INTRODCTION

The importance of finding alternative or renewable fuels has become a critical issue in many

countries, the Africa contries included, as a response to the global energy crisis [1]. Hence, the

search for alternative energy sources has become imperative [2]. These alternative fuels must

meet various criteria, such as significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions, utilizing globally

available raw materials, and being derived from renewable feedstock. Studies have indicated that

a gallon of gasoline used in a vehicle emits 8 kg of CO2 [3]. Considering the projected increase

in the number of vehicles to 1.3 billion by 2030 and over 2 billion by 2050 due to population

growth and other factors [4], it is essential to address the environmental impact of petroleum-

based fuels predominantly used in vehicles. An ideal alternative fuel option should be

economically viable, environmentally safe, and readily accessible in the market [5]. Some of the

proposed alternative fuels include bioethanol, biodiesel, hydrogen, natural gas, liquefied

petroleum gas (LPG), Fischer–Tropsch fuel, and solar fuels [6]. Biofuels encompass fuels

derived from biological sources, distinct from petroleum cracking.

Nwakaire and colleagues (2013) conducted a laboratory-scale study on the production of

cellulosic ethanol from wood sawdust, utilizing readily available biomass waste as a sustainable

alternative fuel source. The research focused on determining the ethanol yield from sawdust

obtained from the Nsukka Sawmill (Timber shed). The experiment employed 18 M sulfuric acid

(78% concentration) for hydrolysis and 6 M sodium hydroxide for the fermentation process.

Fermentable sugars were extracted from the cellulosic biomass during hydrolysis. After 48

hours, the sawdust treated with sulfuric acid was diluted with distilled water to achieve a pH

range of 5.0-6.0. The results showed that 10 kg of sawdust yielded 500 cm3 of ethanol,

confirmed through the Beer-Lambert plot of the ethanol-water mixture. This successful
extraction suggests promising possibilities for further development. Additionally, the analysis of

ethanol yield from different crops revealed that cassava exhibited the highest biofuel yield (6,000

kg/ha/yr) and conversion rate (150 L/ton), outperforming other major crops. Although sugarcane

and carrots showed higher yields (70 and 45 tons/ha/yr, respectively), their high water

requirements during growth stages pose a significant challenge compared to cassava, which can

thrive in drier conditions.

The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) to bioethanol involves a four-stage process:

pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation. Pretreatment is the most

critical step, as it significantly impacts the overall efficiency of the bioconversion process

(Kamzon et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2011). To maximize reducing sugar yield and minimize

degradation products, specific pretreatment methods or combinations are essential. Chemical

pretreatment methods using acid and alkaline reagents have been extensively researched and are

leading the way towards commercialization. Alkaline pretreatment stands out for its efficiency in

lignin removal and lower energy requirements, outperforming other techniques across various

feedstocks like agricultural residues and forages. Acid hydrolysis, either dilute or concentrated,

breaks down cellulose and hemicellulose polymers in LCB into fermentable sugars (Chaudhary

et al., 2012).

Reference:

Nwakaire et al. (2013). Production of Cellulosic Ethanol from Wood Sawdust. Journal of

Sustainable Biofuels, 5(2), 123-135.

Background

The background of this study is the increasing interest in bioethanol production from

lignocellulosic biomass, such as sawdust, as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Bioethanol is

a biofuel that can be used as a substitute for gasoline in vehicles,

The use of sawdust as a feedstock for bioethanol production has several advantages, which

includes Abundance, Low cost and environmental benefit.

However, the conversion of sawdust to bioethanol is a complex process that requires several

steps, including hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation. The efficiency and cost-effectiveness

of this process are crucial factors in the production of bioethanol.

Hydrolysis is a critical step in the conversion of sawdust to bioethanol, as it breaks down the

lignocellulose into fermentable sugars. Acid and alkali hydrolysis are two common methods used

for this purpose, but they have different effects on the subsequent fermentation step and the

overall bioethanol production process.

Therefore, this study aims to investigate and compare the effects of acid and alkali hydrolysis on

bioethanol production from sawdust, in order to optimize the process conditions and improve the

efficiency and sustainability of bioethanol production.

Research Problem Statement

1. What are the comparative effects of acid and alkali hydrolysis on bioethanol production

from sawdust, and how can the process conditions be optimized to improve the efficiency and

sustainability of bioethanol production?"

2. Which hydrolysis method (acid or alkali) results in:

- Higher bioethanol yields

- Improved fermentation efficiency

- Reduced inhibitory compound formation

- Lower energy consumption

- Cost-effective processing

3. What are the optimal process conditions (temperature, pH, residence time, etc.) for each

hydrolysis method to achieve the best bioethanol production outcomes from sawdust?"

Justification of Study

The production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic materials offers a sustainable alternative to

fossil fuels and can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By focusing on pretreatment methods

for sawdust, a readily available lignocellulosic resource, this study aims to contribute to the

development of cost-effectiveness.

Aim of Study

- To experimentally assess the effectiveness of different pretreatment methods on the

enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation of sawdust for bioethanol production.

- To check the effect of different hydrolysis times and temperatures on bioethanol

production

- The viability and cost-effectiveness of using acid vs. alkali hydrolysis in a large-scale

bioethanol production process

By exploring these factors, you can gain valuable insights into the most efficient and sustainable

methods for producing bioethanol from sawdust.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 INTRODCTION

This chapter provides a comprehensive and systematic review of the existing literature on the

effects of acid and alkali hydrolysis of sawdust on bioethanol production, aiming to establish a

robust theoretical foundation for the current research. By examining and synthesizing relevant

studies, identifying key themes and patterns, and highlighting knowledge gaps and areas for

further investigation, this literature review seeks to:

- Provide a nuanced understanding of the hydrolysis processes involved in bioethanol

production from lignocellulosic biomass, with a specific focus on sawdust as a feedstock

- Elucidate the benefits and limitations of acid and alkali hydrolysis methods

- Identify optimal conditions and parameters for bioethanol production

- Explore the potential of sawdust as a sustainable and renewable feedstock for bioethanol

production

- Inform and guide future research in the field

- Facilitate the development of more efficient and cost-effective bioethanol production

processes

- Contribute to the advancement of sustainable energy solutions and the mitigation of

climate change.

By achieving these objectives, this literature review aims to make a significant contribution to

the existing body of knowledge in the field, providing a valuable resource for researchers,

scholars, and industry professionals working on bioethanol production and related areas."
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION

Bioethanol is a renewable fuel, It can be used directly as agasoline improver or gasoline

subsistent, it is produced through the fermentation of sugars found in plants such as corn,

sugarcane, and switch grass. The production process typically involves the breakdown of plant

material into sugars, which are then fermented by microorganisms to produce ethanol.

Bioethanol is considered a first-generation biofuel and is commonly used as an additive in

gasoline to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner air quality. It is also used as a

fuel source for vehicles, both in its pure form as E85 and as an additive in lower concentrations

such as E10.

The production and use of bioethanol help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and contribute to

a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy source.

In addition to its environmental benefits, bioethanol also helps to support rural economies by

creating jobs in agriculture, biofuel production, and distribution. By utilizing locally grown crops

for bioethanol production, it can also help to reduce reliance on imported oil and foster energy

independence.

One of the key advantages of bioethanol is its potential for reducing overall greenhouse gas

emissions compared to traditional gasoline. When produced from sustainable feedstocks and

utilizing efficient production processes, bioethanol can result in significant carbon savings and

contribute to mitigating climate change.

As a renewable and low-carbon fuel option, bioethanol plays a crucial role in transitioning

towards a more sustainable and cleaner energy future. Continued research and development in
biofuel technologies are essential to further improve the efficiency and environmental

performance of bioethanol production and use.

LIGNOCELLULOSE BIOMASS

Lignocellulose biomass is a type of biomass that is composed of lignin, cellulose, and

hemicellulose. It is the most abundant biomass on Earth and is found in plant cell walls.

Lignocellulose biomass is a complex material that is difficult to convert into biofuels and

biochemicals, but it has the potential to be a sustainable and renewable resource for the

production of these products. It can be gotten from Agricultural waste (e.g. corn stalks, wheat

straw), Forestry waste (e.g. wood chips, sawdust), Energy crops (e.g. switchgrass,

miscanthus),Municipal solid waste (e.g. paper, cardboard) It comprises ;

- Lignin (10-30%): a rigid, aromatic polymer that provides structure and defense to plants

- Cellulose (40-60%): a linear polymer of glucose molecules that provides strength and

structure to plants

- Hemicellulose (20-40%): a branched polymer of various sugars that acts as a glue to hold

cellulose and lignin together

Conversion processes:

- Mechanical processing (e.g. grinding, crushing)

- Chemical processing (e.g. acid hydrolysis, alkaline hydrolysis)

- Biological processing (e.g. fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis)

Products:

- Biofuels (e.g. ethanol, butanol)

- Biochemicals (e.g. biodegradable plastics, detergents)

- Biopower (e.g. heat, electricity)

Challenges:

- Recalcitrance: lignocellulose is difficult to break down and convert

- Cost: conversion processes can be expensive

- Scalability: large-scale conversion can be challenging

References:

1. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (2020). Lignocellulose Biomass.

2. International Energy Agency (IEA). (2020). Lignocellulose Biomass for Energy.

3. ScienceDirect. (2020). Lignocellulose Biomass: A Review.

Pretreatment of Feedstock

The underlying stage in bio-conversion of lignocellulosic or cellulosic materials to biofuel is

assessed diminishing and pre-treat- ment. The target of any pretreatment development is to

change or oust helper and compositional deterrents to hydrolysis in order to upgrade the rate of

impetus hydrolysis and augmentation yields of disintegrated glucose from cellulose or

hemicellulose.

There are diverse sort of pretreatment headways Pre-treatment Technology (Mechanical Method)

Target of this method is to disintegrate the lignocellulosic bio- mass into small units. Mechanical

pretreatment is habitually used as a piece of mix with various advancements. The high im-

perativeness essential of this pre-treatment is a vital drawback and it is likely not going to be

fiscally reasonable at commercial level.

Physico-Chemical Pretreatment Technology

Vapor Eruption

Biomass is treated with high weight splashed steam and the load is in a brief moment decreased,

which causes a temperamental rot of biomass. Normal temperatures for this method are 1600C to

2600C which looks at to 0.69 to 4.83 MPa weight. Acidic destructive is made from the acetyl

bundles in hemi-cellulose. Concentrated acid and other weak acids added in the midst of

pretreatment may moreover catalyze hydrolysis and sugar deg- radation. Some learning is

emptied by this pretreatment, in any case, it is redistributed on the fiber surfaces as a result of the

condensing and depolymerization/repolymerization reactions [7]. Cellulose is generally secured

in the solid segment.

Fiber Expansion Using Ammonia

Fiber expansion using ammonia is in a general sense equivalent to steam impact. It is commonly

coordinated at temperatures of 60 oC to 110 oC within 30 minutes with fluid smelling salts por-

tion of about 2Kg/Kg dry biomass, trailed by an insecure weight release. In the midst of pre-

treatment, certain percentage of lig- nin and hemicelluloses are cleared while disintegrating the

cel- lulose. The materials structure will be altered, achieving rising in the liquid holding limit and

higher edibility [8]. Stood out from destructive pretreatment, AFEX has no gigantic effect on

solubilization of hemicellulose [8].

Supercritical Fluids

It suggests a fluid that is in a vaporous casing, nonetheless, it is compacted at temperatures over

its essential point to a liquid like thickness, yet underneath the load required to combine it into a

solid [9]. Carbon dioxide (CO2), water and propane are the most focused supercritical fluids.

The high weight empowers the speedier passageway of CO2 particles into the lignocellulosic

structure. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide shapes carbon- ic destructive when in water,

realizing the hydrolysis of cellu- lose and hemicellulose parts. The hydrolyzed monomers can be

moreover changed over to furfurals, HMF, and different perilous reactions under growing

temperatures and reaction times. The risky entry of the carbon dioxide weight, redesigns

substrate hy- drolysis by exasperating the cellulosic structure.

Hot Water

In this methodology water is used under strain and at bringing temperatures to remain up in the

liquid state [11]. This pretreat- ment occurs at temperatures in the extent of 140°C to 300°C with

a 15 min living plan time, which achieves the removal of 4 to 22 % cellulose, 35 % to 60 %

lignin and most of the hemicelluloses. Liquid high temp water separates the acetyl and uronic

destructive social affairs in hemicelluloses making acidic and other regular acids. The entry of

these acids catalyzes the im- provement and clearing of oligosaccharides [14].

Irradiation

Light by γ shafts, electron column and microwave are some oth- er physical ways to deal with

decrease the crystallinity of ligno- cellulosic material. Regardless, these advances remain exorbi-

tant at full scale [1].

Chemical Pretreatment Technology

Alkaline Hydrolysis

Alkaline settling agent pre-treatment systems can be parceled into two essential get together

depending upon the stimulus ap- plied, metal based like sodium, potassium, etc with smelling

salts centered forces. Not in the slightest degree like destructive methodology, essential

pretreatments are convincing in ousting lignin showing negligible cellulose with fairly higher

hemicel- lulose solubilization [12, 13]. Using this method, lignocellulosic bio-mass can be

breakdown into dissolvable lignin, hemicellu- lose and solid development (generally cellulose).

Before long, the sufficiency of this strategy depends upon the lignin substance of the biomass.

Ozonolysis

Ozone is used to spoil lignin and hemicellulose. Debasement happens even more effectively to

lignin and, less enough to hemicellulose and cellulose. This pretreatment is extraordinarily

expensive as it requires a ton of ozone, which adds to the getting ready expense.
Acid Hydrolysis

The purpose behind destructive pretreatment is to dissolve the hemi-cellulose part and to

redesign cellulose edibility in the rest of the solids. This sort of pre-treatment can be achieved

with strong or debilitated acids and it has been endeavored on a broad assortment of feedstock

running from hardwood to grasses to cultivating developments. Sulfuric destructive is the most

thought destructive. Others join hydrochloric destructive, nitric destructive, phosphoric

destructive, peracetic destructive and normal acids such as fumaric and maleic. Debilitated

destructive pretreatment bolsters the solubilization of hemicellulose, xylem in particular, yet it

similarly isolates the solubilized hemicellulose to fermentable sugars [3].

Oxidative Pre-treatment

An oxidative pre-treatment uses the extension of an oxidizing pro, for instance, hydrogen

peroxide. The focus is to oust lignin and hemicelluloses with unimportant sugar corruption

together with an unsafe compound course of action. When in doubt the oxidant used is non-

specific.

Ionic Liquids

Ionic liquids (ILs) are thermally enduring, non-unsafe charac- teristic salts with potential

application as ''green solvents''. ILs can diminish the crystallinity of cellulose and generally emp-

ty hemicellulose. Pretreatment with ILs are less imperativeness asking for, more straightforward

to manage and more environmentally very much arranged than other pretreatment methods, for

instance, mechanical preparing, steam impact, destructive, base, or regular dissolvable

techniques. ILs used in the midst of pretreatment contain anion of chloride, format, acidic
corrosive determination or alkyl phosphonate which outline, strong hydro- gen-securities with

cellulose and diverse sugars

Biological Pretreatment Technology

In normal pretreatment shapes, microorganisms, for instance, white, darker and sensitive rot

parasites are used as a piece of the breaking down of lignocellulosic biomass. Dull hued rots dis-

turb starch, however white and sensitive rots ambush, both cel- lulose and lignin. White-rot life

forms breakdown lignin through the movement of peroxidases and laccases.

Hydrolysis

In a split second the pre-treatment point of view is done, the cel- lulose is set up for hydrolysis,

which implies the piece of an iota by including a water molecule as introduced by [14].

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose

Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose are finished by cellulase mix- es which are exceedingly

specific. Utility expense of enzymatic hydrolysis is low diverged from destructive or dissolvable

hy- drolysis since protein hydrolysis are typically driven at smooth conditions and does not have

a breaking down issue [6]. The two minute living beings and developments can convey

cellulases for the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials.

These micro-organisms could be energetic, mesophilic or ther- mophilic. Micro-organisms

having a spot with Clostridium, Cellulomonas, Bacillus, Thermomonospora, Ruminococcin,

Bacteroides, Erwinia, Acetamiprid, Microspore, and Streptomy- ces can convey cellulases [1].

Cellulomonas fame and Thermo- monospora fusca have been generally analyzed for cellulose

age. Yet various cellulolytic microorganisms did not convey high protein titter.
Living beings that have been represented to make cellulases consolidate Sclerotium Rolfson, P.

chrysophobia and sorts of Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Schizophyllum and Penicillium [3].

Fermentation

As the feedstock will be hydrolyzed by destructive treatment; the hydrolysate procure will be

utilized for bio-ethanol maturing by micro-organisms, for instance, yeast. Since such

lignocellulose hydrolysate contains glucose, just as various monosaccha- rides, microorganisms

should be required to profitably age these sugars for the viable mechanical age of biofuel as

considered by Bertilsson, 2007. Simultaneous saccharification (glucose) and maturing (SSF) will

be used in light of the fact that the structure will make use of a mix of debilitating destructive

with high-tem- perature bubbling water pre-treatment for victories. Around 80% of the ethanol

conveyed on the planet is as yet getting from de- velopments; whatever remains of by and large

by blend from the oil based item, ethylene.

The alcohol conveyed in the US is on a very basic level used as a piece of blended refreshments,

be that as it may, this isn't commonly the situation elsewhere on the planet.

Regardless of wide research on fuel ethanol age from biomass, until 1995, not a singular plant fit

for changing over cellulosic raw materials to biofuel, through natural planning on the cutting

edge scale, has been put into movement wherever on the planet, though some model or trial

plants have been carefully selected.

Distillation

This is to confine course of action obtained which will contain water and diverse synthetic

concoctions from the real ethanol [15]. Adeleke et al (2012) has inquired about the effect of the
overall unusualness of mix obtained from the maturing of cassava squash on the layout of

refining fragment using made a Java based proliferation programming. The entertainment was

done by varying the relative unsteadiness as a data parameter to the made programming and

changes in the amount of plate in the segment and the section stature were considered.

Contrasting the relative unusualness in the region of 1.3 and 2.2 at a between time of 0.1, the

amount of plate lessens from 10 to 4 (generally) and the segment stature reduces from 5.375 to

2.411m. The result exhibited that decrease in the estimation of area stature and number of plates

with augmentation in relative unconventional- ity shows the effect of relative shakiness on the

similar number of plates and the section height of refining fragment that would give the most

shocking faultlessness of ethanol.