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Un it 1.
Explain the following definition of language: “Language is a system of choices from
which speakers select in order to create meaning”.
Which is the science that studies language? Is it the only one?
Which are the main branches or subsciences of linguistics?
What is the difference between language and speech?
What is phonetics? What does it study?
Which are the three branches of phonetics? What does each branch study?
What is phonology? Which are the two areas that phonology covers?
What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?
Is there a one-to-one correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in English?
Provide examples.
What is the difference between dialect and accent?
What variety of English will we study in this course? Mention the different names that
have been used to identify it.
What is IPA?
How many phonemes are there in General British English?
What is a phoneme?
What are minimal pairs? Provide examples.
What is an allophone? What is “free variation” and “complementary distribution”?
Make a mind map with the main concepts of this unit (Skipped).
Answe rs.
Language is a system of choices from which speakers select in order to create meaning
because there are different elements working together with a purpose, language uses
different resources available to speakers (sounds, prosodic features, syntactic structures,
etc.), and speakers’ experiences and ideas of the context and themselves ‘build’ them as
language users.
The science that formally studies language is Linguistics, and it originated from
philosophy, the mother of all sciences.
As language itself as an object of study is a complex field, there are different branches
and sub-sciences that derive from and belong to linguistics, each of which focuses on
specific aspects of language. Some of these are
 Morphemes: scientific study of morphemes and how they can combine to create
more complex units of meaning.
 Syntax: scientific study of how language units are combined and the rules those
combinatory possibilities follow in a language system.
 Semantics: scientific study of meaning and how it is created, organised and
coded in a language system.
 Pragmatics: scientific study of language in context and how both elements affect
each other.
  Sociolinguistics: scientific study of how language and social groups and society
interact.
 Psycholinguistics: scientific study of how humans acquire, learn, and
cognitively process and produce language.
 Phonetics: scientific study of how humans produce, transmit and perceive
speech sounds.
 Phonology: scientific study of how sound systems are organised in a language
system.
Language is an abstract system of choices from which speakers select to create meaning,
and it exists in the mind of those who know it and use it. Whereas speech is the physical
manifestation of language (we can perceive it, physically measure it, articulate it, etc)
that is produced by the controlled movement of air through the throat, mouth and nose;
or by the controlled movement of articulators (hands and different parts of the body in
the case of signed languages).
Phonetics is the scientific study of how humans produce, transmit and perceive speech
sounds. It is a general science that studies speech sounds from all languages.
Three main areas of phonetics can be identified:
 Articulatory phonetics: It studies how sounds are articulated and analyses which
organs and muscles take part in the production of speech-sounds.
 Acoustic phonetics: It is concerned with how speech sounds and their physical
properties travel from a speaker’s mouth to a listener’s ear.
 Auditory phonetics: It focuses on how speech sounds are perceived by the
listener.
Phonology is the scientific study of how speech sounds form patterns in a particular
language; i.e., how speech sounds can combine in a specific language system to convey
meaning. It is a specific science that generally focuses on single languages. Two main
areas of interest can be identified:
 Segmental phonology: it deals with segments (sounds).
 Suprasegmental phonology: it deals with larger units than the segment
(syllables, feet, intonation phrases, etc).
Phonetics and phonology are both sub-sciences that derive from linguistics and are
concerned with pronunciation and sound. Both of them describe and analyse speech
from different perspectives. The main difference between them, is that phonetics studies
the way we produce, transmit and perceive speech sounds, and phonology phonology is
concerned with how speech sounds “behave” in a given language.
No, there is not a one-to-one correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in
English. Example: bone, gone, done  they’re not pronounced the same, even though
their spelling is similar.
Dialect is the variety of language used by a specific group of people; it is different from
other dialects in terms of syntax, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. Accent is a variety of
pronunciation used by a specific group of people; it is different from other accents only
in term of pronunciation.
General British English is the variety of English we will describe and learn. It is a social
accent heard from educated speakers throughout Britain and its non-localisable or has
very few regional variances (it is more neutral in terms of regionalism). General British
English is also known as:
 ➢ Modern Received Pronunciation (R.P.).
➢ Estuary English.
➢ BBC English.
➢ Standard Southern British pronunciation.
The IPA is the major as well as the oldest representative organisation for phoneticians.
It was established in 1886 in Paris. The aim of the IPA is to promote the scientific study
of phonetics and the various practical applications of that science. In furtherance of this
aim, the IPA provides the academic community world-wide with a notational standard
for the phonetic representation of all languages - the International Phonetic Alphabet.
In General British English there are 44 phonemes (units of the sound system that can
change the meaning of a word). They can be classified in two groups: 20 vowel sounds
(12 monophthongs or pure vowels and 8 diphthongs) and 24 consonant sounds (6
plosives, 2 affricates, 9 fricatives, 3 nasals, 1 lateral, 1 retroflex, 2 semivowels).
A phoneme can be defined as the smallest speech unit that can change the meaning of a
word.
Minimal pairs are two words that have equal pronunciation but differ in one sound. The
existence of that different sound changes the meaning of the word. Examples: pot and
cot, bin and pin.
Allophones can be defined as different realisations of speech sounds which do not
change the meaning of a word. Allophonic realisations can be in free variation (the
speaker chooses to use that specific sound realisation) or in complementary distribution
(the speaker produces that specific realisation because of the influence of the
environment in which they occur).

Un it 2.
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
Which are the systems of speech organs? Mention them.
What is the main function of the respiratory system?
Which are the organs that make up the respiratory system? Mention and describe each
of them briefly.
What is the function of the respiratory system for speech production?
Which are the main types of airstream mechanisms? Which mechanism does English
use?
What is the main function of the phonatory system?
Which are the main constituents of this system? Mention and describe each one briefly.
What is the main function of the vocal folds?
What is vibration?
What is the name of the space between the vocal cords?
What are voiced and unvoiced sounds? Mention the position of the vocal cords during
the production of voiced and unvoiced sounds.
Which are the cavities that make up the articulatory system? Mention each of them and
explain them briefly.
What is the function of the different cavities for speech production?
Which are the different articulators of the articulatory system? Mention each of them
and explain their structure briefly. Remember to include if they are active or passive.
 Which are the different parts of the tongue?
Complete the following chart that summarises Unit II:

Rib cage.
Intercostal muscles.
Respiratory. Diaphragm. Produce airstream with
Lungs. which sound is produced.
Bronchial tubes.
Trachea.
Produce phonation: rapid
Larynx. closing and opening of the
Phonatory. Thyroid, cricoid and arytenoid vocal cords to allow or
cartilages. prevent the passage of
Vocal cords/folds. airstream coming from
lungs.
Pharyngeal, oral and nasal cavities.
Lips. Change/modulate/amplify
Articulatory. Tongue. the sound wave produced
Velum/soft palate. in the larynx.
Teeth.
Palate.

Answe rs.
The main difference between anatomy and physiology is that anatomy studies the
structure of each body part and physiology studies the function of them.
The system of organs that can be identified when describing speech production are: the
respiratory system, the phonatory system and the articulatory system.
The main function of the respiratory system is to breathe in oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide from the blood.
The system consists of the following organs:
 The rib cage (a barrel shaped and contains the lungs and the intercostal muscles).
 The intercostal muscles (a group of muscles that run between the ribs).
 The diaphragm (a dome-shaped muscle).
 The bronchial tubes (pipes that connect the trachea and the inside of the lungs).
 The trachea (a windpipe).
In speech production, the main function of this system is to produce the airstream with
which sound is produced.
The different types of airstreams are: egressive pulmonic airstream (where the air is
pushed out of the lungs by the ribs and diaphragm), egressive glottalic airstream (where
the air column is compressed as the glottis moves upward) and ingressive airstream
(sounds by which the air stream flows inward through the mouth or nose).
When speaking English, the airstream used to produce speech is the egressive pulmonic
airstream.
The main function of the phonatory system is to produce the voice, with the help of the
airstream coming out from the lungs.
The phonatory system includes:

 The larynx (a box-like structure made up of a series of cartilages mentioned below)

 The cricoid cartilage (functions as the top ring of the trachea and forms the base of
the larynx).
 The thyroid cartilage (like two flat plates that can be seen and felt as the Adam’s
apple. It is a shield for the vocal cords).
 The arytenoid cartilages (sat on the cricoid cartilage and attached to it by a joint that
moves and allows the speaker to tense or relax the vocal folds).
 The vocal cords or vocal folds (two string-like muscles covered by several layers of
fibrous tissue).
The main function of the vocal folds is preventing food and drink from falling into the
trachea and the lungs, protecting the organism from choking and suffocation.
When the vocal folds open and close rapidly, they vibrate, and they create a sound like
a quiet buzz, that is perceived as voice.
The space between the vocal cords is called glottis.
Voiced sounds are produced with vibration of the vocal cords, and unvoiced (or
voiceless) sounds are produced without vibration of the vocal fold, they remain
separated so that the air escapes through them.
The cavities that make up the articulatory system are:
 Pharyngeal cavity (the throat, it extends from the larynx to the mouth and nose).
 Oral cavity (the mouth itself, and its shape varies from speaker to speaker).
 Nasal cavity (includes the nose and the hollow spaces behind it).
In reference to speech production, the cavities act as resonating chambers that amplify
and modulate the buzz produced by the activity of the vocal cords; the shape of the
resonating cavities that varies among individuals will affect the quality of speech
sounds.
The active articulators (capable of movement) are considered to be:
 Lips (two fleshy folds richly supplied with muscles that can block, allow or reduce
the airflow coming from the lungs and also be held rounded or spread).
 Tongue (the most important active articulator consisting nearly of entirely muscle,
and it can assume a wide variety of shapes).
 Velum or soft palate (muscular tissue at the back of the palate that can be lowered
or raised to allow air flow through the nose or mouth).
The passive articulators (incapable of movement) are:
 Teeth (they can be referred to as upper or lower teeth).
 Palate (bony structure that forms the roof of the mouth, it can be divided into the
hard palate and the alveolar ridge).
The parts of the tongue are: the root, the back, the front, the blade and the tip.
 Un it 3.
What is a vowel? Define it from the phonetic and phonological point of view.
How many vowel phonemes are there in General British English?
Which are the different types of vowels in English?
What is the Cardinal Vowel System?
What do the horizontal lines of the diagram represent? And the vertical ones?
Are English vowels oral or nasal or both?
Are English vowels produced with or without vibration of the vocal cords?
The position of which articulators is used in order to describe vowel sounds?
Which are the different positions the lips can take?
Complete the following chart with the missing information: (The first description is
done so you can use it as an example).

iː Front Below and Spread Tense Long Acute All positions

behind the
close
position
ɪ The Just above Spread Relaxed Short Acute All positions
nearest to the half- loosely
the centre close
position
ʊ Just Above the Loosely Tense Short Grave Only in initial
behind half-close rounded position and
the centre position mid position
uː Back Just below Loosely Tense Long Grave All positions
the close rounded
position
e Front Between Loosely Slightly Short Acute Not in final
the half- spread tense position
open and
half-close
positions
ə Centre Between Loosely Tenser than Short Grave Not in stressed
the half- spread for / ɪ / syllables
close and
half-open
positions
ɜː Centre Between Neutrally Loosely Long Acute Not in final
the half- spread spread position
close and
half-open
positions
ɔː Back Between Loosely Lax Long Grave All positions
the half- rounded
open and
 half-close
positions
æ Front Just below Neutrally Tense Short Acute Not in final
the half- open position
open
position
ʌ Centre Just above Neutrally Lax Short Grave Not in final
the fully open position
open
position
ɑː Between Fully open Neutrally Lax Short Grave All positions
the centre position open
and the
back
ɒ Back Fully open Lightly Lax Short Grave Not in final
position rounded position

What is a diphthong? Provide a definition (check the pronunciation of the word

“diphthong” and transcribe it).
How many diphthongs are there in English?
Complete the sentence with the missing information:
 Diphthongs can be classified according to the direction of the glide into:
____________ diphthongs with the glide towards the / /, ________ diphthongs with
the glide towards /ɪ / or towards /ʊ/.
Transcribe five words that contain each diphthong.
What is a triphthong? Which diphthongs can become triphthongs? (Check and
transcribe the pronunciation of the word “triphthong”).
What is nasalization? Provide one example.
What is clipping? Provide one example.
What is smoothing or levelling?
Which are the two archiphonemes in English? When are they used?
How many pure vowel phonemes does Spanish have?
How many diphthongs does Spanish have?
Does length variation in Spanish happen at phonemic or allophonic level?
Do Spanish vowels have any restriction as regards distribution?
Mention the main differences between vowel sounds in English and in Spanish.
Answe rs:
From the phonetic point of view: a vowel is a sound in the production of which the
airstream escapes through the mouth meeting no obstruction of the articulators. They
are articulated with relatively open configuration of the vocal tract.
From the phonological point of view: a vowel is a unit of a sound system that typically
occupies the central element of the syllable.
There are 20 vowel phonemes that can be identified.
There are 12 monophthongs (one vowel quality perceived) and 8 diphthongs (two vowel
qualities perceived).
The Cardinal Vowel System is a representation of the possibilities of the human tract in order to
describe vowels.
The horizontal lines will indicate the distance between the tongue and the palate (position of the
tongue raised: close, half-close, half-open, open) and the vertical lines will indicate the part of
the tongue raised (front, central, back).
English vowels are all oral.
English vowels are all voiced, meaning that they are produced with the vibration of the vocal
cords.
The articulators used in order to describe vowel sounds are: the lips, the tongue and the palate.
The lips can take 3 different positions: rounded, spread or neutral.
(Already completed).
A diphthong (/dɪfθɒŋ/) is one vowel sound which consists of a movement or glide from one
vowel to a second vowel position.
There are 8 diphthongs in English.
Diphthongs can be classified according to the direction of the glide into: centring diphthongs
with the glide towards the / /, closing diphthongs with the glide towards /ɪ / or towards /ʊ/.
/ɪ /  here /hɪ /, deer /dɪ /, real /rɪ l/, sphere /sfɪ /, clear /klɪ /
/eɪ/  say /seɪ/, stay /steɪ/, break /breɪk/, they /ðeɪ/, obey / beɪ/
/ɔɪ/  oil /ɔɪl/, joy /ʤɔɪ/, annoy / nɔɪ/, employ /ɪmplɔɪ/, foil /fɔɪl/
/ʊ /  sure /ʃʊ /, endure /ɪndjʊ /, cure /kjʊ /, pure /pjʊ /, tour /tʊ /
/ ʊ/  coat /k ʊt/, snow /sn ʊ/, road /r ʊd/, below /bɪl ʊ/, throw /θr ʊ/
/e /  there /ðe /, pair /pe /, hair /he /, where /we /, chair /ʧe /
/aɪ/  fine /faɪn/, sky /skaɪ/, bright /braɪt/, tie /taɪ/, island /aɪl nd/
/aʊ/  house /haʊs/, clown /klaʊn/, draught /draʊt/, outfit /aʊtfɪt/, thousand /θaʊz nd/
A triphthong (/trɪfθɒŋ/) is a vowel sound in whose production there is a glide from one vowel
position to a second one and then to a third one, all produced rapidly without interruption.
Diphthongs that can become triphthongs (by adding a schwa) are:
/eɪ/  /eɪ /
/aɪ/  /aɪ /
/ɔɪ/  /ɔɪ /
/ ʊ/  / ʊ /
/aʊ/  /aʊ /
Nasalization is one of the processes in which the articulators of the vowels in English are
affected. It consists of a vowel adjacent to nasal consonants; the air escapes through the nose.
Example: wing [wɪŋ̃ ].
Pre-fortis clipping is another of the processes that affect the articulators of the vowels in
English, this one refers to the shortening of vowels in syllables that have voiceless consonants
in final position. When a vowel sound in a syllable followed by a voiceless consonant, such
vowel is said more quickly than when it is followed by a voiced consonant or in open syllables.
Example: beat /biːt/ vs bead /biːd/  [bĭt] vs [/biːd/].
Smoothing or levelling is one of the processes which affects the articulation of long vowels,
diphthongs and triphthongs. It is the partial or complete loss of an element in vowel sequence,
and it mainly affects diphthongs and triphthongs. It mainly affects the triphthongs /aʊ / and
/aɪ / and the diphthongs /ɪ / and /ʊ /.
The two archiphonemes in English are /i/ and /u/, and they are used in a word’s final position,
in some prefixes spelled “re-, pre-, de-, be-”, especially if it precedes an unstressed vowel (only
for /i/), and in weak forms of structural words.
In Spanish, there are five pure vowels.
 There are thirteen diphthongs in Spanish, 8 of them are falling diphthongs and 5 of them are
rising diphthongs.
In Spanish, length variation primarily occurs at the allophonic level rather than the phonemic
level. Variations in vowel or consonant length don't change the meaning of a word.
No, there isn’t, all of them occur in all positions.
The main differences between vowel sounds in English and in Spanish are:
 English has 12 pure vowels and Spanish has 5.
 English has 8 falling diphthongs and Spanish has 8 falling and 5 rising diphthongs.
 English vowels differ in length as a contrastive future, but in Spanish this difference is not
meaningful.
 English and Spanish vowels are affected by clipping, although English has high functional
load.
 English vowels have restrictions in distribution and Spanish vowels occur in all positions.