BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING II (SUG 102)

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most fundamental of all surveying
observations. In traditional ground surveys, even though many angles may be read, the length of
at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in locating points. In plane
surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the points are at
different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length between vertical lines at the points.
Linear/Distance measurement is defined as the measurement of the distance between points on
the surface of the earth. It can be done by one of these three methods;
(i) Direct measurement in which a chain, tape or steel band is used (chain surveying)
(ii) By optical means (Tacheometry)
(iii) By Electro-Magnetic distance measurement EDM
DIRECT METHOD USING A TAPE
In this method, steel tapes or wires are used to measure distance very accurately. Nowadays,
EDM is being used exclusively for accurate measurements but the steel tape still is of value for
measuring limited lengths for setting out purposes.
Tape measurements require certain corrections to be applied to the measured distance depending
upon the conditions under which the measurements have been made. These corrections are
discussed in SUG 101.
Two methods of distance measurement shall be discussed in this chapter; Tacheometry and EDM
(Electro-magnetic distance measurement)
1.1 OBSERVATION OF SMALL HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES BY
REPETITION
This is the method (repetition method) adopted for the measurement of small angles as the
measuring accuracy of the instrument can be greatly increased. This involves measuring single
angles a number of times, say n, obtaining the sum of angles x for n readings. The mean angle is
given by x/n.
For instance, if angle ABC is required, the process is as follows;
A

Fig.B1.1
C
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 i. Set up instrument on station B and perform temporary adjustment.
ii. Sight A, clamp both the upper and lower clamps, book the initial readings (H.C.R and
V.C.R)
iii. Release the clamps, swing right and sight C accurately, clamp both clamps and book
the readings
iv. Release the clamps, swing right and sight A again, book the readings
v. The angle is reduced by subtract initial reading (A) from the foresight reading (C)
Note that this process could be repeated on the other face.
1.2 TACHEOMETRIC OR OPTICAL METHOD
Tacheometry or tachemetry or telemetry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal
and Vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower
process of measurements by tape or chain. Tacheometry (from Greek, quick measure), is a
system of rapid surveying, by which the positions, both horizontal and vertical, of points on the
earth surface relatively to one another are determined without using a chain or tape or a separate
leveling instrument.

In stadia tacheometry the line of sight of the tacheometer may be kept horizontal or inclined
depending upon the field conditions. In the case of horizontal line of sight, the horizontal
distance between the instrument at A and the staff at B is D = ks + c; where k and c = the
multiplying and additive constants of the tacheometer respectively, and s = the staff intercept, S=
ST – SB , where ST and SB are the top hair and bottom hair readings, respectively.
Generally, the value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0 (zero), respectively, for making the
computations simpler. Thus; D = 100s.

Fig. 1.2
The elevations of the points, in this case, are obtained by determining the height of instrument
and taking the middle hair reading. Let hi = the height of the instrument axis above the ground at

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A, hA, hB = the elevations of A and B, and SM = the middle hair reading then the height of
instrument is H.I. = hA + hi and hB = H.I. – SM = hA + hi – SM.

Fig. 1.3
In the case of inclined line of sight as shown in the figure 1.3 above the vertical angle α is
measured, and the horizontal and vertical distances, D and V, respectively, are determined from
the following expressions.
D =ks cos2 α and V = ksinα

The elevation of B is computed as below.

hB = hA + hi + V – SM
SUBTENSE TACHEOMETRY
In subtense tacheometry, the distance is determined by measuring the horizontal angle subtended
by the subtense bar targets (fig. 1.4a) and for heighting, a vertical angle is also measured (fig.
1.4b).

Let b = the length of the subtense bar PQ, 𝜃= the horizontal angle subtended by the subtense bar
targets P and Q at the station A, and α= the vertical angle of R at O then,

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 𝜃

b/2 =

D= = = (when 𝜃 is small)

V =Dtan
and hB =hA +hi +V -hs where hs = the height of the subtense bar above the ground.
When a vertical bar with two targets is used vertical angles are required to be measured and the
method is termed as tangential system.
1.3 SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS AND USE OF SELF REDUCING TACHEOMETER
A tacheometer must essentially incorporate the following features:
 The multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100 and the error contained in this
value should not exceed 1 in 1000.
 The axial horizontal line should be exactly midway between the other two lines.
 The telescope should be truly anallactic.
 The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20mm to 30mm diameters.
 The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter to have a sufficiently bright
image.
 For small distances (say 100 meters), ordinary leveling staff may be used. For greater
distances a stadia rod may be used.
 A stadia rod is usually of one piece, having 3 – 5 meters length.
 A stadia rod graduated in 5 mm (i.e. 0.005 m) for smaller distances and while for longer
distances, the rod may be graduated in 1 cm (i.e. 0.01 m).
USES OF TACHEOMETRY

The tacheometric methods of surveying are used with advantage over the direct methods
of measurement of horizontal distances and differences in elevations. Some of the uses are:

 Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal distances.

 Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are inconvenient

 Detail filling

 Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.

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  Checking of already measured distances

 Hydrographic surveys and

 Establishing secondary control.

1.4 USING THE THEODOLITE AS TACHEOMETER FOR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

A diaphragm is incorporate in the telescope of all theodolites. This consists of a plain glass plate
on which a series of fine hair lines are marked. There is a fine line defining the vertical diameter
and another defining the horizontal diameter of the telescope. In addition, two stadia lines are
included which are parallel to the horizontal diameter, one being above it and one below.

Before taking any readings with the Theodolite, the diaphragm must be brought into focus by
adjusting the eyepiece. In the method, a Theodolite with the measuring unit inside in conjunction
with a leveling staff which acts at target be used. This is usually known as the stadia system. One
pointing of the instrument is required for each set of reading.
In computing the distance between the Theodolite and the leveling staff, this can be
determine by using D = KS + C

Fig. 1.5
Consider the figure 1.5, in which O is the optical centre of the objective of an external focusing
telescope. Let A, C, and B = the points cut by the three lines of sight corresponding to three
wires.
b, c, and a = top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.

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ab = i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)
AB = s = staff intercept;
f = focal length of the objective (distance between optical center and its focus)
f1 = horizontal distance of the staff from the optical centre of the objective
f2 = horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O.
d = distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O.
D = horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instruments.
M = centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis.
Since the rays BOb and AOa pass through the optical centre, they are straight so that AOB and
aOb are similar. Hence,

Again, since f1 and f2 are conjugate focal distances, we have from lens formula,

Multiplying throughout by ff1, we get f1 = **

Substituting the value of in the ** above, thus f1 =

Horizontal distance between the axis and the staff is D = f1 + d

D= s + (f + d) = k × s + C

Above equation is known as the distance equation. In order to get the horizontal distance,
therefore, the staff intercept s is to be found by subtracting the staff readings corresponding to
the top and bottom stadia hairs.
The constant k = f/i is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor (usually 100)
and the constant (f + d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument (usually 0).
1.5 DETERMINATION OF DISTANCES, DETAILS AND SPOT HEIGHTS WITH
VERTICAL STAFF AND TACHEOMETER
When a vertical staff is used in conjuction with a theodolite (used as a techemeter) to determine
heights and distance, the staff must be held normal to the line of collimination.

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Fig. 1.6
Since the line A‟B‟ is perpendicular to the line of sight OC, equation D = k s + C is directly
applicable. Hence, MC = L = k . A‟B‟ + C = k s cos Ө + C
The horizontal distance D = L cosӨ = (k s cosӨ + C) cosӨ, D = k s cos2Ө + C cosӨ
Similarly, V = L sin Ө = (k s cosӨ + C) sinӨ = k s cosӨ . sinӨ + C sinӨ, V = ksin2𝜃

Thus equations above are the distance and elevation formulae for inclined line of sight.
Example: 1
The following readings were taken on a vertical staff with a tacheometer with analytic lens
having a constant of 100
Staff station Bearing Vertical angle Staff readings
A 35° 45‟ 8° 1.125 1.640 2.155
B 215° 45‟ -5° 1.000 2.055 3.110
Calculate the levels of the ground at A and B given the reduced level and height of instrument
are 92.5m and 1.50m respectively.
Solution RLA = 92.5 + 1.50 + 14.195 – 1.640 =
Staff station A; S = 2.155 – 1.125 = 1.030m 106.555m
2
H = 100 × 1.030 cos 8° = 101.0m Staff station B; S = 3.110 – 1.000 = 2.110
V = (100 × 1.030 sin 2×8°)/2 H = 100 × 2.110 × cos25° = 209.4m
V = 100 × 1.030sin16° = 14.195m V = (100 × 2.110 × sin -10°)/2 = -18.32
RLA=RL1 + H.I + V1 – m RLB = RL1 + H.I –V – m
= 92.5 + 1.5 -18.32-2.055 = 77.735m
Example 2: To measure a line AB, a theodolite was set up at A and a subtense bar of length 2m
was set up at B. The horizontal angle measured at A for the subtense bar targets was 4°02′26.4″.

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Determine the length of AB.
Solution

= D, D =

Example 3. The following tacheometric observations were made on two points P and Q from
station A.
Staff at Bearing Vertical angle Upper Middle Lower
P 234° 34’ 02’’ -5°12’ 1.388 0.978 0.610
Q 255° 12’50’’ +27°35’ 1.604 1.286 0.997
The height of the tacheometer at A above the ground was 1.55 m. Determine the elevations of P
and Q if the elevation of A is 75.500 m. The stadia constant k and c are respectively 100 and 0.0.
Solution:
H = ks cos2 𝜃 The height of the instrument
V = (k×s×sin2𝜃)/2 H.I. = Elevation of A + instrument height
The given data are = 75.500 + 1.55 = 77.050 m
SP = 1.388 - 0.610 = 0.778m Elevation of P
SQ = 1.604 - 0.997= 0.607m hP = H.I. – VAP – m
Therefore the distances = 77.050 – 7.022 – 0.978
AP= 100× 0.778× cos2 (5 12′)= 77.161m = 69.050 m
VAP = (100× 0.778 sin(2×5 12 ))/2 =7.022m Elevation Q
AQ = 100 × 0.607× cos2 (27° 35′)= 47.686m HQ = H.I. + VAQ – middle hair reading at Q
VAQ = (100 0.607 sin(2× 27° 35‟ ))/2= = 77.050 + 24.912 – 1.286
24.912m = 100.676 m.
Example 4.
Theodolite with a multiplying constant of 100 and additive constant of 0 sights on to a B.M
75.00m with an angle of depression 10° determine the height of the instrument when the stadia
reading are 8.0, 5.0 and 2.0
Solution
V = (100×6×sin 20°)/2 = 102.61m
H.I = B.M + V +m = 75.0 + 102.61 + 5 = 182.61m
If the same instrument now sights on to a station with and angle of depression of 15° and stadia
reading are 8.5, 5.7, 2.9, find depression of the staff station from the instrument station and its
reduced level.
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Exercise 1. With a theodolite set 1.58 m above station A, a sight is taken on a staff held at station
B. The staff intercept 1.420 m with middle cross hair reading 3.54 m, and vertical angle – 5°13′.
With the instrument set 1.55 m above station B, a sight is taken on the staff held at station A. The
staff intercept is 1.430 m with middle cross hair reading as 2.35 m, and the vertical angle +
6°00′. The instrument is internal focusing with constants k = 101 and c = 0. What is the average
length of AB and the average difference in elevation between the two points ?
Exercise 2. A tacheometer was set up at station A with trunion axis 1.18 m above the ground,
and due to some obstruction in line of sight only reading of upper and lower stadia wires could
be recorded as 2.022 and 1.07 respectively with vertical angle as + 3°05′, on the staff held
vertically at station B. If the tacheometric constants are as k = 100 and c = 0, calculate the other
staff readings and the horizontal distance AB.
DETAILING BY TACHEOMETRY
Detailing such as buildings, power line, roads, pond, rivers e.t.c., can be fixed by radiating to the
desired points on the detail taking the horizontal angle from a reference direction and recording
the three cross hairs readings on the staff. The distance from the instrument station with the
direction can be used for plotting of the detail. This is illustrated in the diagram below:

P Pl2
l
Building
Reference 2
direction

Pl1 fig. 1.7

Theodolite

1.6 EELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)

The EDM equipments which are commonly used in land surveying are mainly electronic or
microwave systems and electro-optical instruments. These operate on the principle that a
transmitter at the master station sends modulated continuous carrier wave to a receiver at the
remote station from which it is returned. The instruments measure slope distance D between
transmitter and receiver. It is done by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different
frequencies and then measuring the phase difference at the master between the outgoing and
incoming signals. This introduces an element of double distance is introduced. The expression
for the distance D traversed by the wave is D=Vt: where t = tB-tA.

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2D = Vt
D = Vt/2
1.7 ACCURACIES ATTAINABLE IN VARIOUS METHODS OF OPTICAL DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
1. Substense method:
Accuracy of the substance method is usually influenced by the precision by which the angle is
measured, the length of the subtence bar and the orientation of the bar. The best results are
obtained at short distances with a limiting minimum distance of 40m (for instance). Error
increases at shorter distance. For a distance of 40m and accuracy of 1/10200 can be achieved if
proper precautions are taken.
2. Tangential systems
In tangential system, two pointing of the Theodolite are required on to a vertically held staff.
There is always problem of staff being vertically held and this must be guided against.
3. Stadia System:
Accuracy of this method also depends on the angle of tilt. i.e non verticality of the staff. The
smaller the angle of tilt, the greater the accuracy. For example, it has been worked out that one
could obtain a fractional accuracy of 1/6500 when the angle of tilt is 1°
4. Accuracy of EDM = (amm + bppm), b = measuring error in parts per million and a = personal
error/instrumental error in mm.
ASSIGNMENT. The table below shows the field data acquired by ND II Students of Surveying
and Geoinformatics Department, calculate the reduce levels and coordinates of each point.

Bearing PL1 – PL2 = 22° 14‟‟, PL2 – PL3 = 46° 06‟, PL3 – PL4 = 86° 42‟, PL6–PL7 = 270° 46‟

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 TRAVERSING
A traverse consists a series of straight lines of known length related one another by known angles
between the lines. The points defining the ends of the traverse lines are called the traverse
stations. Traverse survey is a method of establishing control points, their positions being
determined by measuring the distances between the traverse stations which serve as control
points and the angles subtended at the various stations by their adjacent stations. The angles are
measured with a theodolite and the distances are measured by the methods discussed in Chapter
1 depending on the accuracy required in the survey work. Chain and compass traverse may be
run for ordinary surveys.
Types of Traverse
There are two types of traverse, namely the open traverse and the closed traverse. An open
traverse originates at a point of known position and terminates at a point of unknown position
Where as a closed traverse originates and terminates at points of known positions. When closed
traverse originates and terminates at the same point, it is called the closed-loop traverse. For
establishing control points, a closed traverse is preferred since it provides different checks for
included angles, deflection angles and bearings for adjusting the traverse. (Types of traverse
have been discussed in SUG 101)
2.1 VARIOUS EQUIPMENT USED IN THEODOLITE AND TOTAL STATION TRAVERSING
1. Theodolite and its accessories
2. Total station and its accessories
3. cutlass, arrow, ranging pole, tripod stand, survey umbrella, steal tape, leveling stave,
traverse field book, tacheometry field book e.t.c

2.2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES, DISTANCE AND TOLERABLE

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MISCLOSURE FOR TERTIARY TRAVERSE.
The accuracy of a traverse is governed largely by the type of equipment used and the observing
and measuring techniques employed. These are dictated by the purpose of the survey. The most
common type of traverse for general engineering work and site surveys (tertiary traverse) would
be of typical accuracy of 1:500 to 1:5000. This chapter is concerned mainly with an expected
accuracy range of about 1:500 to 1:5000.

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General tertiary traverse specification
Accuracy Purpose Angular Linear Angular
measurement measurement check
Small scale detail
1:500 – 1:5000 survey
Rough large scale 20‟‟ or 1‟ Synthetic tapes, 30‟‟√n,
detail survey Theodolite stadia tacheometry where is
Preliminary or number of
reconnaissance stations
survey
Table 2.1
2.3 NEED FOR CONNECTION AND PROCEDURE FOR VERIFICATION OF EXISTING
CONTROLS
All survey job needed to start from a known point and end on the same known point or another
known point. There is need to ascertain the suitability and stability of any existing control before
it should be use as connection or reference point and this prompt the essence of control check.
This is to check for the conformity of assurance.

At least three existing control points are to be used for control check. These control points must
be within the same accuracy or higher. To achieve this, the instrument is to be set up, centered
and leveled over one of the control points (station B). Two targets are to be set up, centered and
leveled over station A and C as the back station and fore station respectively.

The targets will be bisected on both faces (left and right respectively). The horizontal circle
readings will be recorded and horizontal distance between the instrument station and targets
station are to be measured either by EDM or steel tape. If steel tape is to be used, then slope
angles will be measured in order to correct slope distance to horizontal distance.

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The table below shows the field data carried out in order to ascertain the true positions of the
three control points.

station sight face H.C.R MEAN ANGLE DISTANCE

A L 005° 25‟ 04‟‟ 308.876m
C L 229° 38‟ 54‟‟ 224° 13‟ 50‟‟ 224° 13‟ 49‟‟
B C R 049° 38‟ 50‟‟ 224° 13‟ 48‟‟
A R 185° 25‟ 02‟‟ 49.305m
Table 2.2

If computed angle <ABC = 224° 13‟ 40‟‟

Error = 224° 13‟ 49‟‟ - 224° 13‟ 40‟‟ = 00° 00‟ 09‟‟

Since the difference does not exceed ±30‟‟ the three points are still in their true horizontal
positions.

2.4 MEASURING ANGLES

Although the theodolite or total station is a very complex instrument the measurement of
horizontal and vertical angles is a simple concept. The horizontal and vertical circles of the
instrument should be regarded as circular protractors graduated from 0° to 360° in a clockwise
manner. Then a simple horizontal angle measurement between three (3) survey points MCS 01,
MCS 02 and MCS 03 in the sense of measuring at MCS 02 clockwise from MCS 01 to MCS 03
would be as shown in Figure below.

MCS 01 MCS 03

Fig. 2.1
(1) The instrument is set up and centered
MCS 02 and leveled on survey point MCS 02. Parallax is

removed.
(2) Commencing on, „face left‟, bisect the target set at survey point MCS 01, read and book both
the horizontal and vertical circle readings (H.C.R and V.C.R).

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(3) The instrument is rotated to survey point MCS 03, sight and bisect the target. Read and book
both the horizontal and vertical circle readings.
(4) The horizontal angle is then the difference of the two directions, i.e. Forward Station (MCS
03) minus Back Station (MCS 01) say 𝜃1.
(5) Change face and observe survey point MCS 03 on „face right‟, read and book the readings.
(6) Swing to point MCS 01, bisect the target on survey station MCS 01. Read and book the
readings.
(7) The readings or directions must be subtracted in the same order as in (4 above), i.e. MCS 03 –
MCS 01 say 𝜃2. Horizontal angle between the three stations = (𝜃1+𝜃2)/2.
Measure distance between MCS 02 and MCS 03 with the tape, tacheometer or EDM
The table below shows the observed angles.
STATN SIGHT F H.C.R MEAN ANGLE DIST

MCS 01 L 251° 01‟ 50‟‟

MCS 03 L 118° 21‟ 18‟‟ 227° 19‟ 28‟‟ 227° 19‟ 28‟‟ 167.740m

MCS 02 MCS 03 R 298° 21‟ 15‟‟ 227° 19‟ 27‟‟

MCS 01 R 71° 01‟ 48‟‟

Table 2.3
STATN SIGHT F V.C.R MEAN ANGLE

MCS 01 L

MCS 03 L 90°53‟30‟‟ 000°53‟30‟‟ 000°53‟30‟‟

MCS 02 MCS 03 R 269°06‟31‟‟ 000°53‟29‟‟

MCS 01 R

Table 2.4
2.5 PRECAUTIONS IN FIELD MEASUREMENTS
During the selection of station and data acquisition, the following must be considered.

1. The application of the principle of working from whole to part.

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 2. Inter visibility from one station to the other must be ensured
3. The station must not be place where the theodolite could be damaged
4. The station must be place in such that the traverse lines were free from obstacle
5. The length between two station must not be too long in order to get accurate
distance
6. The stations should be free from obstacle for easy observation to details

2.6 FIELD CHECKS (ANGULAR MISCLOSURE)

The angular misclosure for an interior-angle traverse is the difference between the sum of the
observed angles and the geometrically correct total for the polygon. The sum, ∑, of the interior
angles of a closed polygon should be ∑ = (n - 2) 180° where n is the number of sides, or angles,
in the polygon. This formula is easily derived from known facts. The sum of the angles in a
triangle is 180°; in a rectangle, 360°; and in a pentagon, 540°.Thus, each side added to the three
required for a triangle increases the sum of the angles by 180°.
If the direction about a traverse is clockwise when observing angles to the right, exterior angles
will be observed. In this case, the sum of the exterior angles will be ∑ = (n + 2) 180°.
If the sum of the observed interior angles equals 540° 00‟ 05‟‟ the angular misclosure is 05‟‟.
Misclosure result from the accumulation of random errors in the angle observations. Permissible
misclosure can be computed by the formula c = K√n. where n is the number of angles, and K a
constant that depends on the level of accuracy specified for the survey. The Federal Geodetic
Control Subcommittee (FGCS) recommends constants for five different orders of traverse
accuracy: first-order, second-order class I, second-order class II, third-order class I, and third
order class II. Values of K for these orders, from highest to lowest, are 1.7’’, 3’’, 4.5’’, 10’’, and 12’’,
respectively. Thus, if the traverse were being executed to second-order class II standards with 15
stations, its allowable misclosure error would be 4.5’’√15 = 17.4’’.
TRAVERSE COMPUTATION
To determine Departure and Latitude

Fig. 2.2

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Dep (ΔE)= L sinβ, Lat (ΔN)= L cos β
L is the horizontal distance and β is the bearing.
To find Coordinates of point B
XB= XA + DepAB
YB= YA + LatAB
ERROR OF CLOSURE
Consider the following statement:
“If one start at one corner of a closed traverse and walk its lines until you return to your starting
point, you will have walked as far north as you walked south and as far east as you have walked
west” Therefore ∑ latitudes = 0 and ∑ departures = 0
When latitudes are added together, the resulting error is called the error in latitudes (EL). The
error resulting from adding departures together is called the error in departures (ED). If the
measured bearings and distances are plotted on a sheet of paper, the figure will not close because
of EL and ED.

Fig. 2.3
Balancing Latitudes and Departures
This can be achieved either by transit or Bowditch adjustment (compass rule). Transit method
has been dealt with in SUG 101. Bowditch or compass rule shall be analysis in this chapter.
Example 1
The figure below shows the field data abstract of a close loop traverse. Calculate the adjusted
coordinates of stations PL1, PL2, PL3, PL4 and PL5, adjusting any misclosure by Bowditch
method.
NORTHING (mN) EASTING (mE)

MCS 05 785067.759 536602.718

MCS 06 785047.759 536526.287
Initial and closing bearing = 255° 26‟ 49‟‟

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Example 2
Find the final coordinate of PL1, PL2, PL3, and PL4 by Bowditch adjustment.
281° 12’ 40’

PL2
E(m) N(m)
168 19’ 10’
242° 31’ 00’
B A = 1769.15 2094.72
PL1 PL3
115° 37’ 0’
B= 1057.28 2492.39
Fig. 2.4 X = 2334.71 1747.32
A
Solution. 80° 26’2 0’ Y = 2995.85 1616.18
Adjustment PL4
173° 31’ 0’

Y
X
For close loop traverse/ploygon traverse, ∑ ΔE = Ee and ∑δN = En
For close link traverse, ∑ ΔE – (Ex – EA) = Ee and ∑ΔN – (Nx – NA) = En (A and X are the
starting and closing coordinate respectively)

ΔδE = Ee ×

ΔδN = En ×

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A traverse was run between two points P and Q having the coordinates as E1268.49 m,
N1836.88m, and E1375.64m, N1947.05m, respectively. The field observations yielded the
following values of eastings and northings of the traverse lines. Calculate the adjusted
coordinates of A, B, C, and D using Bowditch‟s method.

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 CHAPTER THREE
MINOR TRIANGULATION
3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRIANGULATION
The horizontal positions of points is a network developed to provide accurate control for
topographic mapping, charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines, and for the surveys required
for the design and construction of public and private works of large extent. The horizontal
positions of the points can be obtained in a number of different ways in addition to traversing.
These methods are triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection, and satellite positioning.
The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if
one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed.
Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the directions of the remaining sides can be
determined. A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in
which an occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured
at the vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation stations.
The side of the triangle, whose length is predetermined, is called the base line. The lines of
triangulation system form a network that ties together all the triangulation stations (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1

3.2 SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of accuracy
desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or
secondary, and third-order or tertiary. First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape
and size of the earth or to cover a vast area like a whole country with control points to which a
second-order triangulation system can be connected. A second-order triangulation system
consists of a network within a first-order triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a
region, small country, or province. A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and

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connected to a second-order triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the
immediate control for detailed engineering and location surveys.

3.3 TRIANGULATION FIGURES AND LAYOUTS

The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic quadilateral,
and the polygon with a central station

fig. 3.2

The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of above systems.

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Single chain of triangles
When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley
between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as shown in Fig.
below. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four other
stations, and does not involve observations of long diagonals. On the other hand, simple triangles
of a triangulation system provide only one route through which distances can be computed, and
hence, this system does not provide any check on the accuracy of observations. Check base lines
and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be provided at frequent intervals to avoid
excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.

Fig. 3.3

Double chain of triangles

A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in the figure below. This arrangement is used for
covering the larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of
triangles system.

Fig. 3.4

Braced quadrilaterals
A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals shown in the figure below is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced
quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and the
best arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides
using different combinations of sides and angles. Most of the triangulation systems use this
arrangement.

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 Fig. 3.5

Centered triangles and polygons

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle and
polygon as shown in the figure is known as centered triangles and polygons. This layout in a
triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is required to be covered.
The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central stations.
Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is not as strong as
the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow due to the
fact that more settings of the instrument are required.

Fig. 3.6

3.4 SELECTION, BEACONING AND NUMBERING OF STATIONS

Before stations are selected, the first assignment is to carry out the reconnaissance of the entire
area where controls are to be established. The important of reconnaissance in triangulation
cannot be over emphasized. This can be considered in two stages namely; office and field
reconnaissance.
Office reconnaissance is the planning stage where the base map of the area is studied. It gives us
an idea of the topography of the area.
Field reconnaissance is the stage where the entire area for the densification of the minor control
points is visited physically to see how the topography looks like.
3.4.1 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES

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The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable layout
of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two or more
independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes form well
conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the series is
used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals, no
angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very short lines
should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
11. Safety; Stations must be located where the equipment cannot be damaged
12. Accessibility; All station must be accessible
13. Availability of hills; this could enhance long sights.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known side it
does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.
3.4.2 BEACONING
Beaconing is the process by which we establish a permanent monument is called beaconing. This
can be established on soil or rock.
Generally, on soil dig a hole to the required specification (minor triangulation) and pour in some
concrete mixture (cement, sand and gravel) and allow to settle for fifteen (15) minutes.
On hard rock, drill a hole, 15cm down the rock, then at about 10cm of the hole, at a rectangular
distance from one another, 3 similar holes should be dug to a depth of 3cm. A deem shape
concrete mixture should be poured round the center of the hole to a distance of about 40cm, a
brass rod should inserted vertically in the hole, the number should be stamped accordingly.

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3.4.3 OBSERVATION PROCEDURE FOR BOTH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLE
REPETITION METHOD
This is the method adopted for the measure of small angles as the measuring accuracy of the
instrument can be greatly increased. This involves measuring singles angles a number of times,
says n, obtaining the sum of angles x for n readings. The mean angle is given by x/n.
For instance, if angle ABC is desired, the process is as follow

Fig. 3.8
C
1. Set instrument at point C and perform temporary
B adjustment.
2. Sight A, in the usual way book the initial readings which may not necessarily be 000° 00‟
00‟‟
3. Release the upper clamp, swing right and sight B accurately, book both the vertical and
horizontal angles.
4. Release the lower clamp, swing right and sight A again, book the angles.
5. This gives two angles. The more the number of pointing, the more accurate the angles.
RECIPROCAL OBSERVATION
Refraction and curvature are serious errors in surveying most especially when measuring vertical
angles. Owing to the fact that the ray of light from the Theodolite to the signal passes through
layers of air at difference pressure and temperatures, it is refracted along a curved path
depending on the densities through which it passes. This is how refraction error is come about.
On the other hand, curvature correction is brought about by the fact that the earth is not perfectly
spherical, it tends to curve a little bit.
If observations are made one way, the consideration of refinement in the geometrical theory is
pointless in view of the magnitude of the error that can occur. To eliminate the effect of
curvature and refraction, observation must be made reciprocally. This is also provides check on
the observation.
3.4.4 VERTICAL ANGLE MEASUREMENT
1. The Theodolite is set up at O. it is centered and leveled properly.
2. To measure the angle of elevation, the telescope is raised slowly to bisect the target set on
point A accurately. The readings on both the vernier are noted, and the angle of elevation
recorded.
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 3. The face of the instrument in changed and the point A is again bisected. The readings on
the vernier are noted. The mean of the angles of the observed is assumed to be the correct
angle of elevation.
4. To measure the angle of depression, the telescope is lowered slowly and the point B is
bisected. The readings on the verniers are noted for the two observations (face left and
face right). The mean angle of the observation is taken to be the correct angle of
depression.

O C
Fig. 3.9

B
Oi
3.4.5 FIELD AND OFFICE CHECKS APPLICABLE TO MINOR TRIANGULATION
Field Checks
i. Angles:- After completing the observation of a triangle, the sum of the three angles in
a triangle should not exceed and average of ±15‟‟. This amount is called spherical
excess and must be distributed among the angles.
ii. Each of the angles must be measured on 4 zeros. Any error arising as a result of
observation can quickly detected.

DISTANCE
If a distance is measured with steel tape several times it must be checked with EDM or any other
type of lower coefficient of expansion. When a distance is measured several times, any
redundant measure can easily be detected and rejected.
Office Checks
i. Office checks can be provided when reducing and computing the field data. Since a
triangle is a closed polygon, the discrepancy between the initial and final azimuth
must not exceed ±15‟‟
ii. Position can easily be checked by computing its values from two different lines and
adapting different methods of computation.
iii. In any triangle, providing there is no observational and computational error, the sum
of the partial coordinates must be equal to zero.

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3.5 METHODS OF COMPUTING COORDINATES AND HEIGHTS FROM FIELD
RECORDS
Fig. 3.10 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles
and the length L of the side AB, have been measured. Also the azimuth of AB has been measured
at the triangulation station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known.
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D by the
method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines. By sine rule in <ABC,
we have

Fig 3.10

; AB = L = LAB

BC = BC

CA = CA

Now the side BC being known in ΔBCD, by sine rule

BC = BC

CD = ( ) CD

BC = ( BC

To calculate the azimuths of all the lines;

Azimuth of AB = 𝜃 = 𝜃AB
Azimuth of AC = 𝜃+ α1 = 𝜃AC
Azimuth of BC = 𝜃 + 180°−α2 = 𝜃BC

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Azimuth of BD = 𝜃 + 180°− (α3 +α4) = 𝜃BD
Azimuth of CD = 𝜃− α2 + α5 = 𝜃CD
From the known lengths of the sides and

From the known lengths and azimuth/bearing, the consecutives coordinates can be computed.

Latitude (ΔN) of AB = lABcos𝜃 = LAB

Departure (ΔE) of AB = lABsin𝜃 = DAB

Latitude (ΔN) of AC = lBCcos𝜃 = LAC Departure (ΔE) of CD = lCDsin𝜃 = DCD

Departure (ΔE) of AB = lBCsin𝜃 = DAC X-coordinate of B, XB = X A + DAB

Y-coordinate of B, YB = YB + LAB
Latitude (ΔN) of BD = lBDcos𝜃 = LBD
X-coordinate of C, XC = X A + DAC
Departure (ΔE) of BD = lBDsin𝜃 = DBD Y-coordinate of C, YC = YA + LAC
X-coordinate of D, XD = X B + DBD
Latitude (ΔN) of CD = lCDcos𝜃 = LCD
Y-coordinate of D, YD = YB + LBD
It would be found that the length of side can be computed more than once following different
routes, and therefore, to achieve a better accuracy, the mean of the computed lengths of a side is
to be considered.
EXAMPLE

Consider a simple chain of triangles in fig 3.10 above, the field records are as indicated below.

1 = 71° 27‟ 28‟‟, 2 = 63° 08‟ 00‟‟, 3 = 45° 24‟ 20‟, 4 = 59° 22‟ 00‟‟, 5 = 48° 36‟ 00‟‟, 6 = 72°
02‟ 00‟‟

Coordinate of B = (1050.500mN, 2560.650mE and 507.500m) while bearing BC = 175° 30‟ 30‟‟

Compute the relative positions of A, B and D

SOLUTION

In ΔBCD

a. Sum of the 3 triangles = 59° 22‟ 00‟‟ + 48° 36‟ 00‟‟ + 72° 02‟ 00‟‟ = 180° 00‟00‟‟
Note that there is no spherical excess.

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 b. Compute distance BD, CD, CA and BA

c. Compute bearing BD and CD

Bearing BD = 𝜃 - <4; BD = 175° 30‟ 30‟‟ - 59° 22‟ = 116° 08‟ 30‟‟

Bearing CD = 𝜃 + 180° + <5; CD = 355° 30‟ 30‟‟ + 48° 36‟ = 44° 06‟ 30‟‟

d. Compute of point C and D

ND = NB + LBD

ND = 1050.5 + (400.197 × cos 116° 08‟ 30‟‟)

ND = 1050.5 - 176.324 = 874.176mN

ED = EB + DBD

ED = 2560.65 + (400.197 × sin 116° 08‟ 30‟‟)

ED = 2560.65 + 359.259 = 2919.910mE

NC = NB + LCB

NC = 1050.5 + (507.50 × cos 175° 30‟ 30‟‟)

ND = 1050.5 – 505.9413 = 544.5586mN

EC = EB + DCB

EC = 2560.65 + (507.5 × sin 175° 30‟ 30‟‟)

ED = 2560.65 + 39.744 = 2600.394mE

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 Exercise

Compute coordinate of A in a similar way. Note that the sum of the three angles of the
triangles exceeds 180°, divide the spherical excess by 3 and subtract the result from each of
the angles of triangle ABC.

3.6 COMPUTATION OF HEIGHTS

Instrument
Horizontal Line
a HI
DE s
A

Rod
Reading
B

Horizontal Distance ( h)
S = slope distance,
H.I = height of instrument, h = horizontal distance, A = instrument station, B = target station DE
= difference in elevation, α = slope angle

DE (V) = S × Sin α OR = h × tan α

Elev.B = Elev.A + HI ± DE (V) – m. (This is achieved by trigonometric heightening)

If, α = -8° 0‟, m = 1.640m, HI = 1.50m, h = 101.100m, RLA = 92.50m, determine RLB

V = h × tanα; = 101.100 × tan -8° 0‟= -14.209

RLB = RLA + HI – V – m

RLB = 92.500 + 1.500 – 14.209 – 1.640 = 78.151m

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 CHAPTER FOUR

TERTIARY LEVELING

4.0 PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points
or differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for
mapping, engineering design, and construction.
Levelling is defined as the process of measuring the difference in height between points on the
surface of the earth.
4.1 PRINCIPLE OF LEVELLING
The instrument is set up and correctly levelled in order to make the line of sight through the
telescope horizontal. If the telescope is turned through 360◦, a horizontal plane of sight is swept
out. Vertical measurements from this plane, using a graduated levelling staff, enable the relative
elevations of ground points to be ascertained. With the instrument set up approximately midway
between ground points A and B. If the reduced level (RL) of point A is known and equal to
100.000 m above OD (AOD), then the reading of 3.000 m on a vertically held staff at A gives the
reduced level of the horizontal line of sight as 103.000 m AOD. This sight onto A is termed a
backsight (BS) and the reduced level of the line of sight is called the height of the plane of
collimation (HPC). Thus: RLA + BS = HPC
The reading of 1.000 m onto the staff at B is called a foresight (FS) and shows the ground point
B to be 1.000 m below HPC; therefore its RL = (103.000 − 1.000) = 102.000 m AOD.
An alternative approach is to subtract the FS from the BS. If the result is positive then the
difference is a rise from A to B, and if negative a fall, i.e. (3.000 − 1.000) = +2.000 m rise from A
to B; therefore, RLB = 100.000 + 2.000 = 102.000 m AOD
. The field data are entered into a field book that is pre-drawn into rows and columns. An
observations are booked using either the rise and fall or the HPC method.
It should be clearly noted that, in practice, the staff readings are taken to three places of
decimals, that is, to the nearest millimeter.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Level surface or Level Line:- This is a surface or line in which all points are at the same height
and normal or at right angle to the full of gravity as shown by a plumb line.

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Reduced Level:- The reduced level of a point is its height or elevation above the surface adopted
as a datum
Bench marks:- Bench marks are stable reference points the reduced levels of which are
accurately determined by levelling.
Back sight:- This is the first reading taken with a leveling instrument in a leveling operation.
Foresight:- This is the last reading taken in a leveling operation.
Intermediate Sight:- This is the reading taken between the back sight and foresight in a leveling
operation.
Turning Point or Change Point:- A change point or turning point is a staff station on which
two staff readings are taken without changing the position of the instrument.
Station: A station is the point where the levelling staff is held.
SURVEYOR’S LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
There are three basic types of level in common use, namely.
(a) Dumpy level
(b) Tilting level
(c) Automatic Level
Other types of level include: Digital level, barometer etc

4.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEVELLING DATUM

For all surveys a level line is chosen to which the elevation of all point is related to as datum or
datum surface.
• This can be any surface but the most commonly used datum is mean sea level measured as
ordinance datum. All points referred to ordinance datum are said to have their height above
ordinance datum (AOD).
• On many construction and Civil Engineering sites, mean sea level is not often used as a datum
for leveling. Instead, a permanent feature of some sort is chosen on which to base all works and
this is given an arbitrary height (referred to as datum) to suite the site conditions.
4.4 CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF BENCH MARKS
Bench marks are permanent reference marks or points whose reduced levels are accurately
determined by leveling. They are classified into two namely:
1. Permanent or ordinance bench marks (OBM), and
2. Temporary or transferred bench marks (TBM)

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Permanent or ordinance bench marks (OBM)
• Ordinance bench marks are those which have been established by the ordinance survey and are
based on the ordinance datum.
• The most common types are permanently marked on buildings and walls by a cut in vertical
brickwork or masonry or indicated by an arrow or crows foot mark.
Temporary or transferred bench marks (TBM)
These are marks set up on stable points near construction sites to which all leveling operations on
that particular site will be referred.
• These are often used when there is no ordinance bench mark (OBM) close to the site.
• The height of TBM may be assumed at some convenient value (usually 100.00m) or may be
accurately established by leveling from the nearest OBM.
• The position of TBM should be fixed during the initial site reconnaissance. Permanent existing
features should be used where possible. In practice, 20mm diameter steel bolts 100mm long are
driven into existing door steps, foot path, low wall etc. Any TBM set up on site must be leveled
with reference to main bench mark (OBM) or some other agreed datum.
4.5 COLLIMINATION ERROR IN LEVEL
The only permanent adjustment check for level instrument most especially Automatic and
Digital level is to ensure that the compensator and diaphragm are set such that horizontal
readings are taken when the circular bubble is centered.
If horizontal readings are not being taken a collimination error is present in the level.
The usual method of testing and adjusting a level is to carry out two peg test which is carried out
as follows, with reference to the figures below
1. On fairly level ground, select and mark two stations (pegs A and B) with a maximum
of 60m apart.
2. Set up the level at exactly midway between the pegs at point C and level the
instrument.
3. Place a leveling staff at each peg in turn and obtain readings, S1 and S2.

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 S‟1 Line of collimination
e1 e2 S‟2
True Line of collimination

S1 S2

C B
A
Fig 4.1a
30m 30m
e e
S‟3
e
e
S4

S3 S‟4
A B D

Fig 4.1b 60m 10m

Fig. 4.1 Two peg
Since AC = CB the error, x, in the tesr
reading S1 and S2, will be the same. This error is due to the
collimination error, the effect of which is to incline the line of collimination by angle „e‟. This
gives: S1 - S2 = (S‟1 + x) – (S‟2 + x) = S‟1 - S‟2 = true difference in height between A and B
In figure 4.1b, the apparent difference in height between A and B = (S3 – S4)
If there is any difference between the apparent and true values, this has occurred in a distance of
60m. Therefore, Collimination error (e) = (S1 - S2) – (S3 – S4)m
To adjust the instrument at point D, the correct reading that should be obtained at A, S‟4, is
computed from;
S‟4 = S4 – (collimanation error × sighting distance).
TUTORIAL QUESTION
The readings obtained from a two peg test carried out on an Automatic level with a single level
staff set up between two pegs A and B placed 50m apart were as follows:
1. With the instrument at midway between A and B
Staff reading at A = 1.283m

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 Staff reading at B = 0.860m
2. Instrument moved 5m away from peg B
Staff reading at A = 1.612m
Staff reading at B = 1.219m
Calculate;
a. The collimination error of the level per 50m of sight
b. The reading that should have been observed on the staff at A from level positioned 5m
away from B.
Solution
a. S1 = 1.283, S2 = 0.860, S3 = 1.219 and S4 = 1.612
e = (S1 - S2) – (S3 – S4) = (0.860 – 1.283) – (1.219 – 1.612)
e = - 0.03m per 50m
b. The reading that should have been observed on the staff when held at A and instrument
positioned 5m away from B; S‟4 – (- 0.03/50) × 55 = 1.645m
S3 = 1.219 – (-0.03/50) × 5m = 1.222m
Therefore, (S‟3 – S‟4) = 1.222 – 1.645 = -0.423 = (S1 – S2).
4.6 PROCEDURE IN LEVELING

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• Set up the level at some convenient position P1 and a back sight was taken to the first TBM.
The foot of the staff being held on TBM and the staff held vertically.
• The staff is moved to points A and B in turn and readings were taken. These are the
intermediate sights respectively.
• In order to read D, a change point is chosen at C and the staff is moved to C. This is the
foresight for the first point (P1).
• While the staff remains at C1 the instrument is moved to another position (P2). A reading is
taken from the new position of the staff at C. This is the back sight for P2.
• The staff is moved to D and E in turn and the intermediate sight readings taken respectively.
• Finally, the level is moved to P3 and a back sight is taken to E, while the foresight is also taken
to the final TBM.
• The final staff position is at a point of known reduced level as leveling field work must start
and finish at points of known reduced level; otherwise it is not possible to detect misclosure in
the leveling.
4.6 BOOKING AND REDUCTION OF LEVEL
There are two method of booking and reduction of level namely;
- Rise and fall method
- Height of instrument method (Height of collimation method)

Table 4.1 leveling field book

HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD
Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level, the elevation
of the line of sight is the height of instrument.
The following formula will serve as a guide to the reduction of level by this method;
(i) B. S + R. L = H. I
(ii) H. I – I .S = R. L (new)

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(iii) H. I. (old) – F. S = R. L (new) at change point
(iv) R. L. (new) + B.S = H. I. (new).

Check
ΣB.S - ΣF.S = R.L last - R. L first
5.798 – 2.460 = 34.855 - 31.517
3.338 = 3.338

RISE AND FALL METHOD

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Example (1)
The following staffs reading were taken along a straight length of a railway track.
Reduce the level and check the accuracy of the readings using Rise and fall method.

Checking:
(ΣBS -ΣFS) = (ΣRise - ΣFall) = (R.L Last - R.L first)
(5.798-2.460) = (4.146 – 0.808) = (34.855 – 31.517)
3.338 = 3.338 = 3.338
CLOSURE TOLERANCES
It is important to realize that the amount of misclosure in levelling can only be assessed by:
(1) Connecting the levelling back to the BM from which it started, or
(2) Connecting into another BM of known and proved value.
When the misclosure is assessed, one must then decide if it is acceptable or not.
In many cases the engineer may make the decision based on his/her knowledge of the project and
the tolerances required.
Alternatively the permissible criteria may be based on the distance leveled or the number of set
ups involved.
A common criterion used to assess the misclosure (E) is: E = m√K , where n = the number of set-
ups, and m = a constant in millimetres.

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As this criterion would tend to be used only for construction leveling, the value for m may be a
matter of professional judgment. A value frequently used is ±5 mm.
ERROR DISTRIBUTION
In previous levelling examples, misclosures have been shown. The misclosure cannot be ignored
and the error must be distributed among the points concerned. In the case of a leveling circuit, a
simple method of distribution is to allocate the error in proportion to the distance.
For instance, consider a levelling circuit commencing from a BM at A, to establish other BMs at
B, C, D and E for which the heights have been computed without taking the misclosure into
account.

On completing the circuit the observed value for the BM at A is 20.018 m compared, with its
known value of 20.000 m, so the misclosure is 0.018 m. The distance levelled is 5.7km.
Considering the purpose of the work, the terrain and observational conditions; it is decided to
adopt a value for m of 12 mm. Hence the acceptable misclosure is 12(5.7)12= 29 mm, so the
levelling is acceptable.
The difference in heights is corrected by (0.018/5.7) × distance travelled in (km). Therefore
correction to AB = −0.005 m, to BC = −0.002 m, to CD = −0.003 m, to DE = −0.006 m and to EA
= −0.002 m. The values of the BMs will then be B = 28.561 m, C = 35.003 m, D = 30.640 m, E =
22.829 m and A = 20.000 m.
In many instances, a closing loop with known distances is not the method used and each reduced
level is adjusted in proportion to the cumulative number of set-ups to that point from the start.
4.7 USES OF LEVELLING
Apart from the determination of difference in level between points on earth‟s surface, other uses
of leveling include.
(1) Taking of longitudinal section (2) Cross- sections

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(3) Contouring (4) Setting out levels
Leveling results are used to (1) design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems,
and other facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography; (2) lay out
construction projects according to planned elevations; (3) calculate volumes of earthwork and
other materials; (4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area; (5) develop maps showing
general ground configurations; and (6) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELLING
There are five source of errors in leveling and their importance must be appreciated and
precaution taken to reduce their effects. These sources includes,
1. Instrumental error in equipment 4. Error in reading and booking
2. Error in handling the equipments 5. Error due to natural causes.
3. Error due to displacement of equipments

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONTOUR PLANS
A contour is defined as an imaginary line joining points of the same height or elevation above or
below a datum. These are shown so that the relief or topography of an area can be interpreted (a
factor greatly used in civil engineering). A contour can also be defined as an imaginary line of
constant height above the mean sea level. The difference between the values of any two
successive contours is known as the contour interval or vertical interval. The horizontal distance
between any two contours is called horizontal equivalent. Its values depend on the slope of the
land. The contours are drawn in brown color.
5.1 REFERENCE DIRECTIONS AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEM
Reference direction in survey is a specific reference datum from which bearings are reckoned.
Magnetic North is one of the reference directions used when reckoning the bearing of any point.
Usually magnetic bearings are measured clock-wisely from the magnetic North.
To establish this direction a surveyor‟s compass can be used. When this is set-up, and the pivoted
magnetized needle is allowed to move freely with no influence of local attraction, after
oscillating back and forth for sometimes, it will come to rest. The north direction is the point
magnetic needle is pointing to.
ASTRONOMICAL OR TRUE MERIDIANS
A plane passing through a point on the surface of the earth and containing the earth‟s axis of
rotation defines the astronomical or true meridian at that point. Astronomical meridians are
determined by observing the position of the sun or a star. For a given point on the earth, its
direction is always the same and therefore directions referred to the astronomical or true
meridian remain unchanged. This makes it a good line of reference. Astronomical or true
meridians on the surface of the earth are lines of geographic longitude and they converge toward
each other at the poles. The amount of convergence between meridians depends on the distance
from the equator and the longitude between the meridians.
The direction of the magnetic meridian does not concide with the true meridian (geographical
meridian) and as a result there is a little discrepancy between the magnetic north and true north.

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The angle between the magnetic meridian and true meridian is known as magnetic variation. If
this is know, the true north can be established from the magnetic north. Magnetic north could
either be west or east of the true north.

True meridian Magnetic meridian

MAGNETIC MERIDIAN
A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. The earth acts
very much like a bar magnet with a north magnetic pole located considerably south of the north
pole defined by the earth‟s rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather
changes its position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle defines the magnetic
meridian at that point at that time. Because the magnetic meridian changes as magnetic north
changes, magnetic meridians do not make good lines of reference.
Grid Meridians
In plane surveys it is convenient to perform the work in a rectangular XY coordinate system in
which one central meridian coincides with a true meridian. All remaining meridians are parallel
to this central true meridian. This eliminates the need to calculate the convergence of meridians
when determining positions of points in the system. The methods of plane surveying, assume that
all measurements are projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians are parallel straight
lines. These are known as grid meridians.

Magnetic declination is the horizontal angular difference between true north and magnetic
north, measured from true north.

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Convergence is the horizontal angular difference between grid north and true north, measured
from true north.

The magnetic declination and convergence can be either positive or negative. Positive values are
east of true north and negative values are west of true north. The figures below shown the
relationship between the reference directions.
True North
True North
Magnetic North Grid North
Grid North Magnetic North

Convergence
Magnetic
declinatio
n

True North
True North Grid North
Grid North

B Magnetic North B

Magnetic North
A A

From the figures above, A = convergence and B = Magnetic declination

EXAMPLE:- What was the magnetic bearing in July 1984 Mabudi from Nbang in Shendan N,
W map sheet as at January 1977 with an annual change of 5.5‟ and magnetic variation of 03°55‟,
if the true bearing was 205°57‟.
Solution
January 1977 – July 1984 = 7.5 years, therefore Total change = 7.5 × 5.5‟ = 41‟
Magnetic variation as at July 1984 = 03°55‟ - 41‟ = 03°14‟
MB – TB = MV
MB = TB+MV

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 = 205°57‟ - 03° 14‟ = 209° 11‟
TUTORIAL QUESTION
The magnetic bearing of line AB read in 1978 was N16°45‟E, the declination at that time and
place was 5°45‟W, in 1969, the declination was 2°30‟E. What was the magnetic bearing in 1969.
5.2 WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING (AZIMUTH) AND QUADRANT BEARING (BEARING)
Whole circle bearing and Quardrant bearing are two different types of bearing measurement used
in surveying. To choose between these bearings, surveyor must know the diffrences between
them. The main diffrenece between them are illustrated below;
Whole circle bearing
 The horizontal angle made by a survey line with the magnetic north in the clockwise
direction is the whole cirle bearing of the line.
 Only the magnetic north line is considered as reference line in whiole circle bearing system
 The clockwise from the reference line is taken
 The values of whole circle bearing varies form 0° to 360°
Quardrant bearing
 The horizontal angle made by a line with the magnetic north or south (whichever is closer
from the line) in the eastward or westward direction is the quardrant bearing or reduced
bearing of the line
 Both the magnetic north and south lines are considered as reference line.
 Both clockwise and anticlockwise bearing from the reference line is taken.
 The value of the reduced bearing varies from 0° to 90°
Example:
Convert (1) 26° and 121°to quardrant bearing. (2) S65°W and N10°W to whole circle bearing.
(1) 26° = N26°E and 121° = S59°E North
(2) S65°W = 245° and N10°W = 350° 320° 50°
Exercise
(1) Convert whole circle bearing in fig 5.3 to
Quardrant bearing.

Fig 5.3
245°
120°

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 N29° 05’E

N35° 30’W

S44° 50’W
S14° 35’E
Quadrant bearing
(2) Convert quadrant bearings in fig. above to whole circle bearing
5.3 BASIC NEED FOR HEIGHTS IN TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERING AND
TOWNSHIP SURVEY
Heights enable relief to be shown or depicted on topographical maps. A relief shows the height
of the land above the mean sea level on a flat surface. With these, the configuration of the ground
surface will be revealed.
Heights provide this on the topographical engineering and township surveys;
1. It provides special information for construction projects in engineering.
2. They enable roads, highway, canals, railways to be constructed in such a way that steep
hilly are avoided.
3. It is also enable drainage works to be surveyed so that water can flow in the desired
direction. This is also applied to irrigation in agriculture.
4. Spot heights enable dam to be constructed and its deformation can be investigated.
5. It is enable surveyors and engineers to determine whether two points are intervisible.
6. Spot heights also enable surveyors and engineers to calculate value of the earthwork, i.e.
the amount of cut and fill.
7. It provide information of the earth and movements on its surface.
5.5 GRID LEVELING
Grid leveling is necessary to produce the contour map of any desired area. Contours lines are
lines shown on a conformed map joining points of equal heights.
This method is ideal on a relatively flat terrain and especially on comparatively small sites. The
required sets of square are set out in the form of grid and levels are taken at the corners. The size
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depends on the accuracy required and contours interval (vertical distance between successive
contours).
To set out the grids, a theodolite, optical squares, levels with horizontal circle graduations,
method of triangle 3:4 may be used.
2 3 4 5
A 1

B 1

C 1

D 1

E 1

The levels are run in two stages. First stage is the perimeter leveling to determine the heights and
reduced levels of the boundary marks such as, A1 – E1, 1 – 5, 5 – E5 and E5 – E1.
Second stage is running of subsidiary leveling to determine heights of the intermediates stations
i.e. B2 – B5, C2 – C5, D2 – D5 and E2 – E5.
Generally, grading enhances easy contouring, interpolation of contours can be done without
much problem.

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 CHAPTER SIX
6.0 SETTING OUT
Setting out is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of the
elements for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them. This
process may be contrasted with the purpose of surveying which is to determine by measurement
the position of existing features. In order word, setting out is the transfer of the design
(information on paper) to the ground.

6.1 AIM OF SETTING OUT

1. The new structure must be correct in all three dimensions both relatively and absolutely
i.e. it must be of correct size in the correct plan position and at a correct level.
2. Once setting out begin it must proceed quickly and with little or no delay in order to
minimized the cost.

6.2 REQUIRED PLAN FOR SETTING OUT

1. The survey plan:- prepared as a result of the original site plan

2. The working plan: produced by the engineer or designer, showing the location and form
of new construction sited on the survey plan.
3. The record plan: Also known as “as built” or AS LAID plans, the drawing which shows
all the alterations that have taken place during the course of works becomes the as built drawing
or record drawing.
4. Setting out plan: All the information together with the angles and distances necessary to
relocate the control points should they become disturbed is recorded on a copy of the original
site plan and forms what is known as the setting out plan. This plan shows the relation between
the recovery pegs and the pegs defining the position of the works.

6.3 STAGES IN SETTING OUT

As the work precede, the setting out falls into two broad stages.

1. The first stage when setting out any scheme is to locate the boundaries of the Works in
their correct position on the ground surface and so define the major elements. In order to do this
horizontal and vertical control points must be established on or near the site. These are then

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 used not only to define the perimeter of the site which enables fences to be erected and site
clearance to begin but also to set out critical design points on the scheme and to define slopes,
directions and so on.

When the boundaries and major elements have been pegged out, the top soil is stripped and
excavation works begins. It is necessary to relocate any disturbed peg by plant or equipment.
Once the formation level is reached, the foundations are laid in accordance with the drawings
and the critical design points located earlier.

2. Second stage continues on from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab, road
sub-base level or similar. Up to this point, all the control will be outside the main construction.
The purpose of the second stage is to transfer the horizontal and vertical control used in the first
stage into the actual construction in order that it can be used to establish the various elements of
the scheme.

6.4 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR SET-OUT OF A BUILDING

Tape Straight edge in combination with spirit

level
Pegs
Abney level
Ranging rod or boning rod
Dumpy level
Triangle sets
Theodolite/Total Station, GPS
Cross staff
Water manometer
Optical square
Tube water level

6.5 SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

It is vital to remember when setting out that, since dimensions, whether scaled or designed, are
almost horizontal, slope must be allowed for in surface taping on sloping ground. The slope
correction is additive when setting out.
1. Two corners of the building are set out from the baseline.
2. From these two corners, the sides are set out using Theodolite to turn off right angles.
The exact positions of each corner are then marked in the top of wooden pegs by nails
and offset pegs are established at the same time as the corner pegs.
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 3. The diagonal are checked and the nails repositioned on the tops of the pegs as necessary.
4. Profile boards are erected at each corner or a continous profile is used and excavation
begins.
6.5.1 SETTING OUT BUILDING BY ANGLES AND DISTACE
1. Set the theodolite over station C2, bisect the target on station C3 and set the horizontal
angle to 00° 0‟ 00‟‟.
2. Swing the Theodolite by 𝜃1, clamp the clamps and measure distance C2 to B1, mark B1
with peg.
3. Bisect B2 by rotating the Theodolite by 𝜃2, also measure distance C2 to B4, mark peg
B4.
4. Repeat the operation and set out point B3.
5. Transfer the theodolite to C1 and reference to C3, with the horizontal circle set to zero
00° 0‟ 00‟‟, repeat the procedure in 2-4 above.

Repeat the operation on face right as a check.

C3 C1
𝜃1

𝜃2 𝜃3

fig. 6.1

C2
6.6 PROCEDURE FOR CHECKING VERTICALITY OF BUILDING
Using a plumb-bob
In low-rise construction a heavy plumb-bob (5 to 10 kg) may be used as shown in Figure 6.2. If
the external wall were perfectly vertical, then when the plumb-bob coincides with the centre of
the peg, distance d at the top level would equal the offset distance of the peg at the base. This
concept can be used internally as well as externally, provided that holes and openings are
available. The plumb-bob should be large, say 5 kg, and both plumb-bob and wire need to be
protected from wind. The motion of the plumb-bob may need to be damped by immersing the
plumb-bob in a drum of water. To ensure a direct transfer of position from the bottom to the top
floor, holes of about 0.2 m diameter will need to be left in all intermediate floors. This may need
the agreement of the building‟s designer.

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 Fig. 6.2
Using optical plumbing
For high-rise building the instrument most commonly used is an autoplumb (Figure 6.3). This
instrument provides a vertical line of sight to an accuracy of ±1 second of arc (1 mm in 200 m).
Any deviation from the vertical can be quantified and corrected by rotating the instrument
through 90◦ and observing in all four quadrants; the four marks obtained would give a square, the
diagonals of which would intersect at the correct centre point. A base figure is established at
ground level from which fixing measurements may be taken. If this figure is carried vertically up
the structure as work proceeds, then identical fixing measurements from the figure at all levels
will ensure verticality of the structure (Figure 6.2). To fix any point of the base figure on an
upper floor, a Perspex target is set over the opening and the centre point fixed as above.
Sometimes these targets have a grid etched on them to facilitate positioning of the marks. The
base figure can be projected as high as the eighth floor, at which stage the finishing trades enter
and the openings are closed. In this case the uppermost figure is carefully referenced, the
openings filled, and then the base figure re-established and projected upwards as before.
The shape of the base figure will depend upon the plan shape of the building. In the case of a
long rectangular structure a simple base line may suffice but T shapes and Y shapes are also used.

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 Fig. 6.3
Using a theodolite
The Theodolite is set up on extensions of each reference line marked on the ground floor slab in
turn and the telescope is sighted on to the particular line being transferred. The telescope is
elevated to the required height and the point at which the line of sight meets the wall is marked.
This is repeated at all four corners and eight points in all are transferred as shown in the diagram
below.
Once the eights marks have been transferred, they are joined and the distances between them and
their diagonal lengths are measured as checks.

x x
x
x
Fig. 6.4

6.7 HOW LEVELS ARE USED TO CONTROL EXCAVATION AND FOUNDATION

LEVELS
Excavation is the loosening of the soil from its natural, in situ, stage. When the soil is moved
over relative short distances the word excavation is often used to cover the transport or moving
of the soil, especially when this is done by the same person
6.8 INVERT OF A DRAIN, SIGHT RAIL AND TRAVELER

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SIGHT RAILS
Sight rails (SRs) are basically horizontal rails set a specific distance apart and to a specific level
such that a line of sight between them is at the required gradient. Thus they are used to control
trench excavation and pipe gradient without the need for constant professional supervision.
Figure below illustrates SRs being used in conjunction with a boning rod (or traveller) to control
trench excavation to a design gradient of 0.5% (rising). Pegs A and B are offset a known distance
from the centre-line of the trench and levelled from a nearby TBM. Assume that peg A has a
level of 40 m and the formation level of the trench at this point is to be 38 m. It is decided that a
reasonable height for the SR above ground would be 1.5 m, i.e. at a level of 41.5; thus the boning
rod must be made (41.5 − 38) = 3.5 m long, as its cross-head must be on level with the
SR when its toe is at formation level.

Fig. 6.5
TRAVELLERS
Traveler is similar in appearance to a sight rail on a single support and is portable. The length
from edge to base should be a convenient dimension to the nearest half meter. Travelers are used
in conjunction with sight rails. The sight rails are set some convenient value above the required
plane and the travelers are constructed so that their length is equal to this value. As excavation
proceeds, the traveler is sighted in between the sight rails and used to monitor the rails and the
traveler are all in line.

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 Fig. 6.6
6.9 TYPES OF CONTROL USED FOR SETTING OUT
A control point is an established point, line, or surface used as a reference to describe the
location of a point. A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates
have been precisely determined and are often considered definitive. Traditionally, there have
been two general types of control; Vertical and Horizontal controls
1. VERTICAL CONTROL:- Vertical control is established to provide a basic framework for
large mapping projects, to establish new vertical control in remote areas, or to further densify
existing vertical control in an area. The purpose of vertical control surveys is to establish
elevations at convenient points over the project area. These established points (benchmarks) can
then serve as points of departure and closure for leveling operations and as reference benchmarks
during subsequent construction work. Unless otherwise directed, these benchmarks will be used
as a basis for all vertical control surveys. Differential leveling, reciprocal leveling, barometric
leveling, trigonometric leveling etc are major methods for densifying vertical control points.
Vertical control points enable design points to be positioned at their correct levels. The vertical
control points are established relative to specified vertical datum. A datum is any reference
surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The most commonly used datum is that of
mean sea level (MSL).
2. HORIZONTAL CONTROL:- Horizontal control points are the points that have known
coordinates with respect to a specific point. A horizontal datum is used to define latitude and
longitude or northing and easting locations. Other points such as layout can then be located.
Numerous control points could be used so that each points on the plan can be precisely located
on the ground. Horizontal and vertical control points are generally established during the leveling
phase using a Theodolite or similar instrument.

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EXERCISE: A rectangular building having plan sides of 75.36m and 23.24m is to be set out.
Coordinates of the SE corner have been fixed as (348.92mE and 591.76mN) and this corner is to
be fixed by Theodolite intersections from two stations P and Q whose respective coordinates are
(296.51Me, 540.32mN) and (371.30mE, 522.22mN).
Existing ground levels at the corners of the proposed structure were determined as follows.
SE = 156.82m, SW = 149.73m, NE = 151.45m and NW = 146.53m. Calculate,
1. The respective clockwise angles to be set off at P relative to PQ and at Q relative to QP in
order to intersect the position of the corner to the nearest 20‟‟.
2. Surface setting out measurements around the four sides of the building together with the
two diagonals, assuming even gradient along all lines.
1. Let corner SE = X
NW NE
Easting of X = 348.92, Northing of X = 591.76
Easting of P = 296.51, Northing of P = 540.32
ΔEPX = +52.41 ΔNPX = +51.44
Bearing = tan-1ΔE/ΔN
SW SE
Bearing PX = 45°32‟07‟‟
Easting of Q = 371.30, Northing of X = 522.22 x

Easting of P = 296.51, Northing of P = 540.32

ΔEPQ = +74.79 ΔNPQ = - 18.10 α β
-1
Bearing = tan ΔE/ΔN
Bearing PX = 103°36‟17‟‟
Easting of X = 348.92, Northing of X = 591.76
Easting of Q = 371.30, Northing of Q = 522.22
ΔEPQ = - 22.38 ΔNPQ = + 69.54
-1
Bearing = tan ΔE/ΔN
Bearing PX = 342°09‟37‟‟
Therefore α = bearing PQ – bearing PX = 103°36‟17‟‟ - 45°32‟07‟‟ = 58°04‟10‟‟
Clockwise angle to be set off at P relative to PQ = 360° - 58°04‟10‟‟ = 301°56‟20‟‟
Β = bearing QX – bearing QP = 342°09‟37‟‟ - 225° 04‟ 10‟‟ = 58° 33‟ 20‟‟
2. Calculation of surface measurement, slope correction = +h2/2L, where h is the height
difference and L the slope distance.
SE to SW, Δh = 156.82-149.73 = 7.09; Δh2 = 50.27m

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NE to NW, Δh = 151.45 – 146.53 = 4.92; Δh2 = 24.21m
SE to NE, Δh = 156.82 - 151.45 = 5.37; Δh2 = 28.84m
SW to NW, Δh = 149.73 – 146.53 = 3.20; Δh2 = 10.24m
Slope distances are as follow
SE to SW = 75.36 + (50.27/(2×75.36)) = 75.36+0.33 = 75.69m
NE to NW = 75.36 + (24.21/(2×75.36)) = 75.36+0.16 = 75.52m
SE to NE = 23.24 + (28.84/(2×23.24)) = 23.24+0.62 = 23.86m
SW to NW = 23.24 + (23.24/(2×23.24)) = 23.24+0.22 = 23.46m

DIAGONALS
Horizontal diagonals = √75.362 +23.242 = 78.86m
SE to NW, Δh = 156.82 – 146.53 = 10.29; Δh2 = 105.88m
SW to NE. Δh = 151.45 – 149.73 = 1.72; Δh2 = 2.96m
Diagonal slope distance is as follow
SE to NW = 78.86 + (105.88/(2×78.86)) = 78.86+0.67 = 79.53m
SW to NE = 78.86 + (2.96/(2×78.86)) = 78.86+0.02 = 78.88m

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