Higher Technological institute

Mechanical Engineering department

Non-destructive text examination (NDT)

Course code : ITR 102

Submitted to
DR: Ahmed Samir
Eng : Ashraf Hussein
Eng : Muhammed Ali
Submitted by
Mahmoud Tayel Aziz
20091339

13 September 2021

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 Abstract

The field of non-destructive testing (NDT) and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of materials
is constantly evolving. This paper provides the recent advances and research about non-
destructive testing (NDT)methods for defect characterization. Non-destructive testing is a
different kind of tests which are used to learn about the physical properties of specimens. By
the other techniques like tensile testing and hardness testing the specimen is destructed after
the experiment but in this testing type the specimen is not destructed. There are eight different
NDT methods: Visual Inspection, Microscopy, Radiography, Dye penetrates, Ultrasonic,
Magnetic Particle, Eddy Current and Acoustic Emission. These methods are only separated in
application technics. The most useful of them must be chosen for specimen that will be
investigated Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or the equipment
used to perform that test. Current NDT methods are: Acoustic Emission Testing (AE),
Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Laser Testing Methods (LM), Leak Testing (LT), Magnetic
Flux Leakage (MFL), Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Testing (MT), Neutron
Radiographic Testing (NR), Radiographic Testing (RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR),
Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Vibration Analysis (VA) and Visual Testing (VT).The five most
frequently used test methods are MT, PT, RT, UT, and VT. Each of these test methods will be
described here, followed by the other, less often used test methods.

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 Acknowledgements
would like to express my gratitude to my primary supervisor Dr. Wael Huzaifa, who guided
me throughout this course . I would also like to thank my colleague who supported me and
offered deep insight into the study
I wish to acknowledge the help provided by the technical and support staff in the mechanical
department of the tenth of Ramadan institute . I would also like to show my deep appreciation
to my supervisors who helped me finalize this course .

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Table of Contents
Chapter (1) Introduction ______________________________________________________ 1
[Link] Company _________________________________________________________ 1
1.2. objective of training ____________________________________________________ 1
1.3. report layout __________________________________________________________ 1
Chapter (2) ________________________________________________________________ 2
Welding process ____________________________________________________________ 2
2.1 introduction ___________________________________________________________ 2
2.2 welding basic joints _____________________________________________________ 2
2.2.1 butt joint ____________________________________________________________ 2
2.2.2 tee joint _____________________________________________________________ 3
2.2.3 lap joint_____________________________________________________________ 3
2.2.4 corner joint __________________________________________________________ 4
2.2.5 edge joint ___________________________________________________________ 4
2.3 Methods of Welding ____________________________________________________ 5
2.3.1 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) _______________________________________ 5
2.3.2 Process _____________________________________________________________ 6
2.2.4 electrode code and type ________________________________________________ 7
2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) ___________________________________________ 8
chapter 3 __________________________________________________________________ 9
welding defects _____________________________________________________________ 9
3.1 introduction ___________________________________________________________ 9
3.2 Classifications of defects _________________________________________________ 9
3.3 External Welding Defects: _________________________________________________ 9
3.3.1 cracks _______________________________________________________________ 9
[Link] longitudinal Crack _____________________________________________________ 9
[Link] Transverse Crack _________________________________________________ 10
[Link] CRATER CRACKS ________________________________________________ 11
[Link] Underbed Crack __________________________________________________ 11
3.3.2 porosity ____________________________________________________________ 12
3.2.1 Causes of Porosity: ____________________________________________________ 12
3.2.2 Remedies for porosity: __________________________________________________ 12
3.3.3 Undercuts _________________________________________________________ 12
Causes of Undercut: ______________________________________________________ 13
Remedies for Undercut: ___________________________________________________ 13

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 3.3 spatters______________________________________________________________ 13
Causes Of Spatter: ________________________________________________________ 13
Remedies for Spatter: _____________________________________________________ 14
3.4 Internal Welding Defects _______________________________________________ 14
3.4.1 slag inclusion _______________________________________________________ 14
Causes ___________________________________________________________________ 14
3.4.2 Incomplete Fusion ___________________________________________________ 14
3.4.3 Incomplete penetration ________________________________________________ 15
Chapter 4 nondestructive tests (NDT) _________________________________________ 16

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TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 BUTT JOINT .................................................................................................................. 2
FIGURE 2 TEE JOINT ..................................................................................................................... 3
FIGURE 3 LAP JOINT .................................................................................................................... 3
FIGURE 4 CORNER JOINT .............................................................................................................. 4
FIGURE 5 EDGE JOINT .................................................................................................................. 4
FIGURE 6 (SMAW) POSITIONS....................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 7 ELECTODE CODE AND TYPE .......................................................................................... 7
FIGURE 8 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) .......................................................................... 8
FIGURE 9 CRACKS ....................................................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 10 LONGITUDINAL CRACK ............................................................................................ 10
FIGURE 11 TRANSVERSE CRACK ............................................................................................... 10
FIGURE 12 CRATER CRACKS ............................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 13 UNDERBED CRACK ................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 14 POROSITY................................................................................................................. 12
FIGURE 15 UNDERCUTS ............................................................................................................. 12
FIGURE 16 SPATTERS................................................................................................................. 13
FIGURE 17 SLAG INCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 18 INCOMPLETE FUSION ............................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 19 INCOMPLETE ....................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 20 VISUAL TEST ............................................................................................................ 17
FIGURE 21 LIGHTINING.............................................................................................................. 17
FIGURE 22 MIRROR.................................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 23 MAGNIFIER .............................................................................................................. 18
FIGURE 24 FIBERSCOPES ........................................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 25 INSPECTOR KIT ......................................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 26 WELDING GAGUES .................................................................................................... 20
FIGURE 27 HILO ........................................................................................................................ 20
FIGURE 28 TEMERATURE ........................................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 29 SURFACE PREPERATION............................................................................................ 22
FIGURE 30 SPRAYING DEVELOPER ............................................................................................. 23
FIGURE 31 BRUSHING PENETRANT LIQUID ................................................................................ 23
FIGURE 32 IMMERSING-DIPPING ................................................................................................ 23
FIGURE 33 DWELL TIME ............................................................................................................ 24
FIGURE 34 PENTETRANT REMOVAL ........................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 35 DEVELOPER APPLICATION ........................................................................................ 25
FIGURE 36 INDICATION ............................................................................................................. 25
FIGURE 37 MAGNITC FIELD LINES ............................................................................................. 26
FIGURE 38 LEAKAGE ................................................................................................................. 27
FIGURE 40 RESULT OF DRY MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION ................................................ 28
FIGURE 41 APPLICATION OF WET MAGNETIC PARTICLES ........................................................... 28
FIGURE 42 RESULT OF WET MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION ................................................ 29

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 Abbreviations

NDT Nondestructive tests

VT Visual test
MT Magnate test
RT Radio graphic test
UT Ultra-sonic test

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 Chapter (1)
Introduction

[Link] Company
Offering its experience and services for petroleum refining , petrochemical , and other
industrial sectors according to international standards and specification. Planning, organizing,
and implementing all related activities for all materials . supervising quality control ; training,
qualifying, and evaluating company's employers in all fields , as well as a wide variety of
training and certification programs
KIT has a big name in engineering consultancy at a lot of projects in all over Egypt and it was
a partner to a lot of companies and factories to get the best and the safest product. Kit's crew is
main counsel in (Zohr Field) the biggest natural gas field in medial sea and the medial east.

1.2. objective of training

Level I, II and Level III non-destructive testing courses enable or your employees to perform
non-destructive testing independently and professionally. Earning these qualifications from a
recognized, reputable training service ensures quality testing and boosts your competitive
advantage. We have designed our non-destructive testing courses on the basis of ASNT
practices (SNT-TC-1A, CP 189), and provide training in a range of methods, from visual
testing to magnetic particle and penetration tests, among others. NDT level I and level II
seminars are available as well as relevant examinations.

1.3. report layout

This report contains six chapters
1. Chapter (1) Introduction
2. Chapter (2) Welding process
3. Chapter (3) Welding defects
4. Chapter (4) Nondestructive tests
5. Chapter (5) Safety
6. Chapter (6) References

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 Chapter (2)

Welding process
2.1 introduction

Welding is a common process for joining metals using a large variety of applications. Welding
occurs in several locations, from outdoors settings on rural farms and construction sites to
inside locations, such as factories and job shops. Welding processes are fairly simple to
understand, and basic techniques can be learned quickly. Welding is the joining of metals at a
molecular level. A weld is a homogeneous bond between two or more pieces of metal, where
the strength of the welded joint exceeds the strength of the base pieces of metal.

At the simplest level, welding involves the use of four components: the metals, a heat source,
filler metal, and some kind of shield from the air. The metals are heated to their melting point
while being shielded from the air, and then a filler metal is added to the heated area to produce
a single piece of metal. It can be performed with or without filler metal and with or without
pressure.

There are several types of welding that are used today. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or
MIG, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or TIG, Flux Core Arc Welding, and Stick Welding
are the most common found types in industrial environments.

2.2 welding basic joints

There are five common types of weld joints used in all types of welding: corner joints, edge
joints, lap joints, tee joints, and butt joints.

2.2.1 butt joint

Butt Joints – When two workpieces are aligned on the same plane and joined by a weld along
their edges, it is called a butt joint. They are used where high strength is required because they
are reliable and can withstand stress better than any other type of weld.

Figure 1 butt joint

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 2.2.2 tee joint

Tee Joint – The edge of one workpiece meeting the surface of the other workpiece
with material on both sides of the edge is called a tee joint.

2.2.3 lap joint

Figure 2 tee joint
Lap Joint – A lap joint in
welding occurs when a bead is made on the surface of one workpiece and the edge of the other
piece. It should be performed with no gap between the two pieces.

Figure 3 lap joint

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 2.2.4 corner joint

Corner Joint – When two pieces are perpendicular to each other and one piece’s edge meets
the end of the other piece’s surface, it is referred to as a corner joint. Common corner joints
are edge to edge, flush corner, and
half overlap, each with their own
benefits.

2.2.5 edge joint

Edge Joint – An edge joint is when

two edges of weld pieces are
adjacent and in parallel planes with
each other. The weld does not Figure 4 corner joint
penetrate completely through the
joint thickness so it should not be used in high stress or pressure situations.

Figure 5 edge joint

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 2.3 Methods of Welding
2.3.1 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

also known as stick welding, is a manual process using a flux coated consumable electrode
with a metal rod at the core.

Alternating current or direct current forms an arc between the electrode and the base metal
creates the required heat. In the United States it is the most common method used.

The flux coating disintegrates and gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provides a
protective layer of slag.

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

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SMAW arc welding is primarily used to weld iron and steels.

It can be used in all positions:

• Flat
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• Overhead

2.3.2 Process

SMAW Arc Welding (stick welding) uses the arc heat to melt the base metal and tip of a
consumable electrode.
The electrode and Figure 6 (smaw) positions
base metal are part of
an electric circuit or welding circuit.

This circuit includes.

• Power source
• Welding cables
• Electrode holder
• Ground clamp
• The work or base metal
• Arc welding electrode

→ One cable is attached to the work and the other to the electrode holder.
→ Welding starts when an arc is struck between the tip of the electrode and base
metal.
→ The heat melts the tip and the surface of the work.

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 → Tiny globules of molten metal form on the electrode tip then transfer through
the arc into the molten pool.
→ Filler is deposited as the electrode is consumed.

2.2.4 electrode code and type

Figure 7 electode code and type

The classification is based on an “E” prefix and four or five digits; each digit of the electrode
designation is used to designate a specific property of the electrode. The following is the
breakdown explanation of the digits and what each digit indicates for our common electrodes
(E6010, E6011, E6012, E6013, E7018, and E7024):

E – Electrode

The First Two or Three Digits Indicate Tensile Strength X 1000 Psi

• E60xx – Tensile Strength of 60,000 psi

• E70xx – Tensile Strength of 70,000 psi

The Next Digit Refers To Welding Positions

• Exx1x Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead.

• Exx2x Flat, Horizontal.
• Exx3x Flat.
• Exx4x Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down).

The Last Digit Refers To the Usability of the Electrode (Electrode Coating, Current and
Penetration)

• Exxx0 – Cellulose, Sodium – DC+ (Deep Penetration)

• Exxx1 – Cellulose, Potassium – AC/DC+ (Deep Penetration)

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Various conditions have to be considered during welding rod selection; the welding rod has to
match the mechanical properties and chemical composition of the base metal, joint geometry,
welding position, cost, and operational condition are also taken into consideration during the
selection process. Although thousands of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) electrodes exist,
E6010, E6011, E6012, E6013, E7018, and E7024 are the most common electrodes in use.

2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) uses a solid electrode wire that is continuously fed from a
spool, through the welding cable assembly, and out through the welding gun.

Figure 8 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

Gas Metal Arc Welding is commonly used in the following areas:

• Pipe welding/pipe joints

• Automotive production and maintenance
• Manufacturing
• Shipbuilding
• Construction
• Railroad tracks
• Underwater welding

Can be used to weld both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and all thicknesses
above thin gauge sheet metal.

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 chapter 3

welding defects
3.1 introduction
Welding defects can be defined as weld surface irregularities, discontinuities, imperfections,
or inconsistencies that occur in welded parts. Defects in weld joints could result in the rejection
of parts and assemblies, costly repairs, significant reduction of performance under working
conditions and, in extreme cases, catastrophic failures with loss of property and life. These
defects originate from various sources. In most cases, the defects occur as a result of improper
weld design and unsuitable welding processes and choice of incompatible materials. In
addition, a lack of knowledge of the process, poor workmanship, and inadequate training of
the welder can also contribute to these defects. Furthermore, there are always certain flaws in
the welding due to the inherent weakness in welding technology and the characteristics of
metals

3.2 Classifications of defects

Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects:

External Welding Defects:

1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap

Internal Welding Defects:

1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incomplete penetration

3.3 External Welding Defects:

3.3.1 cracks
The most serious type of welding defect is a weld
crack and it’s not accepted almost by all standards
in the industry. It can appear on the surface, in the
weld metal or the area affected by the intense heat.

[Link] longitudinal Crack

Definition: A crack running in the direction of the
weld axis. May be found in the weld or base metal. Figure 9 cracks

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Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by shrinkage stresses in high constraint
areas.
Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also preheat to even out the cooling rates.
Repair: Remove and reweld

Figure 10 longitudinal Crack

[Link] Transverse Crack

Transverse Crack Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse to the weld axis
direction.
Cause: Weld metal hardness problem Prevention: Preheating
Repair: Remove and reweld

Figure 11 Transverse Crack

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 [Link] CRATER CRACKS
INSUFFICIENT FILLING AT THE END OF THE WELD

Figure 12 CRATER CRACKS

[Link] Underbed Crack

Definition: A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the HAZ.
Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement
Prevention: Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat
Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and reweld.

Figure 13 underbed crack

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 3.3.2 porosity

Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.

Figure 14 porosity

3.2.1 Causes of Porosity:

1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.

2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

3.2.2 Remedies for porosity:

1. Proper selection of the electrode.

2. Decreasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique

3.3.3 Undercuts
When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in the shape of a
notch, then this type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.

Figure 15 undercuts

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 Causes of Undercut:

[Link] the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also the
defect may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.

Remedies for Undercut:

[Link] the arc length or lower the arc voltage.

2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.

3.3 spatters

When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to the surface, then this
defect is known as Spatter.

Figure 16 spatters

Causes Of Spatter:

1. High Welding current can cause this defect.

2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.

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 Remedies for Spatter:

1. Reducing the arc length and welding current

2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

3.4 Internal Welding Defects

3.4.1 slag inclusion
is one of the welding defects that are usually easily visible in the weld. Slag is a vitreous material that
occurs as a byproduct of stick welding, flux-cored arc welding and submerged arc welding. Is can
occur when the flux, which is the solid shielding material used when welding, melts in the weld or on
the surface of the weld zone.

Figure 17 slag inclusion

Causes
1. Improper cleaning.
2. The weld speed is too fast.
3. Not cleaning the weld pass before starting a new one.
4. Incorrect welding angle.
5. The weld pool cools down too fast.
6. Welding current is too low

Remedies

1. Increase current density.

2. Reduce rapid cooling.
3. Adjust the electrode angle.
4. Remove any slag from the previous bead.
5. Adjust the welding speed.

3.4.2 Incomplete Fusion

This type of welding defect occurs when there’s a lack of proper fusion between the base
metal and the weld metal. It can also appear between adjoining weld beads. This creates a gap
in the joint that is not filled with molten metal.

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 Figure 18 Incomplete Fusion

3.4.3 Incomplete penetration

These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal is not filled
completely. It is also called as incomplete penetration defect.

Figure 19 INCOMPLETE

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 [Link] (4) nondestructive tests (NDT)
4.1 introduction
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a mechanism used by engineers to detect defects in
materials and structures, either during manufacturing or while in service. Typically, the
methods used are ultrasonics, radiography, magnetic particle, eddy current, dye penetrant and
visual methods.

4.2 Visual Test (VT)

Visual inspection (VT) is arguably the oldest and most widely used NDT method there is. For
thousands of years, craftsmen have used their eyes to determine the quality of the products they
made. In essence, this is still the case with visual inspection. This method involves the visual
observation of the surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface discontinuities
such as corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage, and cracks. Visual testing can be
done by looking at the test piece directly, or by using optical instruments such as magnifying
glasses, mirrors, borescopes, and computer-assisted viewing systems. VT can be applied to
inspect castings, forgings, machined components, and welds and is used in all branches of
industry

NDT is the most extensively used NDE method for welds.

• The oldest.
• The eye of inspector are the only equipment used for the Inspection low cost
• Applicable to virtually any material at any stage of manufacture at any point in
its service life.
• VT is commonly performed on castings, forgings, and welds and it is
performed after machining processes as well.
• It includes either the direct or indirect observation of the exposed surfaces of
the weld and base metal.

4.2.1 Direct visual examination

• is conducted when access is sufficient to place the eye within 6 in. through 24 in.
(150 mm through 600 mm) of the surface to be examined and at an angle not less
than 30 degrees to the surface as illustrated in Figure
• Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision.

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 Figure 20 visual test

4.2.2 Optical used in visual test inspection

[Link] Lighting
• the inspection surface illumination is of extreme importance.
• Adequate illumination levels should be established in order to
• ensure and effective visual inspection
• Standards such as ASME Section V Article 9 specify lighting levels of 100-foot
candles (1000 lux) at the examination surface

Figure 21 lightining

[Link] mirror
valuable to the inspector allowing them to look inside piping, threaded and, inside castings
and around corners if necessary.

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 Figure 22 mirror

[Link] Magnifier
Helpful in bringing out small details and defects

Figure 23 magnifier

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 [Link] Borescopes and Fiberscopes
widely used for examining tubes, a deep hole, long bores, and pipe bends, having internal
surfaces not accessible to direct viewing metal.

Figure 24 fiberscopes

4.3 Weld examination kit

Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the following.
contains some of the basic tools needed to perform an adequate visual examination of a weld
during all stages of welding {Before welding ,During welding and after}
It includes as the following:

1. 6-inch Ruler
2. 1-inch Micrometer
3. Metric Dial Caliper
4. Palmgren Gage
5. Undercut Gage
6. Fillet Weld Gages

Figure 25 inspector kit

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 4.3.1 Welding gauges

Welding gauges are inspection gauges used for checking alignment, checking
dimensions before welding, verifying weld dimensions, and checking porosity of
welds. Some gauges are multipurpose or single purpose.

Figure 26 welding gagues

4.3.2 HiLo
Measuring HiLo just before welding confirms the best fit-up selections for critical
fatigue-sensitive pipes and reduces the chance of expensive weld-related cut outs.
Reducing HiLo is also a key part of ensuring a weld will pass inspection in the
QA/QC stages and meet project specifications

Figure 27 hilo

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 4.3.3 Digital pyrometer or temperature sensitive
measures preheat and interpass temperatures. "Interpass temperature is measured
just before starting the next pass. It is a way of limiting the width of the heat
affected zone and the problems associated with grain coarsening and loss of
toughness. The weld has to be hotter than the melting point of the base metal in
order to get fusion.

Figure 28 temerature

4.3 Liquid penetrant testing (PT)

4.3.1 introduction

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its
popularity can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its
flexibility. It can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface
is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly inspected using
this method include metals, glass, many ceramic materials, rubber, and plastics.
However, liquid penetrant testing can only Be used to inspect for flaws that break
the surface of the sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of
fusion, etc.).
The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface
discontinuity by capillary action. After a period of time called the "dwell time",
excess surface penetrant is removed, and a developer applied. This acts as a
blotter that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal its presence. The
advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers over an unaided visual
inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector where that is

| P a g e 21
done in two ways:
• Penetrant Testing, or PT, is a nondestructive testing method that builds on
the principle of Visual Inspection.

• PT increases the “see ability” of small discontinuities that the human eye
might not be able to detect alone.
4.3.2 Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing
The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to case depending on
several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and material of the
component being inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the component
and the condition and environment under which the inspection is

1. Surface Preparation:
One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is the surface preparation.
The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and
other mechanical operations can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the
penetrant from entering.

Figure 29 surface preperation

| P a g e 22
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried,
the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a
penetrant bath.

Figure 30 spraying developer

Figure 31 Brushing penetrant liquid

Figure 32 Immersing-dipping

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3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow
as much penetrant as possible to be drawn or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time
is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are
usually recommended by the penetrant producers or required by the specification being
followed. The times vary depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the
material, the form of the material being inspected, and the type of discontinuity being
inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally,
there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not
allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by experimentation and may
be very specific to a particular application.

Figure 33 dwell time

4. Excess penetrant removal

This is the most delicate step of the inspection procedure because the excess
penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little
penetrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this
step may involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating
the part with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

Figure 34 pentetrant removal

| P a g e 24
 5. Developer Application:
A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant trapped in
flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety
of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

Figure 35 developer application

6. Indication development:
The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit
the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development time is
usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times may be necessary for tight
cracks.

Figure 36 indication

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 7. Inspection:

Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from any flaws
which may be present.

8. Clean Surface:

The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove the developer
from the parts that were found to be acceptable.

4.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages :
1. High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
2. Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
3. Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
4. Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

Disadvantages:
1. Only surface breaking defects can be detected
2. pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects
3. Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
4. Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

4.4 Magnetic Particle test – MT

4.4.1introduction

Magnetic particle inspection (MT) is a non-destructive testing method used to detect surface
and slightly subsurface flaws in ferromagnetic materials (such as carbon steel). It is used
routinely to inspect welds, piping, pressure vessels and structural steel components.

4.4.2 Theory
When ferromagnetic material (typically iron or steel) is defect-free, it will transfer lines of
magnetic flux (field) through the material without any interruption.

Figure 37 Magnitc field lines

But when a crack or other discontinuity is present, the magnetic flux leaks out of the material.
As it leaks, magnetic flux (magnetic field) will collect ferromagnetic particles (iron powder),
making the size and shape of the discontinuity easily visible.

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 Figure 38 leakage

However, the magnetic flux will only leak out of the material if the discontinuity is generally
perpendicular to its flow. If the discontinuity, such as a crack, is parallel to the lines of magnetic
flux, there will be no leakage and therefore no indication observed. To resolve this issue, each
area needs to be examined twice. The second examination needs to be perpendicular to the
first so discontinuities in any direction are detected. The examiner must ensure that enough
overlap of areas of magnetic flux is maintained throughout the examination process, so
discontinuities are not missed.

4.4.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure

Steps to Perform a Dry Magnetic Particle Inspection
1. Surface preparation

The surface of the test specimen must be clean and free from moisture, oil, or grease.

2. Application of Magnetizing force

Establish a magnetic flux using a coil, permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke, etc.

3. Application of Dry Magnetic Particles

Sprinkle a thin layer of the crushed particles on the specimen.

4. Removal of Excess Particles

While the magnetizing force is being applied, blow off the excess powder from the specimen’s
surface gently. Diligently blow the air. The force of air shouldn’t blow off all the particles
adhered to the magnetic flux leakage field.

5. Terminate the Magnetizing force

The magnetizing force (electromagnet or electromagnetic field) generating the magnetic flux
should be terminated. The permanent magnets can be left in place if being used.

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 6. Inspection

Particles will cluster in the damaged/faulty area.

Figure 39 Result of Dry Magnetic Particle Inspection

Dry magnetic inspection works better on rough surfaces. It also detects shallow subsurface
cracks.

Steps to Perform a Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection

1. Surface preparation

The preparation step is the same as that of dry magnetic particle inspection. The surface has to
free from impurities and other freely moving particles. Specifications allow a thin coating of
non-conductive or ferromagnetic paint.

2. Application of Wet Magnetic Particles

Gently spray/pour the suspended magnetic particles over the specimen.

Figure 40 Application of wet magnetic particles

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 3. Application of Magnetizing force

Apply the magnetizing field immediately after pouring the suspended magnetic particles.
Apply the current in two to three short bursts (1/2 second) in a horizontal inspection unit.
This improves the mobility of the particles.

4. Inspection

Particles will cluster in the damaged/faulty area. In the case of surface discontinuities, there
will be a sharp indication. In subsurface flaws, the indication will be less defined. Infrared
lights too can be used to get a better vision of the faults on the surface of the specimen.

Figure 41 Result of Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection

This method detects minute discontinuities on smooth surfaces in a better manner. On rough
surfaces, these are less effective than the dry magnetic particle inspection.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection

1. Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.

2. Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
3. Precleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection
methods. Most contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw detectability.
4. Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on the specimen
surface
5. Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods
6. Is a very portable inspection method especially when used with battery
powered equipment.

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Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection
1. Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum, magnesium or
most stainless steels
2. Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with special power
requirements.
3. Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve desired
inspection sensitivity.

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