Chapter 9

Metering, Billing and Collection

9.1 Metering

Still about 50% of the consumers in the country do not have energy
metering such as agriculture, domestic and small commercial
consumers, single-point connections given under REC’s kutir-jyoti
scheme, etc. Most of these consumers are in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu
and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tamil
Nadu. Tight energy supplies and rising costs are forcing electricity
providers to more effectively measure, monitor and control how
electricity is allotted and distributed. Profitability of a distribution utility
depends upon metering, billing and collection efficiency. As a basic
principles are: meter all that is used; bill all that is metered; and collect
all that is billed. The move is from mechanical meters towards static
(electronic) meters. The distribution systems are subject to important
changes initiated by the electricity markets. Consumers have option of
open access among multiple suppliers, bringing about a more complex
and interactive control and billing scheme than in the previous situation
with vertically integrated electricity companies. Another difference will
be the ever more occurring bi-directionality of the electrical energy flow,
due to the introduction of distributed generation units, in which a
significant proportion of the electrical energy is produced on or near the
consumer site. The excess energy can be supplied into the grid. Along
with these changes, the power quality (PQ) has become very important,
due to the large-scale use of power electronic based systems by both
consumer and power suppliers. The overall level of disturbances on the
power system has increased, while many more sensitive devices,
 Metering, Billing and Collection 429
especially information and communication technology equipment, are
connected to it. Power quantities for non-sinusoidal situations need to be
redefined. Traditional energy meters have proven to be subject to errors
as distortion levels rise. This has led to a diversified appreciation of the
quality of electrical power, possibly reflected in adapted tariffs. An
extended measuring capability for adapted PQ parameters at the
consumer site is therefore necessary. Clearly, there is a need for
advanced dependable, distributed metering. This includes the energy
measurement function, the communication requirements and the
hardware and software architecture. Demand side management option
may be a scheme where consumer allow non-critical loads such as
pumps and water heaters to be turned off dynamically at peak times, in
return for discounts or credits. For this to be effective, the utility must
know how much controlled load is available to be shed, which requires
metering devices with built-in communications.

9.2 Meter

A meter is a device suitable for measuring, indicating and recording

consumption of electricity or any other quantity related with electrical
system and include, wherever applicable, other instruments such as
current transformer (CT), voltage transformer (VT) or capacitor voltage
transformer (CVT) necessary for such purpose. Various types of
electricity meter starting with the electromechanical induction meter, the
inadequacies of this meter led to the development of hybrid meters with
conversion circuitry or add-on electronics to give the desired functions.
Fully electronic meters and their functional integration of metering tasks
and the meter as part of a system are important for various applications.
Standard meter electromechanical or static (electronic circuitry or
digital) cumulatively measure and record kWh and other data that is
periodically retrieved for use in consumer billing. Static meters are based
on solid-state technology and work on I and V sensing elements. These
are two types: analog and digital (microprocessor based). While the
accuracy limitations of the electro-mechanical technology meters are
within +/-3% accuracy. This could easily be overlooked in view of their
of 25 to 30 year operating life. Life of static meter is generally considered
10 to 15 years. Some manufacturers profess life of 25 to 30 years by
over-rating the weak links in the meter such as capacitors. These have
the following advantages over electro-mechanical metering [16].
430 Electric Power Distribution

· More accurate;
· Multifunction measurement and display capability;
· Stored load profile capability;
· Communications facilities for remote meter reading;
· Can be programmed to meter almost any tariff;
· Low burden on the CT circuits;
· More tamper resistant.

9.2.1 Metering System components:

· Meter;
· Data collection system;
· Data storage;
· Data analysis and presentation.

9.2.2 Meter Use

(i) Consumer meter is meter connected to consumer system for billing

of electricity;
(ii) Check meter is a meter connected to same terminals or the same
core of the current transformer (CT) and voltage transformer (VT)
to which main meter is connected and is used for accounting and
billing of electricity in case of failure of main meter;
(iii) Interface meter is a meter used for accounting and billing of electric-
ity, connected at the point of interconnection between electrical
systems of generating company, licensee and consumers, directly
connected to the inter-state transmission system or intra-state
transmission system who have to be covered under ABT (See Sec-
tion 10.9) and have been permitted open access by the Appropri-
ate Commission;
(iv) Standby meter is a meter connected to CT and VT, other than those
used for main meter and check meter and is used for accounting
and billing of electricity in case of failure of both main meter and
check meter;
(v) Energy accounting and audit meters are installed at such locations so
as to facilitate to account for the energy generated, transmitted,
distributed and consumed in the various segments of the power
system and the energy loss as given in Section 4.13.5.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 431
9.3 Ferraris Meters

Since 1883, a salient feature of the electrical energy meter has been a
part rotating or oscillating, geared to a counting train. It is an induction
meter in which the flux provided by currents in fixed coils react with the
induced eddy currents in the disk and rotate it. The number of disc
revolutions is proportional to energy usage. The present form of the
induction meter has reached a high degree of sophistication and
reliability. The rotor can be suspended magnetically with pins and ring
stones giving constraints to maintain the rotor spindle vertical while
nylon gears and self-lubricating spindles have reduced friction in the
counting train register. Modern domestic meters are capable of
operating for 20 years without losing their accuracy beyond legal limits.
These meters have moving parts and are easier to tamper. Their
accuracy is lower but they are cheaper compared to solid-state meters.
These will remain in use for another 10–15 years. The main points of
technological progress of the modern meters are:

Bearing Application
Now-a-days, a magnetic bearing is being utilised in increasing numbers
in addition to the classical jewelled bearing. The specific surface loadings
of the bearing parts in the magnetic bearing are many times less than in
the jewelled bearing. For this reason, the guide bearing need not be
lubricated. This ensures better stability of the bearing friction with
respect to time and thereby better measuring properties in the low load
range. As a result of the small specific surface pressures of the bearing
parts, meters with magnetic bearings are less sensitive with regard to
transport influences.

Brake Magnet
The strong brake magnets required in the present-day high load capacity
meters are manufactured from high coercive Alnico magnet material.
Thanks to their large specific volume of energy, they are excellently
protected against demagnetization by other magnetic fields and their
breaking force remains practically constant over long periods of time.
Furthermore, their temperature dependency is relatively low. In order
to stabilize the braking force, it is sufficient, if the flux of the magnetized
magnet is weakened by a certain amount with the aid of an ac magnetic
field, operating at mains frequency.
432 Electric Power Distribution

Electric Steel
If the electric steel applied in the metering element is not competently
manufactured and treated, changes can take place in course of time,
thereby leading to an unfavourable influence on the long-term
characteristics of the apparatus. The aging characteristics of electric steel
are decisively influenced by the manufacturing process. From
experience, any aging is chiefly effective in the sphere of the initial
permeability, i.e. with relatively low magnetic induction. The low load
characteristics of the meter are hereby influenced. The only way of
guaranteeing perfect long-term stability of the apparatus is to subject the
utilized material to a critical test when it reaches the factory.

9.4 Solid-state Meters

New ways have been opened in the field of electrical measuring
techniques with the advent of the kWh meter using solid-state metering
elements. A solid-state meter is one without any moving parts. These are
whole electronic meters, typically programmable and include extended
functions such as time-of-day/use, which allows different tariffs to be
applied at different times. Time of day meters for large consumer's with
a minimum load of one MVA are also to be encouraged as per National
Power Policy. Time of the day (TOD) meter means a meter suitable for
recording and indicating consumption of electricity during specified time
periods of the day.
Time of use (TOU) metering involves dividing the day, month and
year into tariff slots and with higher rates at peak load periods and low
tariff rates at off-peak load periods. It is often simply the consumer's
responsibility to control his own usage, or pay accordingly (voluntary
load control). This also allows the power utilities to plan their
transmission infrastructure appropriately. The TOD/TOU meter
records the total kilowatt-hour consumption, and the meter’s
computerized clock keeps track of your energy use during different times
of the day/year. Daily, there is generally a surplus of electrical
generation capacity at times of low demand, such as during the night. A
multi-rate meter must contain an accurate time-of-day clock so that it
knows when to stop accumulating energy usage to one rate register and
begin accumulating energy usage to another rate register. Electronic
meters are usually unidirectional, although some versions contain two
measuring elements, allowing separate measurement of energy flows in
each direction.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 433
Metering data up to 100 events can be stored in the non-volatile
memory of the meter for 10–15 years. The non-volatile memory is one
which can retain stored information in the absence of power. The non-
volatile memory mechanism is maintained through the magnetic
induction jackpot system. However, a battery may be required to read
the meter when there is no power at the meter.
These meters are generally calibrated once in their life time and have
high accuracy in low-load conditions also, unlike ferraris meters.
Normally, these meters have a 5-year warranty. They are now widely
used for all types of consumers in the country.
The application of solid state metering elements for household,
commercial, industrial and other types of consumers is increasing. The
added advantage is that the high technology meters can be used to give
consumers price signals and encourage them to switch their
consumption to off-peak period [7].
Modern electronic meters collect energy information in digital form.
They make this data available for analysis, such as for demand side
management, consumer service. Ironically, as the electronic meters
become more complex and technologically sophisticated, they become
simpler to use. Electronics have resulted in feature-packed meters, where
a single device now performs many measurement needs: energy,
demand, time-of-use, load profile, power factor, reactive power etc. [3]
Utilities must consider compatibility issues when purchasing new
meters. All the utility’s electronic meters should share a common
software platform, processing and reporting data the same way for
simplified training, installation and system integration.
Since there are no moving parts, tampering of meters, as in the case
of electromechanical meters, is not possible. The microprocessors give
the opportunity to introduce multirate tariffs consumer service, data
facilities, and many anti-fraud measures. They can be more easily linked
to communications networks for the purpose of centralised automatic
reading facilities and load survey or management. Very high precision
class could be manufactured in electronic form. The meters are
manufactured in accuracy class of 1, 0. 5, 0. 2 [2].
A menu driven software package, installed on compatible PC and
running under windows, generally provides the means of programming
the microprocessor-based meters. Access to the programming, software
is controlled by secure arrangement of passwords. Programming and
reading can be performed through the optical port directly from PC, or
by using a Hand Held Unit (HHU). Alternatively, it can be achieved
remotely through the RS 232 port or RS (EIA) 485 port.
434 Electric Power Distribution

9.4.1 Working Principles [12]

A typical meter consists of two sections: the multiplier and the register.
A multiplier produces a product of given voltage and current. In an
electromechanical meter the multiplier consists of the voltage and
current coils, and the meter disk; the register consists of the gears and
dial indicators, which count, store, and display the results of the
multiplier. An electronic register is found on hybrid meters (meters with
electromechanical multipliers and electronic registers). Other case is
mechanical counters are installed on electronic meters. Most registers
use a microprocessor which follows instructions stored as software to
control the counting, storing, and displaying of data received from the
multiplier. Designing the operating software for a meter is more
challenging. Since the software defines the fundamental behaviour of
the product. For example, Meters manufactured by Echelon
Corporation, USA (NES System software model 12101) caters for data
collection and reporting consumption, billing and payment options,
power quality, tamper, and enable remote configurations.
All solid-state meters must convert analog voltage and current
signals into digital data. The digital data is sent to the register as serial or
parallel data. Serial data is a series of pulses where each pulse has a
predetermined value, such as 0.6 watt-hours per pulse. Parallel data is
typically in bytes and represents a new value. The digital meter generic
block diagram is shown in Fig. 9.1. To implement an electronic
multiplier, meter manufacturers use one of these four approaches:

Clibration

Disply

Current sensor Clibration/Frequency out

MCU
I ADC Walts
VARS EEPROM
V VA
ADC
AMR module
Voltage sensor Reference Supervisory or
Prepayment
Power or
supply Other features

Fig. 9.1 Solid-state energy meter generic block diagram

 Metering, Billing and Collection 435
· Time-division multiplication;
· Hall-effect technology;
· Transconductance amplifiers; or
· Digital sampling techniques.
Each method has advantages and disadvantages and some
manufacturers offer more than one type of electronic multiplier.
Characteristics common to all electronic multipliers are: the original
input signals are scaled down to lower voltages to be compatible with
solid-state components, analog signals are converted to digital
equivalents within the multiplier, and the phase angles between voltage
and current are not measured directly.

9.4.2 Multipliers

While purchasing meters, it must be known to purchaser how basic

multiply process is carried out by the meter to know the operating
behaviour in the field.
Since energy is the integral of power multiplied by time, the kWh can
be calculated by averaging the instantaneous power over time. This is
the basis of the meter that uses digital sampling to measure kWh, the
voltage and current are sampled and multiplied, the resultant
instantaneous power is averaged over time to give kWh, which is then
stored in a cumulative register.
For and Sine wave voltage and current where there is a phase shift
between the voltage and the current the power is:
Vpk cos(wt)*Ipk cos(wt – f)
which expands to
1/2[VpkIpk cos(f) + VpkIpk cos(2wt – f)] = VrmsIrms[cos f + cos(2wt – f)]
This is the instantaneous power, to obtain the average power over a
cycle the instantaneous power must be averaged over a cycle by
integration. The various multiplier techniques are:
· Analogue multiplier is one of the oldest methods of electronically
doing the V(t). I(t) calculation to obtain kW. The output of the
multiplier is integrated to give a voltage proportional to average
kW, which is converted with a voltage to frequency converter into
a pulse stream, and counted by a register to give kWh. as shown in
Fig. 9.2
436 Electric Power Distribution

Volts input

12345678
Amps input

Register
Analogue multiplier Integrator V-F converter

Fig. 9.2 Typical analogue multiplier

· Pulse height pulse width: This technique to obtain the V(t). I(t) mul-
tiplication is to generate a pulse whose height is proportional to
the current and whose width is proportional to the voltage, the
area is proportional to V(t). I(t), and therefore, by integrating the
pulse, a voltage proportional to the area is generated. The voltage
is converted to a frequency by a voltage to frequency converter
and counted in a register to obtain kWh. This technique has been
used for over 15 years particularly in high accuracy meters and
standards. The analogue multiplier and the pulse height pulse
width techniques only measure kWh, to measure reactive power
the voltage signal must be phase shifted 90 deg by a phase shifting
network or cross phasing must be used.
· Digital sampling method uses analogue to digital converters to rap-
idly sample the voltage and current signals. Fast Fourier Trans-
form techniques are used in some meters to separate the funda-
mental from the harmonics, and are therefore capable of deter-
mining the power functions with and without harmonics. The sam-
pling rate governs the speed of the processor and the sampling time
of the analogue to digital converter. The maximum frequency that
can be measured is limited by the Nyquist criteria that states that at
least two samples per cycle are required to detect a Sine wave.
kWh is calculated by digitally carrying out the V(t). I(t)
multiplica-tion, calculating average power and then counting in a
register to obtain kWh. The VAr can be derived by digitally
shifting the stored voltage samples by a number equivalent to 90
deg of the supply frequency and then carrying out the V(t). I(t)
calculation as for kW, thus obtaining VArh. Since the calculations
are carried out digitally the positive and negative VArh can be
separated into different registers enabling leading and lagging VAr
to be determined.
VA can be derived by digitally calculating the rms voltage and
current then multiplying the two either on a per sample basis or
 Metering, Billing and Collection 437
averaged over a short period of time. VAh is then derived by
counting the VA samples over time.
The Fig. 9.3 shows the basic circuit for a digital sampling meter.
It is fundamentally a small computer with an analogue to digital
converter that samples the voltage and current signals. This Figure
shows one A-D converter with a multiplexer to switch between
voltage and current, care must be taken with this configuration to
ensure that the time delay between sampling the current and then
the voltage does not cause a phase shift error. Other techniques
can be used to overcome this problem including using a sample
and hold circuit before the multiplexer, or using two A-D
converters sampling at the same time.
Voltage sensor
Phase

Neutral
A-D Processor Display

Multiplexer

Load

Current sensor
Clock EEPROM RAM ROM Communication

Battery or supercapacitor

Fig. 9.3 Digital sampling multiplier

The voltage sensor is usually either a voltage transformer or a

resistive divider. The voltage transformer provides good isolation
and a very stable voltage step down ratio, however, it is large,
heavy and has a small phase shift error that may need compensa-
tion. A resistive divider is small and light, however, low or
matched temperature coefficient resistors must be used and com-
pensation for phase shift may be required.
The current sensor is required to be accurate over a wide range
of currents, and in the case of whole current meters must be
insensitive to direct current. The types of current sensors used are
438 Electric Power Distribution

CTs, resistive shunts and di/dt sensors, the characteristics of the

different types will be discussed later.
EEPROM or other forms of non-volatile memory is used to
store data that must be held for long periods of time while the
meter is off power.
A low power real time clock provides the timing required for
TOU tariffs, demand periods and load profile data. A battery or
supercapacitor maintains the clock accuracy during periods of
power outage. This type of multiplier is predominantly in meters
used in India.
· Digital Signal Processor (DSP) chip: Instead of using an analogue to
digital converter to sample the voltage and current, a Digital Sig-
nal Processor (DSP) chip is used as shown in the Fig. [Link] DSP
samples the voltage and current with its own A-D converters and
carries out the necessary calculations to derive active and reactive
power. These are normally outputted as pulses to a processor that
calculates other functions, (e.g., VA and demand), stores the data
in the TOU registers, stores load profile and interfaces with the
communications port. The DSP chip carries out the high speed
data sampling and calculations enabling a slower, lower cost pro-
cessor to be used for the data storage and communications. In
three phase circuits where the DSP provides a single watt pulse
and VAr pulse for all three phases, it performs similarly to a 3

Voltage sensor
Phase

Neutral Watt
Display
DSP VAr Processor
chip

Load

Current sensor
Clock EEPROM RAM ROM Communication

Battery or supercapacitor

Fig. 9.4 Digital signal processor chip(DSP) multiplier

 Metering, Billing and Collection 439
phase wattmeter and a 3 phase VAr meter supplying pulses to a
calculating register. Therefore, if there is no harmonic component
in the voltage, the calculation of VA will not include any harmonic
component in the VA., e.g., For the DSP technique:
VA = [(WR + WY + WB)2 + (VArR + VArY + VArB)2 ]1/2
Where for individual phases:
VA = [WR2 + VArR2 ]1/2 + [WY2 + VArY2 ]1/2 + [ WB2 + VArB2 ]1/2
This multiplier is most common in meters used in U.S.A.

9.4.3 Meter Sensors [6, 8]

Meter sensors sense current or voltage and are put inside the meter as
shown in Fig. 9.3. The energy delivered from an a.c. power source is:
t
E = Ú0V (t )◊ I (t )dt
where V(t) and I(t) are the time-varying voltage current. Both V and I
alternate at the line frequency, but are not necessarily in phase. So
simply measuring average voltage and current levels and multiplying
the two does not give an accurate value for the energy delivered. For
accurate billing, the product V. I has to be generated (with a bandwidth
that is large compared with the line frequency—typically > 1 kHz, to
measure the harmonic energy content correctly) before the summation.

Voltage Sensors
The voltage sensor is usually either a voltage transformer or a resistive
divider. The voltage transformer provides good isolation and a very
stable voltage step down ratio, however, it is large, heavy and has a small
phase shift error that may need compensation. A resistive divider is
small and light, however, low or matched temperature coefficient
resistors must be used and compensation for phase shift may be
required.

Current Sensors
Commonly used current sensors fall into two main categories:
(i) Low-resistance ‘shunts’ that sit in the current path generates a volt-
age proportional to the current and
(ii) Those that depend on the magnetic field created by the electric
current:
440 Electric Power Distribution

· Current transformer (CT),

· Hall effect and
· Rogowski coil.
CT and Hall effect use permeable magnetic cores to concentrate the
magnetic field through the measurement coil, and this concentration of
the magnetic field means that a large signal level can be achieved.
Rogowski coils have no such core and the signal levels they produce are
consequently lower. In case of former, the core can saturate or become
permanently magnetised if a large magnetic field is caused, perhaps by a
fault condition downstream of the meter resulting in excessive current
flows, or by a fraud person with a powerful permanent magnet who is
determined to make the meter under-read. Even for normal operating
conditions, non-linear effects occur both at high currents (reducing
permeability) and at low currents (through the energy required to excite
the core) adding complexity to the calibration process.

Shunt
A shunt is a small resistance through which the primary current flows,
generating a small voltage (typically around 50mV full scale) that can be
measured. For single phase meters a typical design would only measure
the supply path (‘live’) using a single shunt. Low resistance, (e.g.,
typically 350 micro-ohm for base current Ib) current shunt offers good
accuracy at low cost and the current measurement is simple. The
resistive shunt has the following characteristics.
· Immune to d.c. components, therefore, it is suitable for whole cur-
rent and transformer operated meters.
· Relatively inexpensive.
· Very stable resistive materials must be used.
· Relatively small output signal particularly at low load as the upper
level of resistance is limited by the burden presented to the exter-
nal circuit and the watts loss of the resistance at maximum current.
· Presents a higher burden than the CT or di/dt detectors.
· No isolation from the supply, therefore, in whole current meters
the internal circuitry is connected to the supply voltage, unless
isolation is provided between the shunt and the internal circuitry.
When performing high precision current measurement, one must
consider the parasitic inductance of the shunt. The inductance is
typically in the order of only a few nH. It affects the shunt’s impedance
magnitude at relatively high frequency. However, its effect on phase is
 Metering, Billing and Collection 441
significant enough, even at line frequency, to cause noticeable error at
low power factor.
However, because the current shunt is fundamentally a resistive
element, the heat it generates is proportional to the square of current
passing through. This self-heating problem makes shunt a rarity among
high current energy(>100 A) meters. For a shunt capable of measuring
>100A, the shunt is a relatively large four-terminal resistor fabricated
from relatively expensive low temperature coefficient of resistance
(tempco) material. Shunts’ greatest advantage is that they are low cost
for the level of performance they deliver, particularly for lower-current
services. They are unaffected by d.c. magnetic field, so they are
unaffected by some tampering techniques and nearby high current
conductors, (e.g., meter input cables). Consequently, they are deservedly
popular in noncritical, cost-sensitive electricity metering where meter
tampering is uncommon.

Current Transformer (CT)

CT sensors are used widely for meters in India. CTs as the current sensor
have the following characteristics:
· Very stable over time and temperature, the output voltage is only
dependent on the turns ratio and the burden.
· Provides good isolation between the meter and the external cir-
cuits.
· Relatively immune to surge currents.
· Presents a low burden to the external circuit allowing longer CT
cable runs.
· Relatively large output signal that does not require sensitive am-
plification in the meter, and therefore, less susceptible to noise and
interference.
· Very accurate provided care is taken to minimise phase error,
since the CT is very stable phase compensation can be used to
reduce error even further.
· Wide operating current range.
Unlike a normal (voltage) transformer, a current transformer (CT)
keeps the voltage constant but alters the current according to the
(inverse) ratio of the number of turns in its primary and secondary
windings. By inserting a small (‘burden’) resistor into the secondary
circuit, the secondary current can be converted to a voltage suitable for
an ADC, and hence, the primary current can be calculated from the
442 Electric Power Distribution

turns ratio and burden resistor. In practice, a CT in an electricity meter

is implemented as a toroidal secondary, with the primary conductor
simply passing through the central aperture.
CTs are the dominant sensor technology for high current and
multiple phase energy measurement because they provide isolation,
produce good signal levels and have high dynamic range. CT is the most
common sensor among today’s high current solid-state energy meters.
CT can measure up to very high current and consumes little power.
Because of the magnetizing current, CT typically have a small phase
shift associated with it (0.1°–0.3°). If un-calibrated, it will lead to
noticeable error at low power factor (see earlier discussion on parasitic
inductance in current shunt). In addition, the ferrite material used in the
core can saturate at high current. Once magnetized, the core will contain
hysteresis and the accuracy will degrade unless it is demagnetized again.
CT saturation can occur when current surges beyond a CT’s rated
current, or when there is substantial d.c. component in the current, (e.g.,
when driving a large half-wave rectified load). Today’s solution to the
saturation problem is to use ferrite material with very high permeability.
This typically involves using Mu-metal core. However, this type of CT’s
have inconsistent and larger phase shift comparing with the
conventional iron core CT’s. Energy meters based on Mu-metal core
CT’s would require multiple calibration points for both current level and
temperature variations.

Hall Effect
The Hall effect produces a voltage across a current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field, and is commonly used as a method of sensing
the field level. Practical Hall sensors use a semi-conducting element, as
this leads to higher signal levels.
To make a suitable current sensor, the Hall effect device is placed in
a small gap in a nearly closed magnetic core. The primary conductor is
passed through the aperture of the core and its current generates an AC
magnetic field that is concentrated through the Hall effect device by the
core. A small current is passed through the Hall effect device, and the
AC magnetic field through the device produces an AC voltage at the
device’s outputs. The resulting output voltage is proportional to
instantaneous kW and must averaged over time to give kWh. With this
type of sensor reactive power is measured by phase shifting the voltage
to the voltage input of the sensor.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 443
Semiconductor materials have some drawbacks: they change
significantly with temperature, and compensating for these changes adds
complexity and cost. There are also significant variations between
devices. The magnetic core must be precisely mounted and rigidly held
in relation to the Hall effect device. As with a CT, the whole sensor must
be mounted rigidly in relation to the primary conductor. Hall sensor
behaves like a natural four quadrant multiplier. It is used to multiply the
line voltage and current giving the output voltage proportional to the
instantaneous power. Furthermore, voltage at the Hall output is
proportional to the line active power and can be further processed. By
converting the sensor output voltage to digital signal using a sigma-delta
demodulator followed by digital filtering, the energy consumption is
observed at the end of the processing chain. There are two main types of
Hall effect sensors: open-loop and closed-loop implementation. Most
Hall effect sensors found in energy meters use open-loop design for
lower system cost. Hall effect sensor has outstanding frequency response
and is capable of measuring very large current. However, the drawbacks
of this technology include that the output from Hall effect sensor has a
large temperature drift and it usually requires a stable external current
source. Hall effect sensors are somewhat less common comparing with
the CT. The Hall effect device has the following characteristics:
· Low burden.
· Can be used in whole current and transformer metering.
· Direct measure of kW.

Rogowski Coil (di/dt detectors)

Rogowski coil is arrangement for current measurement - an air-cored
toroid around a straight conductor. The coil is air cored, and therefore,
not susceptible to saturation, making the di/dt detector suitable for both
whole current and transformer operated meters. The magnetic field
produced by the primary current loosely couples into the secondary
winding. It indicates the signal level from the output of the coil per unit
di/dt. The basic operating principle of a Rogowski coil is to measure the
primary current through mutual inductance. Careful design and
precision construction can produce a sensor highly tolerant of d.c. and
a.c. magnetic interference and ideal for tamper-resistant metering. Surge
currents and lightning strike also have little effect. There is no
mechanism for transferring significant energy from the primary
conductor to the metrology section, no magnetic core that can be
444 Electric Power Distribution

magnetised, and no resistive element that generates heat. Latest

generation of utility meters uses a unique solution to achieve the
symmetry required in a Rogowski coil - fabricating the coil windings
using a printed circuit board (PCB). In this case, the geometries are
tightly controlled, and the resulting response can be predicted with great
accuracy. As an added benefit, the measurement electronics can be
integrated on the same PCB.
The output from the di/dt detector must be integrated to produce a
signal proportional to the amplitude and phase of the signal being
measured.
The di/dt detector has the following characteristics:
· Very low burden enabling longer CT cable runs to be used.
· Accurate over a wide range of currents.
· Suitable for whole current and CT operated meters.
· Stable over time and temperature.
· Immune to external magnetic fields d.c. or a.c.

Selection of Sensors
The Table 9.1 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the various
sensor technologies:

Table 9.1

Characteristics of various types of sensors

Current sensing Shunt Current Hall Rogowski

technology transformer effect coil
Cost Very low Medium High Low
Linearity over
measurement range Very Good Fair Poor Very Good
High Current measuring
capability Very Poor Good Good Very Good
Power
consumption High Low Medium Low
DC/high current
saturation problem No Yes Yes No
 Metering, Billing and Collection 445
Output variation with
temperature Medium Low High Very Low
DC offset problem Yes No Yes No
Saturation and
Hysteresis problem No Yes Yes No

Figure 9.5 shows the flow diagram for selection of correct sensor for
a particular design of meter.

Start

Multi- Need isolation

Multiple
phase? Y
Sensors
N
Best
perfor-
Y
mance?
Anti-
tamper? Y N
2 Sensors
N

>60A?
Y
Best N
perfor- >100A? Y
mance? Y
N N

CT or
Rogo- Hall-
Shunt CT Shunt +
swki ? effect?
isolation

Fig. 9.5 Flow diagram for selection of current sensors

9.4.4 Non-volatile Memory

The amount of memory requirement for a meter has great bearing on

the cost of meter. EEPROM or other forms of non-volatile memory are
used to store data that must be held for long periods while the meter is
off power. A low power real time clock provides the timing required for
TOU tariffs, demand periods and load profile data. A battery or
capacitor maintains the clock accuracy during periods of power outage.
446 Electric Power Distribution

9.5 Advance Meter Infrastructure Systems (AMI)

Advance Meter Infrastructure (AMI) systems are based on smart meters

that provide automatic connect/disconnect features and automatic meter
reading. The main reason, they are smart is their electronic
communication capabilities, using power line signaling, fixed radio links,
telephone lines, cabling, satellite links, fibre optics, internet connectivity
etc. The key objective of smart metering is to make consumers more
energy savvy. The timely provision of detailed consumption information
will empower the consumers to make smarter choices about how and
when they use energy. Smart meters open up opportunities for
conservation and improved load management. The advanced communi-
cations in AMI allow utilities to gather data ( W, Wh, VArh, VA, true
rms voltage (3 phases), true rms current (3 phases), phase angles, full
phasor diagram, power factor and frequency remotely, send electronic
bills, cater to consumers’ demand in real-time, and offer various
dynamic pricing schemes based on the demand. These features help the
utilities in analyzing the consumption patterns at different times of the
day and year. Moreover outages can be detected and effective allocation
of labour and funds be deployed to service the distribution network.
Advanced meters go a step further than AMR. Advanced metering
brings more intelligence in electricity management. They offer
additional functionality including as real-time reads, power outage
notification, power quality monitoring, and price setting. Many of the
advanced features are remotely controllable: disconnect with
configurable current limiting capabilities, including remote service
disconnect and reconnect, intelligent load curtailment, and prepaid
metering. It has three basic functions: measure the electricity used (or
generated), remotely switch the consumer off and remotely control the
maximum electricity consumption. An interface connects the smart
meter to home appliances or a home display. Low power wireless or
home DLC communication to the major loads in the home/business (air-
conditioners, heaters, refrigerator, etc.) and would also allow dynamic
setting control during power plant peak loading. Appliances can be
controlled directly and the display can be used to show (historic) energy
data and energy cost. These meters can manage consumer loads, reduce
peak power requirements; permit emergency load shedding; provide for
interruptible loads and monitor power quality. The basic configuration
of smart meter is shown in Fig. 9.6.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 447

Home
Control appliances
display

12345 Logging

Measurement processing

control

Modem
Switching

Fig. 9.6 Basic smart electricity meter configuration

The capabilities of advance metering from AMR to AMI are shown

below[2,18]:

Advance Metering
Functions AMR AMR Plus AMI
Automated Monthly Readings yes yes yes
Load Profiling yes yes yes
Data Aggregation yes yes yes
Tamper Reporting yes yes yes
Meter Diagnostic Reporting yes yes yes
448 Electric Power Distribution

One way communication yes – –

Limited Two Way Communication – yes –
Daily or on Demand Readings – yes yes
Hourly Interval Data – yes yes
Outage Notification – yes yes
Other Products Readings – yes yes
Full two way Communication – – yes
Reconnect/Disconnect – – yes
Advanced (time-based) Rates – – yes
Distributed Generation Detection
and Control – – yes
Remote Metering Programming – – yes
Power Quality and Monitoring – – yes
Home Area Network Interface – – yes
Enhanced Security Compliance – – yes

9.5.1 Automated Meter Reading (AMR)

Automated Meter Reading (AMR) is a system to read utility electricity

usage electronically. An automatic meter reading AMR system consists
of meter, concentrator (see Section 5.3) and collection devices, network
servers and, finally, the utility’s meter data management system that
includes the computer and software at the power utility centre to analyse
the data and to use it to bill consumers. A robust and reliable
communications system is essential to connect these building blocks. It
is often this communications component, not the metering hardware,
that proves to be the weak link in an AMR system. The choice of AMR
communication technology is very important and should be matched
with the utility’s ultimate business needs for its system. A typical AMR
communication system consists of three necessary components: the
transmitter, the communications path and the receiver. Most AMR
system offerings make use of either wireless radio frequency (GSM,
GPRS, WiFi, microwave,) or wired distribution line carrier communi-
cation paths/PSTN and transceivers located at meter endpoints and
collection points(see Sections 5.4 and 5.9). A typical AMR architecture
is shown in Fig. 9.7.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 449
Central office
Host Computer
Station
RF/PSTN Modem RF/PSTN Modem

Distribution Distribution Distribution

Transformer 1. Transformer 2. Transformer 3.

Data Cocentrator Data Cocentrator Data Cocentrator

Unit 1. Unit 2. Unit 3.

DLC Meter 1 DLC Meter 1 DLC Meter 1

Meter 2 Meter 2 Meter 2
Meter 3 Meter 3 Meter 3

Meter 4 Meter 4 Meter 4

Meter 5 Meter 5 Meter 5

Meter n Meter n Meter n

Fig. 9.7 Typical AMR architecture; DLC = Distribution line carrier

Communications Bus
An alternative method that is used by more advanced meters uses a
communications bus to allow a master meter to communicate with slave
meters via a two wire bus, as shown in the block diagram in Fig. 9.8.
Slave 1 Slave 2 Slave 3 Master Consumer outputs
Meter Meter Meter Meter

Communication bus

Remote communication
Modem

Fig. 9.8 Block diagram for master/slave metering

This method has the following advantages:

· Only one point of communication is required.
· The load profile from the individual metering points may be col-
lected.
· Alarm and other measurement parameters from each slave meter
are accessible.
450 Electric Power Distribution

· Failures in the communications link are detectable.

· Retransmission signals proportional to the total installation energy
are available from the master meter.
Broadly, AMR technologies can be divided into one way and two
way communication. In one way, only the meter sends data to
concentrator at predefined intervals. Where as in the case of two way,
the concentrator sends commands to the meters and the meter responds
to the commands. The biggest drawback with one way communication
is that features such as demand side load management cannot be
accomplished. Currently with fast pace development of communication
technology, it is quite clear that two way communications is going to
lead the way and one way communication will be non existent soon[19].
As can be seen from the current trends there is no single AMR
technology can be declared as a clear winner. Utilities consider many
factors when deciding on AMR technology to be used. Also a single
technology may not be sufficient to read all the meters within coverage
area. A mix of minimum two technologies may be used by utilities to
cover all the meters. Despite implementing AMR, it could be possible
that some small percentage of meters may need to be read manually, as
these meters could be located in areas where they may not be accessible
using PLC or RF mesh technology. For example: GPRS network is used
in Australia for AMR, and at least 3 million electricity meters are
connected to GPRS networks in Europe.
In Europe, where many meters are located inside homes, narrow-
band Distribution Line Carrier(DLC) has benefits over Radio
Frequency(RF) technologies, though RF may be able to provide faster
speeds and larger data flows. DLC has been largely developed in Europe
as a meter reading system where access to meters is a major problem as
they are normally mounted indoors. Despite extensive research
powerline carrier systems have found limited application and are still
relatively expensive.
The noise and variable impedance of the power line prevents
transmission of data at reasonable speeds and reliability. Radio offers
the ability for regular two way communication.
Broadband provides essentially unlimited bandwidth, but often
overshoots a utility need unless video options are part of a utility’s future
vision. [18]. Automated billing capability is included with the software
with most of AMR. Both issue of bills and the receipt of payment are
easily automated, reducing the cost to distributor and improving the
service to consumer.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 451
9.5.2 Semi-automatic Meters

Examples include handheld readers, drive-by readers and other read-

only devices used to capture a simple aggregated monthly billing read.
Automatic Meter Reading is done by transmitting meter data through modem
installed on the meter, which is compatible to International Protocols like IEC-
62056 by using any of the following Communication technologies:
(i) One common means of semi-automated meter reading has a serial
port on the meter that communicates by infrared LED through the
faceplate of the meter. Infrared is light, invisible because it is just be-
low visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum to carry data within
range of three metres. Like light, it can not penetrate opaque objects.
(ii) In some apartment buildings, a similar protocol is used, but in a
wired bus using EIA-485 (two-wire, half-duplex, multipoint serial
connection) to connect all the meters to a single plug. The plug
(for connection to a host PC) is often near the mailboxes.
(iii) Optional SCADA Port(IEEE 802.3).
Electronic consumer meters now normally have a RS232 serial port
connection, which can be connected to a modem, with some meters having
the modem built in. The modem converts the digital signals from the meter
into voice frequency tones that may be transmitted over normal voice
telephone systems, and visa versa for signals transmitted to the meter. A
typical system with distribution line carrier (DLC) is shown in Fig. 9.9.

R
RS-232
DLC301

Host Y
computer B
N
Modem

Modem DLC201 DLC201 DLC201

RS-232

Meter Meter Meter

Fig. 9.9 Typical DLC modems and serial port for metering
452 Electric Power Distribution

Built-in RS232 board for external TWACS(The TWACS system uses

the existing power lines for data transmission, and since it modulates the
waveform at the zero crossing point, it uses the utility’s network at the
frequency for which it was designed) AMR.
Built-in RS232 board for external digital cellular telephone master/
slave capability.
Mobile radio systems can be either vehicle-based or handheld. The
radio transceivers are low power, short range (300 m) and do not require
license. The vehicle-based systems usually use a van outfitted with a
personal computer, transmitter and receiving equipment and
appropriate software. Each meter point is retrofitted with an encoder
and transmitter/receiver, typically installed inside the meter. The data
collection process requires loading the meter addresses into the personal
computer and driving a pre-determined course at 50 km/hour. The van
sends out a radio frequency signal ranging from 300 to 500 m to wake up
the meters. The meter electronics respond by sending its address and
meter reading. At the end of the route, the data is transmitted to the
utility’s main computer. Meter reading rates of up to 3000 meters/hour
are claimed for dense residential urban areas.

9.5.3 Computer Protocol Standards

The International Electro-technical Commission standards 62056 series-

Data exchange for meter reading, tariff and load control on electricity
metering. IEC 62056, also called DLMS/COSEM is an international
standard for a computer protocol to read utility meters. It is designed to
operate over any media, including the Internet.
(i) IEC 62056-21 (Direct local data exchange) describes hardware
and protocol specifications for local meter data exchange. In such
systems, the operator connects a hand-held unit (HHU) (Direct
local data exchange).
(ii) IEC 62056-31 (Direct local data exchange) describes hardware
and protocol specifications for local meter data exchange. In such
systems, use of Local Area Networks on Twisted Pair with Carrier
Signaling.
(iii) IEC 62056-61 (Object identification system (OBIS)) and IEC 62056-
62 (Companion Specification for Energy Metering (COSEM) inter-
face classes) describe an energy type, vendor- and communication
media independent model of the metering equipment.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 453
(iv) IEC 62056-42 (Physical layer services and procedures for connec-
tion-oriented asynchronous data exchang.
(v) IEC 62056-46 (Data link layer using High-level Data Link
Control(HDLC) protocol), and
(vi) IEC 62056-53 (Companion Specification for Energy Metering,
(COSEM) application layer) describe a three-layer protocol stack,
based on the ISO/OSI model, to transport data to and from the
meter using the COSEM model described above.

9.6 Interval Meter

The type of meter which can determine how consumers are charged for
electricity. A meter that measures and records KWh usage on either
predetermined or remotely configurable time intervals, where intervals
are in increments such as one half or one hour. Interval meters store data
about electricity usage at the actual time of use, with consumers charged
accordingly. The meter need high capacity data logging capability and
therefore large internal memory. A consumer can purchase electricity or
has the liberty to choose his/her retailers for electricity. These special
smart meters, which have a data logging system, accumulate data every 15
minutes, (e.g., availability based tariff compliant meter) and are known as
Interval meters. This means you pay a different price for electricity every
hour of the day. This guides the consumers in efficient usage of energy
during peak periods so as to avoid paying high rates on energy
consumption. Such time-of-use rates aid both the consumers and utilities
in the efficient usage of power infrastructure. Interval meters can be
equipped with two-way communications, allowing utilities to read meters
remotely, confirm a particular demand response by a consumer, remotely
manage load, send electronic bills, offer dynamic pricing structures and
remotely connect or disconnect supply.
Types of dynamic pricing include:
· Time-of-day pricing, in which the day is divided into time bands
and different prices are charged during each time band;
· Seasonal time-of-use pricing, in which a different time-of-use pric-
ing structure applies at different times of year to reflect differing
costs of supply;
· Critical peak pricing, in which consumers pay significantly higher
prices during a small number of critical peak periods that are only
known up to a day in advance;
454 Electric Power Distribution

· Real time pricing, in which electricity prices change constantly to

reflect the underlying cost of electricity supply;
· Interruptible tariffs, in which consumers receive a discount for al-
lowing utilities to remotely control elements of their load;
· Curtailable tariffs, in which consumers are offered a discount if
they are able to reduce their demand below an agreed threshold.
These meter support the advanced energy management. These
meters used in U.S.A., Canada, Australia, European countries in-
cluding U.K.

9.7 Net Metering

Net metering is generally a consumer-based renewable/captive energy

incentive. While it is important to have Net Metering available for any
consumer that interconnects their generator to the grid. This form of
renewable incentive places the burdens of pioneering renewable or
captive energy primarily upon fragmented consumers (see Fig. 9.10).
The consumer is only billed for the “net” energy usage – the amount of
electricity delivered to the consumer in excess of the electricity produced
by the consumer’s renewable energy system. In effect, net metering
allows the interconnected consumer to use the electrical grid as a storage
battery. If the consumer produces more energy than they consume in a
given billing period, the excess can be credited to the consumer for
future bills. Net metering provides individuals and businesses a financial
incentive to install renewable energy systems at their homes or
workplaces. In addition, by allowing locally-generated electricity to be
sold back to the grid when it is not being consumed by the consumer,
net metering consumers receive the full value of their energy systems
even if they are not at home when their renewable energy system is
producing the most power. This kind of cost-incentive helps encourage
the use of renewable energy—a practice that has wide-ranging economic,
environmental, and public health benefits. Utilities can also benefit from
a net-metering system by encouraging the generation of electricity
during peak usage times to help offset the increased demand for energy,
thus helping to avoid power shortages. It allows the flow of electricity to
and from the consumer through single bi-directional meter. Net
metering simplifies this arrangement by allowing the consumer to use
any excess electricity to offset electricity used at other times during the
 Metering, Billing and Collection 455
billing period. Third, Net metering provides a simple, inexpensive 4
quadrant metering of kWh, kVARh, kVAh, kW. Essentially, it indicates
how much electricity you pulled from the grid rather than the amount of
electricity that you used. Net Metering is a special metering and billing
agreement between consumer and the utility. Net Metering agreement
allows you to use the electricity you generate first, reducing what you
would normally buy from your utility. If you generate more electricity
than you use, the excess goes through your electric meter and into the
grid, spinning your meter backward. Your meter shows the net amount,
measured as the difference between the electricity, you generate and the
electricity you purchase from your utility.
Consumer

Captive generation

Power system
Net meter grid supply
Export
Import

Fig. 9.10 Typical net metering

9.7.1 Quadrant Meters

The measurement of power can be divided into 4 quadrants: export

power with lagging power factor, export power with leading power
factor, import power with lagging power factor and import power with
leading power factor. Reactive power is normally only export or import.
Different meters are designed to operate in one or more of the quadrants
and may be combined to produce the desired measurement. Interface
meters and ABT(availability based tariff) compliant meters are quadrant
type. The Fig. 9.11 indicates the operating ranges of some common
meters. The power flows in various quadrants is as below:
456 Electric Power Distribution

Quadrant Power factor Watts Var

I Lag Imported(+) Imported(+)
II Lead Exported(–) Imported(+)
III Lag Exported(–) Exported(–)
IV Lead Imported(+) Exported(–)

IV I

kVA kVA
-kVAr +kVAr

+kW +kW

III II
-kW -kW

-kVAr +kVAr
kVA kVA

Fig. 9.11 Quadrant metering

9.8 Meter Current Rating

The accuracy of a meter is expressed as an error percentage of reading

over a specified current range. The current range is determined by the
specified maximum operating current (Imax) and a sub multiple of Imax
termed the base current (Ib) or normal rating. The meter remains within
its specified error from 5% of Ib to Imax. Static meters up to range of 600%
to 800% of normal rating are available over wide operating temperature
of –40 to 85 degree C. When the meter is designed to operate with
current transformers the base current is termed In where In is the CT
rated current. Because the error is quoted as a percentage of reading and
a typical operating current range for a whole current meter is from 0.75A
to 100A, the current sensor must be accurate over a wide range. The
current sensor must also be capable of withstanding large surge currents
 Metering, Billing and Collection 457
and in the case of whole current meters be immune to the d.c.
component of a half sine wave current.
Common range extension techniques are gain switching, amplitude
dither, and frequency dither. Starting current is usually 0.1% of base
current (Ib).

9.8.1 Overall Accuracy for kWh and Demand

Meters in Service (Induction Type)

As per IS:722, meters for energy and demand metering at consumer

premises are to be kept up to correct level of accuracy by the power
utilities. These electromagnetic kWh meters (Class-2) are generally
manufactured as per IS: 722 [1] and are tested from 1/20th of full-load to
full-load. Generally, kWh meters tend to minus error on lighter loads
and plus error on full loads. Any meter at the consumer premises shall
be deemed to be correct if its limits of errors do not exceed 3 per cent
above or below of full absolute accuracy at all loads in excess of one-
tenth load.
In most power utilities in India, when the kWh meter accuracy is
disputed by the consumer, the meter is tested at Meter Testing Laboratory
at the load points one-tenth, one-fourth, one-half, three-fourths and full
load. In case the error of meter exceeds ± 3 per cent at any load, even
though the average error may be less than ± 3 per cent. Then the overall
average accuracy (OA) is calculated to overhaul the consumer accounts
by giving equal weightage to each test point error (e), i.e.

È 1 1 1 3 ˘
OA = Í1 ¥ e + 1 ¥ e + 1 ¥ e + 1 ¥ e + 1 ¥ 1e ˙
Î 10 4 2 4 ˚
In the USA as per ANSI, American National Standard Code for
Electricity Metering, IEEE, 1982 (P-182), the overall accuracy equation
for a domestic consumer is given by:
4 ¥ full-load error + 1 ¥ light-load error
Overall accuracy =
5
Light load is usually taken as 10 to 25 per cent.
This formula is related to induction type meters and not suitable for
modern digital meters. The induction type commercial metres have
standard error range of +/- 3%. Generally, the tendency of the meter is
to go on negative error on low load conditions and positive error on
458 Electric Power Distribution

nearly full load. This formula is modelling the real condition of a

consumer load in U.S.A. It signifies that 20% energy actually metered in
a billing cycle is contributed by the loading condition i.e. light load
conditions (10-25%) and 80% energy in the bill is contributed by full
load conditions of the consumer load.
Actually, this formula is related to induction type meters and not
suitable for modern digital meters. The induction type commercial
metres have standard error range of +/–3%. The tendency of the meter
is to go on negative error on low load conditions and positive error on
nearly full load. This formula is modelling real condition (load factor) of
a consumer load in USA. It signifies that 20% energy actually metered in
a billing cycle is contributed by the loading condition i.e. light load
conditions (10-25%) and 80% energy in the bill is contributed by full
load condition of the consumer load.
In case of demand meters (Class-1), the equal weightage test points
usually in practice are three-fourth and full contract or sanctioned
demand. Errors should always be applied judiciously [10].
It has been seen that sufficient portion of energy is consumed at the
light load, i.e. around 10–25 per cent of full-load by some type of
consumers, such as domestic consumer. It has been seen that for
domestic consumers, the light load conditions remain for about 75 per
cent of the time and consume about 45 per cent of the energy. So from
the revenue point of view, implication of meter accuracy and accuracy
stability at light load is as important as at full-load for the consumer. So it
can be said that weightage of each testing point should be according to
the contribution of energy at the relative load values. There is need to
determine this power consumption pattern for residential, commercial
and industrial loads to find average overall accuracy equation for the
meters in different power utilities.
According to a survey of load data of some typical consumers in
Punjab, the consumption contribution is given in Table 9.2.
Overall average accuracy is summation of products of energy contri-
bution factor and respective relative load test errors.
EXAMPLE: A commercial consumer when received high energy bill
challenged the meter’s accuracy. The induction type kWh meter when
tested at the Meter Testing Laboratory was found to have following
errors:
 Metering, Billing and Collection 459

Table 9.2
Energy contribution factor

Proportion of rated load/demand

Type of load
1/10 1/4 1/2 3/4 1
Industrial:
(i) Small and medium loads 0. 2 0. 2 0. 2 0. 2 0. 2
(ii) Large industrial loads — — — 0. 5 0. 5
Domestic 0. 1 0. 35 0. 1 0. 1 0. 35
Commercial — 0. 3 — — 0. 7
Agriculture 0. 1 — — — 0. 9

1
At load = – 1 per cent
10
1
load = + 0 per cent
4
1
load = 2 per cent
2
3
load = + 3 per cent
4
Full-load = + 6 per cent
Find the overall accuracy.
The meter needs correction as one of the test value has more than
3 per cent error. By the conventional equation we get,
-1 + 0 + 2 + 3 + 6
OA = = 2 per cent
5
From Table 8.2, the more fair overall error will be
= 0.3 ´ 0 + 0.7 ´ 6 = 4.2 per cent
That means, the consumer should be given benefit/refund of 4.2 per
cent of the power bill consumption.

9.8.2 Demand Meters

The function of a demand meter is to measure the maximum demand

(W or VA) of a load, taken by a large user of electricity. The reason or a
maximum demand component in a large power user’s billing is based
460 Electric Power Distribution

on the utility’s needs to recover the cost of providing generation,

transmission and distribution facilities to meet the consumer’s maximum
load which might be considerably larger than the average monthly-load
measured by the energy meter.
The maximum or peak load that a utility can deliver to a consumer,
is limited by the thermal ratings of the utility’s equipment. As generators,
transformers, transmission lines, cables etc. do not overheat in-
stantaneously, demand meters are designed to measure the maximum
average load over a short time interval, or to simulate the thermal
response of the utility’s equipment.
Although the principle of maximum demand billing appears simple,
its implementation presents a number of problems. There is no
universally accepted definition of maximum demand or agreement as to
which quantity should be measured. Integrating time can vary from 15
minutes to one hour from consumer to consumer, depending on past
and current practices of each utility. For example, the time is 30 minutes
in India and 15 minutes in Australia.

9.8.3 Power Factor Metering (Induction Type)

Most of the electrical devices when connected to distribution system

draw two components of power from the system. One is active
component (kW) for converting energy into useful work in the form of
heat, light or mechanical power. The second is reactive component
(kVAr) and is responsible for producing the magnetic flux necessary for
operation of equipment. The ratio of active power (kW) to the apparent
power (kVA) is called Power Factor.
At sub-stations, bus spot power factor is metered and it poses no
problem in measurement with the power factor indicating meter.
However, the consumer power factor measurement is desirable on an
average basis for the billing period. The finding of average power factor
from separately measured quantities of kWh and kVArh will not be
correct, in case the power factor is varying with time, which most likely
is the case of motive loads.
EXAMPLE: The case is shown in Fig. 9.12 regarding two loads:
(a) For constant power factor loads, both point-in-time and separate
metreing values are equal, as shown below by calculation of referred
loads in Fig. 9.12(a).
 Metering, Billing and Collection 461

By point-in-time measurement of kWh and kVArh:

kVAh = 2 + 3 ´ 6 = 21. 6 kVAh
2 2

By separate measurement of kWh and kVArh

(3 ¥ 6) + (2 ¥ 6)
2 2
=
= 21. 6 kVAh
(b) With varying power factor loads, the calculations for load data in
Fig. 9.12(b) are:
By point-in-time measurement:
kVAh = 25 + 13 + 20 + 13 + 13 + 29
= 5 + 3.6 + 4.47 + 3.6 + 3.6 + 5.385
= 25.655 kVAh
By separate measurement:
kVAh = 142 + 212

= 196 + 441

= 637
= 25.238 kVAh
25.655 - 25.238 ¥ 100
Difference = = 1.62 per cent
25.655

Fig. 9.12 Effect of variation of power factor on kVAh metering

(a) Constant power factor
(b) Variable power factor
462 Electric Power Distribution

Measurements (induction metering) are made therefore by

conventional measuring of kWh with special kVAh metering. Special
kVAh metering is dependent upon method of addition of active and
reactive power.
The active and reactive power are measured individually by suitable
polyphase measuring instruments (active and reactive energy meters).
From this, the geometric addition of apparent energy is established.

9.9 Prepaid Electricity Meters

Electric energy is largely sold on credit. The sooner a bill is sent out and
paid, the greater the profit for the utility. In this context, the fitting of
prepayment meters for consumers with poor credit records can be a
considerable saving to a utility.
Billing and revenue collection of the vast number of domestic
consumers, especially at the poor strata of society, has always been a
difficulty for the electricity utilities. A prepaid electricity metering system
allows the consumers to buy credit from the Electricity Board or
Company to use a specified quantum of energy in the form of an
encoded token which, when inserted into an appropriate slot in the
meter, allows the consumer to use the energy at his/her credit. There are
two types of such meters: One is a magnetic card version where, the
consumer inserts the card in a slot and the other is a keypad version
where, the consumer enters the identification card number through the
keypad on the meter. On receiving the credit information through the
keypad or magnetic card, the meter credits the electric energy (kWh),
corresponding to the amount of electricity purchased by the consumer.
The meter then dispenses electricity till the credit lasts. The meter alerts
the consumers sufficiently in advance when it is imminent that the
balance energy to his credit is going to be exhausted, so that the
consumer can get the token recharged or buy a new token depending on
the system. In case the consumer fails to buy a further quantum of credit,
the meter disconnects the supply as soon as the credit store of energy is
used up. Such type of energy meters are in use in countries like UK, New
Zealand, USA, South Africa, etc. These meters can save the power utility
a lot of operating costs in reading, billing and revenue collection of a
considerable segment of the domestic category of consumers, and also
improve their finances substantially. By means of these meters, utilities
can avoid losses due to deficiencies in meter reading and billing.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 463
Prepaid metering benefits both the utilities and consumers. The
utility receives electricity payment about 45 days earlier than in the
conventional monthly billing system. There is a direct link between the
money spent and value obtained. The consumer should be given a 5 per
cent discount for earlier payment as an incentive. Prepaid metering
systems help to make the consumer conscious of the cost of electricity.
In Western and African countries, the installation of such meters has
resulted in energy conservation of 5 to 15 per cent depending upon the
category of the consumer. As per life cycle costing studies carried out by
ESCOM (South Africa’s power utility), the prepaid metering system has
proved to be far more cost-effective compared to the current
conventional billing system. In Argentina, prepaid meters are being used
successfully to supply power to co-operatives which are responsible for
distribution of electricity to several communities. This meter is also
suitable for giving temporary connections.
As per the Electricity Act 2003 (section 47)), a consumer who take
the supply through a pre-payment meter need not pay security. In 25
countries, there are more than 10 million prepaid meters being used by
about 400 power utilities.
EXAMPLE: North Delhi Power Limited(NDPL) has introduced a new
prepaid metering system “Pay as you use”. This scheme has been found
to be successful. Its features are:
· A simple keypad type is used
· Consumer is able to buy electricity from the nearest NDPL cash
collection centre
· Consumer can buy in multiples of Rs 100.
· Free installation
· Set you own alerts to get low credit warning
· Get back your security deposit
· NDPL provide friendly credit to give you enough time to buy
more electricity. If your emergency supply runs out during the
week after 5 pm, the supply will not go off until the following day.
· If your emergency supply runs out after 5 pm on Saturday, the
supply will not go off until 7 am the following Monday.

9.10 Meter Selection

The key elements are:
· Identify the metering needs
· Identify the uses for metering
464 Electric Power Distribution

· Clarify the metering maintenance plans

· Consider possible expansion
A cost-benefit evaluation is made to select the metering technology
EXAMPLE: In a commercial building TOD metering at the cost of
Rs. 35,000 was installed. Annual savings of power and energy costing
Rs. 6,000 rupees was achieved. Find the simple payback period.
Payback period = (35000)/6000 = 5.84 years

9.11 Location

The meter should be located, which are easily accessible for installation,
testing, commissioning, reading, recording and maintenance.
· Depending on the arrangements in place, the meter may be the
property of the electricity distributor, or the retailer or electricity
the meter may belong to the consumer.
· Electricity meters are usually installed outside a building to mea-
sure electricity consumption in that location. Like any outdoor fix-
ture, electricity meters are exposed to harsh climate such as direct
sun, moisture, wind and large variations in temperature(usually
are designed for –40 to 55° C). Specially designed construction is
needed to protect the meter internal parts from such undesirable
environmental elements. Meter Enclosures should conforming to
IS: 14772, IEC 529 and IP 55 or IP 65
· Split metering: As per CEA Metering Regulations[16] the con-
sumer meter shall be installed by the licensee either at consumer
premises or outside the consumer premises. However split meter-
ing shall be used in latter case. Real time display unit also called
home display unit at the consumer premises will be installed to
indicate the electricity consumed by the consumer. But for the bill-
ing purpose, reading of consumer meter and not the display unit
shall be taken into account. Home display unit generally commu-
nicates wirelessly generally with the meter and is put on wall or
refrigerator.
· In case of high voltage distribution for domestic, multi-storey flats,
commercial, small industry, shopping malls consumers, etc., all
meters may installed in the feeder pillars at suitable place or near
the distribution transformer, ( e.g., 11/0.415 kV, three phase ). LV
 Metering, Billing and Collection 465
service cables will emanate from meters installed in feeder pillars
for different consumers.
· North America has a significantly higher percentage of outdoor
meters. In contrast, almost all European meters are indoors. This
difference actually represents a significant advantage for North
American utilities because it reduces installation costs and logisti-
cal complexity.
· One key driver is the cost of reading meters. Mechanical meters
are most commonly read manually, and in the USA, for example,
it is common to read as often as one a month. This is facilitated by
the practice of mounting meters outside the building, so that a
meter reader can always gain access, day or night.
In Europe, by contrast, the convention is to have the meters
mounted inside. Readings are taken much less frequently as a result, as it
is expensive for the utility to make repeated visits to obtain a reading.
· In the event, the Appropriate Commission allows supply of elec-
tricity directly from a generating company to a consumer on a
dedicated transmission system, the location of the meter will be as
per their mutual agreement.

9.12 Anti-theft Meters

· To curve tampering, introduce distribution transformers with in-

built meters in theft prone areas for energy accounting.
· Meter’s high frequency Jamming: Typical digital circuits operate any-
where from 100 khz to 100 Mhz. Jammers are used by miscreants
to stop the working of meter. These lower level signals may not
only cause system upset, but may also spawn latent electronic
component damage. The high frequency noise filter in the preva-
lent frequency range (100khz to 100Mhz) can be used in the meter
to alleviate potential system upset problems. Conducted electrical
noise is often manifested as a ring wave.
· A temper resistant design of energy meter monitors current in
both phase and return path and calculating the real average power
based on the larger of two currents. Therefore, provision of double
current sensors, which is able to detect power consumption in case
of tamper with current path through energy meter. In utilities
where energy theft is an issue, one of the most effective ways of
466 Electric Power Distribution

detecting it is to measure the current in both live and neutral and

to use the higher of the two values to calculate power.
· In some countries, it is also common practice to use two current
sensors in a single phase design to detect tampering. One current
sensor is used to detect phase current and the other to monitor
return current, to ensure they do not differ by more than a speci-
fied amount. This allows the meter to record the proper energy
under earth fault and partial earth fault tamper conditions.
· There are several forms of tampering that are effective on induc-
tive meters. Magnets above 0.5 Tesla can saturate the magnetic
circuits, causing loss of registration. Hotels traditionally insert rec-
tifiers in light-bulb sockets to induce d.c. loads. Grounded, discon-
nected or reversed terminals also cause misregistration.
· Some anti-tamper features are added:
(a) If any consumer tries to slow down digital meter temper re-
sistant design installed in the field with a magnet, the meter
trigger to maximum rating run continuously.
(b) If any tries to use earth instead neutral, the meter trigger to
run at 50% higher load.
· AMR (Automated Meter Reading) meters often have sensors that
can report opening of the meter cover, magnetic anomalies, extra
clock setting, glued buttons, reversed or switched phases etc.
These features are normally present in computerised meters, es-
pecially where tampering is culturally accepted.
Anti-tampering features desirable as per CEA Regulations for electronic
meters [16].
(a) The meter shall not get damaged or rendered non-functional
even if any phase and neutral are interchanged.
(b) The meter shall register energy even when the return path of
the load current is not terminated back at the meter and in
such a case the circuit shall be completed through the earth.
In case of metallic bodies, the earth terminal shall be brought
out and provided on the outside of the case.
(c) The meter shall work correctly irrespective of the phase se-
quence of supply (only for poly-phase).
(d) In the case of 3 phase, 3 wire meter even if reference Y phase
is removed, the meter shall continue to work. In the case of 3
phase, 4 wire system, the meter shall keep working even in
the presence of any two wires i.e., even in the absence of neu-
tral and any one phase or any two phases.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 467
(e) In case of whole current meters (>| 100A) and LV (240/415 V),
CT operated meter, the meter shall be capable of recording
energy correctly even if input and output terminals are inter-
changed.
(f) Polycarbonate or acrylic seals or plastic seals or holographic
seals or any other superior patented seal should be used.

9.13 High Voltage Metering

If the supply voltage exceeds 3 phase, 415V, then a voltage transformer

is used to reduce the input voltage to the meter, this is normally 110V
when 3 phase 3 wire metering is used and 63.5 V when 3 phase 4 wire
metering is used.
For supply voltages of 132 kV and above are normally metered with
3 phase 4 wire metering to avoid errors from capacitive shunting. The
required transformer insulation is also reduced as the line to line voltage
is Ö3 times the line to earth/neutral voltage.

9.14 Reactive Power Metering

There are four methods used to measure VAr:
(i) Phase shift the total voltage or current signal: Normally the volt-
age signal is shifted 90 deg. and a Watt type measurement is car-
ried out. One method, electronic meters use to achieve this is to
carry out a Fourier Transform to isolate the fundamental, deter-
mine the frequency, digitally phase shift the voltage signal and
then carry out the Watt measurement. Harmonics in the supply
will only be measured if, similar to a Watt measurement, they are
present in the current and voltage signals. This meets the implied
measurement method according to the definition but to test to the
standard only the single fundamental frequency can be used.
(ii) Integrate the voltage signal: In this method the voltage signal is
integrated to produce the 90 deg phase shift and then a Watt type
measurement is carried out on the current signal and the inte-
grated voltage signal. Integrating the voltage signal reduces the
effect of harmonics, for example the 3rd harmonic will be reduced
by three. This method measures a small proportion of the har-
monics if they are present in both the voltage and current signals
468 Electric Power Distribution

but will produce the same result a method (i) if only the funda-
mental is present.
(iii) Measure fundamental VArs only: In this method, the fundamen-
tal frequency is isolated by means of a Fourier Transform, and
either the voltage signal phase shifted 90 deg. and a Watt type
measurement carried out, or the RMS voltage, RMS current and
the phase shift measured and then E * I Sin f calculated. This
method does not measure any supply harmonics in the voltage or
the current.
(iv) Deriving VArs from VA: This method measures VA by multiply-
ing the rms voltages and currents and then calculating the VArs
from the square root of the difference of the squares of the VA and
Watts. Harmonics in either or both of the voltage and current sup-
ply will be included and therefore, this method will produce the
highest value for the VAr measurement.

VA and VAh
VA is the multiple of Volts(rms) and Amps(rms) regardless of the phase
difference between voltage and current. For a Sine wave VA can be
expressed as:

VA = (W 2 + VA r2 )
however, for non-sinusoidal waveforms the relationship does not hold.
VAh is normally measured by sampling the voltage and current
signals over a short period of time, calculating the rms values,
multiplying the result and then averaging, in a similar way to the
measurement of kWh. If the power factor varies over the averaging
period it will affect the VAh calculated, however if the averaging period
is small the error is negligible. This effect will be demonstrated later in
the description of VA demand.
Since VA is the result of multiplying rms voltages and currents, any
harmonics in either the voltage or current are included in the VA. There
is considerable debate as to how VA should be calculated as if it is
derived from Watts and VAr then harmonics are not included and the
resulting VA billed to the consumer is reduced. Harmonics however do
affect the distribution system, and consumers who have a load that
produces harmonics could reasonably be expected to pay for them.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 469
Reactive demand
The following are possible methods that may be used:
Method 1:
In this case, the meter measures total 3 phase kVARh and kWh in each
period and stores these in load profile memory, the kVA is calculated
from this data after downloading to a computer.
In this method, only the average kVA is calculated as any power factor
fluctuations that occur during the integrating period are averaged. The
effects of harmonics and unbalanced load are ignored. The treatment of
leading and lagging VAr may vary depending on how the meter operates
and is programmed. There is no regulation that determines how leading
and lagging VAr should be treated i.e. added, subtracted or ignored.
Method 2:
The meter measures VAh and Wh and calculates VArh near
instantaneously ( i.e. less than 1 minute) from VAr = Ö(VA2 – W2), the
VArh and the Wh are then stored in profile memory and kVA calculated
in a computer after download.
This method uses vectorial addition of the VA, and the VA
calculated will be always greater than method (i). The measurement of
VAh as the primary measurement will also include harmonics, which
will further increase the resultant VA. This method will typically
produce kVAs 3% to 7% higher than the averaging method.
This method is not accurate in 3 phase 3 wire systems. Some meters
generate a pseudo third phase internally and the meter then operates as
a three phase four wire device.
Method 3:
The meter can measure the VAh directly and store this in the load profile
memory, when downloaded the maximum kVA demand is calculated
by dividing the VAh by the integrating period in hours. This method
will include the harmonics, power factor variations and effectively adds
leading and lagging power factors.

9.15 Meter Installation

The following precautions are required while installing meters:
(i) In case of single phase meters, the consumer shall ensure that
there is no common neutral or phase or looping of neutral or
phase of two or more consumers on consumers’ side wiring.
470 Electric Power Distribution

(ii) If the earth leakage indication is displayed in the meter, the licens-
ees shall suitably inform the consumer through installation report
or regular electricity bills or meter test report as applicable.
(iii) In case Instrument Current transformers(CTs) and Instrument
voltage transformers(VTs) form part of the meters, the meter shall
be installed as near the instrument transformers as possible to re-
duce the potential drop in the secondary leads.
Two types of three phase CT wiring are used, the 4 wire( see Fig. 9.13)
and 6 wire systems ( see Fig. 9.14 ). In the 6 wire system each CT is wired
separately to the meter and there is no possibility of interaction between
the CTs. The 4 wire system has the advantage that it uses two less wires,
however, if the common connector becomes open circuit or high
resistance then multiple CTs are effectively in parallel causing large
errors in unbalanced loads. This fault can be difficult to detect unless
careful burden measurements are carried out. Some authorities earth
one side of the CTs whereas some authorities do not earth the CT
secondaries. In HV metering systems, the secondary of the CTs are
always earthed for safety.

Fig. 9.13 Meter wiring 3-wire delta

 Metering, Billing and Collection 471

Fig. 9.14 Meter wiring 4-wire wye

9.16 Metering System Errors [16]

Normally, the manufacturer will provide a calibration certificate that

gives the metering errors at the points required as per metering
regulations. If the errors are not provided it will be necessary to either
test the meter at these points or extrapolate from the calibration figures.
In case the consumer reports to the licensee about consumer meter
readings not commensurate with his consumption of electricity,
stoppage of meter, damage to the seal, burning or damage of the meter,
the licensee shall take necessary steps as per the procedures given in the
Electricity Supply Code of the Appropriate Commission read with the
notified conditions of supply of electricity. The digital revenue meters
are tested for accuracy at the factory and remains accurate for the life of
the meter. These needs no calibration. In contrast, electro-mechanical
meters need mechanical adjustment before installation and periodic
calibration thereafter. Digital meters require periodical ‘accuracy’
testing, if found beyond accuracy limits, the meter is sent to firm for
472 Electric Power Distribution

replacement if within guarantee period or for repair if within warranty

period, otherwise it surveyed off. The consumer meter is replaced.
Normally, these meters have 5 year warranty or guarantee as the case
may be.
Every meter shall meet the requirement of accuracy class as specified
[16]. When the error found in testing of meter is beyond the permissible
limit of error provided in the relevant standard, the meter shall be
immediately replaced with a correct meter. Billing for the failure period
of the meter shall be done as per the procedure laid down by the
Appropriate Commission.

Errors
When the errors due to the VTs and CTs are calculated, the meter errors
can be arithmetically added to determine the total system error. Meter
errors may be deliberately adjusted to compensate for the errors
introduced by the CTs and VTs, care must be taken to record the
compensation in case the meter is changed.
Some meters can be programmed with transformer compensation
to compensate for transformer errors that vary significantly with load.
This is particularly useful where it is necessary to use protection CTs that
may have high errors at low load.
Meter errors will vary according to the measurement technique used
by the meter and different meters may give different results under
practical load conditions. Loads with large fluctuations, highly variable
power factors and high harmonics (particularly in the voltage signal) will
often affect the meter particularly in the measurement of reactive power.
3 phase 3 wire systems are particularly susceptible and large differences
can occur between meter types and between the 3 phase 3 wire
measurement and a 3 phase 4 wire measurement on the same load.

VT/CT metering errors in 3 phase 4 wire systems

The interaction between the phase errors and the ratio errors is small for
practical installations, therefore, if the phase and ratio errors are
calculated individually, they may be arithmetically added to give a
reasonable approximation of total system errors. Error calculators using
computers can calculate the errors from the fundamental power
equations and will give accurate total system errors.
 Metering, Billing and Collection 473
Similar error calculations can be made for the other phases, and
provided the load is balanced, the errors may be arithmetically averaged
to give the total 3 phase error.

Metering system errors in 3 phase 3 wire systems

In a three phase three wire metering system, it is not possible to simply
calculate the errors for each phase and then arithmetically average the
phase errors to give the total three phase error. This is because at some
PF one phase will contribute more to the total errors than the other
phase. Unlike the 3 phase 4 wire system, where at unity power factor the
CT and VT phase errors only have a minute effect on the overall error,
the CT and VT phase errors have a significant effect at unity power
factor in the 3 phase 3 wire system.

9.17 Testing Methods[5]

The most common method for testing meters is to inject voltage and
current from a stable power source in laboratory and compare the meter
energy readings with readings from a reference standard (usually
accuracy class 0.05 or 0.02).

Field testing (meter in service):

Many power utilities have mobile testing units for:
· Accuracy checks of installed meters;
· Periodic check of meters used by industrial/large consumers to
test the accuracy;
· Handling consumer complaints regarding metering;
· Identification of wiring and other system errors; and
· Identification of theft of electricity.
For example, In Punjab State Electricity Board, there are
15 MMT(mobile meter testing units). Each one is controlled by a
Executive Engineer. They have downloading equipment(handheld) and
portable testing (0.2 class accuracy) equipment (about 12 kg weight).
This equipment is MTE Make (a German firm). They check and test all
static meters of large consumers each having load of 100 kW or more.
They download the power data from each meter every 70 days. 70 days
is taken because meters have the capacity to store metering data up to 70
days only. Secondly, they test accuracy of each meter once in a year.