MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT
1 History of Aviation

* The term Aviation was coined by a French pioneer Guillaum Joseph de La

Landle in 1863. It originates from the Latin word AVIS that literally means bird.
Aviation means all the activities related to flying the aircraft.

* The original idea of kite flying from China was the first attempt of human kind
to fly some man-made object high into air.

Chinease used kites during 5th to 7th century A.D for:

- Sending messages
- Lift hums
- Measure distance
- Test winds

They also prepared HOT air balloons to scare away enemies in the 3rd century
B.C

1.1 INTRODUCTION OREVELLE

The scene: Wind-swept sand dunes of Kill Devil Hills, 4 mi south of Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina. The time: About 10:35 A.M. on Thursday, December 17, 1903. The
characters: Orville and Wilbur Wright and five local witnesses. The action: Poised,
ready to make history, is a flimsy, odd-looking machine, made from spruce and cloth
in the form of two wings, one placed above the other, a horizontal elevator mounted
on struts in front of the wings, and a double vertical rudder behind the wings (see
Figure 1.1). A 12-hp engine is mounted on the top surface of the bottom wing,
slightly right of center. To the left of this engine lies a man-Orville Wright-prone on
the bottom wing, facing into the brisk and cold December wind. Behind him rotate
two ungainly looking airscrews (propellers), driven by two chain and pulley
arrangements connected to the same engine. The machine begins to move along a
60-ft launching rail on level ground. Wilbur Wright runs along the right side of the
machine, supporting the wingtip so that it will not drag the sand. Near the end of the
starting rail, the machine lifts into the air; at this moment, John Daniels of the Kill
Devil Life Saving Station takes a photograph which preserves for all time the most
historic moment in aviation history (see Figure 1.2). The machine flies unevenly,
rising suddenly to about 10 ft, then ducking quickly toward the ground. This type of
erratic flight continues for 12 s, when the machine darts to the sand, 120 ft from the
point where it lifted from the starting rail. Thus ends a flight.

The machine was the Wright Flyer I, which is shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 and
which is now preserved for posterity in the Air and Space Museum of the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The flight on that cold December 17 was
momentous: it brought to a realization the dreams of centuries, and it gave birth to a
new way of life. It was the first genuine powered flight of a heavierthan-air machine.
With it, and with the further successes to come over the next five years, came the
Wright brothers' clear right to be considered the premier aeronautical engineers of
history.

1.2 VERY EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

Since the dawn of human intelligence, the idea of flying in the same realm as
birds has possessed human minds. Witness the early Greek myth of Daedalus and
his son Icarus. Imprisoned on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea,
Daedalus is said to have made wings fastened with wax. With these wings, they
both escaped by flying through the air. However, Icarus, against his father's
warnings, flew too close to the sun; the wax melted, and Icarus fell to his death in
the sea.
All early thinking of human flight centered on the imitation of birds. Various
unsung ancient and medieval people fashioned wings and met with sometimes
disastrous and always unsuccessful consequences in leaping from towers or roofs,
flapping vigorously. In time, the idea of strapping a pair of wings to arms fell out
of favor. It was replaced by the concept of wings flapped up and down by various
mechanical mechanisms, powered by some type of human arm, leg, or body
movement. These machines are called ornithopters.
Recent historical research has uncovered that Leonardo da Vinci himself was
possessed by the idea of human flight and that he designed vast numbers of
ornithopters toward the end of the fifteenth century. In his surviving manuscripts,
over 35,000 words and 500 sketches deal with flight. It is not known whether da Vinci
ever built or tested any of his designs. However, human-powered flight by flapping
wings was always doomed to failure. In this sense, da Vinci's efforts did not make
important contributions to the technical advancement of flight.
Human efforts to fly literally got off the ground on November 21, 1783, when
a balloon carrying Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d' Arlandes ascended into
the air and drifted 5 mi across Paris. The balloon was inflated and buoyed up by
hot air from an open fire burning in a large wicker basket underneath. The design
and construction of the balloon were due to the Montgolfier brothers, Joseph and
Etienne. In 1782, Joseph Montgolfier, gazing into his fireplace, conceived the idea
of using the "lifting power" of hot air rising from a flame to lift a person from the
surface of the earth. The brothers instantly set to work, experimenting with bags
made of paper and linen, in which hot air from a fire was trapped. After several
public demonstrations of flight without human passengers, including the 8-min
voyage of a balloon carrying a cage containing a sheep, a rooster, and a duck, the
Montgolfiers were ready for the big step. At 1:54 P.M. on November 21, 1783, the
first flight with human passengers rose majestically into the air and lasted for 25 min
So people were finally off the ground! Balloons, or "aerostatic machines" as
called by the Montgolfiers, made no real technical contributions to human
heavier-than-air flight. However, they served a major purpose in triggering the
public's interest in flight through the air. They were living proof that people could
really leave the ground and sample the environs heretofore exclusively reserved
for birds. Moreover, they were the only means of human flight for almost 100
years.

1.3 SIR GEORGE CAYLEY (1773-1857)-THE TRUE INVENTOR

OF THE AIRPLANE
The modern airplane has its origin in a design set forth by George Cayley in 1799.
It was the first concept to include a fixed wing for generating lift, another
separate mechanism for propulsion (Cayley envisioned paddles), and a combined
horizontal and vertical (cruciform) tail for stability. Cayley inscribed his idea on a
silver disc (presumably for permanence), shown in Figure 1.5. On the reverse side
of the disc is a diagram of the lift and drag forces on an inclined plane (the wing).
The disc is now preserved in the Science Museum in London.
Cayley is responsible for breaking this unsuccessful line of thought; he separated the
concept of lift from propulsion and, in so doing, set into motion a century of
aeronautical development that culminated in the Wright brothers' success in 1903.
George Cayley is a giant in aeronautical history: he is the parent of modem aviation
and is the first true aeronautical engineer.
In 1804, he built a whirling arm apparatus, shown in Figure 1.7, for testing airfoils;
this was simply a lifting surface (airfoil) mounted on the end of a long rod, which was
rotated at some speed to generate a flow of air over the airfoil. In modem aerospace
engineering, wind tunnels now serve this function, but in Cayley's time the whirling
arm was an important development, which allowed the measurement of aerodynamic
forces and the center of pressure on a lifting surface. Also in 1804, Cayley designed,
built, and flew the small model glider shown in Figure 1.8; A full-scale replica of this
glider is on display at the Science Museum in London
Cayley elaborates on his principle of separation of lift and propulsion and his use
of a fixed wing to generate lift. He states that the basic aspect of a flying machine
is "to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the
resistance of air." He notes that a surface inclined at some angle to the direction
of motion will generate lift and that a cambered surface will do this more
efficiently than a flat surface. He also states for the first time in history that lift is
generated by a region of low pressure on the upper surface of the wing. His triple
paper also addressed the matter of flight control and was the first document to
discuss the role of the horizontal and vertical tail planes in airplane stability.

1.4 THE INTERREGNUM-FROM 1853 TO 1891

For the next 50 years after Cayley's success with the coachman-carrying glider,
there were no major advances in aeronautical technology comparable to the
previous 50 years.
William Samuel Henson (1812-1888) was a contemporary of Cayley. In April
1843, he published in England a design for a fixed-wing airplane powered by a
steam engine driving two propellers. Called the aerial steam carriage, this design
received wide publicity throughout the nineteenth century, due mainly to a series
of illustrative engravings which were reproduced and sold around the world.

1.5 OTTO LILIENTHAL (1848-1896)-THE GLIDER MAN

With all the efforts that had taken place in the past, it was still not until 1891 that
a human literally jumped into the air and flew with wings in any type of
controlled fashion. This person was Otto Lilienthal, one of the giants in
aeronautical engineering (and in aviation in general). Lilienthal designed and flew
the first successful controlled gliders in history. He was a man of aeronautical
stature comparable to Cayley and the Wright brothers.

1.6 PERCY PILCHER (1867-1899)-EXTENDING

THE GLIDER TRADITION
In June of 1895, Otto Lilienthal received a relatively young and very enthusiastic
visitor in Berlin-Percy Pilcher, a Scot who lived in Glasgow and who had
already built his first glider. Under Lilienthal's guidance Pilcher made several
glides from the artificial hill. This visit added extra fuel to Pilcher's interest in
aviation; he returned to the British Isles and over the next four years built a series
of successful gliders. His most noted machine was the Hawk, built in 1896 (see
Figure 1.16). Pilcher's experiments with his hang gliders made him the most
distinguished British aeronautical engineer since George Cayley. Pilcher was an
"airman," and along with Lilienthal he underscored the importance of learning
the practical nature of flight in the air before lashing an engine to the machine.
However, Pilcher's sights were firmly set on powered flight. In 1897, he
calculated that an engine of 4 hp weighing no more than 40 lb, driving a
5-ft-diameter propeller, would be necessary to power his Hawk off the ground.
Since no such engine was available commercially, Pilcher (who was a marine
engineer by training) spent most of 1898 designing and constructing one. It was
completed and bench-tested by the middle of 1899. Then, in one of those quirks
of fate that dot many aspects of history, Pilcher was killed while demonstrating
his Hawk glider at the estate of Lord Braye in Leicestershire, England.

1.7 AERONAUTICS COMES TO AMERICA

Look at the geographical distribution of the early developments in aeronautics as
portrayed in the previous sections. After the advent of ballooning, due to the
Montgolfiers' success in France, progress in heavier-than-air machines was focused
in England until the 1850s: witness the contributions of Cayley, Henson, and
Stringfellow. This is entirely consistent with the fact that England also gave birth
to the industrial revolution during this time. Then the spotlight moved to the
European continent with Du Temple, Mozhaiski, Lilienthal, and others. There
were some brief flashes again in Britain, such as those due to Wenham and the
Aeronautical Society. In contrast, throughout this time virtually no important
progress was being made in the United States. The fledgling nation was busy
consolidating a new government and expanding its frontiers. There was not much
interest or time for serious aeronautical endeavors.
However, this vacuum was broken by Octave Chanute (1832-1910), a
French-born naturalized citizen who lived in Chicago. Chanute was a civil engineer
who became interested in mechanical flight about 1875. For the next 35
years, he collected, absorbed, and assimilated every piece of aeronautical
information he could find. This culminated in 1894 with the publishing of his book
entitled Progress in Flying Machines, a work that ranks with Lilienthal's Der
Vogeljlug as one of the great classics in aeronautics. Chanute's book summarized
all the important progress in aviation to that date; in this sense, he was the first
serious aviation historian. In addition, Chanute made positive suggestions as to
the future directions necessary to achieve success in powered flight. The Wright
brothers avidly read Progress in Flying Machines and subsequently sought out
Chanute in 1900. A close relationship and interchange of ideas developed between
them. A friendship developed which was to last in various degrees until Chanute's
death in 1910.
Chanute was an "airman." Following this position, he began to design hang
gliders, in the manner of Lilienthal, in 1896. His major specific contribution to
aviation was the successful biplane glider shown in Figure 1.17, which introduced
the effective Pratt truss method of structural rigging. The Wright brothers were
directly influenced by this biplane glider, and in this sense Chanute provided the
natural bridge between Stringfellow's triplane (1868) and the first successful
powered flight (1903).

1.8 WILBUR (1867-1912) AND ORVILLE (1871-1948)

WRIGHT -INVENTORS OF THE FIRST PRACTICAL AIRPLANE
The scene now shifts to the Wright brothers, the premier aeronautical engineers of
history. Only George Cayley may be considered comparable.
Wilbur Wright was born on April 16, 1867 (2 years after the Civil War) on a
small farm at Millville, Indiana. Four years later, Orville was born on August 19,
1871, at Dayton, Ohio.
The Wrights were descendants of an old Massachusetts family, and their father was
a bishop of the United Brethren Church. The two brothers grew up in Dayton and
benefited greatly from the intellectual atmosphere of their family. Their father had
some mechanical talent. He invented a early form of the typewriter. Their mother had
a college degree in mathematics; she often lent her kitchen to her sons for
experiments. Interestingly enough, neither Wilbur nor Orville officially received a high
school diploma;
In 1889, they first published a weekly four-page newspaper on a printing press of
their own design. However, Orville had talent as a prize-winning cyclist, and this
prompted the brothers to set up a bicycle sales and repair shop in Dayton in 1892.
Three years later they began to manufacture their own bicycle designs, using
homemade tools. These enterprises were profitable and helped to provide the
financial resources for their later work in aeronautics.
1.9 THE AERONAUTICAL TRIANGLE-LANGLEY,
THE WRIGHTS, AND GLENN CURTISS
In 1903-a milestone year for the Wright brothers, with their first successful
powered flight-Orville and Wilbur faced serious competition from Samuel P. Langley.
Langley was the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and was one of the most
respected scientists in the United States at that time. Beginning in 1886, Langley
mounted an intensive aerodynamic research and development program, bringing to
bear the resources of the Smithsonian, and later the War Department. He carried out
this program with a dedicated zeal that matched the fervor that the Wrights
themselves demonstrated later. Langley's efforts culminated in the full-scale
Aerodrome shown in Figures 1.18, 1.19, and 1.20. In October 1903, this Aerodrome
was ready for its first attempted flight, in the full glare of publicity in the national
press.
The Wright brothers were fully aware of Langley's progress. During their
preparations with the Wright Flyer at Kill Devil Hills in the summer and fall of
1903, Orville and Wilbur kept in touch with Langley's progress via the newspapers.
They felt this competition keenly, and the correspondence of the Wright
brothers at this time indicates an uneasiness that Langley might become the first
to successfully achieve powered flight, before they would have a chance to test the
Wright Flyer. In contrast, Langley felt no competition at all from the Wrights.
Although the aeronautical activity of the Wright brothers was generally known
throughout the small circle of aviation enthusiasts in the United States and
Europe. At the time of Langley's first attempted flight on October 7, 1903, there is no
recorded evidence that Langley was even aware of the Wrights' powered machine
sitting on the sand dunes of Kill Devil Hills, and certainly no appreciation by Langley
of the degree of aeronautical sophistication achieved by the Wrights. As it turned out,
Langley's attempts at manned powered flight, first on October 7 and again on
December 8, resulted in total failure.. In hindsight, the Wrights had nothing to fear in
competition with Langley.
Such was not the case in their competition with another aviation pioneer-Glenn H.
Curtiss-beginning five years later. In 1908-another milestone year for the Wrights,
with their glorious first public flights in France and the United States-Orville and
Wilbur faced a serious challenge and competition from Curtiss, which was to lead to
acrimony and a flurry of lawsuits that left a smudge on the Wrights' image and
resulted in a general inhibition of the development of early aviation in the United
States. By 1910, the name of Glenn Curtiss was as well known throughout the world
as Orville and Wilbur Wright, and indeed, Curtiss-built airplanes were more popular
and easier to fly than those produced by the Wrights.
How did these circumstances arise? Who was Glenn Curtiss, and what was his
relationship with the Wrights? What impact did Curtiss have on the early
development of aviation, and how did his work compare and intermesh with that of
Langley and the Wrights? Indeed, the historical development of aviation in the United
States can be compared to a triangle, with the Wrights at one apex, Langley at
another, and Curtiss at the third. This "aeronautical triangle" is shown in Figure 1.27.
2 Atmosphere and its properties

Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% Argon and 0.1%
other gases (Methane, Carbon Dioxide, Water vapor and Neon).

Properties of Atmosphere

Definition of atmosphere: Atmosphere is defined as the area of air and gases

enveloping objects in space like stars and planets or air around any location.

An example of atmosphere is the ozone and other layers which make up the earth’s
sky as we see it.

Physical properties of atmosphere are :

 Pressure
 Temperature
 Speed of sound
 Density (Most important)
 Mass
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere

3 Classification of aircrafts

Definition of an aircraft : Aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support

from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift
of an airfoil,

Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including

blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons.

In general terms, there are two types of classification of aircrafts:

1 Aerostats ( Lighter than air) – Example- balloon

2. Aerodynes ( Heavier than air )- They push the air or gas downwards which
reaction help in making the aircraft upward.

What is a “category” of aircraft?

A category is an overarching classification of aircraft. The following are an example
of aircraft categories:
 Airplane
 Rotorcraft
 Powered lift
 The Marine Corp’s V-22 is the best example. The US Army plans to
transition its entire fleet of helicopters into this category.
 Glider
 Lighter than air (balloons and airships)
 Powered parachute (not to be confused with powered paragliders)
 Weight-shift control aircraft (hang gliders and ultralight trikes)

What is a “class” of aircraft?

Some categories are further broken down into a “class.” Classes are a way to further
distinguish between types of aircraft. Not every category has a class.
The classes most pilots will deal with are “land,” “sea,” “single-engine,” and
“multi-engine.”
 Airplane category:
 single-engine land class
 multi-engine land class
 single-engine sea class
 multi-engine sea class
 Rotorcraft category:
 helicopter class
 gyroplane class
 Lighter than air category:
 airship class
 balloon class
 Powered parachute category:
 powered parachute land class
 powered parachute sea class
 Weight-shift-control category:
 weight-shift-control aircraft land class
 weight-shift-control aircraft sea class
Weight-shift control as a means of aircraft flight control is widely used in hang
gliders, powered hang gliders, and ultralight trikes. Control is usually by the pilot
using their weight against a triangular control bar that is rigidly attached to the wing
structure.

4 Basic components of an aircraft

What are the parts of an airplane?

The Main Sections of an Airplane

Airplanes are not all alike, but they are comprised of basic components. The main
sections of an airplane include the fuselage, wings, cockpit, engine, propeller, tail
assembly, and landing gear. Understanding the basic functions of how these parts
interact is the first step to understanding the principles of aerodynamics.

What is the fuselage?

The fuselage is the main section, or body, of the airplane. (If “fuselage” sounds like a
French word to you, you’re right. That’s because it is derived from the French word
for “spindle-shaped” – fuselé.) This is where you’ll find passengers, cargo, and the
flight crew. The fuselage is the foundation for the structure of the aircraft. The tail
number, which identifies each plane, is often located at the rear of the fuselage near
the tail.

What are the wings?

The wings of an aircraft serve the same purpose as the wings of a bird, hence their
name. Airplanes are considered fixed-wing aircraft. (Helicopters are considered
rotary-winged.) A plane is capable of flight because its wings provide lift. Lift is
created by the shape of the wings and the plane’s speed as it moves forward. Wings
include ailerons and flaps. “Aileron” is another French word. It means “little wing” or
“fin.” They are used in pairs to control the airplane’s roll or bank.

Flaps reduce the stalling speed of a wing at a given weight. The leading edge of the
wings faces the front of the plane. Likewise, the trailing edge of the wing can be
defined as the back edge that includes the aileron and trim tab. Some wings are
fixed high on the plane above the fuselage and known as high wing aircraft. Low
wing aircraft are planes on which the wings are installed lower than halfway up the
fuselage.
 What is the cockpit?

The cockpit of an airplane is also called the flight deck. This is where the
pilot controls the aircraft. The cockpit includes a seating area for the
flight crew, flight instruments, avionics, audio/radio communications,
and flight controls. Electronic flight instruments include a multi-function
display (MFD). This is used to control heading, speed, altitude, altimeter,
etc. The Primary Flight Display (PFD) typically includes attitude indicator,
airspeed, heading, and vertical airspeed indicator. A navigation display
(ND) provides route information, such as waypoints, wind-speed, and
wind direction.
A flight management system (FMS) includes details about the flight plan.
A transponder, which shows the planes location to Air Traffic Control
(ATC), is also located in the cockpit. A glass cockpit features electronic
flight instrument displays. These are usually large LCD screens instead
of the traditional style of analog dials and gauges. Epic’s
entire fleet contains glass cockpits, because the airlines require pilots to
be experienced in glass cockpits. You will find dual controls in Epic’s
fleet. These are used by both the instructor and flight student.
 What is the airplane engine?

An aircraft engine, or aero engine, is the power source for a plane. Most are either
piston engines or gas turbines. Some drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV),
have used electric motors. There are many manufacturers and models of engines.
Each is designed for specific aircraft, whether large or small. Manufacturers
recommend an engine overhaul at specified times after an engine has flown a
certain number of hours.
 What is a propeller?

A propeller is an aerodynamic device that converts rotational energy into force. This
force propels the airplane forward. This creates thrust that is perpendicular to its
plane of rotation. Propellers have two or more blades. Propeller blades are spaced
evenly around the hub. They are available in either fixed pitch or variable pitch
configurations.

What is the tail, or empennage?

The empennage, also called the tail or tail assembly, is located at the rear of an
airplane. The tail provides stability during flight. This is very similar to how feathers
on an arrow provide stability. In fact, if “empennage” sounds French, it’s because it
is. The term is derived from the French word empenner, which means “to feather an
arrow.” The tail assembly consists of the vertical stabilizer, rudder, elevator,
horizontal stabilizer, and static wicks.

What is the landing gear?

The landing gear is the undercarriage of an airplane. It is used for both takeoff and
landing. The landing gear supports the plane when it is on the ground. Landing gear
allows the plane to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Most landing gear have
wheels. However, some aircraft use skis or floats to operate on snow, ice, or water.
Faster aircraft, such as many twin-engine or jet aircraft, have retractable landing
gear. Upon takeoff, the folding landing gear are stowed away to reduce drag during
flight.
5 Aircraft axis system
Since aircraft live in a three-dimensional world, it is necessary to control
the attitude or orientation of a flying aircraft in all three dimensions. In-flight, any
aircraft will rotate about its center of gravity, a point which is the average location of
the mass of the aircraft. We can define a three-dimensional coordinate system
through the center of gravity with each axis of this coordinate system perpendicular
to the other two axes. We can then define the orientation of the aircraft by the
amount of rotation of the parts of the aircraft along these principal axes. The position
of all three axes, with the right-hand rule for its rotations

The vertical axis (yaw)

 The yaw axis has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed towards the
bottom of the aircraft, perpendicular to the wings and to the fuselage
reference line. The motion about this axis is called yaw. A positive yawing
motion moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. The rudder is the primary
control of yaw.
Transverse axis (pitch)

 The pitch axis : (also called transverse or lateral axis) has its origin at the
center of gravity and is directed to the right, parallel to a line drawn from
wingtip to wingtip. The motion about this axis is called pitch. A positive
 pitching motion raises the nose of the aircraft and lowers the tail. The
elevators are the primary control of pitch.
Longitudinal axis (roll)

 The roll axis : (or longitudinal axis) has its origin at the center of gravity and
is directed forward, parallel to the fuselage reference line. The motion about
this axis is called roll. An angular displacement about this axis is called a
bank. A positive rolling motion lifts the left-wing and lowers the right-wing. The
pilot rolls by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other.
This changes the bank angle. The ailerons are the primary control of the
bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on the bank.

7. Aircraft Motions

Simplified Aircraft Motion

Simplified Motion
This slide shows some rules for the simplified motion of an aircraft. By simplified
motion we mean that some of the four forces acting on the aircraft are balanced by
other forces and that we are looking at only one force and one direction at a time. In
reality, this simplified motion doesn’t occur because all of the forces are interrelated
to the aircraft’s speed, altitude, orientation, etc. But looking at the forces ideally and
individually does give us some insight and is much easier to understand.

Weight
In an ideal situation, an airplane could sustain a constant speed and level flight in
which the weight would be balanced by the lift and the drag would be balanced by the
thrust. The closest example of this condition is a cruising airliner. While the weight
decreases due to fuel burned, the change is very small relative to the total aircraft
weight. In this situation, the aircraft will maintain at a constant cruise velocity as
described by Newton’s first law of motion.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

If the forces become unbalanced, the aircraft will move in the direction of the greater
force. We can compute the acceleration which the aircraft will experience from
Newton’s second law of motion:

F=m*a
Where a is the acceleration, m is the mass of the aircraft, and F is the net force
acting on the aircraft. The net force is the difference between the opposing forces; lift
minus weight, or thrust minus drag. With this information, we can solve for the
resulting motion of the aircraft

7. Control Surfaces and High Lift Device

Aircraft flight control surfaces are aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to adjust
and control the aircraft's flight attitude.
Main control surfaces
The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on
hinges or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over
them. This redirection of the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the
plane about the associated axis.
Ailerons
Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in opposite
directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the left
aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a
lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing
to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering the stick
returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to turn until
opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.

Elevator
The elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the
fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the
pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes
the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the
nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which
generates more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to
neutral and stops the change of pitch. Some aircraft, such as an MD-80, use a servo
tab within the elevator surface to aerodynamically move the main surface into
position. The direction of travel of the control tab will thus be in a direction opposite
to the main control surface. It is for this reason that an MD-80 tail looks like it has a
'split' elevator system.
In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of a foreplane and
move in the opposite sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the
elevators go down to increase the lift at the front and lift the nose up.
Rudder
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left.
Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right
pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder
pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw

Secondary effects of controls

Ailerons
The ailerons primarily control roll. Whenever lift is increased, induced drag is also
increased. When the stick is moved left to roll the aircraft to the left, the right aileron
is lowered which increases lift on the right wing and therefore increases induced
drag on the right wing. Using ailerons causes adverse yaw, meaning the nose of the
aircraft yaws in a direction opposite to the aileron application. When moving the stick
to the left to bank the wings, adverse yaw moves the nose of the aircraft to the right.
Adverse yaw is more pronounced for light aircraft with long wings, such as gliders. It
is counteracted by the pilot with the rudder. Differential ailerons are ailerons which
have been rigged such that the downgoing aileron deflects less than the upward-
moving one, reducing adverse yaw.
Rudder
The rudder is a fundamental control surface which is typically controlled by pedals
rather than at the stick. It is the primary means of controlling yaw—the rotation of an
airplane about its vertical axis. The rudder may also be called upon to counter-act
the adverse yaw produced by the roll-control surfaces.
If rudder is continuously applied in level flight the aircraft will yaw initially in the
direction of the applied rudder – the primary effect of rudder. After a few seconds the
aircraft will tend to bank in the direction of yaw. This arises initially from the
increased speed of the wing opposite to the direction of yaw and the reduced speed
of the other wing. The faster wing generates more lift and so rises, while the other
wing tends to go down because of generating less lift. Continued application of
rudder sustains rolling tendency because the aircraft flying at an angle to the airflow -
skidding towards the forward wing. When applying right rudder in an aircraft
with dihedral the left hand wing will have increased angle of attack and the right hand
wing will have decreased angle of attack which will result in a roll to the right. An
aircraft with anhedral will show the opposite effect. This effect of the rudder is
commonly used in model aircraft where if sufficient dihedral or polyhedral is included
in the wing design, primary roll control such as ailerons may be omitted altogether.
Turning the aircraft
Unlike turning a boat, changing the direction of an aircraft normally must be done
with the ailerons rather than the rudder. The rudder turns (yaws) the aircraft but has
little effect on its direction of travel. With aircraft, the change in direction is caused by
the horizontal component of lift, acting on the wings. The pilot tilts the lift force, which
is perpendicular to the wings, in the direction of the intended turn by rolling the
aircraft into the turn. As the bank angle is increased, the lifting force can be split into
two components: one acting vertically and one acting horizontally.
If the total lift is kept constant, the vertical component of lift will decrease. As the
weight of the aircraft is unchanged, this would result in the aircraft descending if not
countered. To maintain level flight requires increased positive (up) elevator to
increase the angle of attack, increase the total lift generated and keep the vertical
component of lift equal with the weight of the aircraft. This cannot continue
indefinitely. The total load factor required to maintain level flight is directly related to
the bank angle. This means that for a given airspeed, level flight can only be
maintained up to a certain given angle of bank. Beyond this angle of bank, the
aircraft will suffer an accelerated stall if the pilot attempts to generate enough lift to
maintain level flight.
Alternate main control surfaces
Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example,
instead of elevators at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tailplane may change
angle. Some aircraft have a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts at the back
of those combine the functions of elevators and rudder. Delta wing aircraft may have
"elevons" at the back of the wing, which combine the functions of elevators and
ailerons.
Secondary control surfaces
Spoilers
On low drag aircraft such as sailplanes, spoilers are used to disrupt airflow over the
wing and greatly reduce lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude without gaining
excessive airspeed. Spoilers are sometimes called "lift dumpers". Spoilers that can
be used asymmetrically are called spoilerons and can affect an aircraft's roll.
Flaps
Flaps are mounted on the trailing edge on the inboard section of each wing (near the
wing roots). They are deflected down to increase the effective curvature of the wing.
Flaps raise the maximum lift coefficient of the aircraft and therefore reduce its stalling
speed.[5] They are used during low speed, high angle of attack flight including take-
off and descent for landing. Some aircraft are equipped with "flaperons", which are
more commonly called "inboard ailerons. These devices function primarily as
ailerons, but on some aircraft, will "droop" when the flaps are deployed, thus acting
as both a flap and a roll-control inboard aileron.

Slats
Slats, also known as leading edge devices, are extensions to the front of a wing for
lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce the stalling speed by altering the
airflow over the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats (e.g. as on
the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL capabilities, but
compromise higher speed performance. Retractable slats, as seen on most airliners,
provide reduced stalling speed for take-off and landing, but are retracted for cruising.
Air brakes
Air brakes are used to increase drag. Spoilers might act as air brakes, but are not
pure air brakes as they also function as lift-dumpers or in some cases as roll control
surfaces. Air brakes are usually surfaces that deflect outwards from the fuselage (in
most cases symmetrically on opposing sides) into the airstream in order to increase
form-drag. As they are in most cases located elsewhere on the aircraft, they do not
directly affect the lift generated by the wing. Their purpose is to slow down the
aircraft. They are particularly useful when a high rate of descent is required. They
are common on high performance military aircraft as well as civilian aircraft,
especially those lacking reverse thrust capability.
Control trimming surfaces
Trimming controls allow a pilot to balance the lift and drag being produced by the
wings and control surfaces over a wide range of load and airspeed. This reduces the
effort required to adjust or maintain a desired flight attitude.
Elevator trim
Elevator trim balances the control force necessary to maintain the correct
aerodynamic force on the tail to balance the aircraft. Whilst carrying out certain flight
exercises, a lot of trim could be required to maintain the desired angle of attack. This
mainly applies to slow flight, where a nose-up attitude is required, in turn requiring a
lot of trim causing the tailplane to exert a strong downforce. Elevator trim is
correlated with the speed of the airflow over the tail, thus airspeed
changes to the aircraft require re-trimming. An important design parameter for
aircraft is the stability of the aircraft when trimmed for level flight. Any disturbances
such as gusts or turbulence will be damped over a short period of time and the
aircraft will return to its level flight trimmed airspeed.
Trimming tail plane
Except for very light aircraft, trim tabs on the elevators are unable to provide the
force and range of motion desired. To provide the appropriate trim force the entire
horizontal tail plane is made adjustable in pitch. This allows the pilot to select exactly
the right amount of positive or negative lift from the tail plane while reducing drag
from the elevators.
Control horn
A control horn is a section of control surface which projects ahead of the pivot point.
It generates a force which tends to increase the surface's deflection thus reducing
the control pressure experienced by the pilot. Control horns may also incorporate
a counterweight which helps to balance the control and prevent it from fluttering in
the airstream. Some designs feature separate anti-flutter weights.
(In radio controlled model aircraft, the term "control horn" has a different meaning.)
Spring trim
In the simplest arrangement, trimming is done by a mechanical spring (or bungee)
which adds appropriate force to augment the pilot's control input. The spring is
usually connected to an elevator trim lever to allow the pilot to set the spring force
applied.
Rudder and aileron trim
Most fixed-wing aircraft have a trimming control surface on the elevator, but larger
aircraft also have a trim control for the rudder, and another for the ailerons. The
rudder trim is to counter any asymmetric thrust from the engines. Aileron trim is to
counter the effects of the centre of gravity being displaced from the aircraft
centerline. This can be caused by fuel or an item of payload being loaded more on
one side of the aircraft compared to the other, such as when one fuel tank has more
fuel than the other.
High-lift device
A high-lift device is a component or mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases
the amount of lift produced by the wing. The device may be a fixed component, or a
movable mechanism which is deployed when required.

Common movable high-lift devices include:

- wing flaps and
- slats.
Fixed devices include :
- leading-edge slots,
- leading edge root extensions, and
- boundary layer control systems.

Purpose
The size and lifting capacity of a fixed wing is chosen as a compromise between
differing requirements.
For example, a larger wing will provide more lift and reduce the distance and speeds
required for takeoff and landing, but will increase drag, which reduces performance
during the cruising portion of flight.
Modern passenger jet wing designs are optimized for speed and efficiency during the
cruise portion of flight, since this is where the aircraft spends the vast majority of its
flight time. High-lift devices compensate for this design trade-off by adding lift at
takeoff and landing, reducing the distance and speed required to safely land the
aircraft, and allowing the use of a more efficient wing in flight.

Types of device
i) Flaps
The most common high-lift device is the flap, a movable portion of the wing that can
be lowered to produce extra lift. When a flap is lowered this re-shapes the wing
section to give it more camber. Flaps are usually located on the trailing edge of a
wing, while leading edge flaps are used occasionally.
The passive high lift device, commonly referred to as flaps, are based on the
following three principle:
1. Increase camber
2. Increase wet surface ( typically by increasing the chord)
3. Control of the boundary layer

ii) Slats and slots

Another common high-lift device is the slat, a small aerofoil shaped device attached
just in front of the wing leading edge. The slat re-directs the airflow at the front of the
wing, allowing it to flow more smoothly over the upper surface when at a high angle
of attack. This allows the wing to be operated effectively at the higher angles
required to produce more lift.
 A slot is the gap between the slat and the wing.[3] The slat may be fixed in
position, with a slot permanently in place behind it, or it may be retractable so that
the slot is closed when not required. If it is fixed, then it may appear as a normal part
of the leading edge of a wing, with the slot buried in the wing surface immediately
behind it.

iii) Boundary layer control and blown flaps

Powered high-lift systems generally use airflow from the engine to shape the flow of
air over the wing, replacing or modifying the action of the flaps. Blown flaps take
"bleed air" from the jet engine's compressor or engine exhaust and blow it over the
rear upper surface of the wing and flap, re-energising the boundary layer and
allowing the airflow to remain attached at higher angles of attack.
A more advanced version of the blown flap is the circulation control wing, a
mechanism that ejects air backwards over a specially designed airfoil to create lift
through the Coandă effect. The Blackburn Buccaneer had a sophisticated boundary
layer control (BLC) system which involved compressor air blown onto the wings and
tailplane to reduce the stalling speed and facilitate operations from smaller aircraft
carriers.

iv) Leading edge root extensions

More common on modern fighter aircraft but also seen on some civil types, is
the leading-edge root extension (LERX), sometimes called just a leading edge
extension (LEX). A LERX typically consist of a small triangular fillet attached to the
wing leading edge root and to the fuselage. In normal flight the LERX generates little
lift. At higher angles of attack, however, it generates a vortex that is positioned to lie
on the upper surface of the main wing. The swirling action of the vortex increases the
speed of airflow over the wing, so reducing the pressure and providing greater lift.
LERX systems are notable for the potentially large angles in which they are effective.

8. Conventional Design Configurations

* Aircraft designer decide an aircraft configuration based on:-
- what does it carry?
- how far does it go?
- how fast it is suppose to fly?
- what are the field requirements?
- are there any maneuvering
requirements
 Another consideration is safety related requirements that must be satisfied
are:-
– takeoff and landing distances
– engine out performance
– noise limits
– icing performance
 – emergency evacuation
Considerations with defining a configuration concept, the following components be
completely integrated
- lifting surface arrangements
- control surfaces location
- propulsion system selection
- pay load
- landing gear system

Components above must be co-ordinated to satisfy the requirements listed below:

1 Good aircraft- requirements are:
- Aerodynamically efficient including propulsion
- Must balance near stability level
- landing gear must be located relative to CG
- Adequate control authority must be available
- Design for economy, easy maintenance
2 design for performance requirements

* Reduce drag to minimum needs:

- Minimise wetted area to minimise skin friction (friction drag)
- Streamline to reduce flow separation (pressure drag)
- Distribute area smoothly
- Consider laminar flow
- Clean design to manufacture with few protrusions, gaps and steps
* Reduce drag due to lift needs:
- maximise span (must be traded against wing weight)
- Tailor span load to get a good span
- Distribute lifting load longitudinally to reduce wave drag due to lift
- camber as well as twist to integrate airfoil, maintain good
2D characteristics
3 Design for handling qualities requirements are:
* Adequate control is essential-needs:
- Nose up pitching moment for stable aircraft
- Nose down pitching moment for unstable aircraft
- Yawing moment especially for flying wings and fighters at high angle of
attack
- Consider full range of center of gravity(C.G) implies, must balance the
configuration around center of gravity (C.G)
4 fedarl aviation requirements(far) and military requirements are:
* Safety for aerodynamics configuration means safe flying qualities
* Ability to use airplane as a stable weapon platform
* Community noise as per far-part 36 “no sonic booms” over land
5 Definition of baseline datas for establishing design configuration of an aircraft
are:-

- Distribution of payload around aircraft center of gravity

- Longitudinal control power come from horizontal tail and elevators
- Vertical tail provides directional stability using rudder for directional control

AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION ARCHITECTURE OPTIONS ARE :-

- Sweep wing including forward sweeping wings
- Canards
- Flying-wing
- Three surface
- Winglets
- Variable sweep wings

FORWARD SWEPT AIIRCRAFT

 AFT SWEPT AIIRCRAFT
• The most common swept wing sweep configuration is swept back
• Forward swept wing and variable swept wing aircrafts are also available
• In transonic flight, a swept wing allows a higher Mach number than the
straight wing of similar chord and camber
• A canrd is a wing configuration in which a small forewing is placed forward of
the main wing of aircraft.
 Canard will be used to lift the nose of the aircraft during takeoff, helping the
main wing instead of adding to its load.

• A flying wing aircraft is a tailless fixed wing aircraft that has no definite
fuselage, with its crew, payload,fuel and equipment housed inside the main
wing structure
• A three surface aircraft has:
- Foreplane
- Tailplane
• Central wing surface always provides lift and is usually largest
• Functions of fore and aft planes may vary between types and may include lift,
control and/or stability

• Winglets are vertical extension of wingtips that may improve an aircraft fuel
efficiency and cruising range
9. Helicopters : Their parts and functions

A helicopter is a remarkable aircraft that utilizes horizontally spinning rotors to

generate lift and thrust. The unique design of a helicopter enables it to
perform impressive feats such as vertical takeoffs and landings, hovering
in mid-air, and flying in any direction – forwards, backward, and laterally.
It is a remarkable engineering marvel that showcases our understanding
of aerodynamics. Its ability to ascend into the sky and hover
weightlessly is truly mesmerizing, demonstrating our mastery over
gravity. The intricate design of every parts of a helicopter is a testament
to its outstanding capabilities. Despite its complexity, the anatomy of a
helicopter reflects human ingenuity and represents a significant
accomplishment in modern engineering. It opens up a world of
transportation, rescue operations, and exploration possibilities. The
helicopter’s versatility and agility make it a symbol of human innovation
and a source of inspiration for future generations.
Parts of Helicopter: Names & Functions
Main Rotor
The main rotor of a helicopter is a feat of engineering. It comprises several
blades fastened to a hub in the center and revolves to provide lift. The blades
are distinguished by their particular “twist.” Each blade has a different angle
along its length to maximize its lift and drag characteristics.
Modern helicopters, however, encounter a limitation known as “retreating
blade stall” when they fly at high speeds.
This phenomenon occurs when the lift generated by the blade on the side of
the rotor facing the opposite direction of flight diminishes. The helicopter’s
total lift is reduced as a result. This constraint limits the maximum forward
speed of a helicopter, demonstrating the significance of rotor design in
aviation engineering.
Tail Rotor
Although the tail rotor may appear to be a specific part, its engineering is
anything but. For instance, some helicopters include “Fenestron” tail rotors,
effectively ducted fans in the aircraft’s tail.
This design has several benefits, including improved maneuverability,
enhanced safety, and less noise. Several helicopters have also experimented
with the “tail-sitter” concept, which enables the helicopter to take off and land
vertically while resting on its tail.
Engine
Helicopter engines are marvels of engineering since they are lightweight and
small while supplying the rotational force required for the rotor systems.
Interestingly, the pilots adjust the pitch angle of the rotor blades to regulate lift
and direction while maintaining the helicopter engines at a constant high
speed. In contrast, a fixed-wing aircraft uses the power of its engine to propel
the craft forward.
Transmission
In a helicopter, the gearbox system is essential for moving power from the
engine to the rotor systems. However, the design varies greatly across
helicopter types, some using gears and others using belts or chains.
Several modern helicopters utilize cutting-edge gearbox technology called the
“integrated gearbox” system. This ground-breaking design combines the
engine, transmission, and rotor systems into one compact unit, increasing
efficiency and lowering weight.

Cockpit
The helicopter’s cockpit serves as the pilot’s workspace and the control hub
for the craft. Modern helicopters include cutting-edge avionics and control
technologies in the cockpit, enabling pilots to fly safely and accurately.
Have you ever considered what it might be like to pilot a helicopter without a
conventional cockpit? Some futuristic designs suggest creating a 360-degree
picture of the helicopter’s surroundings using virtual reality headsets. This
would provide pilots with greater visibility than what is currently possible with
conventional cockpit glass.
Fuselage
The helicopter’s body, or fuselage, is essential to the craft’s performance,
stability, and safety. Creating lighter, more resilient, and more effective
fuselages has recently been a focus for helicopter producers.
One original method is making the fuselage out of biodegradable materials,
such as bioplastics or composites based on mushrooms. These substances
provide a potential alternative for helicopter design in the future since they are
sustainable and good for the environment.
Landing Gear
The helicopter can safely take off and land thanks to the landing gear. The
landing gear has often been fashioned as wheels or skids fastened to the
underside of the fuselage.
However, some academics are looking at novel approaches to helicopter
landing that don’t include standard landing gear.
The helicopter can be landed and removed vertically without wheels or skids,
a novel method. These so-called “hoverbikes” can hover and maneuver in a
way that conventional helicopters cannot because they employ ducted fans to
provide lift and power.
Avionics
The term “avionics” refers to the electronic devices and machinery utilized by
the helicopter, such as the navigation, communication, and monitoring
systems.
The functioning of these systems is crucial for guaranteeing the safety and
effectiveness of the helicopter. Thus manufacturers are continually looking
into new technologies.
Artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms can be utilized to create
intelligent helicopter systems, representing a novel avionics approach.
These systems can use data from sensors and cameras to analyze and detect
possible safety issues while giving pilots immediate feedback, improving
safety and lightening their burden.
Fuel System
The fuel system supplies the engine with gasoline that gives it life, acting as
the helicopter’s bloodstream. These gasoline tanks have a capacity of several
hundred gallons, making them similar to an empty stomach.
The fuel lines transport the valuable gasoline from the tank to the engine,
which resembles veins. The fuel pump, which functions like the heart, pumps
fuel to the engine at the proper flow rate and pressure, ensuring smooth and
effective operation of the engine.
Electrical System
It provides the initial spark to turn on the engine, and the battery functions as
the brain. On the other hand, the generator acts as the spinal cord of the
helicopter, generating energy to operate its systems.
The nervous system of the airplane, the electrical wiring, transmits messages
throughout it. It enables the pilot to operate precisely and monitor the
helicopter’s systems.
Stabilizers
The helicopter’s muscles, the stabilizers, are in charge of preserving stability
while in flight. The horizontal stabilizer acts as the biceps of the airplane,
preventing up and down pitching.
Like the abs, the vertical stabilizer prevents the helicopter from yawing or
rolling. Together, they function like the muscles of a well-trained athlete,
keeping the helicopter steady and secure while in flight.
Swashplate
The swashplate acts as a symphony conductor, guiding the rotor blades to
provide the appropriate lift and enabling a variety of maneuvers for the
helicopter.
The swashplate system, which consists of a revolving swashplate and a fixed
ring, is extremely complicated. It transfers the pilot’s commands to the rotor
blades, which control the aircraft’s flight.
It resembles a well-tuned symphony, with each instrument contributing in its
special way to creating a spectacular concert in the sky.
Hydraulic System
This system transfers power from the main engine to the rotor system via
hydraulic fluid, enabling precise control of the helicopter’s motions.
But did you know that certain helicopters’ hydraulic systems may produce
pressures as high as 5,000 pounds per square inch? That much force could
raise a car off the ground!
Cooling System
Did you know that helicopters have to work in the most difficult environments,
from sweltering deserts to icy mountains?
Because of this, a helicopter’s cooling system is more complex than just a
straightforward radiator and fan. Instead, it frequently uses intricate heat
exchangers and other cutting-edge technology to keep the engine and other
components cool even in harsh settings.
Rotor Brake
Instead, it employs intricate systems to reduce or halt the rotor system’s
spinning. This procedure may frequently be finished in a couple of seconds.
Some helicopters have advanced control systems that automatically turn the
rotor brake on. This function helps protect people during crucial procedures by
preventing accidents and injuries.
Emergency Systems
Instead, to offer the highest levels of safety and security in an emergency,
they include cutting-edge technologies like satellite communications and
sophisticated sensors.
Helicopters equipped with the most current emergency systems are capable
of completely automated emergency landings. They employ sophisticated
algorithms and control mechanisms to ensure the conclusion is as secure as
possible.
Communication Systems
Effective communication is essential in every industry, and helicopters are no
exception. Helicopters are constantly in contact with air traffic control, other
aircraft, and ground employees because of their many communication
devices.
If necessary, helicopter communication devices are so sophisticated that they
can speak with alien life!
Fire Suppression Systems
Helicopters are made to survive harsh environments, including fire. Helicopter
fire suppression systems are so effective that they can create a roaring blaze
with only one blast.
Navigation Systems
Although flying might be difficult, helicopters have sophisticated navigational
systems that make it seem simple. These devices are so precise that they can
easily go through even the thickest fog or storm clouds.
Even if you don’t have a map, helicopter navigation systems are so accurate
that they can lead you to even the most distant regions of the globe!
Airframe
The backbone of a helicopter is its airframe, built to resist harsh
circumstances.
The strongest materials used to construct these airframes include titanium,
kevlar, and unobtanium. The airframe is so robust that a meteorite may strike
it directly without damaging it!
Instrumentation
The instrument panel of a helicopter has sensors, indicators, and displays that
give pilots crucial knowledge about the position, speed, altitude, engine
performance, and other vital systems.
The instrumentation suite comprises numerous instruments, such as the
altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, engine, and navigation.
Seats
Because the seats are so important, manufacturers ensure the seats are safe
and comfortable for the passengers. It is vital to build helicopter seats that can
survive the severe environments and tremendous maneuvers that passengers
experience.
The chairs must offer maximum support, stability, and safety harnesses.
When there is turbulence or unexpected movements, they should stop
passengers from being thrown out of their seats.
Helicopter seats are frequently built using cutting-edge materials like carbon
fiber, titanium, or Kevlar. The chairs are impact-resistant, lightweight, and
made of these materials.
Windows
Manufacturers create helicopter windows using tough materials like
polycarbonate, acrylic, or glass to survive harsh weather conditions, including
high-speed winds, abrupt temperature changes, and vibrations. They may
also apply coatings to increase their resistance to abrasions, impacts, and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Experts frequently install special seals on helicopter windows to stop leaks
and guarantee airtightness at high altitudes.
Doors
Access to the cabin, assuring passenger safety, and improving aerodynamics
are crucial roles doors play in helicopters.
Helicopter doors are typically made of composite materials or lightweight
aluminum. Manufacturers equip them with locks, hinges, and emergency
release systems to prevent unintentional opening during flight.
Properly constructing helicopter doors is essential to prevent turbulence, as it
can destabilize the helicopter. The air intake is an inlet outside the helicopter
that lets air into the engine for combustion.
Exhaust System
People often disregard the helicopter’s exhaust system, even though it is
essential in ensuring a safe and effective flight.
The aircraft’s exhaust system directs the hot gases created by combustion
away from the craft and avoids the accumulation of hazardous exhaust gases.
A helicopter’s engine would soon overheat without the exhaust system, which
might result in a catastrophic failure.
The exhaust system is essential in decreasing engine noise to prevent the
helicopter from disturbing individuals on the ground.
Fuel Tanks
Gasoline tanks are critical for helicopters because they hold the gasoline
needed to operate the engine. Engineers often build these tanks with
lightweight materials like aluminum or composites to reduce weight and
improve fuel economy.
Engineers must carefully determine where to install the fuel tanks to preserve
the helicopter’s balance and stability during flight. It is essential, especially
given the fluctuating fuel level.
Additionally, fuel tanks must be designed to endure the harsh circumstances
encountered during flight. High heights and turbulence are some of these
circumstances.
Flight Controls
The vital systems that provide a pilot control over a helicopter’s motions in the
air are called flight controls. The collective, cyclic, and tail rotor pedals are part
of it.
The rotor blades’ collective pitch may be changed via collective control, which
enables the helicopter to gain or lose height. The helicopter may travel
forward, backward, or sideways by separately adjusting the angle of each
rotor blade.
The pilot controls the direction of the tail rotor, which is used to offset the
torque generated by the main rotor using the tail rotor pedals. Learning to pilot
a helicopter is a challenging endeavor that requires substantial training and
experience.
Lighting Systems
Lighting systems are necessary for helicopters to fly at night or in poor light.
The lighting system of a helicopter must include lights for navigation, landing,
and anti-collision.
Pilots employ navigation lights to communicate where and how their helicopter
moves to other aircraft. They turn on anti-collision lights to improve visibility
and lessen the chance of collision, and they rely on landing lights to give extra
illumination during takeoff and landing.
Emergency Systems
Any helicopter’s emergency systems are essential because they provide a
way to flee or rescue. It comprises location transmitters (ELTs), emergency
flotation devices, and exits.
In the case of a water landing, emergency floats keep the helicopter afloat,
while emergency exits give passengers and crew a way out. In an emergency,
ELTs send a distress signal to search and rescue teams, enabling an
immediate and effective response.
10. Aircraft Structures and Materials

a) Structural Members
Structural members are the building blocks of any structure including aircraft,
buildings, bridges, towers, arches, and cables, …etc... They are interconnected in
such a way so as to constitute a required structure. The different types of structural
members are:
i) Beams
Beams are structural members whose longitudinal dimensions are
appreciably greater than their lateral dimensions. For example, the length of
the beam, as shown in Figure 1.1, is significantly greater than its breadth and
depth. The cross section of a beam can be rectangular, circular, or triangular,
or it can be of what are referred to as standard sections, such as channels,
tees, angles, and I-sections. Beams are always loaded in the longitudinal
direction.

Figure 1.1. Beam.

ii) Columns and Tension Structures

Columns are vertical structural members that are subjected to axial
compression, as shown in figure 1.2a. They are also referred to as struts or
stanchions. Columns can be circular, square, or rectangular in their cross
sections, and they can also be of standard sections. In some engineering
applications, where a single-member strength may not be adequate to sustain
a given load, built-up columns are used. A built-up column is composed of two
or more standard sections, as shown in Figure 1.2b. Tension structures are
similar to columns, with the exception that they are subjected to axial tension.
iii) Frames
Frames are structures composed of vertical and horizontal members, as
shown in Figure 1.3a. The vertical members are called columns, and the
horizontal members are called beams. Frames are classified as sway or non-
sway. A sway frame allows a lateral or sideward movement, while a non-sway
frame does not allow movement in the horizontal direction. The lateral
movement of the sway frames are accounted for in their analysis. Frames can
also be classified as rigid or flexible. The joints of a rigid frame are fixed,
whereas those of a flexible frame are moveable, as shown in Figure 1.3b.
 Fig.1.3 Frame.

iv) Trusses
Trusses are structural frameworks composed of straight members connected
at the joints, as shown in Figure 1.4. In the analysis of trusses, loads are
applied at the joints, and members are assumed to be connected at the joints
using frictionless pins.

Figure.1.4 Truss.

v) Structural member of the aircraft airframe include

 Stringers
 Longerons
 Ribs
 Bulkheads
 Frames and Formers

b) General types of construction

FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings,
stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it.
There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it
is still being used in some helicopters. The monocoque design relies largely on the
strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may
be divided into three classes
i) monocoque,
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no
bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage
rigid. The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough
strength while keeping the weight within limits.
ii) semimonocoque,
Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. See figure below. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal
members.

iii) reinforced shell.

The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural
members. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the
three classes. Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction. The
semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium alloy, although steel
and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken
by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The
longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.
Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural
members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical
members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members
are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the
wings and stabilizers. The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve
as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for
attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers.
The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a
rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression
stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is attached to the longerons,
bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the load. The fuselage
skin thickness varies with the load carried and the stresses sustained at particular
location

There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque fuselage.

- The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and
rigidity of the structure.
- The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it depends
on many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its
stressed skin construction, a semimonocoque fuselage can withstand
damage and still be strong enough to hold together. Points on the fuselage
are located by station numbers. Station 0 is usually located at or near the
nose of the aircraft. The other stations are located at measured distances
aft of station 0.
WINGS

Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing
structures carry some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The
particular design of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size, weight,
speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it
holds its aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or
wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft.
In its simplest form, the wing is a framework made up of spars and ribs and covered
with metal. The construction of an aircraft wing is shown in figure below.
Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend from the fuselage to
the tip of the wing. All the load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The
spars are designed to have great bending strength.
Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit the air load from the wing
covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
wing.
In addition to the main spars, some wings have a false spar to support the ailerons
and flaps. Most aircraft wings have a removable tip, which streamlines the outer end
of the wing. A full cantilever wing structure is very strong. The wing can be fastened
to the fuselage without the use of external bracing, such as wires or struts.
A complete wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift for the support of the
aircraft. It also provides the necessary flight control surfaces.

NOTE: The flight control surfaces on a simple wing may include only ailerons and
trailing edge flaps. The more complex aircraft may have a variety of devices, such as
leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers, and speed brakes.

c) Metallic and Non-metallic Materials for Aircraft Application

Introduction
Aircraft are built to meet certain specified requirements. These requirements must be
selected so they can be built into one aircraft. It is not possible for one aircraft to
possess all characteristics; just as it isn't possible for an aircraft to have the comfort
of a passenger transport and the maneuverability of a fighter. The type and class of
the aircraft determine how strong it must be built.

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of the following five major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Wings
3. Stabilizers
4. Flight controls surfaces
5. Landing gear

A rotary-wing aircraft consists of the following four major units:

1. Fuselage
2. Landing gear
3. Main rotor assembly
4. Tail rotor assembly
You need to be familiar with the terms used for aircraft construction

Structural stress
Identify the five basic stresses acting on an aircraft. The primary factors to consider
in aircraft structures are
1. Strength
2. Weight, and
3. Reliability.
These factors determine the requirements to be met by any material used to
construct or repair the aircraft. Airframes must be strong and light in weight.
Many forces and structural stresses act on an aircraft when it is flying and when it is
static.
When it is static, the force of gravity produces weight, which is supported by the
landing gear. The landing gear absorbs the forces imposed on the aircraft by
take-offs and landings.
During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or deceleration increases the
forces and stresses on the wings and fuselage.
Stresses on the wings, fuselage, and landing gear of aircraft are tension,
compression, shear, bending, and torsion. These stresses are absorbed by each
component of the wing structure and transmitted to the fuselage structure. The
empennage (tail section) absorbs the same stresses and transmits them to the
fuselage. These stresses are known as loads, and the study of loads is called a
stress analysis.

TENSION
Tension (fig. 4-1, view A) is defined as pull. It is the stress of stretching an object or
pulling at its ends. Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or stretching produced
by two forces pulling in opposite directions along the same straight line. For
example, an elevator control cable is in additional tension when the pilot moves the
control column.
A-TENSION

B-COMPRESSION

C-TORSION

D-SHEAR

E-BENDING
 Figure 4-1.—Five stresses acting on an aircraft.
COMPRESSION
If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each other to squeeze the material, the
stress is called compression. Compression (fig. 4-1, view B) is the opposite of
tension. Tension is pull, and compression is push. Compression is the resistance to
crushing produced by two forces pushing toward each other in the same straight line.
For example, when an airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are under a
constant compression stress.

TORSION
Torsional (fig. 4-1, view C) stresses result from a twisting force. When you wring out
a chamois skin, you are putting it under torsion. Torsion is produced in an
engine crankshaft while the engine is running. Forces that produce torsional stress
also produce torque.

SHEAR
Cutting a piece of paper with scissors is an example of a shearing action. In an
aircraft structure, shear (fig.4-1, view D) is a stress exerted when two pieces of
fastened material tend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of sliding one part
over the other in opposite directions. The rivets and bolts of an aircraft experience
both shear and tension stresses.

BENDING
Bending (fig. 4-1, view E) is a combination of tension and compression. For example,
when bending a piece of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension) and the lower
portion crushes together (compression). The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are
subject to bending stresses.

VARYING STRESS
All structural members of an aircraft are subject to one or more stresses. Sometimes
a structural member has alternate stresses; for example, it is under compression one
instant and under tension the next. The strength of aircraft materials must be great
enough to withstand maximum force of varying stresses.

SPECIFIC ACTION OF STRESSES

You need to understand the stresses encountered on the main parts of an aircraft. A
knowledge of the basic stresses on aircraft structures will help you understand why
aircraft are built the way they are.
The fuselage of an aircraft is subject the fives types of stress—torsion, bending,
tension, shear, and compression.
 Torsional stress in a fuselage is created in several ways. For example,
torsional stress is encountered in engine torque on turboprop aircraft. Engine
torque tends to rotate the aircraft in the direction opposite to the direction the
propeller is turning. This force creates a torsional stress in the fuselage.
Also, torsional stress on the fuselage is created by the action of the ailerons
when the aircraft is maneuvered.
Bending stress when an aircraft is on the ground, there is a bending force on
the fuselage. This force occurs because of the weight of the aircraft. Bending
increases when the aircraft makes a carrier landing. This bending action
creates a tension stress on the lower skin of the fuselage and a compression
stress on the top skin. These stresses are transmitted to the fuselage when
the aircraft is in flight. Bending occurs because of the reaction of the airflow
against the wings and empennage. When the aircraft is in flight, lift forces act
upward against the wings, tending to bend them upward. The wings are
prevented from folding over the fuselage by the resisting strength of the wing
structure. The bending action creates a tension stress on the bottom of the
wings and a compression stress on the top of the wings.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
An aircraft must be constructed of materials that are both light and strong.
Early aircraft were made of wood. Lightweight metal alloys with a strength
greater than wood were developed and used on later aircraft. Materials
currently used in aircraft construction are classified as either metallic materials
or nonmetallic materials.

METALLIC MATERIALS
The most common metals used in aircraft construction are aluminium,
magnesium, titanium, steel, and their alloys.

 Alloys
An alloy is composed of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in
the largest amount is called the base metal. All other metals added to the
base metal are called alloying elements. Adding the alloying elements may
result in a change in the properties of the base metal. For example, pure
aluminum is relatively soft and weak. However, adding small amounts or
copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase aluminum's strength many
times. Heat treatment can increase or decrease an alloy's strength and
hardness. Alloys are important to the aircraft industry. They provide materials
with properties that pure metals do not possess.

 Aluminum
 Aluminum alloys are widely used in modern aircraft construction. Aluminum
alloys are valuable because they have a high strength-to-weight ratio.
Aluminum alloys are corrosion resistant and comparatively easy to fabricate.
The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its lightweight.

 Magnesium
Magnesium is the world's lightest structural metal. It is a silvery-white material
that weighs two-thirds as much as aluminum. Magnesium is used to make
helicopters. Magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has limited its use in
conventional aircraft.

 Titanium
Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosionresistant metal. Recent
developments make titanium ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are
too weak and stainless steel is too heavy. Additionally, titanium is unaffected
by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.
Titanium is a popular material in the aerospace industry due to its high
strength, low density and excellent corrosion resistant. Commercially pure
titanium is preferred for making of airframes, while titanium alloys are
generally used for the development of engine parts.

 Steel Alloys
Alloy steels used in aircraft construction have great strength, more so than
other fields of engineering would require. These materials must withstand the
forces that occur on today's modern aircraft. These steels contain small
percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum.
High-tensile steels will stand stress of 50 to 150 tons per square inch without
failing. Such steels are made into tubes, rods, and wires. Another type of steel
used extensively is stainless steel. Stainless steel resists corrosion and is
particularly valuable for use in or near water.

NONMETALLIC MATERIALS
In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are found in aircraft
construction. Some of these plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced
plastic, composite, and carbon-fiber materials.

 Transparent Plastic
Transparent plastic is used in canopies, windshields, and other transparent
enclosures. You need to handle transparent plastic surfaces carefully
because they are relatively soft and scratch easily. At approximately 225°F,
transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable.
 Reinforced Plastic
Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer
tips, antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high
 strength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew and rot. Because it is easy
to fabricate, it is equally suitable for other parts of the aircraft.
Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material (fig. 4-4). It is made up of two
outer facings and a center layer. The facings are made up of several layers of
glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. The core material (center
layer) consists of a honeycomb structure made of glass cloth. Reinforced
plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes.

Figure. 4-4: Sandwich-type material

Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials
High-performance aircraft require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material.
Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this special requirement. Composite
materials are constructed by using several layers of bonding materials
(graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). These materials are mechanically fastened to
conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin
graphite epoxy skins bonded to an aluminum honeycomb core. Carbon fiber is
extremely strong, thin fiber made by heating synthetic fibers, such as rayon, until
charred, and then layering in cross sections.