsoon, the highest total coliform 322 MPN/100 mL and total hardness 1.88mg/L were
observed. In winter, maximum pH 7.7, conductivity 657 µS/cm, BOD 2.10 mg/L, chloride 1.003
mg/L, nitrate 1.387 mg/L, turbidity 15 NTU and TDS 335 mg/L were observed. Water
conductivity in winter, BOD in monsoon and total coliform in post-monsoon were found beyond
the acceptable level of water pollution.

Arora et al. (2022) conducted a study on the optically active water quality indicators on wetland
ecosystems across the wetlands of Harike and Keshopur in the Punjab area of India. Pre-
monsoon and post-monsoon Sentinel-2 multispectral imager (MSI) product analyses were
conducted between 2018 and 2021 to extract geographical and temporal fluctuations in water
quality metrics. The water and non-water pixels have been extracted using a normalized
difference water index, and the optical water quality parameters have been obtained using a
semi-analytical inversion model. Images of the total suspended matter and derived chlorophyll
concentrations have been observed to range from 0 to 156 mg/m 3 and 0 to 36 mg/m3,
respectively. According to the study, the semi-analytical approach is highly useful for exploiting
multispectral imaging to identify small-scale changes in optically active elements. The present
study also concluded that wetland areas with high biodiversity must be significantly reduced to
be conserved.

Kumar et al. (2018) analyzed the physicochemical and microbiological water quality of the
Assan wetland of the Garhwal Himalayas. The physical characteristics of water temperature,
conductivity, pH, turbidity, and total dissolved solids were taken into account when evaluating
the water quality of the Asam wetland. The results of the water quality data established poor
quality of the lake water. Moreover, the findings of the study will be used for the sustainable
restoration of the lake, which will support the Indian government's efforts to have it designated
as a Ramsar site.

Bashir et al. (2020) analysed the seasonal physico-chemical nature of water at three different
sites of the Shallabugh wetland, Kashmir Himalaya. During the study period from February 2018
to November 2018, several parameters, including water temperature, total dissolved solids,
chemical oxygen demand and biochemical oxygen demand, were measured. The data showed
that BOD and COD values were greater in the summer and lower in the winter. Conversely,
winter reported the highest values of DO and TDS in comparison to summer. Anthropogenic
activities such as household waste, water and other waste material entering the wetland through
an inlet channel near Site II, have been observed to have a greater impact on the pollution
sources, resulting in a higher pollution load compared to Site I and Site III. Significant positive
and negative trends were seen in the correlation between the water parameters.
 CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS
AND
METHODOLOGY
Wetland Sites Latitude Longitude Physical Attributes

Gharana G1 32.541536°N 74.693018°E Site near the main (Army) ditch feeding the
wetland

Located towards the middle of the wetland

G2 32.541762°N 74.683264°E
near the Wildlife Office
G3 32.541536°N 74.689264°E
Situated towards the agricultural fields

Pargwal P1 32.80096°N 74.59279°E Site near the bridge construction site.

P2 32.79932°N 74.59402°E Situated towards the unpaved road and

prone to anthropogenic pressures
P3 32.689836°N 74.59122°E
Located near the wire mesh stone walls
(gabion basket)

Makwal M1 32.687044°N 74.713039°E Site towards the agricultural fields

M2 32.690000°N 74.7097222°E Situated along the roadside

Sangral S1 32.748611°N 74.824166°E Both sites occur along the roadside

surrounded by agricultural fields
S2 32.748611°N 74.824166°E
 J&K MAP

Pargwal
Makhwal
Gharana

LEGEND
WETLAND
City/ Town
District boundary
Fig. 3.1 District wise map of J&K showing studied wetlands
Fig. 3.2 Satelite image of Gharana site 1 Fig. 3.3 Gharana site 1

Fig. 3.4 Satellite image of Gharana site 2 Fig. 3.5 Gharana site 2
Fig.3.6 Satellite image of Gharana 3 Fig.3.7 Gharana site 3

Fig. 3.8 Satellite image of Pargwal site 1 Fig. 3.9 Pargwal site 1

Fig.3.10 Satellite image of Pargwal site 2 Fig. 3.11 Pargwal site 2

3.2 Materials and Methodology
3.2.1. Selection of the sites
For the present study, samples for physico-chemical analysis were collected from four different
sites. The sites were selected on the basis of usage of health of wetland, irrigation as well as
other domestic purposes.
3.2.2 Sampling and analysis

Sampling and analysis methods were employed by following the standard methods (APHA,
2012) protocols. Sampling was done in poly-propylene plastic bottles of 2L capacity from the
selected sampling sites on seasonal basis from the month of March, 2024 to May, 2024. Sample
collection was done in the early morning period of the day.
Based on the available facilities in the lab and comfort of operation following water quality
parameters were analyzed on the monthly basis.
[Link] Temperature (both air and water; 0C)
For recording the air and water temperature, mercury bulb thermometer (°C) was used. Air
temperature was recorded by keeping the thermometer in shade to avoid direct exposure of the
thermometer to the sunlight (Welch, 1952) whereas water temperature was measured by placing
the bulb of the thermometer two inches below the surface of water.

[Link] Electrical conductivity (µS/cm)

It is a measure of the water’s ability to conduct an electrical current. Electrical Conductivity was
measured using conductivity meter (WTW Multi 350i).
[Link] Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L)
TDS is the measure of the total amount of the dissolved solids present in the water sample and
was determined by using TDS meter (Eutech PC 450).
[Link] pH
The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity:
pH=−log ¿
pH was determined by using standardized pH meter (WTW Multi 350i).
[Link] Free carbon dioxide (mg/L)
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce carbonic acid (H 2CO3), which dissociates into
various fractions (CO2, HCO3¯ and CO32¯) depending on the hydrogen-ion concentration. Free
CO2 was analysed by titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/44 sodium hydroxide as titrant
and 0.1% phenolphthalein as indicator.
[Link] Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
Oxygen that is dissolved in the water column is one of the most important components of aquatic
systems. DO was measured by Alsterberg’s Alkaline Sodium-azide method (APHA, 2012) using
N/40 Sodium thio-sulphate as titrant and starch as indicator.
[Link] Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/L)
BOD is measured by 5 days BOD method. Initial DO readings were taken. After five days of
incubation period at 20 °C readings were taken again. BOD is then calculated by taking
difference
of initial and final DO readings.
BOD5(mg/L) = Initial DO – Final DO
[Link] Carbonate, Bicarbonate and Total Alkalinity (mg/L)
Carbonate and bicarbonate was estimated by titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/20
Sulphuric acid as titrant and 0.1% phenolphthalein and 0.1% methyl orange as indicators for
carbonate and bicarbonate, respectively.
[Link] Chloride (mg/L)
Chloride will be measured by Argentometric titration method (APHA, 2017) using N/35.5 Silver
Nitrate as titrant and 5% Potassium chromate as indicator.
[Link] Nitrate(mg/L)
Nitrate was determined by using double beam UV/VIS spectrophotometer (Systronics UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer 118) with a wavelength of 410 nm was used to estimate nitrate in the water
sample using the Phenol-disulphonic acid method (APHA, 2012)

[Link] Phosphate (mg/L)

Phosphate was determined by Stannous chloride-ammonium molybdate method (APHA,2017)
using a UV- Visible spectrophotometer at 690 nm wavelength (Systronics UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer 118).
[Link] Sulphate (mg/L)
Sulphate was measured by Barium chloride turbidimetric method (APHA2017) using a double
beam UV-Visible Spectrophotometer (Systronics UV-VIS Spectrophotometer 118).
[Link] Calcium (mg/L)
It was measured by Disodium Versinate method using N/50 EDTA (sodium salt of Ethylene
Diamine Tetra-Acetic Acid) as titrant and Murexide indicator (APHA, 2017).
[Link] Magnesium (mg/L)
It was measured by EDTA titrimetric method using N/50 EDTA as titrant and Erichrome black-T
indicator (APHA, 2017).
[Link] Total Hardness (mg/L)
As CaCO3 is the sum of individual hardness due to Ca and Mg and was calculated by the
following formula (Todd and Mays, 2005):
Total Hardness = 2.5 [Ca2+] + 4.1 [Mg2+]
where [Ca2+] is the concentration of Calcium in mg/l as CaCO 3 and [Mg2+] is the concentration of
Magnesium in mg/l as CaCO3.
[Link] Sodium and Potassium (mg/L)
Both Sodium and Potassium was determined by Flame photometry (APHA, 2017) using
Microprocessor Flame Photometer (ESICO Model 1382).
[Link] Chlorophyll -a Analysis
Chlorophyll-a was determined by collecting water samples from selected study sites and brought
into the lab. To extract the chlorophyll-a pigment, about 1L of the sample was filtered by using
Whatman GF/C filter papers with porosity about 0.45um size. The filter paper along with their
residue were crushed with the help of mortar and pestle. The filtrate left after crushing were put
into the glass vials containing 10ml of 95% ethanol. The glass vials were filled with acetone
solution and kept for few minutes. The extract was poured into centrifuge tubes and the solution
was centrifuged with speed of 300 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant solution was measured
spectrophotometrically to determine pigment concentration at different wavelengths of visible
range at 640nm, 647nm and 630nm.
[Link] Trophic state index analysis
To determine the trophic state index of wetlands, Carlson’s Trophic state of index (CSTI) was
computed by using three empirical equations. Each empirical equation was based on the three
parameters such as Chlorophyll-a, secchi disc transparency and total phosphorus. The total TSI
was calculated by taking their average as listed below:
TSISD =60-14.41 LN (SD)
TSIchla = 9.8 LN (chl a) + 30.6
TSITP = 14.42 LN (TP) + 4.15
TSItot= TSI(SD) + TSI (chla) + TSI(TP)÷3
Where chl a = chlorophyll-a concentration (Ug/l)
SD= Secchi disc depth (meters)
TP= Total Phosphorus concentration (ug/l)
TSI= Trophic state index
Trophic State Index (TSI)

TSI is used to determine the health and productivity of the aquatic ecosystem (Hillsborough,
2008; sharma et al., 2010; Choden et al.,2022). In the present CTSI has been used to classify the
wetlands into oligotrophic, mesotrophic, eutrophic and hyper eutrophic categories.

Carlson’s trophic state index (CTSI) has been calculated for different sites of four different
(Gharana, Pargwal, Makwal and Sangral) wetlands and tabulated in the table-

In gharana wetland, TSI was maximum at G2 (75.732) during summer and minimum at G3
(64.608) during winter. The overall CTSI value of Gharana recorded minimum (66.7866) during
winter and maximum (71.0316) during summer indicating hypertrophic conditions in the wetland
during both the seasons.

In Pargwal wetland, TSI was maximum at P3 (55.436) during summer and minimum at P2
(20.173) during winter. The overall CTSI value of Pargwal recorded minimum (30.03) during
winter indicating slightly oligotrophic and maximum (53.757) during summer indicating slightly
mesotrophic conditions of the wetland.

In Makwal wetland, TSI was maximum at M2 (70.530) during summer and minimum at M2
(61.633) during winter. The overall CTSI value of Makwal wetland recorded minimum (65.28)
during winter and maximum (67.268) during summer indicating hypertrophic conditions of the
wetland.

In Sangral wetland, TSI was maximum at A2 (42.926) and minimum at A1 (40.799) during
winter. The overall CTSI value of Sangral recorded 41.86 indicating strongly mesotrophic
conditions of the wetland.

SITES WINTER STATUS SUMMER STATUS

G1 66.928 Hyper Eutrophic 65.721 Hyper Eutrophic
G2 68.770 Hyper Eutrophic 75.732 Hyper Eutrophic
G3 64.608 Hyper Eutrophic 71.642 Hyper Eutrophic
P1 37.118 Strongly 52.464 Strongly
Oligotrophic Eutrophic
P2 20.173 Strongly 53.371 Strongly
Oligotrophic Eutrophic
P3 32.799 Strongly 55.436 Eutrophic
 Oligotrophic
M1 69.280 Hyper Eutrophic 64.006 Slightly
Eutrophic
M2 61.633 Slightly 70.530 Hyper Eutrophic
Eutrophic
A1 40.799 Strongly - -
Eutrophic
A2 42.926 Slightly - -
Eutrophic
Trophic state Classification based on Carlson’s TSI
Classification Sub- Classification Trophic state Index
O Strongly- Oligotrophic 0-25
ligotrophic Oligotrophic 26-32
Slightly- Oligotrophic 33-37
Slightly- mesotrophic 38-42
Mesotrophic mesotrophic 43-48
Strongly- mesotrophic 49-53
Slightly- eutrophic 54-57
Eutrophic Eutrophic 58-61
Strongly- eutrophic 62-64
Hypertrophic Hypertrophic 65+

Source: (Alexander,2014)
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS
AND
DISCUSSION
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS

The results of the physicochemical characteristics of Gharana wetland at three sites viz., Site 1
(G1), Site 2 (G2), Site 3 (G3) are tabulated in the Table 4.1 seasonally and depicted in the figures
(Fig. 4.5 – 4.25); Pargwal wetland at three sites viz, Site 1 (P1), Site 2 (P2), Site (P3) are
tabulated in the table 4.2 seasonally and depicted in the figures (Fig 4.5 – 4.25); Makwal
wetland at two sites viz., Site 1 (M1) and Site 2 (M2) are tabulated in the table 4.3 seasonally and
depicted in the figures (Fig. 4.5 – 4.25); Sangral wetland at two sites viz., Site1 (S1) and Site 2
(S2) are tabulated in the table 4.4 seasonally and depicted in the figures (Fig. 4.5 – 4.25) and the
details are discussed below.

Temperature (Air and Water)

Gharana

The air temperature in the wetland showed narrow fluctuations and varied between 25°C (site G1
and G2) during winter to 32°C (site G1) during summer (Table 4.1). Seasonally, air temperature
remained high during summer at all the sites with winter low record. The water temperature
showed comparatively narrow fluctuations and ranged between 24°C (site G2) during winter to
26 °C (site G1, G2 and G3) during summer as shown in the Table 4.1

Pargwal

The air temperature in the wetland ranged from 20 0C at Site P1 and P2 (winter) to 25 0C at P3
(summer). The maximum temperature during winter was noted at Site P3 (25°C) and minimum
at sites P1 and P2 (200C) while slight fluctuations were observed in air temperature during
summer as shown in the Fig 4.6. Water temperature also showed narrow fluctuations and ranged
from 170C at site P3 during winter to 250C at site P3 during summer.

Makwal
Air temperature in the present study ranged from 28 0C at site M1 and M2 (summer) to 330C site
M1 and M2 (winter). The water temperature showed narrow fluctuations and ranged from 22 0C
at site M1 and M2 during winter to 260C at site M1 during summer.

Sangral

Table 4.4 and Fig. showed the fluctuation in air temperature from 24 0C to 270C at Site S2 and
Site S1, respectively, during the study period (winter). Water temperature ranged from 22 0C at
Site S1 to 240C at S2 showing narrow range.

pH

Gharana

The pH values in the present study ranged from 7.16 at Site G1 (winter) to 8.21 at Site G1
(summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in the pH.

Pargwal

The pH values from 7.5 at site (P3) to 8.21 at P1 (summer) were observed in the wetland. Slight
fluctuation in the pH was observed.

Makwal

The pH values from 6.91 at site M1 (summer) to 7.3 at site M2 (summer) was observed during
present study. Narrow range of fluctuation was observed in pH.

Sangral

pH in the present study ranged from 7.19 at Site S1 to 6.97at Site S2 during the study period
(winter).

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Gharana
EC in the studied wetland varied between 522 µS/cm at site G2 (winter) to 751 µS/cm at site G3
(summer) µS/cm. EC remained high during summer.

Pargwal

The EC in the wetland ranged from 304 µS/cm at site P1 (summer) to 590 µS/cm at site
P1(winter) Slight fluctuations were observed in the EC of site P2 and P3 but site P1 showed
maximum fluctuation.

Makwal

The EC in the wetland ranged from 851 µS/cm at site M2 (summer) to 940 µS/cm at site M2
(winter). Narrow fluctuation in EC was observed.

Sangral

EC in the study varied from 726 µS/cm at site S2 to 731 µS/cm at site S1 during winter.

Free Carbon dioxide (FCO2)

Pargwal

The FCO2 in the present study was absent at site P1 and P2 (summer and winter respectively) but
site P3 showed variations from 6.07 to 6.83 mg/L.

Gharana

The FCO2 concentration in the studied wetland was absent at Site G1and G2 (winter) and G2 and
G3 (summer) and showed its peak, 25.0 mg/L at Site G2 (summer).

Makwal

The free carbon dioxide ranged from 16.69 mg/L at site M2 (winter) to 50.8 3 mg/L at site M1
(summer). A wide range of fluctuation was observed in free carbon dioxide and M1 showed
maximum fluctuations.

Sangral
FCO2 in the present study ranged from 15.93 mg/L at site S2 to 16.69 mg/L at site 1 during the
study period (winter).

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Gharana

TDS in the studied wetland ranged from 348.174 mg/L at site G2 (winter) to 500.917 mg/L at
site G3 (summer). Narrow fluctuations were observed in the TDS.

Pargwal

The TDS in the present study ranged from 194.097 mg/L at site P1 (summer) to 282.141 mg/L at
site P3 (winter). P2 and P3 showed narrow fluctuations but P1showed maximum fluctuations.

Makwal

The TDS ranged from 567.167 mg/L at site M2 (summer) to 626.98 mg/L at Site M2 (winter).
Slight fluctuations were observed in TDS.

Sangral

The TDS in the present study ranged from 487.522 mg/L at site S1 to 484.242 mg/L at site S2
during the study (winter).

Transparency

Gharana

The transparency in the studied wetland ranged from 8.5 cm at site G2 (winter) to 57 cm at site
G3 (summer). As evident from table - 4.1 seasonally, transparency showed wide ranged
variations in all the sites.

Pargwal
The transparency in the study ranged from 17.5 cm at site P2 and P3 (summer) to 69 cm at site
P1 (winter). Transparency was absent at P2 and P3 during winter. Wide range of fluctuations
was observed in transparency.

Makwal

The transparency in the study ranged from 22 cm at site M1 (winter) to 33.5 cm at site M1
(winter). Narrow range of fluctuation was observed.

Sangral

Transparency was absent in both the site S1 and S2 during winter.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Gharana

The DO was absent at site G1 (summer) and showed its peak, 4.04 mg/L at site G1 and G2
(winter). Seasonally wide range of fluctuation was observed in DO at all the sites.

Pargwal

The DO ranged from 5.16 mg/L at site P3 (winter) to 9.58 mg/L at site P1 (winter) in the studied
wetland. Narrow range of fluctuation was observed in DO

Makwal

The DO was absent at site M1and M2 during summer and showed its peak, 0.66 mg/L at site M1
(winter) in the wetland.

Sangral

The DO in the present study ranged from 0.19 mg/L at site S1 to 0.94 mg/L at site S2 during the
study period (winter)

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Gharana
The BOD in the wetland ranged from 2.82 mg/L at site G2 (winter) to 9.8 mg/L at site G2
(winter). Seasonally narrow fluctuations were observed in BOD but site G2 showed maximum
fluctuations in BOD.

Pargwal

The BOD ranged from 0.47 mg/L at site P3 (winter) to 4.98 mg/L at site P1 (winter). Slight
fluctuations were observed in BOD in the studied wetland.

Makwal

The BOD in the wetland ranged from 7.04 mg/L at site M1 (winter) to 18.03 mg/L at site M1
(summer). Wide range of fluctuation was observed in BOD.

Sangral

During the study period (winter) BOD in the wetland ranged from 8.79 mg/L at site M1 to 9.07
mg/L at site M1.

Carbonates (CO32-)

Gharana

The carbonate in the wetland was absent at site G3 (winter) and G1 (summer) and showed its
peak, 94.07 mg/L at site G2 (winter).

Pargwal

The carbonate in the studied wetland was absent at site P3 during both the seasons and showed
its peak, 33.7 mg/L at site P2 (summer). Narrow fluctuations were observed in carbonate in the
wetland.

Makwal

Carbonates in the present wetland were absent at all the sites.

Sangral

Carbonates were absent in the present study at both sites S1and S2 during winter.

Bicarbonates (HCO3-)

Gharana

The bicarbonates in Gharana wetland varied from 116.86 mg/L at site G2 (winter) to 531.66
mg/L at site G3 (summer). All the sites showed wide range of fluctuations seasonally but site G1
showed maximum fluctuations.

Pargwal

The Bicarbonates in the studied wetland ranged from 178.51 mg/L at site P1 (winter) to 315.26
mg/L at site P2 (summer). Carbonates was absent in P3 during both season. Narrow fluctuation
was observed in carbonates.

Makwal

The bicarbonate in the wetland ranged from 491.85 mg/L at site M1 (winter) to 570.19 mg/L at
site M1 (summer). Slight variations were observed in bicarbonate of the studied wetland.

Sangral

The bicarbonate in the wetland ranged from 435.35 mg/L at site S1 (winter) to 449.47 mg/L at
site S2 (winter). Slight variations were observed in bicarbonate of the studied wetland.

Total Alkalinity (TA)

Gharana

The TA in the studied wetland ranged from 137.92 at site G1 (winter) to 545.7mg/L at site G3
(summer). Seasonally all the sites showed wide fluctuations in TA but G1 showed maximum
fluctuations in TA.

Pargwal
The TA in the studied wetland ranged from 180.75 mg/L at site P1 (winter) to 315.26 mg/L at
site P2 (winter). Narrow range of fluctuations was observed in total alkalinity.

Makwal

The TA in the wetland ranged from 491.85 mg/L at site M1 (winter) to 570.19 mg/L at site M1
(summer). Slight variations were observed in the TA of the studied wetland.

Sangral

The TA in the wetland ranged from 434.35 mg/L at Site S1 to 570.19 mg/L at Site S2 during
winter.

Calcium (Ca2+)

Gharana

Calcium ion concentration ranged between 39.12 mg/L at site G3 (summer) and 59.46 mg/L at
Site G1 (summer). Calcium ion concentration showed narrow fluctuations.

Pargwal

The calcium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 31.29 mg/L at site P3 (winter)
to 39.12 mg/L at site P2 and P3 (summer). Narrow range of fluctuations was observed in Ca2+
concentration.

Makwal

The calcium ion concentration in the present study ranged from 37.5534 mg/L at site M2
(summer) to 59.46 mg/L at site [Link] fluctuation was reported at site M1 but M2 showed
maximum fluctuation.

Sangral
The Calcium ion concentration in the present study ranged from 82.93 mg/L at site S2 to
90.75mg/L at site S1 during winter.

MAGNESIUM (Mg2+)

Gharana

The Magnesium ion concentration ranged between 15.18 mg/L at site G1 (winter) to 24.67 mg/L
at site G3 (summer). Slight fluctuations in magnesium ion concentration were observed.

Pargwal

The Magnesium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 12.33 mg/L at P1 (winter)
to 20.87 mg/L at site P2 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in the magnesium ion
concentration.

Makwal

The Magnesium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 24.67 mg/L at site M2
(summer) to 32.25 mg/L at site M1 (winter).

Sangral

The Magnesium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 23.72 mg/L at site S1 to
32.25 mg/L at site S2 during winter.

TOTAL HARDNESS (TH)

Gharana

The value of TH ranged between 195.06 mg/L at site G2 (summer) to 216.77 mg/L at site G3
(summer). Narrow variations were observed in TH of the wetland.

Pargwal

The total hardness ranged from 144.38 mg/L at site P1 (summer) to 183.37 mg/L at site P2
(summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in total hardness.
Makwal

The Total hardness ranged from 195.01 mg/L at site M2 (summer) to 280.89 mg/L at site M1 in
the wetland (winter). Narrow variations were observed in TH of the wetland.

Sangral

The Total hardness ranged from 312.46 mg/L at site S2 (summer) to 280.89 mg/L at site S1 in
the wetland during winter.

Sodium (Na+).

Gharana

The Sodium ion concentration ranged between 51.14 mg/L at site G3 (winter) to 75.36mg/L at
site G2 (summer). The wide range of fluctuations were observed in Sodium ion concentration.

Pargwal

The Sodium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 5.24 mg/L at site P1 (winter)
to 7.8 mg/L at site P1 (summer). Narrow range of fluctuations were observed in Sodium ion
concentration.

Makwal

The Sodium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 43.97 mg/L at site M2 (winter)
to 44.7mg/L at site M1 (summer). M1 showed no fluctuations but M2 showed slight fluctuation.

Sangral

The maximum Sodium ion concentration ion in the present study occurred at site S1
(37.67mg/L) and minimum at site S2 (36.4mg/L) during winter.

Potassium (K+)

Gharana
The Potassium ion concentration ranged from 9.48 mg/L at site G3 (winter) to 41.96 mg/L at site
G2 41 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in potassium ion concentration with G2
showing maximum fluctuations.

Pargwal

The Potassium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 5.15 mg/L at site P3
(summer) to 7.62 mg/L at site P1 (summer). Narrow range of fluctuations were observed.

Makwal

The Potassium ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 34.22 mg/L at site M1
(summer) to 50.55 mg/L at site M1 (summer). M2 showed maximum while M2 showed slight
fluctuation.

Sangral

The maximum potassium ion concentration in the present study occurred at site S1 (17.16mg/L)
and minimum at site S2 (16.39mg/L) during winter.

Chloride (Cl-)

Gharana

The concentration of Chloride ion ranged from 10.71 mg/L at site G3 (winter) to 117.86mg/L at
site G2 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed at site G1 and G3 but site G2 showed
maximum variations.

Pargwal

The Chloride ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 16.07 mg/L at site P3
(summer) to 28.57mg/L at site P1 (winter). Narrow range of fluctuation was observed in the
chloride ion concentration.

Makwal
The Chloride ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 38.84 mg/L at site M1
(winter) to 119.64mg/L at site M1 (summer). M1 showed maximum but M2 showed slight
fluctuation.

Sangral

The maximum Chloride ion concentration in the present study occurred at S2 (32.14 mg/L) and
minimum at site S1 (12.5 mg/L) during winter.

Phosphate (PO43-)

Gharana

Phosphate ion concentration ranged between 0.2344 mg/L at site G1 (summer) to 0.955 mg/L at
site G3 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in phosphate ion concentration.

Pargwal
The phosphate ion concentration in the study wetland ranged from 0.003 mg/L at site P1 (winter)
to 0.134 mg/L at site P3 (winter). Slight variation was observed in phosphate ion concentration.

Makwal

The phosphate ion concentration in the studied wetland ranged from 0.813 mg/L at site M2
(winter) to 1.7175 mg/L at site M2 during (summer). Narrow range of fluctuation was reported
in phosphate ion concentration.

Sangral

The maximum phosphate ion concentration in the present study occurred at site S2 (0.6934
mg/L) and minimum at site S1(0.445 mg/L) during winter.

Nitrate (NO3-)

Gharana

The Nitrate ion concentration ranged from 0.3089 mg/L at site G1 (winter) to 0.8393 mg/L at site
G2 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in nitrate ion concentration but G2 showed
maximum fluctuations.
Pargwal

The Nitrate ion concentration in the study wetland ranged from 0.0967 mg/L at site P2 (winter)
to 0.1671 mg/L at site P1 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in nitrate ion
concentration.

Makwal

The nitrate ion concentration in the study wetland ranged from 0.0762 mg/L at site M2 (summer)
to 0.3243 mg/L at site M1 (summer). Slight fluctuations were observed in nitrate ion
concentration.

Sangral

The maximum Nitrate ion concentration in the present study occurred at site S1 (0.5346 mg/L)
and minimum at site S2 (0.3638 mg/L) during study period.

DISCUSSION

Temperature (Air and Water)

Temperature is an important parameter causing both direct and indirect influences on the
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the water body (Welch, 1952; Lewis 2000;
Beveridge et al. 2010). In present study close relationship was reported between the water and air
temperature in both seasons. Temperature was more in Summers than winters which is due to
the angle of incidence of solar radiations in the respective seasons in all four wetlands which was
supported by the findings of Singh et al. (2022), Slathia and Dutta (2008), Khan et al. (2012).

In Gharana wetland, the water temperature ranged from 25 -32°C, was found slightly higher than
the findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) and Jagdeeshappa K. and Vijaya kumara (2013) on
Gharana wetland reserves in Jammu and wetlands of Tiptur taluk (Karnatka).

In Pargwal wetland, the water temperature ranged from 20-25°C, found slightly lower than the
findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) on Gharana wetland reserves in Jammu and but slightly higher
than the findings of Jagdeeshappa K. and Vijaya kumara (2013) on wetlands of Tiptur taluk
(Karnatka).

In Makwal 22-26 °C wetland, the water temperature ranged from 22-26 °C, found lower than the
findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) on Gharana wetland reserves in Jammu but slightly higher than
the findings of Jagdeeshappa K. and Vijaya kumara (2013) wetlands of Tiptur taluk (Karnatka).

In Sangral wetland, the water temperature ranged from 24 -27 °C, found slightly higher than the
findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) and Jagdeeshappa K. and Vijaya kumara (2013) on Gharana
wetland reserves in Jammu and wetlands of Tiptur taluk (Karnatka).

pH

pH mainly the concentration of Hydrogen ions in the solvent or solution, essential parameter for
evaluating the wetland’s health by assessing various conditions due to which variations occur in
wetland ecosystem.

Present values of pH of Gharana wetland ranged from 7.16-8.21 are higher than the findings of
Sharma et al. (2023) of Deepor well wetland of Assam but lower than the findings of Dixit et al.
(2021) on different wetlands of Gurugram, Haryana respectively. The higher pH shows the
wetland water is alkaline in nature. High PH showed the productivity of wetland.

Present values of pH of Pargwal wetland ranged from 7.5 -8.21 are higher than the findings of
Sharma et al. (2023) of Deepor well wetland of Assam but lower than the findings of Dixit et al.
(2021) on different wetlands of Gurugram, Haryana respectively.

Present values of pH of Makwal wetland ranged from 6.91-7.3 found lower than the findings of
Sharma et al. (2023) of Deepor well wetland of Assam but lower than the findings of Dixit et al.
(2021) on different wetlands of Gurugram, Haryana respectively.

Present values of pH of Sangral wetland ranged from 6.97 – 7.19 found lower than the findings
of Sharma et al. (2023) of Deepor well wetland of Assam but lower than the findings of Dixit et
al. (2021) on different wetlands of Gurugram, Haryana respectively.

Transparency
Transparency gives the measure of light (sunlight) penetration in the water. It is related to the
organic matter (suspended) (Bhat and Pandit, 2014). Transparency is controlled by algal turbidity
rather than organic colour or non-algal suspended solids (Brezonik, 1978; Canfield and Hodgson,
1983; Canfield et al., 2016). There are very slight variations in the transparency of both the
seasons.

The Present transparency of Gharana wetland ranged from 8.5-57 cm, was found lower than the
findings of Maansi and Wats (2022) and Istvanovics et al. (2008).

The transparency of Pargwal Wetland ranged from 17.5 – 69 cm, was found higher than the
findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) on Gharana wetland in Jammu.

The Present transparency of Makwal Wetland ranged from 22-33.5cm, was found higher than the
findings of Rahmani et al. (2021) on Gharana wetland in Jammu.

Transparency was absent in Sangral wetland.

Free Carbon dioxide

Free C02 is also one of the essential parameters of wetland health. The amount of CO 2 in the
form of carbonic acid in a solution is known as free carbon dioxide (Verma and Agarwal 2007).

The present Free CO2 of Gharana wetland ranged from 0-25.03 mg/L, was found much higher
than the findings of Shib Air (2014) and Singh et al. (2018) on Rudrasagar wetland of Tripura
and Himalayan wetland Deoria Tal respectively.

The present Free CO2 of Pargwal wetland ranged from 0 - PH6.83 mg/L, was found slightly
higher than the findings of Shib Air (2014) and Singh et al. (2018) on Rudrasagar wetland of
Tripura and Himalayan wetland Deoria Tal respectively.

The present Free C02 of Gharana wetland ranged from 16.69 - 50.83 mg/L, was found higher
than the findings of Shib Air (2014) and Singh et al. (2018) on Rudrasagar wetland of Tripura
and Himalayan wetland Deoria Tal respectively.
The present Free C02 of Gharana wetland ranged from 15.93-16.69 mg/L, was found higher than
the findings of Shib Air (2014) and Singh et al. (2018) on Rudrasagar wetland of Tripura and
Himalayan wetland Deoria Tal respectively.

EC

The EC is measure in micro-Simens per cm, shows the presence of ions in the water sample. EC
indicates the Mineral concentration that is dissolved in water providing conductivity to the
solution.

In present study of Gharana wetland, EC was higher in summers than winter season which
showed the presence of dissolved solids due to human activities. This EC ranged 522-751
µS/cm, was found higher than findings of Sharma et al. (2023) on wetland of Assam but lower
than the polluted wetlands of Pangara Talav studied by Pimparkar et al. (2023).

EC in Pargwal ranged, 304 – 419 µS/cm was found lower than findings of Sharma et al. (2023)
and Pimparkar et al. (2023) on wetland of Assam and of Aurangabad district of Maharashtra

EC in Makwal ranged 851 – 940 µS/cm, was found higher than findings of Sharma et al. (2023)
and Pimparkar et al. (2023) on wetland of Assam and Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.

EC in Sangral ranged 726 – 721 µS/cm, was found lower than findings of Sharma et al. (2023)
on wetland of Assam but much higher than the wetlands of Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.

TDS

TDS area result of many kinds of minerals that marks their presence in water (Ingae et al. 2018).
High TDS containing water is considered fit for drinking purposes.

The TDS in Gharana ranged from 500.917-348.174 mg/L, was found higher than findings of
Ravikumar et al. (2013) Mallathahalli wetland and much lower than the Okhla wetland studied
by Singh and Deepika (2017)
The TDS of Pargwal in the present study ranged from 194.097– 282.141 mg/L, was found higher
than findings of Ravikumar et al. (2013) Mallathahalli wetland and much lower than the Okhla
wetland studied by Singh and Deepika (2017).

The TDS of Makwal in the present study ranged from 500.917-348.174 mg/L, was found less
than findings of Ravikumar et al. (2013) on Mallathahalli wetland and Okhla wetland studied by
Singh and Deepika (2017).

The TDS of Sangral in the present study ranged from 484.242 – 487.577 mg/L, was found higher
than findings of Ravikumar et al. (2013) Mallathahalli wetland and much lower than the Okhla
wetland studied by Singh and Deepika (2017).

DO

The DO is an essential parameter for maintaining a healthy water condition of wetland and for
survival of aquatic organism in it (Kulkarni, 2016).

The DO ranged from 0-4.04 mg/L, which was found much less than the findings of Ravikumar et
al. (2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) and Yadav et al. (2016) of Mallathahalli lake, Okhla
wetland and Raipur pond respectively.

The DO ranged from 5.16-9.58 mg/L, was found less than the findings of Ravikumar et al.
(2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) and Yadav et al. (2016) of Mallathahalli lake, Okhla wetland
and Raipur pond respectively.

The DO ranged from 0-0.66 mg/L, was found much lower than the findings of the findings of
Ravikumar et al. (2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) and Yadav et al. (2016) of Mallathahalli
lake, Okhla wetland and Raipur pond respectively.

BOD

BOD concentration indicates polluted conditions in a waterbody (Iqbal and Katariya 1995),
amount of O2 required by microbes for decomposing organic matter. It is very useful in
determining Pollution index (Ndimele 2012).
The present BOD ranged from 2.82-9.8 mg/L, was found higher than the findings of Ravikumar
et al. (2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) of Mallathahalli lake, Okhla wetland respectively.

The present BOD ranged from 0.47-4.98 mg/L, was found lower than the findings of Ravikumar
et al. (2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) of Mallathahalli lake, Okhla wetland respectively

The present BOD ranged from 7.04-18.03 mg/L, was found higher than the findings of
Ravikumar et al. (2013), Singh and Deepika (2017) of Mallathahalli lake, Okhla wetland
respectively.

The present BOD ranged from 8.79-9.03 mg/L, was found higher than the findings of Ravikumar
et al. (2013) of Mallathahalli lake, but slightly lower than the findings of Singh and Deepika
(2017) of Okhla wetland.

CARBONATES and BICARBONATES

Bicarbonate ions can be added naturally from weathering of minerals like silicates and
carbonates or by rainfall (Mallick 2017) and also by anthropogenic influences.

The carbonate concentration of Gharana wetland range from 0-94.07 mg/L, was found much
higher than the findings of Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija Talav
wetland.

The carbonate of Pargwal wetland range from 0-33.7 mg/L, was found much higher than the
findings of Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija Talav wetland.

The carbonate were absent in Makwal wetland.

The carbonates were absent in Sangral wetland.

BICARBONATES

The bicarbonate concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 116.86 to 531.66 mg/L was
found higher than the findings of Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija
Talav wetland.
The bicarbonate concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 178.51 to 315.26 mg/L, was
found higher than Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija Talav wetland.

The Bicarbonate of Makwal wetland ranged from 490.85 to 570.19 mg/L was found was found
much higher than the findings of Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija
Talav wetland.

The bicarbonate concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 435.35 to 449.47 mg/L was found
much higher than the findings of Pimpakar et al. (2023) of Pangara Talav wetland and Girija
Talav wetland.

TA

TA in the surface water is primarily a function of carbonate, hydroxide content and also includes
the contributions from borates, phosphates, silicates, and other bases (Dutta et al. 2016; Udeuma
2014)

The present Total alkalinity of Gharana wetland ranged from 137.92-545.7 mg/L, was found
higher than the findings of Sharma et al. (2023) on Deepor well, Assam and Yousuf et al. (2015)
on wetlands of Kashmir valley.

The present Total alkalinity of Pargwal wetland ranged from 180.75-315.26 mg/L, was found
higher than the findings of Sharma et al. (2023) on Deepor well, Assam and Yousuf et al. (2015)
on wetlands of Kashmir valley.

The present Total alkalinity of Makwal wetland ranged from 491.85-570.19 mg/L, was found
higher than the findings of Sharma et al. (2023) on Deepor well, Assam and Yousuf et al. (2015)
on wetlands of Kashmir valley.

The present Total alkalinity of Sangral wetland ranged from 434.34 - 449.47 mg/L, was found
higher than the findings of Sharma et al. (2023) on Deepor well, Assam and Yousuf et al. (2015)
on wetlands of Kashmir valley.

Calcium
The presence of Calcium ion causes total hardness along with magnesium ion.

The present Calcium ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 39.12-59.46 mg/L, was
found slightly lower than the findings of Brraich et al. (2015) and Singh and Deepika (2017) on
Ranjit Sagar wetland of Indus River System and Okhla wetland of Delhi respectively.

The present Calcium ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from, 31.29 – 39.12 mg/L was
found slightly lower than the findings of Brraich et al. (2015) and Singh and Deepika (2017) on
Ranjit Sagar wetland of Indus River System and Okhla wetland of Delhi respectively.

The present Calcium ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from 37.5534 – 59.46 mg/L,
was found slightly lower than the findings of Brraich et al. (2015) and Singh and Deepika (2017)
on Ranjit Sagar wetland of Indus River System and Okhla wetland of Delhi respectively.

The present Calcium ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 82.93-90.75 mg/L, was
found higher than the findings of Brraich et al. (2015) and Singh and Deepika (2017) on Ranjit
Sagar wetland of Indus River System and Okhla wetland of Delhi respectively.

Magnesium

It is mostly contributed by the structure (geological) of plant cover, weather condition, catchment
area of the area (Potasznik and Szymczyk 2015)

The present Magnesium ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 15.18- 24.64 mg/L,
was found slightly lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on
Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.

The present Magnesium ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 12.33 – 20.87 mg/L,
was found lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) but higher than the findings of
Ravikumar et al. (2013) on Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka)
respectively.

The present Magnesium ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from24.6 – 32.25 mg/L,
was found higher than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on Raipur
ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.
The present Magnesium ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 20.87 – 23.72 mg/L,
was found slightly lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) but higher than the findings of
Ravikumar et al. (2013) on Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka)
respectively.

Sodium

The present Sodium ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 51.14 – 75.36 mg/L, was
found much higher than the findings of Kangbam et al. (2017) and Azam et al. (2015) on Loktak
lake (Manipur) and Varanasi ponds (U.P) respectively.

The present Sodium ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 5.24 – 7.8 mg/L, was
found slightly higher than the findings of Kangbam et al. (2017) and Azam et al. (2015) on
Loktak lake (Manipur) and. Varanasi ponds (U.P) respectively.

The present Sodium ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from 43.97 – 44.7 mg/L, was
found much higher than the findings of Kangbam et al. (2017) and Azam et al. (2015) on Loktak
lake (Manipur) and. Varanasi ponds (U.P) respectively.

The present Sodium ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 36.4 – 37.67 mg/L was
found much higher than the findings of Kangbam et al. (2017) and Azam et al. (2015) on Loktak
lake (Manipur) and Varanasi ponds (U.P) respectively.

Potassium

The present Potassium ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 9.48 – 41.96 mg/L,
was found much higher than the findings of Pandey et al. (2017) and Kangbam et al. (2015) on
wetlands of Balrampur (U.P) and Loktak lake (Manipur) respectively.

The present Potassium ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 5.15 – 7.62 mg/L, was
found much higher than the findings of Pandey et al. (2017) and Kangbam et al. (2015) on
wetlands of Balrampur (U.P) and Loktak lake (Manipur) respectively.
The present Potassium ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from34.22 - 50.55 mg/L,
was found much higher than the findings of Pandey et al. (2017) and Kangbam et al. (2015) on
wetlands of Balrampur (U.P) and Loktak lake (Manipur) respectively.

The present Potassium ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 16.39 – 17.16 mg/L,
was found much higher than the findings of Pandey et al. (2017) and Kangbam et al. (2015) on
wetlands of Balrampur (U.P) and Loktak lake (Manipur) respectively.

Chlorine

It is mainly associated with sewage and is used as a measure of the extent of wastewaster
disharge, domestic sewage and organic waste entering the water body (Chapman 1996).

The present chlorine ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 10.71 – 117.86 mg/L,
was found lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Kumar et al. (2012) on
Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present chlorine ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 16.07 – 28.57 mg/L, was
found lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Kumar et al. (2012) on Gangasagar
(Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present chlorine ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from38.84 – 119.64 mg/L,
was found lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Kumar et al. (2012) on
Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present chlorine ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 12.5– 22.32 mg/L, was
found much lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Kumar et al. (2012) on
Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

Phosphate

Phosphate is an important macronutrient which is related to the growth of phytoplanktons

(Vollenweider, 1968; Wetzel, 2001)
The present phosphate ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 0.2344 – 0.955, mg/L
was found much lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Singh and Deepika et al.
(2017) on Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present Phosphate ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 0.003 – 0.134 mg/L,
was found lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Singh and Deepika et al. (2017) on
Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present phosphate ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from 0.813 – 1.7175 mg/L,
was found much lower than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) and Singh and Deepika et al.
(2017) on Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand) respectively.

The present phosphate ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 0.445 – 0.6934 mg/L,
was found higher than the findings of Kankal et al. (2012) but lower than the findings of Singh
and Deepika et al. (2017) on Gangasagar (Gujrat) and Himalayan ponds (Uttarakhand)
respectively.

Nitrate

NO3- , a macronutrient directly related to plant growth, causes eutrophication when added from
the sources like runoffs from fields, human activities etc.

The present Nitrate ion concentration of Gharana wetland ranged from 0.3089 – 0.8393 mg/L,
was found much lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on
Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.

The present Nitrate ion concentration of Pargwal wetland ranged from 0. - 0.1671 mg/L, was
found much lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on
Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.

The present Nitrate ion concentration of Makwal wetland ranged from 0.0762 – 0.3243 mg/L,
was found much lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on
Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.
The present Nitrate ion concentration of Sangral wetland ranged from 0.3638 – 0.5346 mg/L,
was found much lower than the findings of Yadav et al. (2016) and Ravikumar et al. (2013) on
Raipur ponds (Chattisgarh) and Mallathahalli lake (Karnatka) respectively.
 Winter Summer
Parameters G1 G2 G3 G1 G2 G3 Maximum Minimum Mean
Air Temperature 25 25 27 32 28 27 32 25 27.33333
Water
Temperature 24 24 25 26 26 26 26 24 25.16667
pH 8.21 8.16 7.68 7.16 7.59 7.9 8.21 7.16 7.783333
FCO2 0 0 8.34 25.03 0 0 25.03 0 5.561667
Conductivity 590 522 616 665 696 751 751 522 640
TDS 393.53 348.174 410.872 443.555 464.232 500.917 500.917 348.174 426.88
Transparency 15.5 16.5 57 21 8.5 26.5 57 8.5 24.16667
DO 4.04 4.04 2.07 0 0.56 0.66 4.04 0 1.895
BOD 7.89 2.82 3.98 9.59 9.8 5.35 9.8 2.82 6.571667
Carbonates 21.06 94.07 0 0 9.83 14.04 94.07 0 23.16667
Bicarbonates 116.86 251.71 215.75 488 494.42 531.66 531.66 116.86 349.7333
TA 137.92 345.78 215.75 488 504.25 545.7 545.7 137.92 372.9
Calcium 53.2 45.38 43.81 59.46 40.68 39.12 59.46 39.12 46.94167
Magnesium 18.97 20.87 23.72 15.18 22.77 24.67 24.67 15.18 21.03
TH 210.79 199.01 216.77 210.88 195.06 198.92 216.77 195.06 205.2383
Sodium 58.08 55.34 51.14 74.12 75.36 73.84 75.36 51.14 64.64667
Potassium 11.06 12.33 9.48 16.96 41.96 10.71 41.96 9.48 17.08333
Chlorine 16.96 41.96 10.71 42.41 117.86 39.29 117.86 10.71 44.865
Phosphate 0.4325 0.2884 0.568 0.2344 0.7624 0.955 0.955 0.2344 0.540117
Nitrate 0.3089 0.34 0.3108 0.4624 0.8393 0.4546 0.8393 0.3089 0.452667

4.1 Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Gharana wetland.

WINTER SUMMER Maximu

Parameters P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 Minimum m Mean
Air temperature 20 20 25 23 23.5 23 20 25 22.41667
water temperature 24 24 17 23.5 25 23 17 25 22.75
pH 8.21 8.16 7.64 8.06 7.7 7.5 7.5 8.21 7.878333
FCO2 0 0 6.07 0 0 6.83 0 6.83 2.15
EC 590 522 423 304 419 400 304 590 443
TDS 194.097 260.797 282.141 202.768 279.473 266.8 194.097 282.141 247.6793
ABSEN
Transparency 69 T ABSENT 49 38 17.5 17.5 69 43.375
DO 9.58 8.54 5.16 8.64 5.92 5.26 5.16 9.58 7.183333
BOD 4.98 4.13 0.47 1.78 2.16 1.31 0.47 4.98 2.471667
Carbonates 11.23 22.46 0 16.85 33.7 0 0 33.7 14.04
Bicarbonates 178.51 252.99 294.08 180.75 315.26 297.94 178.51 315.26 253.255
TA 180.75 315.26 297.94 195.36 286.69 294.08 180.75 315.26 261.68
Calcium 37.55 37.55 31.29 32.86 39.12 39.12 31.29 39.12 36.24833
Magnesium 12.33 19.92 17.08 15.18 20.87 18.02 12.33 20.87 17.23333
Total Hardness 144.45 175.56 148.25 144.38 183.37 171.7 144.38 183.37 161.285
Sodium 5.24 5.92 6.14 7.8 6.62 6.58 5.24 7.8 6.383333
Potassium 5.72 5.97 5.81 7.62 5.76 5.15 5.15 7.62 6.005
Chlorin
e 28.57 16.07 23.21 24.55 16.52 16.07 16.07 28.57 20.83167
Phosphate 0.003 0.0104 0.134 0.0441 0.0415 0.0287 0.003 0.134 0.043617
Nitrate 0.1174 0.0967 0.1067 0.1671 0.1317 0.1358 0.0967 0.1671 0.1259

4.2 Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Pargwal wetland.
 WINTER SUMMER

Minimu Maximu
Parameters M1 M2 M1 M2 m m Mean

Air temperature 33 33 28 28 28 33 30.5

water
temperature 22 22 26 26 22 26 24

pH 7.1 7.2 6.91 7.3 6.91 7.3 7.1275

FCO2 16.69 16.69 50.83 30.34 16.69 50.83 28.6375

EC 926 940 894 851 851 940 902.75

602.134
TDS 617.642 626.98 596.298 567.617 567.617 626.98 3

Transparency 33.5 32.5 22 25 22 33.5 28.25

DO 0.66 0.47 0 0 0 0.66 0.2825

BOD 7.04 8.11 18.03 12.96 7.04 18.03 11.535

Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

528.772
Bicarbonates 491.85 505.98 570.19 547.07 491.85 570.19 5

528.772
TA 491.85 505.98 570.19 547.07 491.85 570.19 5

56.3300 53.2008
Calcium 59.46 59.46 4 37.55336 37.55336 59.46 5

Magnesium 32.25 31.31 32.25 24.67 24.67 32.25 30.12

256.492
Total Hardness 280.89 277 273.07 195.01 195.01 280.89 5

Sodium 44.7 43.97 44.7 44.07 43.97 44.7 44.36

Potassium 50.55 45.55 34.22 36.38 34.22 50.55 41.675

Chlorine 38.84 69.2 119.64 67.86 38.84 119.64 73.885

4.3
Phosphate 0.9114 0.813 1.1895 1.7175 0.813 1.7175 1.15785 Table

Nitrate 0.283 0.2541 0.3243 0.0762 0.0762 0.3243 0.2344

showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of Makwal
wetland.

Winters
Parameters S1 S2 Maximum Minimum Mean
Air Temperature 27 24 27 24 25.5
Water Temperature 22 24 24 22 23
pH 7.19 6.97 7.19 6.97 7.08
FCO2 16.69 15.93 16.69 15.93 16.31
Conductivity 731 726 731 726 728.5
TDS 487.577 484.242 487.577 484.242 485.9095
Transparency - - - 0 -
DO 0.19 0.94 0.94 0.19 0.565
BOD 9.07 8.79 9.07 8.79 8.93
Carbonates 0 0 0 0 0
Bicarbonates 435.35 449.47 449.47 435.35 442.41
TA 434.35 449.47 449.47 434.35 441.91
Calcium 90.75 82.93 90.75 82.93 86.84
Magnesium 20.87 23.72 23.72 20.87 22.295
Total Hardness 312.46 304.56 312.46 304.56 308.51
Sodium 37.67 36.4 37.67 36.4 37.035
Potassium 17.16 16.39 17.16 16.39 16.775
Chlorine 12.5 32.14 32.14 12.5 22.32
Phosphate 0.445 0.6934 0.6934 0.445 0.5692
Nitrate 0.5346 0.3638 0.5346 0.3638 0.4492

4.4 Table showing different parameter, their maximum, minimum and mean values of
Sangral wetland.
 35
AIR TEMPERATURE (°C)
30

25

20

15

10

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
SITES

WINTER SUMMER

4.5 Air variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

30
WATER TEMPERATURE (°C)

25

20

15

10

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
SITES

WINTER SUMMER

4.6 Water temperature variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

 4.7 pH variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

1000
900
Conductivity (µS/m)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
SITES

WINTER SUMMER
…

4.8 Electrical Conductivity variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

 Chart Title
700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS(mg/l) WINTER

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS(mg/l) SUMMER

4.9 Total Dissolved solids variation during different seasons of studied

wetlands

60
FREE CARBON DIOXIDE( mg/L)

50
40
30
20
10
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.10 Free Carbon dioxide variation during different seasons of studied

wetlands
 WINTER SUMMER
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (milligrams /litre)

9.58
8.64

8.54
5.92

5.26
5.16

4.04

4.04

2.07

0.94
0.66

0.66
0.56

0.47
0.19
0

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2

Sites

4.11 Dissolved Oxygen variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

20
18
16
Biological oxygen
demand(mg/L)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.12 Biological Oxygen Demand variation during different

seasons of studied wetlands
 100
90
80
70
CO3 2-(mg/L)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.12 Carbonate variation during different seasons of

studied wetlands

600

500
HCO3- (mg/L)

400

300

200

100

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.14 Bicarbonates variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

 600
TOTAL ALKALINITY(mg/L) 500
400
300
200
100
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.15 Total Alkalinity variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

100
90
80
70
60
Ca2+(mg/L)

50
40
30
20
10
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.16 Calcium variation during different seasons of studied

wetlands
 35

30

25
Mg2+(mg/L)

20

15

10

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.17 Magnesium variation during different seasons of

studied wetlands

350

300
Total Hardness(mg/L)

250

200

150

100

50

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.18 Total Hardness variation during different seasons

of studied wetlands
 140

120

100

80
Cl-(mg/L)

60

40

20

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.19 Chlorine variation during different seasons of

studied wetlands

60

50

40
K+(mg/L)

30

20

10

0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.20 Potassium variation during different seasons of studied

wetlands
 80
70
60
50
Na+(mg/L)

40
30
20
10
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.21 Sodium variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
PO42-(mg/L)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.22 Phosphate variation during different seasons of studied wetlands

 0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
NO3-(mg/L)

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
P1 P2 P3 G1 G2 G3 A1 A2 M1 M2
Sites

WINTER SUMMER

4.23 Nitrate variation during different seasons of studied

wetlands
 80
70
60
50
40
CTSI

30
20
10
0
G1 G2 G3 P1 P2 P3 M1 M2 S1 S2
Sites

Winter Summer

4.24 Trophic status of studied wetlands during different seasons

Chart Title
Hypertrophic
65

45 Slightly Mesotrophic

25 Strongly Mesotrophic
5
Gharana Pargwal Makwal Sangral
winter 66.7866 30.03 65.28 41.86
summer 71.0316 53.757 67.268 NaN

winter summer

4.25 Overall trophic status during different seasons of studied wetlands

CHAPTER-5
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUSION
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In present study, water quality of four wetlands- Gharana, Pargwal, Makwal and Sangral of
Jammu district, Jammu and Kashmir are studied for two seasons (winter and summer). Different
physicochemical parameters viz. Air Temperature, pH, Water Temperature, Electrical
Conductivity, Free carbon dioxide, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological
Oxygen Demand, Magnesium, Calcium, Total Hardness, Total Alkalinity, Nitrate, Phosphate,
Sodium, Chloride and Potassium – are analysed for assessing wetland health and water quality.

Summary

Physico-chemical characteristics of water of the wetlands under the study

Temperature (air and water)

During present study Air temperature varied between 25 to 32 °C for Gharana, 20 to 25°C for
Pargwal, 28 to 33 °C for Makwal and 24 to 27 °C for Sangral. Water temperature varied between
24 to 26 °C for Gharana wetland, for Pargwal wetland, 22 to 26 °C for Makwal and 22 to 24 °C
for Sangral wetland.

pH

During present study mean pH values varied between 7.16 to 8.21 for Gharana wetland, 7.5 to
8.21 for Pargwal wetland, 6.91 to 7.3 for Makwal and 6.97 to 7.19 for Sangral wetland.

Electrical Conductivity

During present study mean EC varied between 522 to 752 µS/cm for Gharana wetland, 400 to
590 µS/cm for Pargwal wetland, 851to 940 for Makwal and for 726 to 731 µS/cm Sangral
wetland.

TDS

During present study mean TDS varied between 348.174 to 500.917 mg/L for Gharana wetland,
for Pargwal wetland 194.097 – 282.141 mg/L, 567.617 to 626.98 mg/L for Makwal and 726 to
731 mg/L for Sangral wetland.

Transparency

During present study mean transparency varied between 8.5 to 57 cm for Gharana wetland, 17.5
to 69 cm for Pargwal wetland, 22 to 33.5 cm for Makwal. Transparency was absent in Sangral
wetland.

Dissolved Oxygen
Mean DO varied between 0 to 4.04 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 5.16 to 9.58 mg/L for Pargwal
wetland,0n to 0.66 mg/L for Makwal and 0.19 to 0.94 mg/L for Sangral wetland.

BOD

BOD varied between Gharana wetland, 0.47 to 4.98 mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 7.04 to 18.03
mg/L for Makwal and 8.79 to 9.07 mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Free carbon dioxide

Free carbon dioxide varied between 0 to 25.03 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 0 to 6.83 for Pargwal
wetland, 16.69 to 50.83 mg/L for Makwal and 15.93 to 16.69 mg/L for Sangral wetland during
present study.

Carbonates

Carbonates varied between 0 to 94.07 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 0 to 33.7 for Pargwal wetland.
Carbonates was absent in Makwal and Sangral wetland during present study.

Bicarbonates

Bicarbonates varied between 116.86 to 531.66 mg/L for Gharana wetland,178.51 to 315.26 for
Pargwal wetland, 491.85 to 570.19 for Makwal and 435.35 to 449.47 for Sangral wetland during
present study.

Total Alkalinity

Total alkalinity varied between 137.92 to 545.7 for Gharana wetland, 180.75 to 315.26 for
Pargwal wetland,491.85 to 570.19 for Makwal and 434.35 to 449,97 for Sangral wetland during
present study.

Calcium

Mean calcium ion concentration varied between 39.12 to 59.46 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 31.29
to 39.12 mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 37.5534 to 59.46 mg/L for Makwal and 82.93 to 909.75
mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Magnesium

Magnesium ion concentration varied between 15.18 to 24.67 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 12.33 to
20.87 mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 24.67 to 32.25 mg/L for Makwal and for 20.87 to 23.72 mg/L
for Sangral wetland during present study.

Total Hardness
Total hardness varied between 195.06 to 216.77 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 144.38 to 183.37
mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 195.01 to 280.89 mg/L for Makwal wetland and304.56 to 312.46
mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Sodium

Sodium ion concentration varied 511.14 to 75.36mg/L between for Gharana wetland, 5.24 to 7.8
mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 43.97 to 44.7 mg/L for Makwal wetland and 36.4 to 37.67 mg/L for
Sangral wetland.

Potassium ions

Potassium ion concentration varied between 9.48 to 41.96 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 5.15 to
7.62 mg/L for Pargwal wetland, 34.22 to 50.55 mg/L for Makwal wetland and 16.39 to 17.16
mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Chloride ions

Chloride ion concentration varied between 10.71 to 117.86 mg/L for Gharana wetland, 16.07 to
28.57 mg/L for Pargwal wetland,38.84 to 119.64 mg/L for Makwal wetland and 12.5 to 32.14
mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Phosphate ions

Phosphate ion concentration varied between 0.2344 to 0.955 mg/L for Gharana wetland,0.003 to
0.134 mg/L for Pargwal wetland,0.813 to 1.7175 mg/L for Makwal wetland and 0.445 to 0.6934
mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Nitrate ions

Nitrate ion concentration varied between 0.3089 to 0.8393 mg/L for Gharana wetland,0.0967 to
0.1671 mg/L for Pargwal wetland,0.0762 to 0.3243 mg/L for Makwal wetland and 0.3638 to
0.5346 mg/L for Sangral wetland during present study.

Conclusion

The present research work is an attempt to assess the water quality of the wetlands as to analyze
the health of the wetland.

The physico-chemical parameters of wetland water were analysed for samples collected from
Gharana, Pargwal, Makwal and Sangral in Jammu district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The
results of the research revealed that status of the Gharana wetland was hypereutrophic both
during winter and summer due the influence of anthropogenic activities. In Pargwal wetland, P1
and P3 was slightly oligotrophic and P2 was strongly oligotrophic during winter while all the
sites were eutrophic during summer. In Sangral, S1 was strongly mesotrophic and S2 was
mesotrophic. In Makwal, the status ranged between slightly and hypereutrophic.
During the course of study, various pollution sources were observed at different sites in the areas
studied (Gharana, Pargwal, Makwal and Sangral) which were influencing the quality of wetland
water. Some of these sources were-

1. Improper drainage of wastewater generated during bathing and washing clothes using soaps
and detergents makes it way into the wetlands and thus polluting it adversely (Gharana all the
sites, Makwal all the sites were polluted due to bathing activities of animals).

2. The reason for the deterioration of water quality of the Pargwal site P2 was the presence of
algal blooms.

3. Usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the agricultural fields near the wetlands that
ultimately making their way into the wetland.

4. Dumping of household waste in the drain present near the wetlands is one of the major source
of pollution.

5. Entry of household sewage drains into the wetland was noticed throughout the study period
especially in Gharana. All the wastes are rich in nutrients like nitrate and phosphate which
accelerated the process of eutrophication.

Conservation measures

Based on the above study, following measures are suggested to control pollution in the study
area:-

1. Dumping of household waste should be avoided near the wetlands.

2. Avoid bathing of animals and washing clothes near the wetlands.

3. Proper drainage system should be implemented near the weltands.

4. Monitoring and assessment should be implemented on quarterly or yearly bases.

5. Embankment should be constructed to avoid the entrance of runoff from the fields.

6. Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided in the fields near the wetlands.

7. Strict measures should be taken against the violators.

8. Encouraging the local groups to adopt a local wetland and invent ways to assist in its
conservation.

9. Change in agricultural and land use practices.

10. Government and Non-Governmental Organization should take necessary steps in the
conservation and management of the wetland.

11. Public awareness, education regarding wetland should be provided.

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