FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UCSI UNIVERSITY

EP428 PLANT DESIGN PROJECT REPORT II

SEMESTER: JAN-AUGUST 2020

PROJECT TITLE:

PRODUCTION OF 50,000 TONNE/YEAR OF PALM BASED COMPOSITE RIGID

POLYURETHANE FOAM

SUPERVISOR’S NAME:
MS. ANITA BINTI ABU BAKAR

GROUP 8
NAME STUDENT ID
SEAN LIN XI YIN 1001645819
PAVITHIRA A/P SATHINATHAN 1001746192
MAHENDRAN A/L SITHAMPARAM 1001438347
LIEW JIA JUN 1001644965
YEW LIE HONG 1001540042

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 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

28th AUGUST 2020

Head, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, Technology and Built Environment,
UCSI University.

Report of Production of 50,000 Tonnes/year of Palm Based Composite Rigid Polyurethane

Foam

Dear Asst. Prof. Dr. Lee Kiat Moon,

Please find the attached completed report on the design of the Fuel Gas production plant titled
with Production of 50,000 Tonnes/year of Palm Based Composite Rigid Polyurethane
Foam. This report explains in detail the work completed by us as UCSI University students of
Chemical Engineering for the eight months period from January to August 2020, for the Plant
Design Project. This report represents the culmination of work for this project assigned up until
the requested due date. We would much appreciate if you read our report carefully and
comment on the work. Should you have any questions, concerns, or comments about this
report, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Sincerely,

Group 8 Plant Design Project

Chemical Engineering

Jan-August 2020

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor/lecturer,
Ms. Anita for her support and guidance throughout this plant design project. Her valuable
advices and comments have allowed us to complete this project successfully and smoothly. We
would also convey the sincerest gratitude as well to our industrial supervisor, Ir. Lee Wei
Choew. He were supportive and willingly shared his knowledge and time with us when we
faced any difficulty throughout the project. We, Group 8 members, will definitely cherish all
the informative knowledge as the view of industry to us from Ms. Anita and Ir. Lee. Secondly,
we would also like to thank and individual group interviewers, Dr. Lee Kiat Moon and Dr.
Yeap Swee Pin for their fair judgment during the interview sessions and provided informative
inputs to improve our plant design project. Special thank for their patience in examining our
work and bringing out the better of every one of us. In addition, we would like to thanks to
Asst. Prof Dr. Tan Mei Ching as the coordinator of plant design project. Her hard work and
guidance on planning the whole plant design process is much appreciated.

Next, we would like to thank UCSI University for giving us the opportunity to learn
and grow through this plant design process. UCSI University have provided an excellent
platform for all chemical students to challenge their competency and knowledge of chemical
engineering in this plant design project. This project was definitely provided us a chance to
apply all the knowledge learn since Year 1 to Year 4 and get ready ourselves by recap all the
knowledge and principle before real working life started.

Additionally, we would also like to express our thanks to all the other lecturers who
have taught us throughout the entire study period. Their willingness to help us to move forward
when we encountered any difficulties contributed tremendously to facilitate us in completing
all the course. Last but not least, as a group leader, I would like to thanks to my group members
for the hard work, commitment and cooperation throughout the project.

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Polyurethane foams were synthesized with polyols as starters and were traditionally a
petrochemical. However, with the continual escalation in the petroleum price, there has been
an increase in the use of renewable feedstocks for industrial products. Palm oil and its products,
being renewable and readily biodegradable, are the alternative feedstocks for production of
palm oil-based polyol for polyurethane products. Especially with the ‘Love my Palm Oil’
campaign in Malaysia, the potential of palm oil and its products were being explored to promote
is value and applications since it is one of the major commodities from Malaysia. This has
reactivated interest on natural oil-based polyols (NOPs). The usages of NOPs in PU production
are more cost effective and comparable in terms of properties with petroleum-based polyol.
The most important issue is that the usage of NOPs causes less environmental impact compared
to petrochemical based polyols.

Chapter 1 gives the details on physical and chemical properties of raw materials and
products involved throughout the production of composite rigid palm-based polyurethane.
Several synthesis routes were compared, along with site selection with relevant factors to
determine which location is the most ideal and feasibility study to determine the viability of
this project.

Chapter 2 gives the input and output decision by following to heuristics. Flash column
was used to reduce moisture contents as well as volatile component to give higher polyol purity.
Total production yield was expected to be at 50,000 tonnes/year. The entire conversion rate
was calculated with the conversion assumption of 99% for transesterification and epoxidation,
while 95% for ring-opening reaction and for foam blowing process. Material and energy
balance for the processes were also done and compared with simulation from Superpro to
obtain variance between results.

Chapter 3 shows the heat integration for the whole plant to recover heat energy to
reduce overall utilities cost. Pinch technology and composite curve method were used to

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conduct the heat integration. Cold and hot streams were identified before proceeding with the
heat integration calculations. Temperature interval diagram and cascade diagram were
generated to represent stream data in process flow. Heat exchanger network was then designed
and integrated into existing process flow diagram.

Chapter 4 shows how the waste from this production process will be handled according
to waste type. Expensive catalysts were recovered to minimize cost of production and potential
to pollute surrounding natural resources. Hydrochloric acid gas was scrubbed before leaving
the plant to prevent occurrence of acid rain which can cause damage to surrounding buildings
and the other water soluble products were treated together by sending to wastewater treatment
before releasing to nearby water source. Primary treatment involves pre-treatment such as grit
removal, grinding and screening. On the other hand, pre-aeration does take place before
primary treatment in order to improve the grit removal, increase floatation and enhance
coagulation. In the secondary treatment process, wastewater will go through a biological
process to break down organic matter.

Chapter 5 discusses on the equipment design for the main unit operations such as CSTR
for transesterification, flash column and heat exchangers. All theoretical framework and
assumptions were stated clearly. Dimension, wall and head thickness, skirt support and
mechanical data for respective equipment were clearly tabulated.

Chapter 6 contains the control of plant. Parameters for each equipment were discussed
highlight important points for respective reaction and processes. Reference for symbols and
line type were stated clearly to avoid confusion and each controller, transmitter and relay were
also discussed in tabulated tables. Piping calculations for each type of pipes consisting and
carrying different fluid will also be discussed as well.

Chapter 7 is more on process safety by implementing HAZOP analysis by analyzing

process parameters. Cause of hazard and its consequences as well as actions to be taken we
determined. Safety features such as pressure, and level alarm or relief valves were incorporated.

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 Chapter 8 explains the economic analysis in calculating profits and revenue from plant.
Total capital investment and cash flow analysis for 15 years were performed along with
cumulative non-discounted cash flow analysis and payback period were discussed. Return of
investment is the key point to determine how much the investment will be returned to investors
was calculated as well.

Chapter 9 draws a summary from the whole project and provides future
recommendations for discussion and improvement of the report.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL .................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................ iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER I .....................................................................................................................1
1.1 PROCESS BACKGROUND ...................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Chemical Background .......................................................................................... 4
1.1.2 Identification ........................................................................................................ 9
1.1.3 Manufacture ....................................................................................................... 13
1.1.4 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage ....................................................... 17
1.1.5 Uses and Application of Polyurethane ............................................................... 33
1.2 PROCESS SCREENING .......................................................................................... 40
1.2.1 Transesterification process................................................................................. 40
1.2.2 Epoxidation Process ........................................................................................... 43
1.2.3 Ring-opening...................................................................................................... 48
1.2.4 Comparison of techniques.................................................................................. 51
1.3 PROCESS SELECTION ........................................................................................... 56
1.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ....................................................... 56
1.4.1 Polyurethane ...................................................................................................... 57
1.4.2 Palm Olein ......................................................................................................... 58
1.4.3 Boron trifluoride etherate complex .................................................................... 59
1.4.4 Ethylene Diamine............................................................................................... 60
1.4.5 Ethylene Glycol ................................................................................................. 61
1.4.6 Glycerol.............................................................................................................. 62
1.4.7 Hydrochloric Acid ............................................................................................. 63
1.4.8 Isocyanates ......................................................................................................... 64
1.4.9 Sodium Bicarbonate ........................................................................................... 66
1.4.10 Performic Acid ................................................................................................... 67
1.4.11 Sodium Chloride ................................................................................................ 68
1.4.12 Sodium hydroxide .............................................................................................. 69
1.4.13 Water .................................................................................................................. 69
1.5 MARKET SURVEY ................................................................................................. 71
1.5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 71

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 1.5.2 Demand .............................................................................................................. 71
1.5.3 Market Price ....................................................................................................... 75
1.5.4 Application ......................................................................................................... 77
1.5.5 Strength .............................................................................................................. 79
1.5.6 Weakness ........................................................................................................... 81
1.5.7 Worldwide Producers of Polyurethane .............................................................. 81
1.5.8 Polyurethane in Malaysia ................................................................................... 82
1.5.9 Future Outlook ................................................................................................... 83
1.5.10 Raw Material ...................................................................................................... 84
1.6 PROJECT FEASIBILITY STUDY .......................................................................... 93
1.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 93
1.6.2 Project Sustainability ......................................................................................... 93
1.6.3 Environment Feasibility ..................................................................................... 94
1.6.4 Safety Feasibility ............................................................................................... 95
1.6.5 Economic Feasibility ......................................................................................... 96
1.6.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 99
1.7 SITE STUDY .......................................................................................................... 101
1.7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 101
1.7.2 Site Selection Criteria ...................................................................................... 102
1.7.3 Overview of Several Strategic Locations ........................................................ 106
1.7.4 Site Selections Conclusion ............................................................................... 117
1.7.5 Proposed Site and Plant Layout ....................................................................... 125
CHAPTER II ...............................................................................................................126
2.1 SYNTHESIS OF PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM .................................................. 126
2.2 HIERARCHY OF FLOWSHEET ........................................................................... 128
2.2.1 Batch vs. Continuous ....................................................................................... 128
2.2.2 Input Output Structure of Flowsheet................................................................ 131
2.2.3 Separation Synthesis ........................................................................................ 133
2.3 PROCESS AND REACTION DESCRIPTION ...................................................... 135
2.3.1 Transesterification............................................................................................ 135
2.3.2 Epoxidation ...................................................................................................... 137
2.3.3 Ring Opening ................................................................................................... 139
2.4 BASIC UNIT SELECTION .................................................................................... 140
2.4.1 Reactor ............................................................................................................... 140
2.4.2 Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................ 145

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 2.4.3 Distillation........................................................................................................ 148
2.4.4 Mixing ................................................................................................................. 154
2.4.5 Heating ................................................................................................................ 160
2.4.6 Washer ................................................................................................................ 164
2.4.7 Evaporator ........................................................................................................... 165
2.5 MANUAL CALCULATION FOR MATERIAL BALANCE................................ 170
2.5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 170
2.5.2 Manual Calculation of Material Balance ......................................................... 173
2.6 COMPUUTER SIMULATED CALCULATION FOR MATERIAL BALANCE 184
2.6.1 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results .............................................. 184
2.7 MANUAL CALCULATION FOR ENERGY BALANCE .................................... 189
2.7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 189
2.7.2 Enthalpy ........................................................................................................... 191
2.7.3 Manual Calculation of Energy Balance of Each Operation ............................. 196
2.8 SUMMARY FOR COMPUTER SIMULATED ENERGY BALANCE ............... 274
2.8.1 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results for Energy Balance by
Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 274
2.9 PROCESS DESIGN OPTIMISATION .................................................................. 278
2.9.1 Parametric optimization ................................................................................... 278
2.9.2 Topology optimization ..................................................................................... 281
CHAPTER III ..............................................................................................................282
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 282
3.1.1 Pinch Technology ............................................................................................ 283
3.1.2 Advantages of Pinch Technology .................................................................... 284
3.1.4 Problem Table Algorithm (PTA) ..................................................................... 286
3.1.5 Determining Δ Tmin ........................................................................................ 287
3.2 Process Flow Diagram of Pinch Technology .......................................................... 288
3.2.1 Stream Data Extraction .................................................................................... 288
3.2.2 Shifted Temperature......................................................................................... 289
3.2.3 Heat Interval..................................................................................................... 290
3.2.4 Heat Cascade .................................................................................................... 291
3.2.5 Pinch Temperature ........................................................................................... 293
3.2.6 Utility ............................................................................................................... 294
3.2.7 Energy Recovery .............................................................................................. 294
3.3 COMPOSITE CURVE (CC METHOD)................................................................. 294

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3.4 HEAT EXCHANGE NETWORK BY PINCH ANLYSIS ..................................... 295
3.4.1 Grid Diagram ................................................................................................... 295
3.4.2 Energy Recovery .............................................................................................. 297
3.4.3 Minimum Number of Heat Exchange Unit ...................................................... 297
3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 298
3.5.1 Process Flow Diagram (Heat Integration) ....................................................... 300
CHAPTER IV ..............................................................................................................301
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 301
4.2 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND HIERARCHY ................................................... 302
4.2.1 Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention ................................................ 303
4.2.2 Objectives of Minimization and Treatment ..................................................... 304
4.3 TYPE OF WASTE .................................................................................................. 305
4.3.1 Identification of Waste Stream ........................................................................ 305
4.3.2 Hydrochloric Acid ........................................................................................... 308
4.3.3 Glycerol............................................................................................................ 312
4.3.4 Boron Trifluoride Etherate Complex (Catalyst) .............................................. 313
4.3.5 Wastewater Treatment (Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium chloride, Traces of Oil,
Catalyst) ......................................................................................................................... 314
CHAPTER V................................................................................................................319
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 319
5.2 SELECTION OF 5 MAJOR UNIT OPERATIONS ............................................... 320
5.3 LIST OF ANALYSIS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN, SIZING AND COSTING .... 321
5.4 SIZING AND COSTING OF TRANSESTERIFICATION REACTOR (CSTR 1)
321
5.4.1 Design data specifications of Transesterification Reactor ............................... 321
5.4.2 Volume Analysis .............................................................................................. 322
5.4.3 Thickness Analysis .......................................................................................... 323
5.4.4 Loading Analysis ............................................................................................. 326
5.4.5 Stress Analysis ................................................................................................. 328
5.4.6 Skirt Support .................................................................................................... 329
5.4.7 Costing Analysis .............................................................................................. 330
5.5 SIZING AND COSTING OF EPOXIDATION REACTOR (CSTR 2) ................. 332
5.5.1 Volume Analysis .............................................................................................. 332
5.5.2 Thickness Analysis .......................................................................................... 334
5.5.3 Loading Analysis ............................................................................................. 337

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 5.5.4 Wind Loading Analysis ................................................................................... 339
5.5.5 Stress Analysis ................................................................................................. 339
5.5.6 Skirt Support .................................................................................................... 340
5.5.7 Costing Analysis .............................................................................................. 342
5.6 SIZING AND COSTING OF RING-OPENING REACTOR (CSTR 3)................ 344
5.6.1 Volume Analysis .............................................................................................. 344
5.6.2 Thickness Analysis .......................................................................................... 345
5.6.3 Loading Analysis ............................................................................................. 348
5.6.4 Wind Loading Analysis ................................................................................... 350
5.6.5 Stress Analysis ................................................................................................. 350
5.6.6 Skirt Support .................................................................................................... 351
5.6.7 Costing Analysis .............................................................................................. 353
5.7 SIZING AND COSTING OF FLASH COLUMN (V-105) .................................... 355
5.7.1 Design data specifications of flash column ..................................................... 355
5.7.2 Sizing of separator ........................................................................................... 356
5.7.3 Volume Analysis .............................................................................................. 359
5.7.4 Thickness Analysis .......................................................................................... 359
5.7.5 Loading Analysis ............................................................................................. 363
5.7.6 Wind Loading Analysis ................................................................................... 365
5.7.7 Stress Analysis ................................................................................................. 366
5.7.8 Skirt Support .................................................................................................... 368
5.7.9 Costing Analysis .............................................................................................. 370
5.8 SIZING AND COSTING OF HEAT EXCHANGER ............................................ 374
5.8.1 Heat Exchanger Design.................................................................................... 374
5.8.2 Basic Design Procedure ................................................................................... 375
5.8.3 Thickness Analysis .......................................................................................... 385
5.8.4 Design Summary .............................................................................................. 389
5.8.5 Costing Analysis .............................................................................................. 390
CHAPTER VI ..............................................................................................................395
6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 395
6.1.1 Importance of Process Control......................................................................... 396
6.2 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM ........................................................................... 397
6.2.1 Open Loop Control System ............................................................................. 398
6.2.2 Closed Loop Control System ........................................................................... 399
6.3 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM - HARDWARE ................................................ 400

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 6.3.1 Types of Process Control System .................................................................... 400
6.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages for Process Control System ........................... 402
6.3.3 Protocol of Process Control System ................................................................ 404
6.4 Control System Designs for Individual Unit ........................................................... 405
6.4.1 Feedback Control ............................................................................................. 405
6.4.2 Feedforward Control ........................................................................................ 406
6.4.3 Inferential Control Configuration .................................................................... 407
6.4.4 Cascade Control ............................................................................................... 407
6.4.5 Ratio Control.................................................................................................... 408
6.5 Control Systems Design Procedure ......................................................................... 409
6.6 Control Systems Design for Major Equipment ....................................................... 412
6.6.1 Storage tank of Palm Olein, Glycerol and NaOH and mixing valve ............... 412
6.6.2 Heat exchanger................................................................................................. 414
6.6.3 Transesterification reactor ............................................................................... 415
6.6.4 Neutralization tank 1 ........................................................................................ 417
6.6.5 Washing column .............................................................................................. 418
6.6.6 Heat exchanger................................................................................................. 420
6.6.7 Epoxidation reactor .......................................................................................... 421
6.6.8 Neutralization tank 2 ........................................................................................ 423
6.6.10 Neutralization tank 3 ........................................................................................ 424
6.6.11 Washing column .............................................................................................. 425
6.6.12 Ring opening reactor, EG, BF3 storage tank and heater.................................. 427
6.6.13 Washing column .............................................................................................. 429
6.6.14 Flash column ................................................................................................... 430
6.6.15 Plate heat exchanger ....................................................................................... 433
6.6.16 Foam forming reactor and pumps ................................................................... 434
6.7 Piping Systems Design ............................................................................................ 436
6.7.1 Piping System Design ...................................................................................... 436
6.7.2 Piping System Design for Liquid Flow ................................................................ 436
6.7.3 Piping System Design for Vapor Flow ............................................................ 442
6.7.4 Piping System Design for Mixture Flow ......................................................... 446
6.7.5 Pipe Supports ................................................................................................... 450
6.7.6 Pipe Fittings ..................................................................................................... 452
6.7.7 Pipe Stressing ..................................................................................................... 453
6.8 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID) .................................. 454

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6.9 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 458
CHAPTER VII.............................................................................................................459
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 459
7.2 Potential Hazard ...................................................................................................... 460
7.2.1 Hazards of Raw Material ................................................................................. 460
7.2.2 Hazards of Product ........................................................................................... 463
7.2.3 Process Hazards ............................................................................................... 463
7.3 Safety and Health Committee ................................................................................. 464
7.4 Process Safety ......................................................................................................... 465
7.4.1 Risk Assessment for Storage and Handling of Hazardous Chemicals ............ 466
7.4.2 Explosion Risk Assessment ............................................................................. 468
7.4.3 Safety Audit ..................................................................................................... 469
7.5 Fire Hazards ............................................................................................................ 470
7.5.1 Classification of Fire ........................................................................................ 470
7.5.2 Fire Prevention and Safety Procedures ............................................................ 471
7.5.3 Fire Hazard Checklist ...................................................................................... 472
7.6 Emergency Response .............................................................................................. 473
7.6.1 Emergency Control Center .............................................................................. 474
7.6.2 Level of Emergency ......................................................................................... 474
7.6.3 Fire Protection System ..................................................................................... 475
7.6.4 Labels and Sign ................................................................................................ 476
7.6.5 Leakage Prevention .......................................................................................... 478
7.7 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) ....................................................................... 480
7.8 Site and Plant Layout .............................................................................................. 482
7.9 General Safety Procedure ........................................................................................ 483
7.9.1 Storage System................................................................................................. 483
7.9.2 Ventilation........................................................................................................ 485
7.9.3 Transportation .................................................................................................. 485
7.9.4 Plant Location .................................................................................................. 486
7.9.5 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment .................................................. 487
7.10 Start-Up and Shut Down Procedure .................................................................... 490
7.10.1 Start-Up Procedure.............................................................................................. 491
7.10.2 Shutdown Procedure ........................................................................................... 492
7.11 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) ............................................................ 494
7.11.1 The HAZOP Concept ....................................................................................... 494

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 7.11.2 HAZOP Objectives .......................................................................................... 494
7.11.3 The HAZOP Team ........................................................................................... 495
7.11.4 HAZOP procedure ........................................................................................... 495
7.11.5 Hazard and Operability Study on Various Operation Units ............................ 497
7.12 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 515
CHAPTER VIII ...........................................................................................................516
8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 516
8.2 ECONOMIC STUDY FOR COST ESTIMATION IN PLANT DESIGN ............. 517
8.3 CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST .......................................................................... 519
8.4 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST .............................................. 522
8.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Expenses (Variable) ..................................................... 523
8.4.2 Indirect Manufacturing Expenses (Fixed) ....................................................... 530
8.4.3 General Manufacturing Cost ............................................................................ 534
8.5 CASH FLOW ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 537
8.5.1 Payback period ................................................................................................. 539
8.5.2 Net Present Value (NPV) ................................................................................. 540
8.5.3 Discounted Cash Flow ..................................................................................... 541
8.5.4 Return of Investment........................................................................................ 544
8.5.5 Salvage Value .................................................................................................. 545
8.6 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 546
CHAPTER IX ..............................................................................................................547
9.1 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 547
9.2 FUTURE RECOMMENDATION .......................................................................... 551
REFERENCE ..............................................................................................................553
APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................562

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. 1 Identification of Polyurethane 9

TABLE 1. 2 Identification of Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate 10
TABLE 1. 3 Identification of Toluene diisocyanate 11
TABLE 1. 4 Identification of Orthophosphoric acid 12
TABLE 1. 5 Identification of Formic Acid 12
TABLE 1. 6 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Polyurethane 17
TABLE 1. 7 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Palm Olein 19
TABLE 1. 8 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Isocyanate 23
TABLE 1. 9 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Orthophosphoric Acid 25
TABLE 1. 10 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Formic Acid 29
TABLE 1. 11 Properties and uses of polyurethanes 35
TABLE 1. 12 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with alkali base 41
TABLE 1. 13 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with acid base 42
TABLE 1. 14 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with non-catalytic 43
TABLE 1. 15 Advantages and disadvantages of epoxidation with the performic acid 45
TABLE 1. 16 Advantages and disadvantages of epoxidation by using enzyme 48
TABLE 1. 17 Advantages and disadvantages of ring opening by using ethylene glycol 49
TABLE 1. 18 Advantages and disadvantages of ring opening by using K10 Montmorillonite
catalyst 51
TABLE 1. 19 Comparison of transesterification techniques 52
TABLE 1. 20 Comparison of epoxidation techniques 53
TABLE 1. 21 Comparison of ring opening techniques 55
TABLE 1. 22 Properties of polyurethanes 58
TABLE 1. 23 Properties of palm olein 58
TABLE 1. 24 FFA Composition 59
TABLE 1. 25 Properties of BF3 60
TABLE 1. 26 Properties of C2H4(NH2)2 61
TABLE 1. 27 Properties of (CH2OH)2 62
TABLE 1. 28 Properties of C3H5(OH)3 63
TABLE 1. 29 Properties of HCL 64
TABLE 1. 30 Properties of TDI 65
TABLE 1. 31 Properties of MDI 66
TABLE 1. 32 Properties of NaHCO3 67
TABLE 1. 33 Properties of CH2O3 68
TABLE 1. 34 Properties of NaCl 68
TABLE 1. 35 Properties of NaOH 69
TABLE 1. 36 Properties of Water 70
TABLE 1. 37 Polyurethane Market in Malaysia by Sectors 83
TABLE 1. 38 Summary of raw materials used in this project 86
TABLE 1. 39 Location analysis of Teluk Kalong, Terengganu 107
TABLE 1. 40 Location analysis of Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang 111
TABLE 1. 41 Location analysis of Tanjung Langsat, Pasir Gudang 114

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TABLE 1. 42 Site Factor Analysis of the Site Location 117

TABLE 2. 1 The advantages and disadvantages of batch reactor 129

TABLE 2. 2 The advantages and disadvantages of continuous reactor 130
TABLE 2. 3 Transesterification reaction parameters 135
TABLE 2. 4 Epoxidation reaction parameters 137
TABLE 2. 5 Ring-opening reaction parameters 139
TABLE 2. 6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Batch Reactor 141
TABLE 2. 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of CSTR. 142
TABLE 2. 8 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR 143
TABLE 2. 9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 146
TABLE 2. 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plate-type heat Exchanger 147
TABLE 2. 11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Extended Surface Heat Exchanger 148
TABLE 2. 12Advantages and Disadvantages of Flash Distillation 149
TABLE 2. 13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Distillation 151
TABLE 2. 14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fractional distillation 152
TABLE 2. 15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam distillation. 153
TABLE 2. 16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tumbler Blender 155
TABLE 2. 17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ribbon Blender 157
TABLE 2. 18 Advantages and Disadvantages of V-Blender 158
TABLE 2. 19 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propeller Mixer 159
TABLE 2. 20 Advantages and disadvantages of industrial electric heater 161
TABLE 2. 21 Advantages and Disadvantages of Furnace working principle 162
TABLE 2. 22 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Tube Boilers 163
TABLE 2. 23 Advantages and Disadvantages of Washer 165
TABLE 2. 24 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Evaporator 167
TABLE 2. 25 Advantages and Disadvantages of Forced circulation evaporators 168
TABLE 2. 26 Advantages and Disadvantages of Long-tube vertical evaporators 169
TABLE 2. 27 List of Component 172
TABLE 2. 28 List of information of the component ratio for transesterification reactor 173
TABLE 2. 29 List of information of the component for transesterification reactor 173
TABLE 2. 30 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 1 174
TABLE 2. 31 List of information of the component for Washer 1 175
TABLE 2. 32 List of information of the component for Epoxidation Reactor 176
TABLE 2. 33 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 2 177
TABLE 2. 34 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 3 178
TABLE 2. 35 List of information of the component for Ring-Opening reactor 179
TABLE 2. 36 List of information of the component for Ring-Opening Reactor 180
TABLE 2. 37 List of information of the component for Flash column V105 181
TABLE 2. 38 List of information of the component for blowing reactor 182
TABLE 2. 39 List of information of the component for blowing reactor 183
TABLE 2. 40 Comparison between manual calculation and simulated value of material
balance 184
TABLE 2. 41 Material balance data table 188
TABLE 2. 42 General Information of PM101 196
TABLE 2. 43 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM101) 197

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TABLE 2. 44 General Information of PM102 197
TABLE 2. 45 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM102) 198
TABLE 2. 46 General Information of PM103 198
TABLE 2. 47 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM103) 199
TABLE 2. 48 General Information of HX101 200
TABLE 2. 49 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX101 201
TABLE 2. 50 General Information of CSTR1 202
TABLE 2. 51 Tabulated data of energy balance of inlet stream (S108) of (CSTR1) 203
TABLE 2. 52 Tabulated data of energy balance of top outlet stream (S149) of (CSTR1) 203
TABLE 2. 53 Tabulated data of energy balance of bottom outlet stream (S109) of (CSTR1)
204
TABLE 2. 54 Molar Flowrate for the component before and after reaction. 205
TABLE 2. 55 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
1 205
TABLE 2. 56 Molar Flowrate for the component before and after reaction. 206
TABLE 2. 57 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
2 206
TABLE 2. 58 General Information of V101 208
TABLE 2. 59 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S109) of (V101) 209
TABLE 2. 60 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S111) of (V101) 210
TABLE 2. 61 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 211
TABLE 2. 62 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
211
TABLE 2. 63 General Information of WSH102 213
TABLE 2. 64 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S111) of (WSH102) 213
TABLE 2. 65 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S113) of (WSH102) 214
TABLE 2. 66 General Information of PM104 215
TABLE 2. 67 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM104) 216
TABLE 2. 68 General Information of HX102 217
TABLE 2. 69 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX102 217
TABLE 2. 70 General Information of CSTR2 219
TABLE 2. 71 Tabulated data of energy balance of inlet stream (S115) of (CSTR2) 219
TABLE 2. 72 Tabulated data of energy balance of outlet stream (S117) of (CSTR2) 220
TABLE 2. 73 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 221
TABLE 2. 74 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
1 222
TABLE 2. 75 General Information of PM105 223
TABLE 2. 76 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM105) 223
TABLE 2. 77 General Information of V102 224
TABLE 2. 78 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S117) of (V102) 225
TABLE 2. 79 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S144) of (V102) 226
TABLE 2. 80 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S120) of (V103)
226
TABLE 2. 81 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S120) of (V103) 227
TABLE 2. 82 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 228
TABLE 2. 83 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
229

xvii
TABLE 2. 84 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 230
TABLE 2. 85 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
230
TABLE 2. 86 General Information of PM103 231
TABLE 2. 87 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM103) 232
TABLE 2. 88 General Information of V103 233
TABLE 2. 89 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S120) of (V103) 233
TABLE 2. 90 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S145) of (V103) 234
TABLE 2. 91 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S145) of (V103)
235
TABLE 2. 92 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S123) of (V103) 235
TABLE 2. 93 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 237
TABLE 2. 94 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
237
TABLE 2. 95 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction 238
TABLE 2. 96 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
238
TABLE 2. 97 General Information of PM107 239
TABLE 2. 98 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM107) 240
TABLE 2. 99 General Information of WSH103 241
TABLE 2. 100 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S123) of (WSH103) 242
TABLE 2. 101 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S125) of (WSH103) 243
TABLE 2. 102 General Information of PM108 244
TABLE 2. 103 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM108) 245
TABLE 2. 104 General Information of HX103 245
TABLE 2. 105 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX103 246
TABLE 2. 106 General Information of CSTR3 247
TABLE 2. 107 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S127) of (CSTR3) 248
TABLE 2. 108 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S132) of (CSTR3) 249
TABLE 2. 109 Tabulated data for molar flow rate of reactant and product before and after
reaction 1 250
TABLE 2. 110 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
1 251
TABLE 2. 111 General Information of PM110 252
TABLE 2. 112 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM110) 252
TABLE 2. 113 General Information of PM109 253
TABLE 2. 114 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM109) 253
TABLE 2. 115 General Information of WSH101 254
TABLE 2. 116 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S132) of (WSH101) 255
TABLE 2. 117 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S134) of (WSH101) 256
TABLE 2. 118 General Information of PM112 257
TABLE 2. 119 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM112) 257
TABLE 2. 120 General Information of V105 259
TABLE 2. 121 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S150) of (V105) 260
TABLE 2. 122 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S148) of (V105) 261
TABLE 2. 123 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S148) of (V105)
262

xviii
TABLE 2. 124 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S135) of (V105) 263
TABLE 2. 125 General Information of PM111 264
TABLE 2. 126 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM111) 264
TABLE 2. 127 General Information of HX104 265
TABLE 2. 128 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX104 266
TABLE 2. 129 General Information of CSTR4 267
TABLE 2. 130 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S151) of (CSTR4) 268
TABLE 2. 131 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S140) of (CSTR4) 269
TABLE 2. 132 Tabulated data for molar flow of reactant and product before and after
reaction 1 270
TABLE 2. 133 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
1 271
TABLE 2. 134 Tabulated data for molar flow of reactant and product before and after
reaction 1 272
TABLE 2. 135 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction
1 272
TABLE 2. 136 Comparison table for the percentage error between the manual calculation and
simulation value 274
TABLE 2. 137 Comparison Table for the before and after of the heat transfer agent demand
280
TABLE 2. 138 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958) 342

TABLE 3. 1 Streams Data 289

TABLE 3. 2 Shifted Temperature 290
TABLE 3. 3 Comparison of energy recovery obtained from PTA and Pinch Analysis. 298
TABLE 3. 4 Summary of Energy before and after Heat Integration 299

TABLE 4. 1 Identification of Stream 305

TABLE 5. 1 Categorized equipment list 320

TABLE 5. 2 Equipment specification 322
TABLE 5. 3 Volume analysis 322
TABLE 5. 4 Thickness analysis 324
TABLE 5. 5 Ellipsoidal head thickness 324
TABLE 5. 6 Torrispherical head thickness 325
TABLE 5. 7 Flat head thickness 326
TABLE 5. 8 Dead weight values 326
TABLE 5. 9 Insulation weight calculation 327
TABLE 5. 10 Equipment specification 332
TABLE 5. 11 Volume analysis 333
TABLE 5. 12 Thickness analysis 334
TABLE 5. 13 Ellipsoidal head thickness 335
TABLE 5. 14 Torrispherical head thickness 336
TABLE 5. 15 Flat head thickness 336
TABLE 5. 16 Dead weight analysis 337

xix
TABLE 5. 17 Insulation weight analysis 337
TABLE 5. 18 Equipment specification 344
TABLE 5. 19 Volume analysis 344
TABLE 5. 20 Thickness analysis 346
TABLE 5. 21 Ellipsoidal head thickness 347
TABLE 5. 22 Torrispherical head thickness 347
TABLE 5. 23 Flat head thickness 348
TABLE 5. 24 Dead weight analysis 348
TABLE 5. 25 Insulation weight analysis 349
TABLE 5. 26 Specification data for flash column 355
TABLE 5. 27 Density of materials 356
TABLE 5. 28 Equipment specification 359
TABLE 5. 29 The Properties of Demister Pad 364
TABLE 5. 30 Preliminary Design Data of Heat Exchanger (HX105) 374
TABLE 5. 31 Summary of design thickness of heat exchanger components 389
TABLE 5. 32 Heat Exchanger Type 389
TABLE 5. 33 Construction of heat exchanger 389
TABLE 5. 34 Material of heat exchanger 390

TABLE 6. 1 Comparison Table for Open and Closed Loop System 399
TABLE 6. 2 Types of Process Control System 401
TABLE 6. 3 Advantages and Disadvantages for Process Control System 402
TABLE 6. 4 Types of Protocol 404
TABLE 6. 5 Description on Palm olein, Glycerol and NaOH tanks P&ID 412
TABLE 6. 6 Description on HX-106 P&ID 414
TABLE 6. 7 Description on Transesterification and HX-101 P&ID 415
TABLE 6. 8 Description on Neutralisation tank 1 and HCl storage tank P&ID 417
TABLE 6. 9 Description on washing column WSH-102 and water tank with PM-104 P&ID
418
TABLE 6. 10 Description on HX-102 P&ID 420
TABLE 6. 11 Description on Epoxidation reactor, performic acid storage tank and HX-102
P&ID 421
TABLE 6. 12 Description of Neutralisation tank and NaCl storage P&ID 423
TABLE 6. 13 Description of Neutralisation tank 3 with NaHCO3 storage P&ID 424
TABLE 6. 14 Description on washing column WSH-103 and PM-108 P&ID 425
TABLE 6. 15 Description on Ring-opening reactor, HX-103, Ethylene Glycol and BF3
storage tank P&ID 427
TABLE 6. 16 Description on WSH-101 P&ID 429
TABLE 6. 17 Description on flash column P&ID 430
TABLE 6. 18 Description for HX-105 P&ID 433
TABLE 6. 19 Description for HX-104, Ethylene Glycol, Isocyanate, Ethylene diamine
storage tank and foam forming reactor P&ID 434
TABLE 6. 20 The result of the optimum pipe diameter for every liquid stream 438
TABLE 6. 21 Vapour flow pipe sizing 444
TABLE 6. 22 Commercial pipe data based on ASME/ANSI B16.5 Flanges Class 150-
Welding neck 445

xx
TABLE 6. 23 Mixture flow pipe sizing 448
TABLE 6. 24 Standard commercial pipeline size 449

TABLE 7. 1 Classification of Fire 471

TABLE 7. 2 Solution to ignition source 472
TABLE 7. 3 List of guide words 497
TABLE 7. 4 HAZOP Worksheet of Pump 498
TABLE 7. 5 HAZOP Worksheet of Pump (cont’) 499
TABLE 7. 6 HAZOP Worksheet of Mixing Tank 500
TABLE 7. 7 HAZOP Worksheet of Heater 501
TABLE 7. 8 HAZOP Worksheet of Cooler 502
TABLE 7. 9 HAZOP Worksheet of Neutralization Tank 503
TABLE 7. 10 HAZOP Worksheet of Transesterification Reactor 504
TABLE 7. 11 HAZOP Worksheet of Transesterification Reactor (cont’) 505
TABLE 7. 12 HAZOP Worksheet of Washer 506
TABLE 7. 13 HAZOP Worksheet of Epoxidation Reactor 507
TABLE 7. 14 HAZOP Worksheet of Worksheet of Epoxidation Reactor (cont’) 508
TABLE 7. 15 HAZOP Worksheet of Ring Opening reactor 509
TABLE 7. 16 HAZOP Worksheet of Ring Opening reactor (cont’) 510
TABLE 7. 17 HAZOP Worksheet of Flash Column 511
TABLE 7. 18 HAZOP Worksheet of Flash Column (cont’) 512
TABLE 7. 19 HAZOP Worksheet of Foam Foaming Reactor 513
TABLE 7. 20 HAZOP Worksheet of Foam Foaming Reactor (cont’) 514

TABLE 8. 1 Land Purchasing Cost 519

TABLE 8. 2 Equipment Costing 519
TABLE 8. 3 Total cost of raw materials 523
TABLE 8. 4 Summary of electricity consumption 525
TABLE 8. 5 Summary of cooling water consumption 527
TABLE 8. 6 Summary of heating steam consumption 528
TABLE 8. 7 Total utility consumption of the plant and its associated cost 529
TABLE 8. 8 Operating labour cost 531
TABLE 8. 9 Annual Production Cost 534
TABLE 8. 10 Revenue from product 535
TABLE 8. 11 Annual cash flow for Biopolyol-composite rigid foam plant 538
TABLE 8. 12 Payback period by interpolation 540
TABLE 8. 13 Discounted cash flow for different cumulative 542
TABLE 8. 14 Summary of cash flow analysis for various interest rate, i 544

TABLE 9. 1Price of Raw Material and Product 550

xxi
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. 1 Transformation of PU rigid foam from palm olein 3

FIGURE 1. 2 Main chemical reaction in the production of polyurethane using palm olein 4
FIGURE 1. 3 Major Structure of TAG Palm Olein 6
FIGURE 1. 4 Chemical structure of PU 6
FIGURE 1. 5 Diisocyanate reacts with a diol 7
FIGURE 1. 6 Production of Polyurethane 8
FIGURE 1. 7 Example of polyols 14
FIGURE 1. 8 Idealized structure of polyols 14
FIGURE 1. 9 Polyurethane produced by reaction with a diisocyanate and diol 15
FIGURE 1. 10 Polyurethane made from TDI and a polyol 16
FIGURE 1. 11 Uses of polyurethane 34
FIGURE 1. 12 Structural and Infrastructural applications of Polyurethane 35
FIGURE 1. 13 Glyceride reacts with an alcohol resulting in fatty acid alkyl esters and alcohol
41
FIGURE 1. 14 The Epoxidized with Carbon-Carbon Double Bond being converted into
Oxirane Ring 44
FIGURE 1. 15 Formic acid + Hydrogen peroxides -> Performic Acid + Water (by product)
45
FIGURE 1. 16 Generation reaction of peracetic acid (CH3COOOH) 46
FIGURE 1. 17 Relative conversion of EPO 47
FIGURE 1. 18 Reaction of epoxy-stearic acid 47
FIGURE 1. 19 General mechanism for the addition of nucleophilic alcohol to epoxide 50
FIGURE 1. 20 Rating Scale 51
FIGURE 1. 21 Chemical Molecular Structure of BF3 59
FIGURE 1. 22 Chemical Molecular Structure of C2H4(NH2)2 60
FIGURE 1. 23 Chemical Molecular Structure of (CH2OH)2 61
FIGURE 1. 24 Chemical Molecular Structure of C3H5(OH)3 62
FIGURE 1. 25 Chemical Molecular Structure of HCL 63
FIGURE 1. 26 Chemical structure of Isocyanate 65
FIGURE 1. 27 Chemical Molecular Structure of NaHCO3 66
FIGURE 1. 28 Chemical Molecular Structure of CH2O3 67
FIGURE 1. 29 Molecular Structure of Water 70
FIGURE 1. 30 Polyurethane demand by end-segment 72
FIGURE 1. 31 Polyurethane demand worldwide from 2012 to 2022 73
FIGURE 1. 32 Global consumption of polyurethane (PU) in 2016 74
FIGURE 1. 33 Global Trade of Polyurethane 75
FIGURE 1. 34 Polyurethane Trade Pricing and Pattern 76
FIGURE 1. 35 Global PU Market Survey 77
FIGURE 1. 36 Producer of PU material globally in 2016 82
FIGURE 1. 37 Polyurethane foam market revenue by product, 2014-2024 98
FIGURE 1. 38 Global PU foam market 98
FIGURE 1. 39 Palm oil price commodity 99

xxii
FIGURE 1. 40 Map of Industrial Area at Teluk Kalong, Terengganu 107
FIGURE 1. 41 Map of Industrial Area at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang 110
FIGURE 1. 42 Map of Industrial Area at Tanjung Langsat, Pasir Gudang, Johor Bahru
District, Johor 114
FIGURE 1. 43 Plant Layout 125

FIGURE 2. 1 PFD for production of bio-based polyol based on simulation file 127
FIGURE 2. 2 Block flow diagram of overall process 133
FIGURE 2. 3 Flash Distillation Column V104 134
FIGURE 2. 4 Flash Distillation Column V105 134
FIGURE 2. 5 Transesterification of TAG in the presence of alcohol and catalyst 135
FIGURE 2. 6 FTIR analysis of palm oil and palm-based polyol 136
FIGURE 2. 7 Graph Pattern for the epoxidation reaction versus different concentration. 139
FIGURE 2. 8 Batch reactor schematic diagram 141
FIGURE 2. 9 CSTR reactor schematic diagram 142
FIGURE 2. 10 PFR reactor schematic diagram 143
FIGURE 2. 11 An illustration of shell and tube heat exchanger 145
FIGURE 2. 12 Plate-type heat exchanger 146
FIGURE 2. 13 Extended Surface Heat Exchanger 147
FIGURE 2. 14 Flash distillation 149
FIGURE 2. 15 Vacuum distillation flow diagram 150
FIGURE 2. 16 Fractional distillation working principle 152
FIGURE 2. 17 Steam distillation schematic diagram 153
FIGURE 2. 18 Tumbler Blender 155
FIGURE 2. 19 Ribbon Blender 156
FIGURE 2. 20 V-Blender 158
FIGURE 2. 21 Propeller Mixer 159
FIGURE 2. 22 Industrial Electric Heater 161
FIGURE 2. 23 Furnace working principle 162
FIGURE 2. 24 Water Tube Boilers 163
FIGURE 2. 25 Washer 164
FIGURE 2. 26 Vacuum Evaporator 166
FIGURE 2. 27 Forced circulation evaporators 167
FIGURE 2. 28 Long-tube vertical evaporators 168
FIGURE 2. 29 Mixer, heater and reactor involve in transesterification process 173
FIGURE 2. 30 Neutralization Tank 1 174
FIGURE 2. 31 Washer 1 175
FIGURE 2. 32 Epoxidation reactor 176
FIGURE 2. 33 Neutralization Tank 2 177
FIGURE 2. 34 Neutralization Tank 3 178
FIGURE 2. 35 Washer 2 179
FIGURE 2. 36 Ring- Opening Reactor 180
FIGURE 2. 37 Washer 3 181
FIGURE 2. 38 Blowing reactor 182
FIGURE 2. 39 Blowing reactor 183
FIGURE 2. 40 Pumps (PM101, PM102, PM103) and Mixer (MX101) 196

xxiii
FIGURE 2. 41 Heater HX101 200
FIGURE 2. 42 Transesterification Reactor ( P3/ CSTR1) 202
FIGURE 2. 43 Neutralizer (V101) 208
FIGURE 2. 44 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH102) 212
FIGURE 2. 45 Pump (PM104) and Cooler (HX102) 215
FIGURE 2. 46 Epoxidation Reactor (CSTR2) and Pump (PM105) 218
FIGURE 2. 47 Neutralizer (V102) and Pump (PM106) 224
FIGURE 2. 48 Neutralizer (V103) and Pump (PM107) 232
FIGURE 2. 49 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH103) 241
FIGURE 2. 50 Pump (PM108) and Heater (HX103) 244
FIGURE 2. 51 Ring Opening Reactor (CSTR3) and Pumps (PM110 and PM109) 247
FIGURE 2. 52 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH101) 254
FIGURE 2. 53 Flash Column (V105) and Pumps (PM112 and PM111) 259
FIGURE 2. 54 Foam Forming Reactor (CSTR4) and Cooler (HX104) 267
FIGURE 2. 55 Process flow diagram after implementation of heat exchangers in SuperPro
Designer 279

FIGURE 3. 1 Onion Diagram for Chemical Process Design 284

FIGURE 3. 2 Procedure of Pinch Technology 288
FIGURE 3. 3 Calculated Heat Interval 291
FIGURE 3. 4 Unfeasible Heat Cascade 292
FIGURE 3. 5 Feasible Heat Cascade 293
FIGURE 3. 6 Composite Curve before shifting 294
FIGURE 3. 7 Composite Curve after shifting 295
FIGURE 3. 8 Grid diagram 296
FIGURE 3. 9 Heat exchanger network above pinch 296
FIGURE 3. 10 Heat exchanger network below pinch 297
FIGURE 3. 11 Process flow diagram with heat integration 300

FIGURE 4. 1 Waste Management Hierarchy 302

FIGURE 4. 2 HCl scrubber 311
FIGURE 4. 3 Two-stage contact oxidation method 318

FIGURE 5. 1 Design Stress 323

FIGURE 5. 2 Cost escalation graph 331
FIGURE 5. 3 Location factor table 331
FIGURE 5. 4 Typical design stress values for plate 334
FIGURE 5. 5 Cost escalation figure 342
FIGURE 5. 6 Location factor table 343
FIGURE 5. 7 Typical design stresses for plate 345
FIGURE 5. 8 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958) 353
FIGURE 5. 9 Cost escalation graph 354
FIGURE 5. 10 Location factor table 354
FIGURE 5. 11 Typical design stresses for plates 360
FIGURE 5. 12 Design constant and nominal diameter for the separator 362

xxiv
FIGURE 5. 13 Purchase Equipment Cost for Common Plant Equipment 370
FIGURE 5. 14 Installation Factor proposed by Hand (1958) 371
FIGURE 5. 15 Cost Index for years 372
FIGURE 5. 16 Location Factors 373
FIGURE 5. 17Temperature correction factor: one shell pass; two or more even tube passes
376
FIGURE 5. 18 Typical overall coefficients of heat transfer equipment 377
FIGURE 5. 19 Constants use for triangle pitch = 1.25. 378
FIGURE 5. 20 Shell bundle clearance 379
FIGURE 5. 21 Shell side heat transfer factor 382
FIGURE 5. 22 Tube-side friction factors 383
FIGURE 5. 23 Shell side friction factor, segmental baffles 384
FIGURE 5. 24 Typical design stress for plate 386
FIGURE 5. 25 Design constant for flat end closures 388
FIGURE 5. 26 Purchase Equipment Cost for Common Plant Equipment 391
FIGURE 5. 27 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958) 391
FIGURE 5. 28 Material Cost Factor Relative to Carbon Steel 392
FIGURE 5. 29 The costs of labor are subjected to inflation 392
FIGURE 5. 30 Location factor 393

FIGURE 6. 1Block Diagram of Control System 398

FIGURE 6. 2 Block Diagram of Open Loop System 398
FIGURE 6. 3 Block Diagram of Closed Loop System 399
FIGURE 6. 4 General block diagram of a feed-forward control system 407
FIGURE 6. 5 Flow chart in designing of control system 411
FIGURE 6. 6 P&ID diagram on Palm olein, Glycerol and NaOH storage tanks 412
FIGURE 6. 7 P&ID diagram on HX-106 414
FIGURE 6. 8 P&ID diagram on Transesterification reactor and HX-101 415
FIGURE 6. 9 P&ID diagram on Neutralisation tank 1 and HCl storage 417
FIGURE 6. 10 P&ID diagram on washing column WSH-102 and water tank with PM-104418
FIGURE 6. 11 P&ID diagram on HX-102 420
FIGURE 6. 12 P&ID for Epoxidation reactor, performic acid storage tank and HX-102 421
FIGURE 6. 13 P&ID on Neutralisation tank and NaCl storage 423
FIGURE 6. 14 P&ID on Neutralization tank and NaHCO3 storage 424
FIGURE 6. 15 P&ID on washing column WSH-103 and PM-108 425
FIGURE 6. 16 P&ID on Ring-opening reactor, HX-103, Ethylene Glycol and BF3 storage
tank 427
FIGURE 6. 17 P&ID on Washing column WSH-101 429
FIGURE 6. 18 P&ID on Flash column 430
FIGURE 6. 19 P&ID for HX-105 433
FIGURE 6. 20 P&ID for HX-104, Ethylene Glycol, Isocyanate, Ethylene diamine storage
tank and foam forming reactor 434
FIGURE 6. 21 Dimensions of piping 437
FIGURE 6. 22 Types of pipe fittings 453
FIGURE 6. 23 Complete P&ID part A 454
FIGURE 6. 24 Complete P&ID part B 455

xxv
FIGURE 6. 25 Complete P&ID part C 456
FIGURE 6. 26 Complete P&ID part D 457

FIGURE 7. 2 Fire Triangle 468

FIGURE 7. 3 Smoke Detector 475
FIGURE 7. 4 Industrial Sprinkler System 475
FIGURE 7. 5 Cautious Sign 476
FIGURE 7. 6 Visitors Warning Sign 477
FIGURE 7. 7 Safety First Sign 477
FIGURE 7. 8 Plant Layout 482
FIGURE 7. 9 Examples of prohibitive, warning and mandatory signs relative to chemicals484
FIGURE 7. 10 The info graphic of PPE 487
FIGURE 7. 11 HAZOP Flowchart 496

FIGURE 8. 1 Factor List for the Estimation of the Capital Cost 521
FIGURE 8. 2 Graph for cash flow 539
FIGURE 8. 3 Cash flow diagram with various interest rates 543

xxvi
 CHAPTER I

PROJECT CONCEPTION AND LITERATURE

1.1 PROCESS BACKGROUND

Vegetable oil such as palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil and
cotton oil are renewable sources of oils that can be used as industrial feedstocks to replace
products that are derived from non-renewable oils. Palm oil is by far the highest yielding
biological source of oil-based hydrocarbons and is significantly more efficient than any of other
commercial oil crop. Palm oil has a yield capacity of typically about 4–6 tons of oil per hectare
per year for the best commercial plantation. The oil palm is one of the world’s most economical
oil crops. A ton of its fresh fruit bunches (FFB) yields 200 kg crude palm oil and 40 kg palm
kernels which, in turn, yield about 50% of their weight, or 20 kg, of palm kernel oil. A hectare
of estate can yield 20-24 t of FFB per year, which in turn will yield 4 to 5 ton of palm oil and
400-500 kg of palm kernel oil. Palm oil is one of the 17 major oils and fats that are produced
and traded in the world (Ooi et al., 2006).

The global production of palm oil is expected to grow to around 73.5 million metric tons
in the marketing year 2018/2019, up from approximately 70.5 million metric tons in
2017/2018. In that period, Indonesia and Malaysia were the leading exporters of palm oil
worldwide (“Global production volume palm oil, 2012-2019 l Statistic | Statista,” 2012). Last
year, the average crude palm oil yield was 3.21 tons per hectare, while the fresh fruit bunch
(FFB) yield and oil extraction rate (OER) came in at 15.91 tons/ha and 20.18% due to the
prolonged El Nino weather conditions (“MPOB skeptical about 2020 palm oil yield target,”
2017). The country’s palm oil production is projected at 19.3-19.5 million tons this year, lower
than last year’s forecast of 20 million tons, which augurs well for the price to climb higher
(Malay Mail, 2020).

1
 Furthermore, increasing consumer awareness of their social responsibility towards the
environment is increasing the demand for renewable resources and environmentally friendly
products. In accordance with this scenario, it is desirable to replace petroleum-based polyols
with vegetable oil-based alternatives in the production of polyols and polyurethanes (Arniza et
al., 2015).

Currently most commercial polyols in the market are petrochemical based polyol.
However, with the continual escalation in the petroleum price, there has been an increase in
the use of renewable feedstocks for industrial products. Palm oil and its products, being
renewable and readily biodegradable, are the alternative feedstocks for production of palm oil-
based polyol for polyurethane products (Ooi et al., 2006). This has reactivated interest on
natural oil-based polyols (NOPs). Palm based polyol and soy-based polyol are the NOPs which
widely used to replace petroleum-based polyol in PU production. The usages of NOPs in PU
production are more cost effective and comparable in terms of properties with petroleum-based
polyol. The most important issue is that the usage of NOPs causes less environmental impact
compared to petrochemical based polyols. For example, just over 0.95 kg of CO2 are removed
from the atmosphere when producing 0.45 kg of soy-based polyol while producing 0.45 kg of
petroleum-based polyol add 1.6 kg of CO2 to the environment. Therefore, replacing 0.45 kg
of petroleum-based polyol with 0.45 kg of soy-based polyol able to remove approximately 2.55
kg of CO2 from the atmosphere (Kiran, 2005).

In this project, instead of using petrochemical based polyol to produce polyurethane,

palm-based polyol was used as raw material to produce polyurethane. Figure 1.1 shows flow
chart below shows the route of the polyurethane production using palm olein.

2
FIGURE 1. 1 Transformation of PU rigid foam from palm olein
[Adapted from Kiran, 2005]

3
1.1.1 Chemical Background

The flow chart below shows the main chemical reaction that takes place in the production
of polyurethane using palm olein.

FIGURE 1. 2 Main chemical reaction in the production of polyurethane using palm

olein
[Adapted from Kiran, 2005]

4
[Link] Chemical Background of Palm Olein

Palm oil is from the fleshy endosperm of oil palm with scientific name being Elaeis
guineensis. Palm oil undergoes some refineries stages such as fractionation distillation,
refining, bleaching, and deodorization to produce refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil
(RBDPO). A single fractionation converts palm oil to palm olein by 75–80% yield. Palm olein
(PO) is the most valuable liquid fraction of palm oil which is the largest renewable resources
in Malaysia. It is used for frying and for salad oils (Derawi et al., 2014).

The fractionation process involves a physical process of cooling the oil under controlled
conditions to low temperatures, followed by filtration of the crystals through membrane press.
The liquid olein and solid stearin are products of fractionation, and they are the major products
exported (Welcome to the Malaysian Palm Oil Board // About Palm Oil // Washington, DC //
1-202-572-9768).

Palm olein is fully liquid at ambient temperature in warm climates. It can be blended
with various vegetable oils in different proportions to obtain liquid oils which can withstand
lower temperatures. For example, blends of palm olein with more than 70% soft oils such as
soybean oil, corn oil or canola oil remain clear at 0°C for at least 5 hr. Oxidative stability of
soft oils are also extended and improved by the palm olein. Basically, there are two major
grades of palm olein: standard olein and super olein (iodine value greater than 60). The standard
olein has an iodine value of about 56-59 and cloud point of 10°C max. Super olein is more
suited to cooler climates and has cloud points of about 2°C-5°C (Welcome to the Malaysian
Palm Oil Board // About Palm Oil // Washington, DC // 1-202-572-9768).

It mainly consists of monounsaturated triacylglycerol (TAG), POP (42.8%), and di-

unsaturated TAG, POO (35.7%). The iodine value of POo is about 51.0–61.0. PO consists of
oleic acid (42.7–43.9%) and palmitic acid (39.5–40.8%). Oleic acid was a monounsaturated
fatty acid while palmitic acid was a saturated fatty acid attached to the TAG of PO. Oleic acid
needed to improve the pour point and cloud point value of PO. While the palmitic acid needed
to improve the oxidative and thermal stability. So, the combination of monounsaturated and
5
saturated properties of PO makes it preferable as raw materials usage in new industrial products
research. In this paper, we report that the chemical characterization and physicochemical
properties of POo which potentially to be developed as raw materials in industrial products
synthesis (Derawi et al., 2014).

FIGURE 1. 3 Major Structure of TAG Palm Olein

[Adapted from Derawi et al. 2014]

[Link] Chemical Background of Product

The polymeric materials known as polyurethanes form a family of polymers which are
essentially different from most other plastics in that there is no urethane monomer and the
polymer is almost invariably created during the manufacture of an object.

FIGURE 1. 4 Chemical structure of PU

[Adapted from “Polyurethanes” 2015]

6
 Polyurethane (PU) is one of the largest polymer products in the plastic family.
Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of a chain of organic units joined by
carbamate links. While most Polyurethane are thermosetting polymers that do not melt when
heated. Polyurethane polymers are formed by reacting an isocyanates and polyols.

Polyurethane (PU) is commonly used as foam (polyurethane foam) for insulation,

mattress, upholstery filler and packing. Other applications of PU are fibers, elastomers (elastic
polymers), surface coatings, and adhesives. The global consumption of PU products is in the
form of foams which come in major groups, which are flexible foam and rigid foam. PU can
be produced by reacting isocyanate with polyol (Prociak, 2007).

Polyurethanes are made by the exothermic reactions between alcohols with two or more
reactive hydroxyl (-OH) groups per molecule (diols, triols, polyols) and isocyanates that have
more than one reactive isocyanate group (-NCO) per molecule (diisocyanates,
polyisocyanates). The group formed by the reaction between the two molecules is known as
the 'urethane linkage'. It is the essential part of the polyurethane molecule (“Polyurethanes,”
2015). For example, a diisocyanate reacts with a diol:

FIGURE 1. 5 Diisocyanate reacts with a diol

[Adapted from “Polyurethanes” 2015]

Polyurethanes (PU) are synthetic polymers that include urethane groups in their chains.
Such groups are formed by reaction of an isocyanate with an alcohol as shown in the figure.
Polyurethanes (PU) are produced through a complex synthesis between isocyanates (with at
least 2 -N=C=O groups in the molecule) and polyols (with 2 or more hydroxyl groups, -OH, in

7
the molecule), in the presence of suitable catalysts (systems based on aliphatic amines and/or
organic tin salts) (Alinejad et al., 2019).

The diverse properties of castable polyurethane make it the leading choice of engineers
looking for long lasting materials for their high load, high stress environments. Polyurethane
routinely outperforms plastic, rubber and steel in its overall ability to resist harsh environmental
factors such as abrasion, heat, solvents, oil and acid. In addition, ability of polyurethane to
abate noise makes it the preferred material in chain-drive designs, conveyor belt systems and
assembly line environments. In today’s manufacturing environments where the cost of
downtime is measured in thousands of dollars per hour, polyurethane’s incredible durability
increases your company’s profitability (“Polyurethane Properties & Solutions | Castable
Polyurethane,” 2015).

FIGURE 1. 6 Production of Polyurethane

[Adapted from Alinejad et al., 2019]

8
1.1.2 Identification

Identification of component are as follows:

[Link] Polyurethane

TABLE 1. 1 Identification of Polyurethane

[Adapted from PubChem]

Name Identifiers

IUPAC Name ethane-1,2-diol;1-isocyanato-4-[4-isocyanatophenyl methyl]

benzene

InChI InChI=1S/C15H10N2O2.C2H6O2/c18-10-16-14-5-1-12(2-6-14)9-
13-3-7-15(8-4-13)17-11-19;3-1-2-4/h1-8H,9H2;3-4H,1-2H2

InChI Key ZOUPQIZRXKCDRM-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Canonical SMILES C1=CC(=CC=C1CC2=CC=C(C=C2)N=C=O)N=C=O.C(CO)O

9
[Link] Isocyanate (MDI & TDI)

• Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate

TABLE 1. 2 Identification of Methylene Diphenyl Diisocyanate

[Adapted from PubChem]

Name Identifiers

IUPAC Name 1-isocyanato-4-[(4-isocyanatophenyl)methyl]benzene

InChI InChI=1S/C15H10N2O2/c18-10-16-14-5-1-12(2-6-14)9-13-3-7-
15(8-4-13)17-11-19/h1-8H,9H2

InChI Key UPMLOUAZCHDJJD-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Canonical SMILES C1=CC(=CC=C1CC2=CC=C(C=C2)N=C=O)N=C=O

10
• Toluene diisocyanate

TABLE 1. 3 Identification of Toluene diisocyanate

[Adapted from PubChem, n.d.]

Name Identifiers

IUPAC Name
1,3-diisocyanato-2-methylbenzene

InChI
InChI=1S/C9H6N2O2/c1-7-8(10-5-12)3-2-4-9(7)11-6-13/h2-
4H,1H3

InChI Key
RUELTTOHQODFPA-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Canonical SMILES
CC1=C(C=CC=C1N=C=O)N=C=O

11
[Link] Orthophosphoric acid

TABLE 1. 4 Identification of Orthophosphoric acid

[Adapted from PubChem, 2019]

Name Identifiers

IUPAC Name phosphoric acid

InChI InChI=1S/H3O4P/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H3,1,2,3,4)

InChI Key NBIIXXVUZAFLBC-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Canonical SMILES OP(=O)(O)O

[Link] Formic Acid

TABLE 1. 5 Identification of Formic Acid

[Adapted from PubChem, 2019]

Name Identifiers

IUPAC Name formic acid

InChI InChI=1S/CH2O2/c2-1-3/h1H,(H,2,3)

12
 InChI Key BDAGIHXWWSANSR-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Canonical SMILES C(=O)O

1.1.3 Manufacture

As polyurethanes are made from the reaction between an isocyanate and a polyol, the
section is divided into two parts:

a) Production of polyols
b) Production of polyurethanes

[Link] Production of polyols

The polyols used are either hydroxyl-terminated polyether (in about 90% of total
polyurethane manufacture) or hydroxyl-terminated polyesters. They have been developed to
have the necessary reactivity with the isocyanate that will be used and to produce polyurethanes
with specific properties.

The choice of polyol, especially the number of reactive hydroxyl groups per polyol
molecule and the size and flexibility of its molecular structure, ultimately control the degree of
cross-linking between molecules. This has an important effect on the mechanical properties of
the polymer (“Polyurethanes,” 2015).

13
 An example of a polyol with two hydroxyl groups (i.e a long chain diol) is one made
from epoxypropane (propylene oxide), by interaction with propane-1,2-diol, (which itself is
formed from epoxypropane, by hydrolysis): An example of a polyol which contains three
hydroxyl groups is produced from propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol) and epoxypropane:

FIGURE 1. 7 Example of polyols

[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

which may be represented as this idealized structure:

FIGURE 1. 8 Idealized structure of polyols

[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

14
 Soya bean oil contains triglycerides of long chain saturated and unsaturated carboxylic
acids, which after hydrogenation, can react with epoxypropane, forming a mixture of polyols
suitable for the manufacture of a wide range of polyurethanes. The use of these bio-polyol
means that at least part of the polymer is derived from renewable sources (“Polyurethanes,”
2015).

[Link] Production of polyurethanes

If the polyol has two hydroxyl groups and is mixed with either TDI or MDI, a linear
polymer is produced. For example, a linear polyurethane is produced by reaction with a
diisocyanate and the simplest diol, ethane-1,2-diol, a condensation polymerization occurs:

FIGURE 1. 9 Polyurethane produced by reaction with a diisocyanate and diol

[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

A majority of polyurethane is made from TDI and a polyol derived from epoxypropane:

15
 FIGURE 1. 10 Polyurethane made from TDI and a polyol
[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

If the polyol has more than two reactive hydroxyl groups, adjacent long-chain
molecules become linked at intermediate points. These crosslinks create a stiffer polymer
structure with improved mechanical characteristics which is exploited in the development of
'rigid' polyurethanes. Thus, a diisocyanate, such as MDI or TDI which reacts with a polyol
with three hydroxyl groups, such as one derived from propane-1,2,3-triol and epoxyethane,
undergoes crosslinking and forms a rigid thermosetting polymer.

As well as polyisocyanates and polyols, the manufacture of polyurethanes needs a

variety of other chemicals to control the polyurethane-forming reactions and to create exactly
the right properties in the end-product (“Polyurethanes,” 2015).

16
1.1.4 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage

[Link] Polyurethane

TABLE 1. 6 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Polyurethane

[Adapted from PubChem, n.d.]

• Extremely flammable
• Harmful by inhalation.
• Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin.
• May cause sensitization by inhalation and skin
HAZARDS
contact.
IDENTIFICATION
• Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect.
• Harmful: danger of serious damage to health by
prolonged exposure through inhalation.

INHALATION
Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. Provide
fresh air, warmth and rest, preferably in a comfortable
upright sitting position. Get medical attention if any
discomfort continues. If respiratory problems, artificial
respiration/oxygen.
FIRST-AID MEASURES
INGESTION
DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING! Immediately rinse
mouth and provide fresh air. Get medical attention
immediately!

SKIN CONTACT

17
 Remove affected person from source of contamination.
Immediately remove contaminated clothing. Wash the
skin immediately with soap and water. Get medical
attention promptly if symptoms occur after washing.

EYE CONTACT
Promptly wash eyes with plenty of water while lifting the
eye lids. Make sure to remove any contact lenses from the
eyes before rinsing. Continue to rinse for at least 15
minutes and get medical attention. Get medical attention
if any discomfort continues.

EXTINGUISHING MEDIA
Fire can be extinguished using: Water spray, fog or mist.
Foam. Powder.

SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES

Avoid breathing fire vapors. Use pressurized air mask if
product is involved in a fire.
FIRE-FIGHTING
MEASURES
UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS
Fire causes formation of toxic gases. Aerosol cans may
explode in a fire.

SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Fire creates: Irritating gases/vapours/fumes of: Hydrogen
cyanide (HCN). Nitrous gases (NOx).

SPILL CLEAN UP METHODS

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE When dealing with a spillage, please consult the section
MEASURES relating to suitable protective measures. Wear necessary
protective equipment. Stop leak if possible, without risk.

18
 Flush with plenty of water to clean spillage area. Do not
contaminate water sources or sewer.

USAGE PRECAUTIONS
Persons with impaired lung functions should not handle
this preparation. Persons susceptible to allergic reactions
should not handle this product. Avoid spilling, skin and
eye contact. Ventilate well, avoid breathing vapors. Use
approved respirator if air contamination is above accepted
HANDLING AND
level.
STORAGE

STORAGE PRECAUTIONS
Keep in original container. Store in tightly closed original
container in a dry, cool and well-ventilated place. Keep
away from heat, sparks and open flame.

[Link] Palm Olein

TABLE 1. 7 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Palm Olein

[Adapted from Palm Oil RBD MSDS, n.d.]

Routes of Entry
Eye Contact: No known hazard
Skin Contact: May cause irritation in sensitive individuals
HAZARDS with prolonged exposure
IDENTIFICATION Ingestion: Food Grade
Inhalation: Inhalation of fine mist may affect respiratory
system

19
 Eyes
Flush with plenty of water or eye wash solution for 15
minutes. Get medical attention if irritation persists.

Skin
Wash with soap and flush with plenty of water

Ingestion
Contact Physician if discomfort is encountered.

FIRST-AID MEASURES
Inhalation
Remove to fresh air and seek medical attention

Medical Conditions Generally Aggravated by

Exposure
Inhalation of product may aggravate existing chronic
respiratory problems such asthma, emphysema or
bronchitis. Skin contact may aggravate existing skin
disease.

Flash Point (Method Used):

> 300℉ (Closed Cup)

Extinguishing Media
Dry Chemical, Carbon Dioxide, Foam
FIRE-FIGHTING
MEASURES
Special Firefighting Procedures
Cool containers exposed to flame with water. Limit the
spread of oil. Treat as an oil (edible fat) fire. Use air
supplied equipment for fighting interior fires. DO NOT
USE WATER TO EXTINGUISH.

20
 Unusual Fire & Explosion Hazards
As with all unsaturated fats and oils, some porous
materials such as rags, paper, insulation or clay when
wetted with this product may undergo spontaneous
combustion. Keep such wetted materials well ventilated to
prevent possible heat build-up.

Hazardous Decomposition Materials

CO, CO2

Methods for Cleaning Up

Absorb onto an inert, absorbent substrate and sweep up.
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
Wash area with soap and water. Floors will be slippery;
MEASURES
take precautions.

Safe Handling
Avoid direct or prolonged contact with skin and eyes.
Avoid breathing oil mist.
HANDLING AND
STORAGE
Requirements for Storage Areas and Containers
Store in an area that is cool, dry, and well-ventilated.

Introductory Remarks
These recommendations provide general guidance for
EXPOSURE handling this product. Because specific work
CONTROLS/PERSONAL environments and material handling practices vary, safety
PROTECTION procedures should be developed for each intended
application. While developing safe handling procedures,
do not overlook the need to clean equipment and piping

21
systems for maintenance and repairs. Waste resulting from
these procedures should be handled in accordance with the
section entitled Disposal Considerations.

Exposures Guidelines
Engineering controls are usually not necessary if good
hygiene practices are strictly followed. Respiratory
protection is generally not required during normal
operations. Wear the following to prevent skin contact:
work pants, long sleeve work shirt, and work gloves.
Where there is the danger of eye contact, wear splash
proof goggles.

Threshold Limit Value

Liquid - None; Oil Mist - 10mg/m3 total particulate.
Work Practice Controls:
Personal hygiene is an important work practice exposure
control measure and the following general measures
should be taken when working with or handling this
material.

Work Practice Controls

(1) Do not store, use, and/or consume foods, beverages,
tobacco products, or cosmetics in areas where this material
is stored.
(2) Wash hands and face carefully before eating, drinking,
using tobacco, applying cosmetics, or using the toilet.
(3) Wash exposed skin promptly to remove accidental
splashes or contact with this material.

22
[Link] Isocyanate (MDI & TDI)

TABLE 1. 8 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Isocyanate

[Adapted from PubChem, n.d.]

• Harmful if swallowed
• Harmful in contact with skin
HAZARDS • Causes skin irritation
IDENTIFICATION • Causes serious eye irritation
• Harmful if inhaled

Eye Contact
Rinse immediately with plenty of water, also under the
eyelids, for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention.

Skin Contact
Obtain medical attention. Wash off immediately with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.

Inhalation
FIRST-AID MEASURES Move to fresh air. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.
Obtain medical attention

Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting. Obtain medical attention.

Most important symptoms and effects

May cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing
difficulties if inhaled. Symptoms of allergic reaction may
include rash, itching, swelling, trouble breathing, tingling

23
 of the hands and feet, dizziness, lightheadedness, chest
pain, muscle pain or flushing

Notes to Physician
Treat symptomatically

Suitable Extinguishing Media

Water spray. Carbon dioxide (CO2). Dry chemical.
Chemical foam.

Flash Point
135 °C / 275 °F

Specific Hazards Arising from the Chemical

Thermal decomposition can lead to release of irritating
FIRE-FIGHTING gases and vapors.
MEASURES
Hazardous Combustion Products
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon
dioxide (CO2) Hydrogen cyanide (hydrocyanic acid)

Protective Equipment and Precautions for Firefighters

As in any fire, wear self-contained breathing apparatus
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or
equivalent) and full protective gear.

Personal Precautions
Ensure adequate ventilation. Use personal protective
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
equipment.
MEASURES
Do not breathe dust/fume/gas/mist/vapors/spray. Avoid
contact with skin, eyes and clothing.

24
 Environmental Precautions
Should not be released into the environment.

Methods for Containment and Clean Up

Soak up with inert absorbent material (e.g. sand, silica gel,
acid binder, universal binder, sawdust). Keep in suitable,
closed containers for disposal. Do not let this chemical
enter the environment.

Handling
Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Do not breathe vapors
or spray mist. Do not ingest. Use only in area provided
with appropriate exhaust ventilation. Wear personal
HANDLING AND protective equipment.
STORAGE
Storage
Keep in a dry, cool and well-ventilated place. Keep
container tightly closed. Store under an inert atmosphere.

[Link] Orthophosphoric acid

TABLE 1. 9 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Orthophosphoric Acid

[Adapted from PubChem, 2019]

• May be corrosive to metals

HAZARDS
• Causes severe skin burns and eye damage
IDENTIFICATION

25
 Eye Contact
Rinse immediately with plenty of water, also under the
eyelids, for at least 15 minutes.
Immediate medical attention is required.

Skin Contact
Wash off immediately with soap and plenty of water while
removing all contaminated clothes and shoes. Immediate
medical attention is required.

Ingestion
Drink plenty of water. Never give anything by mouth to
FIRST-AID MEASURES an unconscious person. DO NOT induce vomiting unless
directed to do so by a physician or poison control center.
Call a physician or Poison Control Center immediately.

Inhalation
Move to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial
respiration. Obtain medical attention.

Self-Protection of the First Aider

Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s)
involved, take precautions to protect themselves and
prevent spread of contamination.

Extinguishing media
Suitable Extinguishing Media
FIRE-FIGHTING Substance is nonflammable; use agent most appropriate to
MEASURES extinguish surrounding fire. Extinguishing media which
must not be used for safety reasons
None.

26
 Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Non-combustible, substance itself does not burn but may
decompose upon heating to produce corrosive and/or toxic
fumes. Keep product and empty container away from heat
and sources of ignition. Hazardous Combustion Products
Oxides of phosphorus.

Advice for firefighters

As in any fire, wear self-contained breathing apparatus
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or
equivalent) and full protective gear. Thermal
decomposition can lead to release of irritating gases and
vapors.

Personal precautions, protective equipment and

emergency procedures
Use personal protective equipment. Ensure adequate
ventilation. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing.

Environmental precautions
Prevent further leakage or spillage if safe to do so. Prevent
product from entering drains. See Section 12 for additional
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
ecological information. Do not flush into surface water or
MEASURES
sanitary sewer system.

Methods and material for containment and cleaning

up
Soak up with inert absorbent material. Keep in suitable,
closed containers for disposal.

Reference to other sections

27
 Refer to protective measures listed in Sections 8 and 13

Precautions for safe handling

Use only under a chemical fume hood. Ensure adequate
ventilation. Wear personal protective equipment. Do not
get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Do not breathe
vapors/dust. Do not ingest.

Hygiene Measures
Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and
safety practice. Keep away from food, drink and animal
HANDLING AND
feeding stuffs. Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this
STORAGE
product. Remove and wash contaminated clothing before
re-use. Wash hands before breaks and at the end of
workday.

Conditions for safe storage, including any

incompatibilities
Keep containers tightly closed in a dry, cool and well-
ventilated place. Corrosives area

28
[Link] Formic Acid

TABLE 1. 10 Hazard Information, Handling and Storage of Formic Acid

[Adapted from PubChem, 2019]

• Flammable liquid and vapor

• Harmful if swallowed
HAZARDS • Causes severe skin burns and eye damage
IDENTIFICATION • Toxic if inhaled
• May cause respiratory irritation

General Advice
Immediate medical attention is required. Show this safety
data sheet to the doctor in attendance.

Eye Contact
In the case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with
plenty of water and seek medical advice.

Skin Contact
Wash off immediately with plenty of water for at least 15
FIRST-AID MEASURES
minutes. Immediate medical attention is required.

Inhalation
Do not use mouth-to-mouth method if victim ingested or
inhaled the substance; give artificial respiration with the
aid of a pocket mask equipped with a one-way valve or
other proper respiratory medical device. Move to fresh air.
Immediate medical attention is required. If not breathing,
give artificial respiration.

29
 Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting. Call a physician or Poison
Control Center immediately.

Most important symptoms and effects

Breathing difficulties. Causes burns by all exposure
routes. Symptoms of overexposure may be headache,
dizziness, tiredness, nausea and vomiting: Product is a
corrosive material. Use of gastric lavage or emesis is
contraindicated. Possible perforation of stomach or
esophagus should be investigated: Ingestion causes severe
swelling, severe damage to the delicate tissue and dang

Suitable Extinguishing Media

Use water spray, alcohol-resistant foam, dry chemical or
carbon dioxide. Cool closed containers exposed to fire
with water spray.

Flash Point
50 °C / 122 °F

Autoignition Temperature
FIRE-FIGHTING
520 °C / 968 °F
MEASURES

Explosion Limits
Upper 45 vol %
Lower 10 vol %

Specific Hazards Arising from the Chemical

Flammable. Risk of ignition. Vapors may form explosive
mixtures with air. Vapors may travel to source of ignition
and flash back. Containers may explode when heated.

30
 Hazardous Combustion Products
Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Hydrogen
Thermal decomposition can lead to release of irritating
gases and vapors

Protective Equipment and Precautions for Firefighters

As in any fire, wear self-contained breathing apparatus
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or
equivalent) and full protective gear. Thermal
decomposition can lead to release of irritating gases and
vapors.

Personal Precautions
Use personal protective equipment. Evacuate personnel to
safe areas. Keep people away from and upwind of
spill/leak. Ensure adequate ventilation. Remove all
sources of ignition. Take precautionary measures against
static discharges.

Environmental Precautions
Should not be released into the environment. Do not flush
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
into surface water or sanitary sewer system. See Section
MEASURES
12 for additional ecological information.

Methods for Containment and Clean Up

Soak up with inert absorbent material. Keep in suitable,
closed containers for disposal.
Remove all sources of ignition. Use spark-proof tools and
explosion-proof equipment

31
 Handling
Use only under a chemical fume hood. Wear personal
protective equipment. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on
clothing. Do not breathe vapors or spray mist. Do not
ingest. Keep away from open flames, hot surfaces and
sources of ignition. Use only non-sparking tools. Take
precautionary measures against static discharges.
HANDLING AND
STORAGE
Storage
Keep containers tightly closed in a dry, cool and well-
ventilated place. Keep away from heat and sources of
ignition. Containers should be vented periodically in order
to overcome pressure buildup. Store in explosion-proof
refrigerator. Flammables area.

Engineering Measures
Use only under a chemical fume hood. Ensure that
eyewash stations and safety showers are close to the
workstation location. Use explosion-proof
electrical/ventilating/lighting/equipment. Ensure adequate
ventilation, especially in confined areas.
EXPOSURE
CONTROLS/PERSONAL Personal Protective Equipment
PROTECTION Eye/face Protection
Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical safety
goggles as described by OSHA's eye and face protection
regulations in 29 CFR 1910.133 or European Standard
EN166. Tightly fitting safety goggles. Face-shield.

Skin and body protection

32
 Chemical resistant apron. Boots. Chemical protection suit
(EN 14605).

Respiratory Protection
Follow the OSHA respirator regulations found in 29 CFR
1910.134 or European Standard EN 149. Use a
NIOSH/MSHA or European Standard EN 149 approved
respirators if exposure limits are exceeded or if irritation
or other symptoms are experienced.

Hygiene Measures
Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and
safety practice.

1.1.5 Uses and Application of Polyurethane

The diverse physical properties and chemical structure of polyurethane depend on the
structure of the original reactants. The characteristics of the polyols which is the relative
molecular mass, the number of reactive functional groups per molecule, and the molecular
structure influence the properties of the final polymer, and hence how it is used (Polyurethanes,
2015).

33
 FIGURE 1. 11 Uses of polyurethane
[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

Polyurethanes, on the other hand are usually made directly into the final product. Much
of the polyurethanes produced are in the form of large blocks of foam, which are cut up for use
in cushions, or for thermal insulation. The chemical reaction can also take place in molds,
leading to, for example, a car bumper, a computer casing or a building panel. It may occur as
the liquid reactants are sprayed onto a building surface or coated on a fabric (Polyurethanes,
2015).

The combined effects of controlling the polymer properties and the density lead to the
existence of a very wide range of different materials so that polyurethanes are used in very
many applications. Some examples of the main reasons for choosing polyurethanes as shown
in Table 1.11.

34
 TABLE 1. 11 Properties and uses of polyurethanes
[Adapted from Polyurethanes, 2015]

Uses Reasons

Cushioning Low density, flexibility, resistance to fatigue

Shoe soles Flexibility, resistance to abrasion, strength, durability

Building panels Thermal insulation, strength, long life

Artificial heart valves Flexibility and bio stability

Electrical equipment Electrical insulation, toughness, resistance to oils

FIGURE 1. 12 Structural and Infrastructural applications of Polyurethane

[Adapted from Somarathna et al., 2018]

35
[Link] Building and Construction

Today's homes demand high-performance materials that are strong, yet lightweight;
perform well, yet are easily installed; and are durable, but also versatile. Polyurethane helps
conserve natural resources and helps preserve the environment by reducing energy usage. With
its excellent strength-to-weight ratio, insulation properties, durability and versatility,
polyurethane is frequently used in building and construction applications. Both the
affordability of these versatile materials and the comfort they provide homeowners have made
polyurethane components part of homes everywhere (Somarathna et al., 2018).

Polyurethane is used all over the house. In floors, flexible foam padding cushions your
carpet. In the roof, reflective plastic coverings over polyurethane foam can bounce sunlight and
heat away, helping the house stay cool while helping reduce energy consumption. Polyurethane
building materials add design flexibility to new homes and remodeling projects. Foam-core
panels offer a wide variety of colors and profiles for walls and roofs, while foam-cored entry
doors and garage doors are available in different finishes and styles (Somarathna et al., 2018).

The most important application of polyurethanes in buildings is insulation.

Polyurethanes are regarded as an affordable, durable and safe way of reducing carbon
emissions that lead to global warming. Polyurethanes can dramatically reduce heat loss in
homes and offices in cold weather. During the summer, they play an important role in keeping
buildings cool, which means air conditioning is needed less (Somarathna et al., 2018).

[Link] Automotive

Polyurethanes are used throughout cars. In addition to the foam that makes car seats
comfortable, bumpers, interior “headline” ceiling sections, the car body, spoilers, doors and
windows all use polyurethanes. Polyurethane also enables manufacturers to provide drivers
and passengers significantly more automobile “mileage” by reducing weight and increasing
fuel economy, comfort, corrosion resistance, insulation and sound absorption.

36
[Link] Packaging

Polyurethane packaging foam (PPF) can provide more cost-effective, form-fitting

cushioning that uniquely and securely protecting items that need to stay safely in place during
transit. PPF is widely used to safely protect and transport many items, such as electronic and
medical diagnostic equipment, delicate glassware and large industrial parts. A versatile on-site
solution for many packaging challenges, PPF can save time and be more cost-effective by
providing a custom-fit container with each shipment.

[Link] Composite Wood

Polyurethanes play a major role in modern materials, such as composite wood.

Polyurethane-based binders are used in composite wood products to permanently glue organic
materials into oriented strand board, medium-density fiberboard, long-strand lumber,
laminated-veneer lumber and even strawboard and particleboard.

[Link] Electronics

Often referred to as “potting compounds,” non-foam polyurethanes are frequently used

in the electrical and electronics industries to encapsulate, seal and insulate fragile, pressure-
sensitive, microelectronic components, underwater cables and printed circuit boards.

Polyurethane potting compounds are specially formulated by developers to meet a

diverse range of physical, thermal and electrical properties. They can protect electronics by
providing excellent dielectric and adhesive properties, as well as exceptional solvent, water
and extreme temperature resistance.

37
[Link] Flooring

Either as a foam underlay or on top as a coating, polyurethanes can make the floors we
walk on every day more durable, easier to maintain and more aesthetically pleasing. Using
flexible polyurethane foam as a carpet underlay in residential or commercial applications can
significantly increase the lifespan of the carpet, protect its appearance, provide added comfort
and support and can reduce ambient noise.

Polyurethanes are also used to coat floors, from wood and parquet to cement. This
protective finish is resistant to abrasion and solvents and is easy to clean and maintain. With a
polyurethane finish, a new wood, parquet or cement floor wears better and longer, while an old
floor can be refinished to look new again.

[Link] Medical

Polyurethanes are commonly used in a number of medical applications, including

catheter and general-purpose tubing, hospital bedding, surgical drapes, wound dressings and a
variety of injection-molded devices. Their most common use is in short-term implants.
Polyurethane use in medical applications can be more cost-effective and provide for more
longevity and toughness.

[Link] Marine

Millions of Americans enjoy boating each year. Part of boating’s ongoing popularity is
thanks to improvements in boating technology, to which polyurethane materials make an
important contribution.

Polyurethane epoxy resins seal boat hulls from water, weather, corrosion and elements
that increase drag, affect hydrodynamics and reduce durability. Boaters today can have the

38
comforts of home on the water, thanks in part to flexible polyurethane foam. In addition, rigid
polyurethane foam insulates boats from noise and temperature extremes, provides abrasion and
tear resistance, and increases load-bearing capacity all while adding minimal weight.
Thermoplastic polyurethane is also great for use in the maritime industry. It is elastic, durable
and an easily processed substance, well suited for wire and cable coatings, engine tubing, drive
belts, hydraulic hoses and seals and even ship molding.

[Link] Furnishings

Polyurethane, mostly in the form of flexible foam, is one of the most popular materials
used in home furnishings such as furniture, bedding and carpet underlay. As a cushioning
material for upholstered furniture, flexible polyurethane foam works to make furniture more
durable, comfortable and supportive.

Polyurethane is often molded into foam that can serve for a variety of uses for human
comfort. This foam can differ in terms of density, firmness, durability, and quality. A higher
density and quality equate to a higher price (often sold by the quarter inch, by sheet). Softer,
temporary material is often used for short-term uses, such as baby mattresses, whereas the top-
of-the-line tough luxurious foam is usually reserved for bay window cushions. Standard fabric
car seats tend to use polyurethane, as it is both comfortable and durable (Mark Tool & Rubber,
2015).

[Link] Apparel

When scientists discovered that polyurethanes could be made into fine threads, they
were combined with nylon to make more lightweight, stretchable garments. Over the years,
polyurethanes have been improved and developed into spandex fibers, polyurethane coatings
and thermoplastic elastomers. Thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers can be molded and
shaped into different parts. When these elastomers are spun into fibers, they produce a flexible

39
material called spandex, which is used to make sock tops, brassieres, support hose, swimsuits,
and other athletic apparel.

Polyurethane coated fabrics are durable and abrasion-resistant, yet soft, light and
breathable. As such, they are used to create more comfortable and sophisticated weatherproof
clothing such as sports anoraks and light rain clothes. Polyurethane coatings are also used for
leather-like materials, such as imitation suede and as man-made leather for garments that not
only look like leather, but also have similar stretch, stiffness and permeability properties.
Because of today’s advances in polyurethane techniques, manufacturers can make a broad
range of polyurethane apparel from man-made skins and leathers used for garments, sports
clothes and a variety of accessories.

1.2 PROCESS SCREENING

For process screening and selection, process evaluation factor for possible alternatives
routes will be introduced. Various process routes for production of polyurethane were
described and evaluated. Comparison were with each stage will then be performed for
screening of alternative process routes in order to select the most suitable process.

1.2.1 Transesterification process

Transesterification reaction requires both an ester and an alcohol functional group for
them to exchange their organic group, R. The process is often catalyzed or assisted by enzymes.
In this case, glycerol reacts with an alcohol assisted by catalyst, resulting in fatty acid alkyl
esters and alcohol. The process is reversible depending on reaction equilibrium. Carbonyl
carbon of ester compound reacts to give tetrahedral intermediate which can revert to staring
material or proceeding to trans esterified product. Depending on catalyst used,
transesterification process can be divided into base, acid or non-catalytic process.

40
 FIGURE 1. 13 Glyceride reacts with an alcohol resulting in fatty acid alkyl esters and
alcohol

[Link] Transesterification with alkali base

A base catalyst are chemicals with pH value above 7 and can donate extra electrons to
other compounds. NaOH, KOH and CH3ONa are common homogeneous base catalyst
employed during alkaline transesterification (Helwani et al., 2009). Base catalyzed process is
commonly implemented due to its lower operating condition with high conversion and yield
within a short time (Fukuda et al., 2001). However, limitations to these catalysts were its
sensitivity to both FFA and water contents. It works perfectly fine when the free fatty acids
(FFA) and moisture contents are below certain limits, usually 0.5 wt% for FFA (Sivasamy et
al., 2009). If the limits were exceeded, pre-treatment steps are required. Presence of FFA
promotes soap formation, consuming the catalyst and lowering the yield while increasing
difficulty for downstream by-products separation and product purification. Product produced
from homogeneous catalysis reactions requires purification to remove or retrieve catalyst,
which also requires large amount of energy and water, further increasing the operational cost.

TABLE 1. 12 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with alkali base

Advantages Disadvantages
• Higher production yield • Product requires purification to
• Higher Conversion recover homogeneous catalyst
• Lower Operating
Conditions

41
[Link] Transesterification with acid base

Moreover, transesterification can also be done using acid catalysts. Most acids used for
this process are such as Sulphur, sulphonyl, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids (Meher et al.,
2006). This alternative is not as popular due to its corrosive nature and slower reaction rate. It
has been stated that acid catalyzed reactions may be 400 times slower than the base catalyst
process (Marchetti et al., 2007). One of the requirements for this catalyst to work is it requires
high amount of alcohol and higher concentration of catalyst. On the other hand, acid catalysis
process has the upper hand as it is independent of feedstock FFA content as they are not
converted to soap. Heterogeneous acid catalysts also exist which can overcome issues
associated from alkali catalyzed process. Sulphated zirconia was used as catalyst in the
alcoholysis of soybean oil and for transesterification of oleic acid (Garcia et al., 2008).

TABLE 1. 13 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with acid base

Advantages Disadvantages
• Product does not require • Slower Reaction rate
purification from • Corrosive nature of
heterogeneous catalyst catalyst
• Independent of Free Fatty
Acid Content

[Link] Non- catalytic transesterification

Lastly, there is also a non-catalytic transesterification process where they can greatly
reduce transesterification time, but their presence complicates the product purification process
thereby increasing production cost. To avoid catalyst drawbacks, supercritical alcohol (SCA)
transesterification was suggested (Demirbas, 2007). SCA transesterification is a catalyst free
process, which provides high conversion of oil to ester in a short time. Tan et al. (2009)
compared SCM transesterification with conventional catalytic methods and reported that
conventional and SCM method to convert palm oil to FAME requires 1 hour and 20 minutes

42
respectively. Due to absence of catalyst, purification of products from transesterification is
simpler and more environmentally friendly compared to acid and or alkali-catalyzed processes.
However, reaction requires higher operating conditions and alcohol to oil molar ratio in
comparison to catalytic transesterification, which results in higher production cost (Sinha et.,
al 2008)

TABLE 1. 14 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification with non-catalytic

Advantages Disadvantages
• Short reaction time • Complicated purification
• Eco-friendly process process required
• Easy to separate
product

1.2.2 Epoxidation Process

Epoxidation a chemical reaction that converts carbon-carbon double bond to epoxide

function group which is consists of three members ring with one oxygen atom and two carbon
atoms.

Epoxidations require various reagents such as oxidation, hypochloric acid, hydrogen p

eroxide and organic peracids. The double bonds that found in vegetable oils are used as
reactive sites in coating and acts as epoxidation. The function of double bonds in vegetable
oils as introduces epoxy group or oxirane oxygen at located double bonds is commonly known
as epoxidation (Syafiq et al., 2013). Figure 1.14 shows the epoxidized with carbon-carbon
double bond being converted into oxirane ring.

43
FIGURE 1. 14 The Epoxidized with Carbon-Carbon Double Bond being converted into
Oxirane Ring

Research by Saurabh et al. (2011), epoxidized oil contains the epoxide group or oxirane
ring which consists of three elements in epoxide ring. There are a few established processes of
epoxidation which are:

• Epoxidation with the presence of performic acid

• Epoxidation with the presence of peracetic acid
• Epoxidation using an enzyme

[Link] Epoxidation with the presence of performic acid

This method is commonly used in the process of epoxidation by large scale of industry.
Epoxidation process are carried out by reacting a carboxylic acid with concentrated hydrogen
peroxide or known as peroxides formed in-situ. Kinetics epoxidation of cottonseed oil used
formic acid as an oxygen carrier, but when they further their research they found that acetic
acid is more effective oxygen carrier. Hydrogen peroxide act as oxygen donor and formic acid
acts as an oxygen carrier in the presence of catalytic in organic acid. The formic acid (HCOOH)
will regenerated once the epoxidation reaction takes place (Mungroo et al. 2009). HCOOH act
as a catalyst in the formation of oxirane ring and as a reactant in the hydrolysis of the oxirane
ring (Goud et al. 2007, 2006). Acid hydrolysis is a slow process for the hydrolysis of epoxide
groups of epoxidized palm oil, but the same process is very fast in an aqueous hydrogen
peroxide-acid solution of a homogeneous catalyst. Under these conditions of reaction, the
opening of oxirane ring by adding formic acid progresses in both the aqueous and organic
phase, through in the latter process, the rate is slow. During the epoxidation reaction, oxirane

44
will be form when the formic acid transfers oxygen atoms to the double bonds of the
unsaturated fatty acid chains of the palm oil.

FIGURE 1. 15 Formic acid + Hydrogen peroxides -> Performic Acid + Water (by
product)

The kinetics of epoxidation of jatropha oil by in situ generated

peroxyacetic/peroxyformic acid, in the presence of an acidic ion exchange resin as a catalyst
with, or without, toluene, was studied. Moreover, when the higher temperature and acid
concentration it will reduce the reaction time needed to reach the maximum conversion of
oxirane value. However, it will simultaneously increase the extent of oxirane ring cleavage to
glycols. Epoxidation using organic and inorganic peroxide are suitable for clean and efficient
epoxidation for vegetable oil instead of using traditional homogeneous catalyst. The maximum
oxirane oxygen content value (1.84 %) of epoxidized trans-esterified palm olein was obtained
at 180 min for the reaction using a mole ratio of [Link]. (trans-esterified palm olein, formic acid
and hydrogen peroxide) The optimum conditions of reaction were aimed at higher yield of
EPO, higher oxirane oxygen content (OOC) and lower iodine value (IV).

TABLE 1. 15 Advantages and disadvantages of epoxidation with the performic acid

Advantages Disadvantages
• Higher yield of EPO (88%) • The use of higher H2 O2 mole will cause
• Higher oxirane oxygen content (OOC) agitation problems, unstable epoxy group,
(99.14%) poor stability of oxirane ring and decreases
• Lower iodine value. (IV). the mass transfer rate thereby decreases the
OOC.
• Higher concentration of peroxy acid used
must be avoided because epoxidation was
exothermic process and it will lead to low
stability of oxirane ring formed (Gunstone
2004).

45
[Link] Epoxidation with the presence of peracetic acid

Generated in situ peroxy acid is produced by mixing acetic acid (CH3 COOH) with H2 O2
simultaneously. H2 O2 was slowly added drop wise into the acidic media. Fast introduction to
this reagent will cause an excessive development of oxygen due to the decomposition of
H2 O2 at high temperature and is not recommended. The reaction equation can be described
from the equation illustrated in Figure 1.16.

FIGURE 1. 16 Generation reaction of peracetic acid (CH3COOOH)

Preparation CH3COOOH as epoxidation agents were carried out as in situ since the
reaction condition is highly exothermic and not stable. The epoxidation process involved of
electrophilic addition mechanism. Unsaturated bond at triacylglycerol was converted to
oxirane ring to produce epoxidized palm olein. Peracetic acids have an extra oxygen atom
between the carbonyl group and their acidic hydrogen and are electrophilic at oxygen. The
mechanism is essentially an electrophilic attack, with a proton being transferred from the
epoxide oxygen to the carboxylic acid by-product. Firstly, the nucleophilic π bond donates its
electrons to the oxygen, breaking the O-O bond to form the new carbonyl bond. The electrons
from the old O-H bond make up the second new C-O bond, and the original carbonyl group
uses its electrons to pick up the proton. The transition state for the reaction makes the bond-
forming and bond-breaking processes much clearer. Besides, the epoxidation process by using
peracetic acid just only gave OOC value below 1.00 %. CH3COOOH is not an effective
epoxidation agent compared to the. HCOOH is better than CH3COOH for this work because,
when reacted with H2 O2 , HCOOOH forms at a much faster rate than CH3COOOH. The
optimum oxirane oxygen content (OOC) value obtained was 3.57 % (± 2.8) compared to the
theoretical OOC value was 3.74 %. The optimum oxirane conversion was 95.5 % with 90.0 %
yield. It has good properties on oxidative stability (193.9℃), flash and fire points (> 320℃),
and kinematic viscosity.

46
 FIGURE 1. 17 Relative conversion of EPO

[Link] Enzymatic epoxidation

Chemoenzymatic epoxidation is performed in the presence of Candida antarctica lipase

B (CALB), CALB immobilized onto an acrylic resin (Novozym®435) or silica (CALB-silica)
and another lipase as catalysts. Lipases can also catalyze the hydrolysis of triglycerides. In the
presence of hydrogen peroxide and lipase unsaturated and/or saturated fatty acids are
transformed into peroxyacids. Novozym®435 shows a high enzymatic activity among the
hitherto examined enzymes. The actual epoxidizing agent is the peroxyacid, while carboxylic
acid acts as oxygen carriers. Unsaturated peroxyacids can also undergo self-epoxidation,
according to the reaction.

FIGURE 1. 18 Reaction of epoxy-stearic acid

47
 TABLE 1. 16 Advantages and disadvantages of epoxidation by using enzyme
Advantages Disadvantages
• Mild reaction conditions, 25–55 °C, • Deactivation of lipase is the main problem
• Neutral pH of the reaction mixture, in chemoenzymatic epoxidation of
• Small contribution or the absence of side unsaturated compounds.
reactions (high selectivity), • High price and limited lipase use time
• Safe and environmentally friendly. make the process and its applications less
• High conversion of unsaturated bonds in economically advantageous than other
vegetable oils, unsaturated fatty acids and types of epoxidation processes, especially
fatty acids esters, the in situ peracid epoxidation.

1.2.3 Ring-opening

Ring opening is commonly used method to prepare polyols from vegetable oil.
However, the ring-opening agents which used are small molecular species. For instance,
ethanol and other chemical compounds. Ring-opening polymerization (ROP) is known as a
formation of chain growing polymerization in which the terminal end group of a polymer chain
acts as a reactive center where further cyclic monomers can be added by ring-opening Typical
monomers that can be polymerized undergo this reaction would need to fulfil certain
criteria. First, it must be di-functional monomers which carry two different reactive groups
like one amine or alcohol and one carboxylic acid that undergone a cyclization reaction.

[Link] Ring opening of ETPO by using ethylene glycol

The ring opening of ETPO by a polyhydric alcohol generally occurs through a two-step
reaction. Firstly, the catalyst, the boron trifluoride–ether complex, activates the epoxide. The
polyhydrated alcohol used in this analysis was ethylene glycol, as it is the easily available
simplest form of diol. The alcohols used in the reaction will substitute the diethyl ether in the
catalyst and form a complex with boron trifluoride during alcholysis. The formation of
polyhydric alcohol-boron trifluoride complex involves the insertion of polyhydric alcohol onto

48
the epoxide ring during alcoholysis. The epoxy ring of the epoxy oil will be opened during
alcoholysis due to the nucleophilic addition of the polyhydrate alcohols used under the
influence of the catalyst. Before the mixture is being discharge into the epoxidized oil, the
catalyst is first pre-mixed with the polyhydric alcohol to initiate the alcoholysis reaction. The
reaction was considered complete when the oxirane oxygen content of ETPO reaches 0.5% or
below.

It is important to clean the chemical residue in the produced polyols after the alcoholysis
reaction because the boron trifluoride in the complex used as catalysts may react with the
hydroxyl groups in the alcohol provided to form acidic compounds such as boric acid and
fluoroboric acid. Therefore, removal of these acidic residues is necessary in improving stability
of the produced end products as well as it shelves life.

Ring-Opening reaction, dried neutralized ETPO was heated to 60 °C. When reaction
temperature reached the desired temperature, a mixture of premixed ethylene glycol and boron
trifluoride–ether complex was slowly added dropwise to ETPO under fast mechanical stirring.
The reaction could stir between 1 and 3 hours. Sample of the reaction mixture was taken every
hour to monitor the progress of the reaction through oxirane oxygen content analysis. The
polyol obtained was then subjected to neutralization, washing and drying until the moisture
content of the polyol was less than 0.05%.

TABLE 1. 17 Advantages and disadvantages of ring opening by using ethylene glycol

Advantages Disadvantages
• Mild reaction conditions, 60–100 °C, • High concentration of the catalyst will cause
• High yield of polyol product about 90-95% undesired side reaction such as
• Safe and environmentally friendly. transesterification and cross-linking giving
products of higher viscosity and lower
functionality group.
• Polyhydric alcohol in excess amount can
prevent polymerization during the alcoholysis.

49
[Link] Ring opening of ETPO by using K10 Montmorillonite catalyst

The K10 montmorillonite catalyst is a type of clay which is sticky when exposed to
moisture but becomes hard and cohesive when dry. The K10 catalyst provide accessibility of
the acidic centers to the bulky ETPO molecule in order to promote the reaction. During the
reaction, the ring-opening of epoxide takes place through the cleavage of the carbon-oxygen
bonds. Firstly, the epoxide is activated by a proton supplied by a strong protic nucleophile or
by a Bronsted acid catalyst present in the reaction mixture, then the activated epoxide
undergoes nucleophilic attack by the nucleophile in a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution
(Sn2) mechanism as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1. 19 General mechanism for the addition of nucleophilic alcohol to epoxide

Palm-based polyols were prepared via an alcoholysis process using ETPO as stating
material. The isobutanol and K10 catalyst were mix for 15min until the desired mixture
temperatures 40oC- 60oC were achieved. The isobutanol was used in excess. Then, the ETPO
were added with the mixture. The reactions could take place under continuous stirring for

50
between 1 to 6 hours. The reaction process was considered complete when the OOC of the
ETPO was less than 0.5%.

TABLE 1. 18 Advantages and disadvantages of ring opening by using K10

Montmorillonite catalyst

Advantages Disadvantages
• Strong acidity, • Important to maintain the pH of the
• Non-corrosive polyol at neutral, otherwise, it will
• Recyclability, affect the stability and shelf-life.
• Mild reaction condition, • Long reaction time.
• High yields. • Expensive catalyst used

1.2.4 Comparison of techniques

A screening of alternative processes is conducted to select the most sustainable process,

in which all the processes are compared and evaluated based on the process selection factors
and a reasonable score will be given. The comparison was done to determine the preferred
reaction mechanism based on a scoring system and by summing the points together, we will be
able to obtain the best choice.

FIGURE 1. 20 Rating Scale

51
 TABLE 1. 19 Comparison of transesterification techniques

Transesterification Catalytic transesterification Non- catalytic

Alkali base Acid base

Process conditions Temperature 50-60oC 50-60oC >200 oC

Catalyst NaOH/KOH H2SO4/RSO3H NIL

3 3 1

Process Complexity Heating, Filtering, Phase Mixing and phase Several

separation and neutralization separation repetitive heating
and centrifuge
processes

3 1 1

Feed Consumption Palm Oil, CH4, NaOH, Palm oil, Palm/Soybean

acetic/phosphoric acid sulphuric/suphonic oil
acid, NaOH (FFA<0.005%),
methanol
(99.8%), hexane
(98.5%), methyl-
ester

2 2 2

Process yield >95% >90% 75% when using

1:24 ratio of
soybean
oil:methanol

3 3 2

Economic Potential Low capital investment on Low capital Moderate capital

equipment investment on investment for
equipment and equipment
catalyst

52
 3 3 2

Safety Generation of coloured High demand of High operating

consideration waste(glycerine) and high CH3OH involved in temperature may
consumption of water may this process increases destroy
deplete surrounding the toxicity of effluent surrounding
resources waste. habitat

2 1 2

Total 16/18 14/18 10/18

TABLE 1. 20 Comparison of epoxidation techniques

Chemoenzymatic Epoxidation with acid catalyst

epoxidation
Performic acid Peracetc acid

Types of • Temperature: • Temperature: • Temperature:

reaction/process
25-55oC 50-60 oC 45 oC
conditions
Catalyst: (Medium operating (Medium operating
temperature) temperature
Lipase need to recycle and
used.

1 2 2

Process A total of four processes A total of three processes are involved to

complexity are involved to produce produce the epoxide palm olein.
the epoxide palm olein.

1 2

Feed Oleic acid, hydrogen RBD palm oil, RBD palm oil, Acetic
consumption peroxide, lipase, Formic acid (88%), acid (99%), Hydrogen
Peroxide (30%),

53
 Hydrogen Peroxide
(30%),

2 2 2

Yield of process Lower quality and yield. Higher quality and Higher quality and
yield. yield

1 3 3

Maximum High capital investment. Low capital Low capital investment

economic Expensive lipase B investment.
potential enzyme.

1 3 3

Safety The reaction condition is Performic acid is non- Peracetic acid irritant
consideration mild with low operating toxic and reactive, it to the skin, eyes, and
temperature. The risk of does irritate the skin. respiratory system.
explosion is reduced. Peracetic acid is more
acidic than performic
acid.

3 2 1

Total 9/18 14/18 13/18

54
 TABLE 1. 21 Comparison of ring opening techniques

Ring opening by using Ring opening by using K10

ethylene glycol Montmorillonite catalyst

Process condition Mild reaction conditions, 60– Mild reaction conditions, 40–
100 °C. 60 °C.

2 2

Process complexity A total of two processes are A total of two processes are
involved to produce the polyol. involved to produce the polyol.

2 2

Feed consumption ETPO, ethylene glycol, boron ETPO, K10 montmorillonite clay
trifluoride–ether complex. catalyst, Isobutanol

3 2

Economic Lower capital investment Higher capital investment

consideration

3 1

Total 10/12 7/12

55
1.3 PROCESS SELECTION

From the comparison table, the transesterification by alkali base is selected to be used in
the production of polyols from palm olein due to its lower operating condition with high
conversion and yield within a short time. In contrast, the other transesterification has lower
conversion yield and the purification process is too complicated compared to the
transesterification with alkali base.

The only method of epoxidation applied on the industrial scale is that employing
peracids either prepared in a separate step or generated in situ. Because of the risks related to
handling peracids, the in-situ method is preferred for industrial scale epoxidation of
triglycerides. Chemoenzymatic epoxidation shows the highest selectivity from among the
epoxidation methods mentioned and highly stereoselective. Performic acid is the best
epoxidation agent for epoxidation process on palm olein. The disinfecting action of performic
acid is faster than that of the related compounds peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide.

Apart from that, ring opening using ethylene glycol is selected because it can produce
high yield product with low consumption of catalyst. Moreover, this process is safer and
environmentally friendly. Although the K10 catalyst method produces high yield of product,
the catalyst is expensive and difficult to find compared to ethylene glycol.

1.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The characteristics enabling us to distinguish one substance from others are known as
properties. A physical property is an aspect of matter that is observable or measurable without
shifting its chemical composition. Examples include color, molecular weight, and volume.

A chemical property may only be observed by change in chemical identity of a substance.

In other words, the only way to observe a chemical property is by undergoing a chemical

56
reaction. This measures the potential for undergoing a chemical change of a compound.
Examples of chemical properties include reactivity, flammability and oxidation states.

1.4.1 Polyurethane

Polyurethane (PU) is a class of polymer commonly used as foam for insulation,

mattress, upholstery filler and packing due to its unique properties. Polyurethanes have a wide
application since it has good abrasion resistance, good impact resistance, good toughness,
low viscosity, high elongation, good flexibility, good tear strength, low shrinkage,
hydrolytically stable and resilient.

The properties of PURs greatly depend on the structure of the polymer backbone. They
can be tailored to have high strength, high rigidity or high flexibility and toughness. Most of
these urethanes have good resistance to oil, (aromatic) hydrocarbons, oxygen, and ozone. Two
major drawbacks of PURs are their susceptibility to microbial attack and the tendency of
aromatic urethanes to discolor (yellow) when exposed to UV light (PubChem).

Thermal properties of polyurethanes are influenced mainly by molecular weight

between the cross links, degree of segments in stiff sequence. Mechanical properties such as
elongation break, tear strength, tensile strength is largely influenced by the presence of
aromatic groups, long alkyl chain, branching and cross linking and degree of secondary
bonding forces. Chemical properties of Polyurethane are greatly influenced by the types of
isocyanates and polyols used to make it (PubChem).

57
 TABLE 1. 22 Properties of polyurethanes
[Adapted from PubChem].

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula C17H16N2O4
Molecular Weight 312.32 g/mol
Boiling Point 179-182 °C
Melting Point 330K

1.4.2 Palm Olein

Palm olein is fully liquid at ambient temperature in warm climates. It can be blended
with various vegetable oils in different proportions to obtain liquid oils which can withstand
lower temperatures.

TABLE 1. 23 Properties of palm olein

[Adapted from Koushki et al., 2015]

Property Property Value

Melting point (°C) 21.6
Relative density (50 °C/water at 25 °C) 0.91 - 0.92
Refraction index (η) 1.47
Moisture and impurities (%) 0.1
Iodine Value 55.0 - 61.54
Saponification value (mg KOH/g) 189 - 198.0
Unsaponifiable matter (%) 0.001 - 0.5
Slip melting point (°C) 19.4 – 23.5
Cloud point (°C) 6.6 – 14.3

58
 TABLE 1. 24 FFA Composition
[Adapted from Koushki et al., 2015]

FFA Type Percentage (%)

Lauric Acid 0.1 - 0.2
Myristic Acid 0.9 - 1.0
Palmitic Acid 39.5 – 40.8
C16:1 <0.2
Stearic Acid 3.9 – 4.4
Oleic Acid 42.7 – 43.9
Linoleic Acid 1.4 – 11.4

1.4.3 Boron trifluoride etherate complex

Boron trifluoride etherate which also known as trifluorborano is an inorganic

compound very used as catalyst and Lewis acid to produce high purity boron or boron
compounds.

FIGURE 1. 21 Chemical Molecular Structure of Boron Trifluoride Etherate complex

[Adapted from [Link]]

59
 TABLE 1. 25 Properties of Boron trifluoride etherate complex
[Adapted from PubChem]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula 𝐶4 𝐻10 𝐵𝐹3 𝑂
Molecular Weight 141.93 g/mol
Boiling Point 126 °C
Melting Point −58 °C
Density 1.15 g mL-1
Flash point 48 °C

1.4.4 Ethylene Diamine

Ethylenediamine is the organic compound with the formula C2H4(NH2)2. This colorless
liquid with an ammonia-like odor is a strongly basic amine.

FIGURE 1. 22 Chemical Molecular Structure of C2H4(NH2)2

[Adapted from [Link]]

60
 TABLE 1. 26 Properties of C2H4(NH2)2
[Adapted from PubChem]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula C2H4(NH2)2
Molecular Weight 60.1 g/mol
Boiling Point 241 °F
Melting Point 47°F
Flash point 91°F
Density 7.5 lb / gal
Solubility Miscible with water, oxygenated
and aromatic solvents

1.4.5 Ethylene Glycol

Ethylene glycol is an organic compound with the formula (CH2OH)2. It is the simplest
member of the glycol family of organic compounds. A glycol is an alcohol with two hydroxyl
groups on adjacent carbon atoms (a 1,2-diol). It is mainly used for two purposes, as a raw
material in the manufacture of polyester fibers and for antifreeze formulations. It is an odorless,
colorless, sweet-tasting, viscous liquid.

FIGURE 1.23
FIGURE 1. 23 Chemical Molecular Structure of (CH2OH)2
[Adapted from [Link]]

61
 TABLE 1. 27 Properties of (CH2OH)2
[Adapted from PubChem]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula (CH2OH)2
Molecular Weight 62.07 g/mol
Boiling Point 264.2 °F
Group Polyalcohols - Glycol
Melting Point -34.6 °F
Explosive limits 3.2 – 15.3 volume % in air
Solubility Soluble in water, ethanol, acetone,
acetic acid, glycerine, pyridine,
aldehydes

1.4.6 Glycerol

Glycerol is a trihydroxy sugar alcohol with three carbon atoms and three hydroxyl
groups. The presence of multiple hydroxyl groups and carbon atoms makes it an organic polyol
compound with the IUPAC name of 1, 2, 3 – Propanetriol. It is a colorless, odorless liquid with
a sweet taste. It is viscous at room temperature and non-toxic in low concentrations. Glycerol
is used in several industrial applications, in the pharmaceutical industry, in cosmetics and
personal care products, in the production of resins, detergents, plastics and tobacco and as a
humectant in food.

FIGURE 1. 24 Chemical Molecular Structure of C3H5(OH)3

[Adapted from [Link]]

62
 TABLE 1. 28 Properties of C3H5(OH)3
[Adapted from PubChem].

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula C3H5(OH)3
Molecular Weight 92.094 g/mol
Boiling Point 290 °C
Melting Point 17.8 °C
specific gravity 1.26
Viscosity 1.412 Pa.s
Solubility easily soluble in water

1.4.7 Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, the major component of gastric acid and of wide
industrial use. It must be handled with appropriate safety precautions because it is a highly
corrosive liquid. It is colorless watery liquid with a sharp, irritating odor. It also Produce
irritating vapor.

FIGURE 1. 25 Chemical Molecular Structure of HCL

[Adapted from [Link]]

63
 TABLE 1. 29 Properties of HCL
[Adapted from PubChem]
Property Property Value
Molecular Formula HCl
Molecular Weight 36.46 g/mol
Boiling Point -85.06 °C
Melting Point -114.9 °C
Density 1.18 g/cm3
Heat of Vaporization 15.1 kJ/mol
Solubility easily soluble in water

1.4.8 Isocyanates

Diisocyanates (also commonly known as isocyanates) are highly reactive and versatile
chemicals with widespread commercial and consumer use. The structural difference among the
isocyanate compounds determines their physical or chemical properties which can affect their
toxicity. Over 90% of the diisocyanates’ market is dominated by two diisocyanates and their
related polyisocyanates: MDI and toluene diisocyanate (TDI) (Allport et al., 2003). They have
unique properties and functional versatility and contain free isocyanate functional groups (-
N=C=O). When isocyanates are combined with other compounds that contain free hydroxyl
functional groups (i.e. –OH) they react and begin to form polyurethane polymers (PubChem).

64
 FIGURE 1. 26 Chemical structure of Isocyanate
[Adapted from PubChem, n.d.].

[Link] Toluene diisocynate (TDI)

TABLE 1. 30 Properties of TDI

[Adapted from PubChem].

Property Property Value

Chemical formula C9H6N2O2
Molar mass 174.2 g/mol
Appearance Colorless liquid
Odor Sharp, pungent
Density 1.214 g/cm3, liquid
Melting Point 11 – 14 °C
Boiling Point 251 °C (484 °F; 524 K)
Solubility in Water Reacts
Vapor Pressure 0.01 mmHg (25°C)
Flash Point 127 °C (261 °F; 400 K)

65
[Link] Methylene Diphenyl isocyanate (MDI)

TABLE 1. 31 Properties of MDI

[Adapted from PubChem].

Property Property Value

Chemical formula C15H10N2O2
Molar mass 250.25 g/mol
Appearance White or pale-yellow solid
Density 1.230 g/cm3, solid
Melting Point 40 °C (104 °F; 313 K)
Boiling Point 314 °C (597 °F; 587 K)
Solubility in Water Reacts
Vapor Pressure 0.000005 mmHg (20 °C)
Flash Point 212–214 °C

1.4.9 Sodium Bicarbonate

Sodium bicarbonate is a white, crystalline powder that is commonly used as a pH

buffering agent, an electrolyte replenisher, systemic alkalizer and in topical cleansing solutions.
Sodium bicarbonate appears as odorless white crystalline powder or lumps.

FIGURE 1. 27 Chemical Molecular Structure of NaHCO3

[Adapted from [Link]]

66
 TABLE 1. 32 Properties of NaHCO3
[Adapted from [Link] and [Link]]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula NaHCO3
Molecular Weight 84.007 g/mol
Boiling Point -
Melting Point 3000 °C
Density 2.16 g/cm3
Heat of Vaporization 15.1 kJ/mol
Solubility not soluble in water

1.4.10 Performic Acid

Performic Acid is an unstable colorless liquid which can be produced by

mixing performic acid with hydrogen peroxide. Owing to its oxidizing and disinfecting action,
it is used in the chemical, medical and food industries. It is non-toxic but it does irritate the
skin

FIGURE 1. 28 Chemical Molecular Structure of CH2O3

[Adapted from [Link] ]

67
 TABLE 1. 33 Properties of CH2O3
[Adapted from [Link] ]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula CH2O3
Molecular Weight 62.024 g/mol
Boiling Point 50 °C
Melting Point -18 °C
Acidity (pKa) 7.1

1.4.11 Sodium Chloride

Sodium Chloride is a white crystalline and odorless solid which is one of the most well-
known and widely used chemicals, also known as table salt. It is used widely in the food
industry for flavoring and preservation. It is also used in the production of many important
chemicals, including sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, baking soda, hydrochloric acid.

TABLE 1. 34 Properties of NaCl

[Adapted from [Link] ]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula NaCl
Molecular Weight 58.44 g/mol
Boiling Point 1468 °C
Melting Point 801 °C
Density 2.16 g/cm3
Heat Capacity 55.5 J/mol K
Solubility highly soluble
in water

68
1.4.12 Sodium hydroxide

Sodium Hydroxide known as lye and caustic soda which is an inorganic

compound with the formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting
of sodium cations Na+ and hydroxide anions OH−. It is a highly caustic base and alkali that
decomposes proteins at ordinary ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns.

TABLE 1. 35 Properties of NaOH

[Adapted from [Link] ]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula NaOH
Molecular Weight 33.9971 g/mol
Boiling Point 1388 °C
Melting Point 323 °C
Density 2.13 g/cm3
Heat Capacity 59.5 J/mol K
Solubility highly soluble in water

1.4.13 Water

Water is a clear, nontoxic liquid composed of hydrogen and oxygen, essential for life
and the most widely used solvent. It is a transparent fluid which forms the world's streams,
lakes, oceans and rain, and is the major constituent of the fluids of organisms. As a chemical
compound, a water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that are connected
by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often
co-exists on Earth with its solid state in ice, gaseous state and steam.

69
 FIGURE 1. 29 Molecular Structure of Water
[Adapted from [Link] ]

TABLE 1. 36 Properties of Water

[Adapted from [Link] ]

Property Property Value

Molecular Formula H2O
Molecular Weight 18.015 g/mol
Boiling Point 100°C
Melting Point 0 °C
Viscosity 0.89 cP
Density 0.99998396 g/cm3
Heat Capacity 75.385 J/mol K
Solubility Poorly soluble in haloalkanes, aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers

70
1.5 MARKET SURVEY

1.5.1 Introduction

Market survey is one of the most feasible method used to obtain the information related
to market that is highly difficult to be obtained from the company’s internal records or the
external sources such as published journals and annual reports. The market survey strategy is
used in a situation where the primary data or first-hand data is required to identify the demand.
The plus point of this method is it helps to obtain the data original and specific to the problems
concerned.

In this project, the market survey is used to study the demand, market price, strengths,
weakness and applications of polyurethane. Polyurethane (PU) is a class of polymer and is
commonly used as foam (polyurethane foam) for insulation, mattress, upholstery filler and
packing. Other applications of PU are fibers, elastomers (elastic polymers), surface coatings,
and adhesives. Since the petroleum resources price hit USD 150 per barrel in 2008, palm-based
polyol and soy-based polyol are the NOPs which widely used to replace petroleum-based
polyol in PU production.

1.5.2 Demand

PU is an adaptable, present day and safe type of plastic polymer material accessible
today and utilized on an enormous scale for various applications. They are exceptionally
utilized for consumer and industrial products which are environment friendly.

The polyols section is the prevailing portion in the overall of polyols market. It is
utilized as a raw material in the producing PU foams which are utilized in various applications
in the development and constructions. PU are significantly utilized in creating furniture,

71
carpets, vehicles cushions, and others. The expanding demand for these items because of the
high development of the development in the creating nations of APAC, South America, and
the Middle East and Africa are required to drive the market for polyols.

FIGURE 1. 30 Polyurethane demand by end-segment

[Adapted from Data Source Industry, 2020]

Based on the demand findings in Figure 1.24, these days furniture market is the most
predominant division among all other end segment in market demand. In the year 2016, the
worldwide market demand for these plastic materials from furniture demand was 5.3 million
tons. Generally, uses in furniture market incorporate furniture cushions, cover pad, and bedding
foams. It is additionally trailed by construction segment with the yearly demand of 2 million
tons in 2016. It is utilized as an insulation and protection material in construction industry
significantly in dividers, walls and rooftops. Appliances took the important demand with 1.6
million tons followed by automotive with 1.3 million tons foams. Medical, textile and
packaging segment demands contributed up to 5.8 million tons in total demand in 2016.

The PU foams segment is assessed to be the biggest consumer of polyols in 2019. The
expanding utilization of these items from the development is required to drive the interest in

72
PU materials. Henceforth, the demand for flexible PU foams is relied upon to drive the polyols
market during the forecast period.

FIGURE 1. 31 Polyurethane demand worldwide from 2012 to 2022

[Adapted from Statista, 2020]

Figure 1.25 shows the statistic on the demand for PU worldwide in 2012 and 2017, with
a forecasted figure for 2022. In 2016, the global demand for PU was some 16.9 million tons,
and it is forecasted to increase to more than 21 million tons by 2021.

73
 FIGURE 1. 32 Global consumption of polyurethane (PU) in 2016

Figure 1.26 shows the global consumption of PU in 2016. PU materials demand also
affected by the usage supply and application in global development industry. High
consumption of PU is for flexible foams with 31% followed by rigid foams with 25%. Besides,
molded foams comprise about 11% usage in total market demand.

Components like ecological stability, energy conservation, flexibility, and

extraordinary physical properties helped the PU fragment command in Asia Pacific. The
section represented over 20.0% of the region’s income in 2018. China witnessed drastic
development attributable to popularity for PU insulation in application and is evaluated to show
a revenue based CAGR of 8.5% over the gauge time frame. China, India, and Indonesia
represented a huge demand in this segment inferable from an extending development and
furniture industry. These days furniture market is the most predominant division among all
opposite end fragments in market demand. In the year 2016, the worldwide market interest for
these PU materials from furniture showcase was 5.3 million tons.

The elastomers fragment is assessed to develop at the quickest pace over the estimate
time frame, representing 20.3% of the all-out volume by 2025. The PU coatings portion is
likewise liable to show relentless development attributable to presentation of waterborne
advancements. Appliances also share an important place in total market demand with the
demand of 1.6 million tons followed by automotive with 1.3 million tons rigid foam (1 mt) and

74
soft foam (0.3 mt). Different sections including medical, material and packaging and so forth
contributed up to 5.8 million tons in the complete interest for the year 2016.

1.5.3 Market Price

The PU market price is estimated to be USD 54.19 billion in 2018 and is projected to
reach USD 79.77 billion by 2023, at a CAGR of 8.0% between 2018 and 2023. The growth of
the PU foam market can be attributed to the increasing demand for PU foam from the bedding
& furniture and building & construction end-use industries. Significant investments in new
infrastructure development, new housing projects, and renovation of non-residential buildings
in the US, China, India, and Brazil have also influenced the growth of the PU foam market.
The PU market price is the significant commodity that imposes the balance between supply
and demand. Global trade balance (export-import) of PU is positive and constant from past few
years. In addition, the trade balance in 2016 was USD 0.18 billion with exports worth of USD
6.14 billion and imports worth of USD 5.96 billion as shown in Figure 1.27 and PU trade
pricing pattern findings based on nations and regions shown in Figure 1.28.

FIGURE 1. 33 Global Trade of Polyurethane

[Adapted from Data Source Industry, 2020]

75
 FIGURE 1. 34 Polyurethane Trade Pricing and Pattern
[Adapted from Data Source Industry, 2020]

The global PU market is expected to reach USD 81,700.6 million by 2022. Regionally,
Asia Pacific has the largest market of USD 28,111.2 million by 2022. China accounted for the
largest market share of 54.00% in 2014, with a market value of USD 9,710.6 Million is
projected to grow at the highest CAGR of 6.94% during the forecast period. Japan was the
second-largest market in 2014, valued at USD 4,495.7 Million in 2014. It is projected to grow
at a CAGR of 6.69%. Construction segment accounted for the largest market share registering
CAGR of 7.07% during the forecasted period. On basis of type segment, rigid foam holds the
market share of 31% in 2015. In addition, Goldstein Research analyst forecast that the global
polyurethane foam market is set to harness market revenue of nearly USD 80 billion by 2025
growing at a CAGR of 8.5% over the forecast period (2017-2025).

In the recent years, the demand of PU showing a good rise in relation to its increasing
usage in end segment industries. The world market of PU demand is estimated to be increasing
more than USD 56 billion by 2021. Mordor Intelligence and Intelliroi has done a research on
global PU price market for upcoming years and the result is as shown in Figure 1.29.

76
 FIGURE 1. 35 Global PU Market Survey
[Adapted from Data Source Industry, 2020]

1.5.4 Application

Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption
of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly
equal in market size. PU is utilized in may segments as it provides versatile properties.

[Link] Automotive

The PU uses and application in the automotive industry are huge. Beside its normal use
as a foam to make vehicle seats and cushions comfortable, it might likewise be utilized in
vehicle bodies, bumpers guards, doors, windows and roof areas. PU also help to give better
vehicle mileage through lessen the overall weight of vehicle, good fuel saving, better insulation
with appropriate sound proofs, extraordinary comforts for travelers and high anti-corrosion
properties. Because of the low density of PU foam, they are appropriately suitable for the
production of solid and light segments, which may then be utilized as interior fittings in

77
airplanes. A few other sandwich materials found in sports auto vehicles are based on PU. This
is on the grounds that the PU material can assist with giving heat protecting and basic solidness.

[Link] Packaging

For packaging applications, PU can likewise be utilized as packaging foams. A PU

plasticizer was set up from palm olein for packaging applications. This PU plasticizing material
shown high flexibility with great mechanical and freezing resistivity. Besides, PU packaging
foams offer a wide scope of packaging choices, which promotes to help to solve most
packaging plant difficulties. The versatility and flexibility of these foams has likewise been
investigated for the cost-effective packaging of goods that request extra protections during
shipments, including medical hardware, gadgets, huge machine parts and fragile equipment.

[Link] Flooring

For flooring purposes, PU has a few specific applications, for example, top coatings or
as floor covering underlay foam. They can help to make floors more durable, satisfying and
simple to keep up. The life expectancy of flooring and their appearance can be expanded
however the utilization of PU foam underlays, which can likewise help to promote better
comfort. PU based protective finishing can likewise be utilized as floor coatings, where they
can give solvent and abrasion resistance and simplicity of cleaning and support.

[Link] Constructions

Usage of PU in building constructions are because of the PU properties which are good
construction materials, heat insulation capacity, highly desirable strength-to-weight ratio,
versatility and durability, high performance strong materials, light weight, easy to install, and
versatility. In addition, PU can help environment through reduced energy consumption by
offering great conservation of natural resources.

78
[Link] Abrasion resistance

PU are highly used for abrasion resistance in which coatings to enhance the efficiency
of product in number of industries including mining and mineral processing, concrete,
transportation, paper processing, power and boat manufacturing.

[Link] Medical

PU are used in a few medical related applications such as tubing, surgery drapes,
catheters, bedding, wound dressing and injection molded gears. They are selected to be used
for these applications because of their accessibility, great mechanical and physical properties
and biocompatibility. The joining of PUs in medication related application assists with offering
cost effectiveness and gives satisfactory space to sturdiness and life spans of materials. This
component has permitted polymeric materials to supplant the ordinary materials, for example,
metals and its composites.

[Link] Woods and Furnishing

PU offer a wide scope of flexibility. They are likewise being utilized in composite
woods in type of bio-based covers for permanent adhesive materials into oriented strand board
and medium density fiber board. PU foam is the most generally utilized type of this material in
furnishing industry. They are utilized on an enormous scale in furniture, bedding, carpet as they
are increasingly durable, sturdy, lightweight and comfortable.

1.5.5 Strength

Polyurethane is an incredibly versatile elastomer utilized in many applications around

the world. Polyurethane's mechanical properties can be confined and controlled through

79
innovative science which makes various kind of solutions of issues with execution qualities
unparalleled in some other material.

PU has wide range of hardness. This can be manipulated during the production
chemical processes. Hardness of PU foam is depending on the application of it. Besides that,
PU has a high load limit in both pressure and compression. Polyurethane may be adjusted in
shape under an overload or burden yet will come back to its unique shape once the load is
removed with a pressure set in the material when structured appropriately for a given
application.

Apart from that, polyurethanes perform very well when utilized in high flex fatigue
applications. Flexural properties can be detached taking into consideration generally excellent
stretching and recuperation properties. For applications where extreme wear demonstrate
testing, polyurethanes are a perfect arrangement even at low temperatures. Furthermore,
polyurethanes have high tear obstruction alongside high tensile and ductile properties.
Polyurethane's material properties will stay stable with insignificant expanding in water, oil
and oil. Polyether mixes can possibly last numerous years in subsea applications. Polyurethanes
display great electrical insulating properties.

Polyurethane can resist outrageous temperature, which means undesired environmental

conditions and numerous synthetic compounds rarely cause material corruption. In addition,
polyurethane bonds to a wide scope of materials during the production procedure. These
materials include different plastics, metals and wood. This property makes polyurethane a
perfect material for wheels, rollers and supplements. Most polyether polyols-based
polyurethanes do not support fungal, mold and mildew growth and are therefore highly suitable
for tropical environments. Unique added substances can likewise be added to lessen this in
polyester materials too.

80
 Varying color pigments can be added to polyurethane in the manufacturing process.
Ultraviolet shielding can be incorporated into the pigment to provide better color stability in
outdoor applications.

1.5.6 Weakness

Every invention and productions in existence have their respective strength and
weaknesses. It is known that nothing is completely perfect invention. PU has the capability to
impose various advantages influencing the decision of selection. However, it should be noted
that there are several disadvantages which must be considered.

Short life is a significant weakness of PU items. PU has hydroscopic capability, for

example water absorption properties. Bedding foams produced using PU absorb water and
loses their nature of quality and support. PU sealants have a similar issue. The durability of PU
paints is antagonistically influenced when exposed to direct daylight or natural solvents.

PU produce odor and fumes which are not vividly noticeable. The oil based synthetic
substances cause physical issues, particularly if there should be an occurrence of bedding
foams. Continuous of this issue will affect user’s health and causes ill. PU foam transmits
dangerous and toxic fumes if burned without proper air filtration. Some blowing agent in
polyurethane produce greenhouse gases affect the environment. In spite of the fact that it is not
as dangerous as different chemical compounds, it produces harm to the environment.

1.5.7 Worldwide Producers of Polyurethane

PU production plants are operated all around the world. Germany is the leading
producer and exporter of PU material globally in 2016. It exported material worth of USD 1.37
billion. The second largest producer of PU material was the United States. It exported material

81
worth of USD 754.6 million followed by Italy with PU material worth USD 553 million. The
other leading producer in top were China (exported PU worth of USD 378.7 million),
Netherlands (exported PU worth of USD 336.2 million), Belgium (exported PU worth of USD
295.1 million), Taiwan (exported PU worth of US$ 283 million), South Korea (exported PU
worth of USD 269.7 million), Spain (exported PU worth of USD 229.2 million) and Japan
(exported PU worth of USD 203.8 million).

FIGURE 1. 36 Producer of PU material globally in 2016

[Adapted from Data Source Industry, 2020]

Leading companies such as The Dow Chemical Company, BASF SE, Covestro,
Huntsman Corporation, Eastman Chemical Company, Mitsui Chemicals Inc, Mitsubishi
Chemical Corporation, Nippon PU Industry Corporation Ltd, Woodbridge Foam Corporation,
RTP Company, FallLine Corporation, Weaver Industries and Anderson Development
Company are actively engaged in production of PU, product research and development,
technological advances, and strategic collaborations to improve their hold in the global market.

1.5.8 Polyurethane in Malaysia

In Malaysia, the total polyurethane consumption is estimated at about 68000 tonnes.

Table 1.28 shows the different application of polyurethane in Malaysia in different sectors.

82
 TABLE 1. 37 Polyurethane Market in Malaysia by Sectors
[Adapted from Mutiara Selaras, 2001]

Malaysian companies such as Vision Foam Ind Sdn Bhd, Plastomer Sdn Bhd, Teck
Chuan Industrial Sdn Bhd, Plastofil Sdn Bhd, and SC M & E Hardware Supplies Sdn Bhd are
producing and supplying PU locally for industrial usage and end-segment applications.

1.5.9 Future Outlook

New process technologies and further developments in the field of sustainability and
composites will also have a major impact in the near future. Therefore, the PUFs industry must
be prepared to overcome these crucial issues, and at the same time, take advantage of the
potential new opportunities. PUFs are a class of lightweight porous materials that have attracted
enormous interest because of their wide range of properties and applications. Due to their low
density, low thermal conductivity, and mechanical properties, PUFs are mainly used as thermal
and sound insulators, as well as structural and comfort materials. Nonetheless, to attend to more
rigorous consumers, the range of properties and applications of PUFs must be increased, which
can be achieved by new process technologies or the production of PUF composites. It is also

83
important that the production of PUFs is still highly petroleum-dependent, and in view of the
ever more restrictive regulations, alternative raw materials for production of PUFs obtained
from renewable resources will have to be considered at the industrial level.

1.5.10 Raw Material

Raw materials can be clarified as substance or material utilized in the production of

goods. Generally, raw materials are natural resources like oil, wood, and iron. Raw materials
are regularly modified for use in different procedures preceding being utilized in the chemical
processes. Raw materials are likewise alluded to as products, which are obtained and sold on
wares trades all through the world. Likewise, for production of palm based rigid composite
polyurethane foam, the main raw material is palm olein and other raw materials are also used
in the production plant as stated below:

1. Boron trifluoride etherate complex

2. Ethylene Diamine
3. Ethylene Glycol
4. Glycerol
5. Hydrochloric Acid
6. Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
7. Sodium Bicarbonate
8. Performic Acid
9. Sodium Chloride
10. Sodium hydroxide
11. Toluene diisocyanate
12. Water

84
[Link] Palm Olein

Palm olein is the liquid component of palm oil obtained when the oil is separated by a
process called fractionation. Palm olein is obtained by refining crude palm oil from oil palm
mill to get RBD palm oil and fractionate it to get RBD palm olein. Palm olein is commonly
used as cooking oil as for frying purposes.

Demand for Malaysian palm oil and palm olein has risen, with sales to the US and
China increasing by 28% and 16.3% respectively from January to June 2019, compared to the
same period on 2018. For the year 2019, Malaysian palm oil industry is forecast to perform
better as CPO production is expected to recover driven primarily by favorable weather
conditions as well as the expansion in oil palm matured area. Apart from that, palm oil prices
in the world market is expected to be firmer in 2018 with palm oil demand expected to regain
its momentum to generate higher export revenue for Malaysia.

As for local palm oil and palm olein producer, Malaysia's Sime Darby is the largest
listed palm oil company globally, based on plantation area and fresh fruit bunch production.
The company was created through a Malaysian government-initiated merger in December
2006. The world's second-largest oil palm plantation company, Felda Global Ventures
Holdings (FGV), is also based in Malaysia. Felda Global Ventures Holdings is the world's third
largest palm oil company by planted acreage, controlling over 850,000 ha of land in the
country, including approximately 500,000 ha that it leases and manages for smallholders. By
this, accessibility to get palm olein locally is high.

RBD palm olein is extracted from fractionating refined palm oil to separate liquid parts
(olein) from solid parts (stearin). In the market, there are three different grade of RBD palm
olein which is CP6, CP8 and CP10. Firstly, the RBD Palm Olein CP6 is known as Super Olein
which is a softer type of olein that can be obtained by the fractionation of standard olein. RBD
Palm Olein CP6 used mainly as cooking oil for food industries such as tidbits and ready-to-eat
foods. The CP6 grade have a FFA percentage of not more than 0.1% and have a cloud point of

85
6.0 °C. (Farmimex. 2020.) RBD Palm Olein CP8 is an extremely stable and cost-
effective deep-frying oil that lasts longer for cooking. RBD Palm Olein CP8 is cholesterol free
and contains healthy levels of Vitamin-E which are ideal for frying and are widely used. The
CP8 grade have a FFA percentage of not more than 0.1% and have a cloud point of 8.0
°C. (Farmimex. 2020.) RBD Palm Olein CP10 processed with composition that helps reduce
the absorption of oil during cooking and frying. It has good oxidative stability and composition
of fatty acids which makes it especially suitable and commonly used as liquid cooking oil for
frying. It is also suitable to be used as a raw material for production of palm olein due to the
characteristic such as tasteless and odorless. The CP8 grade have a FFA percentage of not more
than 0.1% and have a cloud point of 10.0 °C (Farmimex. 2020) The cloud point of the palm
olein is the lowest temperature at which palm oil starts to become cloudy and the first particles
of wax crystals are observed as the oil is slowly cooled under normal conditions. The palm
olein CP10 is chosen to be the raw material of the feed because it has a higher cloud point
which will prevent the formation of cloud in the palm oil that is undesirable. Apart from that,
the price of RBD palm olein CP10 is more affordable than the other types of palm olein which
will help on reducing the cost of raw material.

TABLE 1. 38 Summary of raw materials used in this project

Material RBD Palm Olein CP10

Cost US$650 – US$750 per Metric Ton
Supplier ALAMI Commodities Sdn. Bhd.
Location Malaysia
Availability Based on climate
Minimum Order 20 Metric Tons

Palm Olein used in this proposal was based on RBD Palm Olein with CP10 grading is
purchased as raw material from ALAMI Commodities per Metric Ton. The supplier is located
at Malaysia and the cost of the raw material is approximately from US$650 – US$750 per
Metric Ton. However, the minimum order is 20 Metrics Ton and the availability and price is
subjected to change based on influence of climate.

86
[Link] Boron trifluoride etherate complex

Boron trifluoride etherate complex is a colorless or light yellow liquid which has a
melting point of -60oC and boiling point of 126oC. It has a molecular weight of 141.93 and
density of 1.12. It can be purchased with a price of RM 20,416.80 per ton from the company
name Dongying Heyi Chemical Co., Ltd. The supply ability is 50.00MT per month. Dongying
Heyi Chemical Co., Ltd was founded in 2009, located in the Shengtuo Town Kenli County
Dongying City Shandong Province's fine chemical industrial zone.

[Link] Ethylene diamine

Ethylene diamine is liquid chemical which has a density of 1.03 g/ml and a boiling
point of 261 ºC. It has a flash point of 136 ºC and it is soluble in water. It can be purchased
with a price of RM4260.00 per ton from the Jinan Finer Chemical Co., Ltd. Jinan Finer
Chemical Co., Ltd is R&D specialist and manufactures integrated pharmaceutical products,
organic intermediates and fine chemicals. The business is founded under the support of the
government of Jinan City, so the business has great advantages in enterprise credit, finance
protection, product quality control and export of cargo. The business has an experienced and
competent logistics team which could operate delivery by sea, air, and courier. Generally, the
liquid of ethylenediamine will be packed in sealed drum, and then be locked into the drum to
the goods.

[Link] Ethylene glycol

Ethylene glycol is a viscous alcohol liquid chemical which has a density of 1.11 g/ml
and a boiling point of 196oC. It is miscible with water, ethanol and acetone, slightly soluble in
ether, insoluble in petroleum hydrocarbon and oil, and can dissolve inorganic substances. It
can be purchased with a price of RM3196.50 per ton from Nanjing senking Chemical Co., Ltd.
The supply ability of this company is 20000 ton per month. Nanjing senking Chemical Co.,

87
Ltd. was founded in 1946. It has a registered capital of 20 million yuan and a total investment
of 50 million yuan. It is one of the more professional chemical service providers in East China.
Advanced e-commerce system and strong professional logistics team provide customers with
standardized and professional door-to-door chemical comprehensive logistics services.

Ethylene glycol is commercially used as an antifreeze and coolant. For instance,

ethylene glycol avoids overheating of car’s engine during summer and freezing during winter.
As for PU productions, in the Ring-Opening reaction, dried neutralized ETPO was heated to
60 °C. Then, a mixture of premixed ethylene glycol and boron trifluoride–ether complex was
slowly added dropwise to ETPO under fast mechanical stirring. The reaction was considered
completed when the oxirane oxygen content of the ETPO was less than 0.5 %. The polyol
obtained was then subjected to neutralization, washing and drying until the moisture content of
the polyol was less than 0.05%.

Asia’s ethylene glycol market was estimated to be 16.38 MMT in terms of demand in
2017 and is expected to grow at a CAGR of 4.5% during 2018 – 2023. China accounts the
major share in ethylene glycol market when compared with other countries. Among the various
types of ethylene glycol, monoethylene glycol was estimated to be 14.83 MMT in 2017 and is
projected to rise with a CAGR of 4.7% during 2018 – [Link] ethylene glycol market in Asia
is rising due to increasing demand for PET resins and polyester fibers in packaging and textile
industries.

[Link] Glycerol

Glycerol is a colorless, viscous liquid which has a density of 1.26 g/ml and boiling point
of 290.9oC. The brand name of this glycerol is Fengda and this type of glycerol has a purity of
99.5%. It can be purchased with a price of RM2557.20 per ton from Mudanjiang Fengda
Chemicals Lmp. & Exp. Corp. The supply ability of this company is 50000 ton per month.
Mudanjiang Fengda Chemicals Corporation is a specialized manufacturing and operating
chemical enterprise which authorized and approved by MOFCOM, which have passed
ISO9001:2008 Quality Management System Certification, and have got full reach registration,
88
FAMI-QS certification for partial products exported to other country. This company has its
own variety of products for export which are widely used in chemical products.

[Link] Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid is a colorless liquid which has a density of 1.267g/ml and has a purity
of 31%-36%. It is hazardous and very soluble in water. It can be purchased with a price of
RM383.58 per ton from Wuhan Kangzheng Science and Technology Co., Ltd. The supply
ability of the company is 5000 ton per week. Wuhan Kangzheng Scientific & Technological
Co. Ltd is a leading professional chemical manufacturer, founded in 2004, specializing in the
manufacture of EDTA salt, thiosulfate salt, liquid fertilizers and mining chemical products.

[Link] Isocynates

TDI Isocyanate is pale yellow clear liquid which has a density of 1.22g/ml and has a
purity of 99%. MDI Isocyanate is a brown transparent liquid with boiling point of 200oC-
208oC and a purity of 100%. TDI and MDI is one of the commonly used polyisocyanates, and
polyisocyanates are polyurethane (PU) materials and important basic raw materials. It is mainly
used for producing flexible polyurethane foam and polyurethane elastomers, coatings,
adhesives and so on. The TDI isocyanate can be purchased with a price of RM4262.00 at Anhui
Jinao Chemical Co., Ltd and the supply ability is 500 tons per month. Meanwhile, the MDI
isocyanate can be purchased with a price of RM6393.00 at Guangzhou Zhonglian Building
Materials Co. Ltd. and the supply ability is 50000 tons per month.

[Link] Sodium bicarbonate

Sodium bicarbonate is a white crystalline powder with a purity of 99%. It is non-

odorous and salty, easily soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, presenting slight alkalinity,

89
decomposed when heated, decomposed slowly when exposed to moist air. It can be purchased
with a price of RM767.16 per ton from Weifang Fondland International Trading Co.,Ltd. The
supply ability of the company is 3000000 tons per year. Weifang Fondland Trading Co., Ltd. I
s a range of trade and logistics imports and exports, warehousing and other integrated
enterprises. The company is based at Laizhou City, northwest of the world's Weifang Kite
Capital. In China's largest inorganic chemical material production base, the company's main
products are soda ash, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium sulfate, sodium
nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, anhydrous sodium sulfite,
sodium metabisulfite, such as urea import and export business and logistics operations business
of chemical products and raw materials, sell glass, mirrors and other furniture and building
materials.

[Link] Performic Acid

Performic acid is colorless liquid with pungent odor, strongly corrosive and miscible
with water and alcohol solvents. It has a freezing point of 8.2 o C, boiling point of 100.8 o C,
and flash point 68.9oC. It can be purchased with a price of RM1193.36 per ton from
Mudanjiang Fengda Chemicals Lmp. & Exp. Corp. The supply ability of the company is 30000
ton per year. Mudanjiang Fengda Chemicals Corporation is a specialized manufacturing and
operating chemical enterprise which authorized and approved by MOFCOM, which have
passed ISO9001:2008 Quality Management System Certification, and have got full reach
registration, FAMI-QS certification for partial products exported to EU. This company has its
own variety of export products which are widely used in chemical.

Performic acid as a co-blowing agent in rigid polyurethane foams. It is a valid

substitute for CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane) for production of rigid polyurethane foams for
thermal insulating materials, with blowing agents having low environmental impact, is not
available yet. HCFC-141b and n-pentane, at present the most utilized physical blowing agents
(PBAs), cannot replace CFCs because of their environmental impact and flammability,
respectively. The aim of the present work is to investigate the opportunity of employing
HCOOH as a chemical blowing agent (CBA), other than water, which can in some applications

90
replace physical blowing agents. As for hydrogen peroxide, propylene oxide (PO) is the main
ingredient for production of Polyurethane foams, which are used in a wide range of rapidly
growing applications. Because of this, global demand for PO is rising, and the need for
hydrogen peroxide to produce that PO is growing consequently.

During the epoxidation process of PU productions, performic acid will be slowly added
to stirrer containing trans-esterified palm olein. The amount of performic acid and hydrogen
peroxide depends on the expected stage of oxidation of the end products. Growing demand for
hydrogen peroxide from engineering industry is a major catalyst for market growth in the recent
years.

The global hydrogen peroxide market reached a value of US$ 4.2 Billion in 2018. The
market value is further projected to reach US$ 5.6 Billion by 2024, exhibiting a CAGR of 4.9%
during 2019-2024. Region-wise, the market has been segmented into Asia Pacific, Europe,
Middle East and Africa, North America, and Latin America. Amongst these, Asia Pacific is the
biggest market, accounting for most of the market share.

[Link] Sodium chloride

In the PU production plant, the epoxidized trans-esterified palm olein (ETPO) was then
separated from the spent acid and it was neutralized by washing with sodium chloride followed
by sodium carbonate until the pH reached between 6 and 7. After that, it was dried under
vacuum for several hours until the moisture content was less than 0.05 %.

In the other hand, industrial sodium chloride market is anticipated to mark a CAGR of
5% during the forecast period i.e. 2019-2027. Asia-Pacific is the dominating region in terms of
consumption and production of sodium chloride, with China reported for more than one-fourth
of the market share owing to its increasing demand for water treatment, chemical, and food &

91
beverage industries. North America is the second largest consumer of NaCl, in reference to its
use in deicing industry. The consumption in deicing application varies substantially depending
on climatic conditions. Major players operating in the sodium chloride market are Dampier
Salts, Akzo Nobel N.V., Tata Chemicals Ltd., Cargill
Incorporated, Sdwestdeutsche Salzwerke AG, Compass Minerals International, Inc.,
Wacker Chemie AG, Swiss Salt Works AG, China National Salt Industry Corporation, INEOS
Salts, and Cheetham Salt, among others.

Sodium chloride (NaCl), appearance white crystalline, mainly sourced in seawater. The
main component is salt. It soluble in water, glycerin, slightly soluble in ethanol and ammonia,
insoluble in hydrochloric acid. It can be purchased with a price of RM85.24 per ton from
Shouguang Jinlei Chemical Co. Ltd. The supply ability of the company is 5000 tons per month.
Jinlei Shouguang Chemical Co.,Ltd. I s a manufacturing and trading combo founded in 2007
Sep, located in Bohai Laizhou Bay in Hou Town development zone in Shouguang District,
covers 20,000 square meters of area. They are experienced in manufacturing and exporting
over 9 years depending on the rich chemical salt sources. The main products are calcium
chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, poly aluminium chloride, soda ash, sodium
metabisuphite, sodium bromide, cyanuric acid, etc.

[Link] Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide is also known as caustic soda with an appearance of white or light-
yellow shiny solids. It is an alkali chemical with a purity of 99%. It can be purchased with a
price of RM426.20 per ton from Tianjin Jiahengyuan International Trade Co., Limited. The
supply ability of the company is 10000 tons per month. Jiahengyuan Tianjin International
Trade Co., Limited. I s a manufacturing and trading chemical company that primarily
manufactures and markets high grade, food grade and natural ionic membrane caustic soda.
The company has almost 20 years of professional production experience and has an annual
production capacity of nearly 120 thousand tons of caustic soda.

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1.6 PROJECT FEASIBILITY STUDY

1.6.1 Introduction

Project feasibility study is used to determine the viability of an idea, such as ensuring a
project is legally and technically feasible as well as economically justifiable. It tells us whether
a project is worth the investment. As the world is moving away from dependency on petroleum-
based product due to its ever-increasing price and depleting stock, alternative materials are
being research for substitution. For our project, we will be studying the feasibility in production
of polyurethane from bio-polyols synthesized from palm olein. Factors taken into accounts are
such as economic, technical, environment legal and safety feasibility.

1.6.2 Project Sustainability

Due to the forecasted increase in human population around the globe, the stockpile for
petroleum is also dropping drastically and hence a renewable alternative is required. By shifting
the focus to oil palm and with enough research, we will be able to bring the price of the product
created from palm oil to an affordable level, available to all. With proper planning and rules
implemented, plantation of oil palm in masses will be sustainable if the regulatory bodies and
farmers are playing their role accordingly. This production of bio-polyols will be sustainable
and viable only if there is enough and constant supply and demand of refined, bleached and
deodorized palm oil. Currently, an estimate of 4 million hectares of land in Malaysia were used
for oil palm cultivation and almost 400 palm mills operates throughout Malaysia. It is also
estimated that the total consumption of world palm oil continues to grow as research continues
to substitute petroleum-based products such as plastics and fuels.

In project sustainability, factors to be considered are such as the enough supply of palm
oil to meet the ongoing and future demand, also the price of palm oil should be consistent to
produce polyols continuously. According to the Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO),
sustainable palm oil production is legal, economically viable, environmentally appropriate and

93
socially beneficial management and operations. This is proven by the policy set up, RSPO
Principles and Criteria which is applicable to the management of oil palm plantations and palm
oil mills. (Shuit et al,2009).

1.6.3 Environment Feasibility

Environment sustainability is about the concern whether environmental resources will

be protected and maintained for future generations. To sustain the environment, we can shift
to renewable resources, protect health of ecosystems by proper waste management, avoiding
excess pollution generation and release, making intergenerational decisions and measures the
economic and social welfare more than GDP. The ability of project to timely acquire required
permits, licenses and approvals at a reasonable cost should also be included in this segment.

Bio-polyols are usually derived from vegetable oils to substitute petroleum-based

polyols to reduce dependency on petroleum-based products. Polyols are used in both food and
chemical sectors; however, it is most widely used in polymer chemistry for production of PU
which in turn is used to form PU foams. PU foam is mainly used in the flexible foam
applications for furniture, bedding, insulation and packaging industry etc. Since the foams
produced are biodegradable when subjected to light and moisture, the product in general can
be considered as environmentally friendly and the raw material is of renewable sources.

The synthesized polyurethanes are decomposable by prolonged contact with water,

dilute acids or moist heating, chlorine bleach and prolonged exposure to sunlight. Disregarding
cold aging, humid aging is usually a prime property where the requirements are determined by
the end use of the foam. A foam that has expanded and shrunk is considered as first
approximation to be caused due to plasticization effect from heat and moisture that would allow
stress built into foam at the gel to relax, which will then allow the foam to return to a lower
energy state. For urethane foams specifically, high thermal stability results in excellent
dimensional stability over a large temperature range.

94
 At the current state of development, even if PU are able to be made from bio-polyols
such as palm based polyols, the applications limited to those dry, and sheltered indoor settings
to prevent exposure to external or third party elements which may deteriorate the bio based PU
foams. Considerations for disposal of these type of PU foams are of less concern as they are
readily degradable, but detailed planning is required to choose this bio-based PU over
petrochemical based due to its higher susceptibility to biological and chemical attack. The
selection of this PU foam may also require higher attention and frequent change or substitution
of deteriorated foams.

Spent acid generated from neutralization process throughout this project will be treated
on-site before releasing back to the surrounding water source to minimize chemical pollution.
So theoretically, the water released from the site should not have adverse effects on surrounding
biodiversity. Glycerol separated from clarifying process can be recycled into initial mixing
process to reduce raw material cost and release of waste into the surrounding. Water evaporated
from the processes will be released slowly into the environment and in small quantity to prevent
sudden increase in air temperature surrounding the plant site.

1.6.4 Safety Feasibility

Safety feasibility involves the analysis of the project in order to assure its capacity to
implement and ensure operational safety with least favorable effects on the environment and
employees on site. For most of the processes involved throughout the plant, the operating
conditions were of low risk due to moderate operating conditions. However, at the fractionating
column due to its operational principle where at lower temperature the stearin will solidify
earlier, proper materials selection should be done to prevent implosion. The implosion may
occur due to the depreciation of temperature inside the dry fractionating tower, which in turn
lowers the pressure inside the unit.

Furthermore, at the transesterification reactor the amount of nitrogen should be well

monitored as it may also cause explosion if not managed optimally. Introduction of nitrogen

95
gas can create an inert environment but also increase pressure inside reactor and explodes when
the pressure accumulation exceeds the structural integrity of vessel.

n-Hexane is a colorless liquid with mild petrol-like odor detectable at 65 – 248 ppm,
evaporates very easily into the air and miscible with alcohol, chloroform and ether. n-Hexane
is released as vapor from vacuum evaporator can be recycled back into clarifying tank after
passing through condenser and compressor. Hexane are highly flammable, and its vapors are
explosive where heat, sparks and flames may ignite it. This chemical will also attack some
forms of plastics, rubber and coatings and hence the transporting equipment used should be
made of stainless steel to prevent corrosion.

Chemical storage should also be managed wisely to prevent spillage or leakage due to
wrong material selections. Appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE) should be
prepared throughout the plant and emergency fire rescue facilities should be employed at the
workplace. Risk assessment can be done beforehand to identify equipment and facilities
required for improvement to improve work safety. All processes should also have fixed
standard operating procedures (SOP) and have trainings delivered to reduce casualties.

1.6.5 Economic Feasibility

Economic feasibility study is done to determine whether the project is profitable and
viable to a company. This will determine whether a project is to bring a profit, or should it
incur losses for that company.

Natural oil polyols market will be continually driven by increase of polyurethane

demand from ever increasing automobile and infrastructure industries. The several types of
commonly found PU are flexible foam, rigid and semi-rigid foam and case. Flexible foam is
those used in furniture and bedding, while rigid and semi-rigid foams are used for construction,
roof insulations, sandwiched panels and pipe insulation and automotive cushion and paddings.
Case type PU are used as spray PU, adhesives and sealants. Currently, most of the

96
commercially available polyols are petroleum-based. With the escalating price of crude
petroleum and environmental concern, there is a search for renewable resources for use in the
production of polyols with comparable properties and characteristics to those made from
petroleum.

According to the webpage Market Research Future, the demand and market for polyols
are expected to witness a significant growth by [Link] global polyols market appears to be
highly competitive and diversified with the presence of many well-established players having
the regional and global presence. Innovation, mergers & acquisitions, and brand reinforcement
remain the key trends for leading players in the market.

Natural oil polyols market will be continually driven by increase of polyurethane

demand from ever increasing automobile and infrastructure industries. The several types of
commonly found PU are flexible foam, rigid and semi-rigid foam and case. Flexible foam is
those used in furniture and bedding, while rigid and semi-rigid foams are used for construction,
roof insulations, sandwiched panels and pipe insulation and automotive cushion and paddings.
Case type PU are used as spray PU, adhesives and sealants. Currently, most of the
commercially available polyols are petroleum-based. With the escalating price of crude
petroleum and environmental concern, there is a search for renewable resources for use in the
production of polyols with comparable properties and characteristics to those made from
petroleum.

97
FIGURE 1. 37 Polyurethane foam market revenue by product, 2014-2024

FIGURE 1. 38 Global PU foam market

98
 FIGURE 1. 39 Palm oil price commodity

By analyzing the price fluctuations throughout the years, we can observe that the price
for palm oil is rebounding to its former market value. However, since Malaysia is one of the
largest palm oil producers in the market, we do not have to worry that much since there is
abundant supply of palm oil and production of polyols can help diversify and add value to the
existing export commodities.

1.6.6 Conclusion

In summary, production of PU foam from palm-based polyols is deemed feasible. The

market demand and prospect for palm-based polyols are bright, mainly due to its lower cost
and ease of access to acquire the raw materials. Since Malaysia is one of the main producers in
the market, the supply is also easily attainable aside from external factors such as climate
conditions which may affect the yield. Equipment and facilities to extract palm oil is also

99
significantly lower than extraction of petroleum oil where the operating conditions are also
more extreme. With the demand of PU foam is set to increase, this sector can be considered as
feasible and worth the investment in the meantime.

Moreover, the ability of PU foam produced from palm-based polyols to degrade

naturally eliminates the major concern over petroleum products where they used to accumulate
and cause waste issues. These foams produced can decompose over time through exposure to
light and water and without release of harmful gasses. Waste released throughout the process
were mostly harmless or are easily containable with proper management to prevent polluting
and disrupting the surrounding environment. Hence, this project can be considered as
environmentally friendly.

Furthermore, with mild operating conditions throughout the plant and minimal release
of harmful substances, this plant can categorize as feasible and safe. This is due to the absence
of highly pressurized equipment nor excessively high temperatures involved for the most part
of the processes. Overall, this project is feasible and sustainable to the increasing global
demand of PU foam and preference for renewable material sources of the market today.

100
1.7 SITE STUDY

1.7.1 Introduction

The success of a plant project depends to a large extent on the proper selection of the
site to be developed into a factory plant. The organization must face the pros and cons of the
initial decision once the plant is located at that particular site. The location of the site plant
constructed is very important where unit concern on the profitability of a project with its
efficiency and effectiveness on the high profit with low cost. A good plant location can generate
profitability by increase the manufacturing efficiency and performance. Therefore, the main
step for a process from initial investigation of large areas to site capacity, which are site
screening, site selection, and site characterization, is important for the whole plant construction
process.

The purpose of site screening is to assess the area regions within a much larger area of
interest, such as the entire sedimentary basin. The Site Screening evaluation will distinguish
those Potential Sub-Regions with the highest potential for storage and help eliminate from
consideration those that are less preferable. Each Potential Sub-Region is assessed to determine
if there are smaller, separate areas called selected areas within it that are suitable for more
detailed characterization. The conclusion of the evaluation of all the Potential Sub-Regions
could be listed as selected areas, which are then positioned based on criteria established during
Project Definition. At the end, the selected areas will advance to site selection for more detailed
characterization.

After the site screening, site selection will be the next step. The purpose of this stage is
to further evaluate the selected area and shortlisted the potential sites for site characterization.
Site selection utilizes and confirms the existing information and analyses from site screening
and augments them with additional, trademarked, or other acquired data to evaluate features of
the selected areas. The engineer will have a list of the most promising potential sites at the

101
completion of site selection stage, and it will be evaluating during site characterization. The
engineering team will define the analyses to be conducted for each of the components.

The purpose of site characterization is to examine and inspect thoroughly the selected
site to define its storage-related attributes and determine whether it should be set as a qualified
site. The site is ready for development once the site has achieved rank as a qualified site. During
the characterization process, it requires to assemble a multidisciplinary team in order to plan
all technical and nontechnical components. The characterization process is divided into two
stages: Initial Characterization and Detailed Characterization. The initial characterization part
is analyses existing data and information while activities that require acquisition of new and
additional data are considered part of Detailed Characterization. (Al-Bulushi, A. I, 2012)

1.7.2 Site Selection Criteria

The location of the plant is vital in guaranteeing the efficiency and profitability of the
project and for future expansion. Therefore, the most suitable and profitable location must be
properly select based on the principal factors to maintain a strategic distance from unwanted
accident or misfortunes. The location factors which required to be taken into consideration in
evaluating plant locations are discussed below.

[Link] Raw Material Availability

This characteristic is the most critical factor that has the major effect on the choice of a
plant location. This characteristic is the most important factors that has the major influence on
the choice of a plant location. The amount of direct raw materials it needs should be calculates
based on specific period to ensure no shortages of raw materials. In order to reduce unnecessary
inventory stock, lower ordering costs, and reduce the risk of material obsolescence, industries
should closely track the amount of raw materials bought and used. The raw material palm oil

102
source will be available throughout the year because Malaysia is the second large palm oil
plantations in the world. We have abundance of palm oil supply that we can get it locally.

[Link] Proximity to market

Market proximity is about targeting potential consumers at right place and time with
personalized adverts based on the distance between the consumer and enticing them to make a
purchasing decision in the immediate future. The plant site should be chosen where it is located
inside the region of the current and expanding market in order to reduce the transportation cost
and render quick service to the customers. If the market is nearer to the manufacturing plant, it
requires lower transportation cost and result in gaining profit. Furthermore, the company can
provide a good customer service to the client by providing just-in-time delivery. Apart from
that, company should also need to know their competitor’s area.

[Link] Transport facilities

Palm oil can be transported by using various method, such as trucks, ships and trains,
all of which add to the cost and the negative impacts on the environment. Therefore, efficient
transportation is essential for palm oil as it quickly deteriorates in quality after the crop has
been harvested and milled. Road transport is commonly used for local distribution.
Additionally, a systematic road connection is required to link with the ports which nearest to
the plant make transportation of the materials and products in shortest time. The plant location
that nearer to the port would be more suitable for product import and export.

[Link] Manpower Availability

The availability of a skilled workforce such as technicians and engineers are usually
the primary site selection factor for manufacturers seeking to expand, move or consolidate their
manufacturing footprint after the company has evaluated its logistics network. The accessibility

103
of skilled workforce can be discovered close-by regions that has university and colleges.
Fortunately, skilled labour can provide technical training to the locals in one area to another.
When assessing the availability and suitability of the local for recruitment and training, the
local labor law and trade union customs must also take into consideration.

[Link] Electricity and water resources

Power and water supply are many times very high in some of the plants and require to
supplying these utilities. Power and water resources can be combined as one major in the choice
of plant site. If the plant site requires large quantity power supply, location near the source of
power supply will be essential. The local cost of power and quality of power supply can help
determine whether power should be purchased or self-generated. Besides that, industries
usually need to require large quantities of water for cooling, washing, steam generation, as well
as process of raw material. Hence, the location of the plant should be close to a perennial source
of water such as river or lake which will be plentiful of water supply is available. If the water
supply shows seasonal fluctuations, building of a reservoir or drilling of several standby wells
may be desirable. While selecting water supply, the temperature, mineral content, silt or sand
content, bacteriological content, and cost of supply and purification must also be considered.

[Link] Waste and Effluent Disposal Facilities

Methods for processing of waste materials from process industries have been subjected
to many legal restrictions. The site selected for the plant should have sufficient capacity and
equipment for proper disposal of the waste. The requirement of environmental regulations
should be follows so that the risk will be reduces. In choosing a plant site, consideration is
given to the appropriate tolerance levels for various waste disposal methods and attention
should be given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.

104
[Link] Local Community Considerations

The community's environment and services can have an influence on plant location. If
there are no minimum facilities required for the adequate living of plant workers, subsidizing
these facilities becomes a burden on the plant. The Community's cultural facilities are
important for sound development. Facilities like religious centers, libraries and other similar
groups do a lot to make a community progressive. The efficiency, character, and history of
both state and local government should also take into consideration. Besides that, the plan
location should be locating far away from the residential area to reduce the impact of
production on the local community. However, some communities welcome new plant
construction as a source of new jobs and economic prosperity.

[Link] Climate

The climatic condition must also take into consideration because it may affect the idea
of creation and work proficiency. If the plant is located in a high humidity and hot temperature,
costs may be increased by the necessity for construction of protective shelters around process
equipment to obtain the life expectancy of gear and shield it from consumption. Extreme
climate can have serious effect on the economic operation of the plant, and these factors should
be examined thoroughly when choosing a plant site.

[Link] Safety and environmental aspects of the site

Most of the industries plant are situated along the rivers, and there are risks of flood or
hurricane damage. Some common environmental issues such as land use and various type of
pollution will affect the productivity of the plant. The regional history of nature events of this
type of risk should be examined and the consequences of such occurrence should be considered
before selecting the plant. Apart from that, protection from loses by fire is another factor for
choosing the location of the plant. The assistant from the fire departments should be available
in case of happening major fire.

105
[Link] Government Incentives

Direct tax benefits offer partial or total exemption from the payment of income tax
throughout a specified period, while indirect tax incentives are free from import duty, sales tax
as well as excise duty. The Pioneer Status and Production Tax Allowance are the highest tax
benefits for companies investing in the manufacturing sector.

[Link] Land Price

The plant's characteristics at a planned plant site must be carefully examined. The
topography of the land and the soil composition must be considered, because either or both can
have a pronounced effect on the cost of construction. Land costs, local building costs and living
conditions are very critical as future changes may make expanding the plant facilities attractive.
A new plant should therefore be installed at a site where additional space is available although
no expansion is expected.

1.7.3 Overview of Several Strategic Locations

[Link] Teluk Kalong, Terengganu

Teluk Kalong Industrial Estate, Kemaman Terengganu is earmarked in the East Coast
Economic Region and enjoys many incentives offered by the Federal Government. Teluk
Kalong is located in Kemaman District, Terengganu, Malaysia. For instance, Perwaja Steel
mill is located here which acts as a plant of the Huntsman (Chemical) Corporation which
produced titanium dioxide.

106
 FIGURE 1. 40 Map of Industrial Area at Teluk Kalong, Terengganu

TABLE 1. 39 Location analysis of Teluk Kalong, Terengganu

Teluk Kalong, Terengganu

Distance from nearest town ● 9.6km away from Kemaman
● 29 km away which is equal to 2
hours driving distance from Kuala
Terengganu
Types of preferred industry Petroleum, oil and steel industries
Accessibility of raw material and Supplier of raw material (palm olein):
• ALAMI Commodities Sdn. Bhd.
chemicals
Raw material will be sent through transport
since this company is located at Kuala
Lumpur.

Supplier for the chemicals :

• Bumi Maju Agro Enterprise
• See Sen Chemical Berhad

Both companies are located at Kuala

Terengganu and Kemaman respectively and
able to reach by transportation. Chemicals
that are required to be used for the
production can be purchased though these
two platforms.
Lease period 60 years

107
Selling price (RM psf ) RM20.00
Land Origin Kemaman Municipal Council
Facilities A clinic named “Klinik Desa Teluk Kalong”
is located at Teluk Kalong for medical
purposes.
Infrastructure Five terminals are available at Kemaman
Port, namely East Wharf, Kemaman Supply
Base, LPG Export Terminal, Liquid
Chemical Berth and West Wharf.
Breakwater of 525 meters in the East and
1,525 meters in the South shelter these
terminals. The depth of the port basin is
17.0 meters with capacity to accommodate
vessels up to 150,000 DWT.

Liquid Chemical Bert is well-equipped to

serve the needs of the petrochemical
industries located in the Eastern Corridor of
Peninsular Malaysia. The berth is 320
meters long and is capable of
accommodating vessels up to 150,000 DWT
with a draught of 16.4 meters.

Kemaman Supply Base is a terminal which

provides support services for the petroleum
and gas industry in the East Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. It is 360 meters long
with a maximum draught of 8 metres.
Pangkalan Bekalan Kemaman Sdn Bhd
administers its land operations and
management.
Electric Supply Electricity supplied by Tenaga Nasional
Berhad (TNB). List of electric suppliers are

108
 as below:
● Paka Power Plant (900MW)
● IPP YTL Power Generation Sdn.
Bhd. (600MW)
● Tasik Kenyir Hydroelectric Power
(400MW)
Water Supply Water supplier is Terengganu Waterworks
Department who able to supply a capacity of
75.3 mgd (millions of gallons per day)
Manpower Manpower can be obtained from
Terengganu State Government:

● TATI or Terengganu Advanced

Technical Institute

● TSTC or Terengganu Safety

Training Centre

● TPTTC or Terengganu Plastic

Technology Training Centre

[Link] Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang.

The Gebeng Industrial Estate houses a world-class chemical and petrochemical

industrial zone with four development phases totaling 8,600 hectares of land. It also owns an
excellent infrastructure and facilities which rapidly expanding to become the leading chemical
and petrochemical hub of the region.

109
FIGURE 1. 41 Map of Industrial Area at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang

110
 TABLE 1. 40 Location analysis of Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang

Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang

Distance from Nearest Town ● 5 km from Kuantan Port
● 25 km from Kuantan town
Type of Preferred Industry Petrochemical, Chemical and others
Accessibility of raw material and Supplier of raw material (palm olein):
• ALAMI Commodities Sdn. Bhd.
chemicals
Raw material will be sent through transport
since this company is located at Kuala Lumpur.

Supplier for the chemicals:

• Eastman Chemical (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd.
• Flexsys Chemicals (M) Sdn Bhd

Both companies located at Gebeng Industrial,

chemicals that are required to be used for the
production can be purchased though these two
platforms.
Lease period 99 years
Selling Price (RM psf) ● Industrial lots and ready land are sold for
RM18.00 per square feet.
● Small medium enterprises and SME Lot
129 Complete with infrastructure are
sold for RM25.00 per square feet.
● Price may change without prior notice.
Land Origin State Land
Facilities ● Gebeng bypass which eases traffic flow
from the industrial estate to Kuantan
Port.
● The route of Kuala Lumpur and Kuantan
will link through the East Coast
Highway. This route provides cost
effective and convenient in order to
transfer the raw materials locally as well
as for international channels.

111
 ● Pahang Medical Centre
Infrastructure 9-kilometre common pipe-rack connects the
petrochemical plants of Gebeng Industrial Estate
to and from the tank farm facilities at Kuantan
Port and its liquid chemical berths to facilitate
safer and faster transportation of petrochemical
products between the two areas.
Annual Assessment 7% of the property or land value
Electricity Supply The main electricity supplier is from Tenaga
Nasional Berhad (TNB). The electricity supply
provided by TNB for Phase I and II is supported
by its 132/11kV main intake and for Phase III,
two sources of electricity supply are available
which are:
Centralized Utility Facilities (CUF) 12/275kV
main intake
Telecommunication The main telecommunication supplier in Gebeng
Industrial Estate is Telekom Malaysia. They
provide state-of-the-art facilities and services
such as Integrated Systems Digital Network
(ISDN), digital line, MAYPAC, Internet and
video conferencing.
Fire-fighting facilities The Pahang Fire and Rescue Department is
located near Gebeng in order to handle any
emergencies. In addition, located within the
vicinity of Gebeng is Petronas Centralized
Emergency Facilities. Both stations are
equipped with HAZMAT (hazardous material)
facilities. Another service provided is the
Gebeng Emergency Mutual Aid (GEMA), a
voluntary crisis management organization, set
up from an alliance between Government
agencies and private manufacturers in Gebeng.

112
 The main objective of GEMA is to execute
proactive action and they also offer expert
services to counter emergencies.
Water Supply The water supply in Gebeng Industrial Estate is
supplied from the Semambu Water Treatment
Plant. The current capacity of water supply is
2MG/D. Government of Pahang is committed to
ensuring an efficient water supply in Gebeng.
The steps have been taken as below:
● Increase of water supply to 64 MG/D
● Building of a new 200 acrs dam in
Sungai Lembing, Kuantan
● Building of new pipes and water tanks in
Gebeng Industrial Estate

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[Link] Tanjung Langsat, Johor

Tanjung Langsat is a main industrial area and port in Pasir Gudang, Johor Bahru
District, Johor, Malaysia. An onshore oil terminal was constructed at the area, with a total oil-
storage capacity of 530 000 m³ installed by March 2010.

FIGURE 1. 42 Map of Industrial Area at Tanjung Langsat, Pasir Gudang, Johor Bahru
District, Johor

TABLE 1. 41 Location analysis of Tanjung Langsat, Pasir Gudang

Tanjung Langsat, Pasir Gudang,Johor Bahru District,Johor

Distance It is an industrial area located at the
Southeast of Johor which is 8km away from
Pasir Gudang Industrial Area. It is owned
and developed by Johor Corporation
Types of preferred industry Light, medium and heavy industries
Accessibility of raw material and Supplier of raw material (palm olein):
• ALAMI Commodities Sdn. Bhd.
chemicals
Raw material will be sent through transport
since this company is located at Kuala
Lumpur.

Supplier for the chemicals:

• GE Chemicals Supplies
• Titan Petrochemical (M) Sdn Bhd

Both companies located at Pasir Gudang,

Johor, chemicals that are required to be used

114
 for the production can be purchased through
these two platforms.
Lease period 60 years
Selling price (RM psf ) The market price of the new leasehold land
at the Tanjung Langsat Industrial area is sell
for RM40.00 per square feet.
Infrastructure ● Tanjung Langsat Port (TLP) offers
liquid jetty facilities for the loading
and discharging of petroleum
products and edible oil. It consists of
7 berths which are Berth 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
8 and 9. All berths are equipped with
dedicated pipelines to TLP
Terminal’s port user terminal such as
Langsat Terminal One (LGT 1) &
Langsat Terminal Two (LGT 2),
Langsat Bulkers Sdn Bhd, Langsat
Bitumen (Puma Energy) and Musim
Mastika Oil & Fats (Malaysia) Sdn
Bhd.
● Dry Cargo Jetty offers the handling
of Bulk and Break Bulk cargoes. All
activities such as loading and
discharging will be assisted by the
Marine team and registered
stevedores for safe operation.
Land Origin Johor Corporation
Facilities ● Klinik Desa Tanjung Langsat
● Public Bus Transportation
● Tanjung Langsat Secondary School
● Mosque
Electricity The main electricity supplier is from Tenaga
Nasional Berhad (TNB).
Telecommunication The main telecommunication supplier in

115
 Tanjung Langsat is Telekom Malaysia. This
area does own a TM point Pasir Gudang
which is able to access the Internet freely
for business and communication purposes. It
also provides coverage of 3G,4G and 5G in
this area.

Firefighting facilities Fire prevention is the most important

element in port and marine operation. Hence
firefighting system testing is carried on at
the TLP. As instances, there are some
monitoring activities conducted on it such as
firefighting systems which test based on
every week or month. Besides, TLP also
owned a hydrant and foam system, water
and foam monitor, firefighting pump and oil
spill response equipment (OSRE)
Water Supply Syarikat Air Johor Sdn Bhd (SAJ Holdings)
in charge of supply water to communities
and industries within Pasir Gudang.

116
1.7.4 Site Selections Conclusion

Analysis of Potential Site Locations

Score indication: 1-Poor, 2-Good, 3-Excellent

TABLE 1. 42 Site Factor Analysis of the Site Location

Selection Criteria Potential Location

Teluk Kalong, Gebeng Industrial Tanjung Langsat,

Terengganu Estate, Kuantan, Pasir Gudang,Johor
Pahang Bahru District,Johor

Type of industries 2 3 3

Petroleum, oil and steel Petrochemical, Light, medium and

industries Chemical and other heavy industries

Justification: Various industries are the priority for the production of raw materials and
production process.

Distance from 1 3 2
nearest town

● 9.6km away ● 5 km from ● 8km away

from Kemaman Kuantan Port from Pasir
● 29 km away ● 25 km from Gudang
which is equal Kuantan town Industrial
to 2 hours Area.
driving distance
from Kuala

117
 Terengganu

Justification: The shortest distance from the town or port, more time and cost are save up for
the transportation and more convenient.

Lease period 1 3 2

60 99 60 years

Justification: Lease period indicates the total years that are able to be owned by the owner.

Accessibility of 3 3 2
raw materials and
chemicals

• Eastman • Eastman • GE
Chemical Chemical Chemicals
(Malaysia) Sdn. (Malaysia) Supplies
Bhd. Sdn. Bhd. • Titan
• Flexsys • Flexsys Petrochemica
Chemicals (M) Chemicals l (M) Sdn
Sdn Bhd (M) Sdn Bhd Bhd

Selling price 2 3 1

(RM psf )

● RM20.00 per ● Industrial lots ● RM40.00 per

square feet and ready land square feet.
are sold for
RM18.00 per
square feet.
● Small medium
enterprises
and SME Lot

118
 129 Complete
with
infrastructure
are sold for
RM25.00 per
square feet.
● Price may
change
without prior
notice.

Justification: Selling price indicates the total cost for the whole plant.

Infrastructure 2 2 2

● Five terminals ● 9-kilometre ● Tanjung

are available at common pipe- Langsat Port
Kemaman Port, rack connects (TLP) offers
● Liquid the liquid jetty
Chemical Bert petrochemical facilities for
is well- plants of the loading
equipped to Gebeng and
serve the needs Industrial discharging
of the Estate to and of petroleum
petrochemical from the tank products and
industries farm facilities edible oil.
● Kemaman at Kuantan ● All berths are
Supply Base is a Port equipped
terminal which ● Liquid with
provides chemical dedicated
support services berths to pipelines to
for the facilitate safer TLP
petroleum and and faster Terminal’s

119
 gas industry in transportation port user
the East Coast of terminal
of Peninsular petrochemical ● Dry Cargo
Malaysia. products Jetty offers
between the the handling
two areas. of Bulk and
Break.

Justification: Port is essential for the import and export purposes which facilitate the
transaction with the other countries.

Electricity Supply 3 2 1

Electricity supplied by The main electricity The main electricity

Tenaga Nasional supplier is from supplier is from
Berhad (TNB). List of Tenaga Nasional Tenaga Nasional
electric suppliers are as Berhad (TNB). Berhad (TNB).
below:
● Phase I and II
● Paka Power is supported
Plant (900MW) by 132/11kV
● IPP YTL Power main intake
Generation Sdn. and
Bhd. (600MW) ● Phase III,
● Tasik Kenyir Centralised
Hydroelectric Utility
Power Facilities
(400MW) (CUF)
12/275kV
main intake

Justification: Stable power of electricity is crucial for a plant in order to secure the smooth
production and avoid downtime.

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Water Supply 2 3 2

Water supplier is The water supply in Syarikat Air Johor

Terengganu Gebeng Industrial Sdn Bhd (SAJ
Waterworks Estate is supplied Holdings) in charge
Department who able to from the Semambu of supply water to
supply a capacity of Water Treatment communities and
75.3 MG/D Plant with 2MG/D. industries within
Pasir Gudang.
● Increase of
water supply
to 64 MG/D
● Building of a
new 200-acre
dam in Sungai
Lembing,
Kuantan
● Building of
new pipes and
water tanks in
Gebeng
Industrial
Estate

Justification: Stable and efficient water supply are important for the cooling process of the
production in the plant.

Medical Facilities 3 3 3

Klinik Desa Teluk Pahang Medical Klinik Desa Tanjung

Kalong Centre Langsat

Justification: Medical facility is to make sure the employees are in a good condition to work.

121
Firefighting 1 3 2
facilities

Poor facilities that fire ● The Pahang ● Firefighting

happened at Kemaman Fire and system
Bitumen Company Sdn Rescue testing is
Bhd's (KBC) giant Department carried on at
storage tank for crude handles the TLP.
oil which the fire has emergencies. ● Monitoring
spread to the third ● Petronas activities
container at its factory Centralized conducted on
premises in the Teluk Emergency it such as
Kalong Industrial area. Facilities. firefighting
● Both stations systems
are equipped which test
with based on
HAZMAT every week
(hazardous or month.
material) ● TLP owned a
facilities. hydrant and
● Gebeng foam system,
Emergency water and
Mutual Aid foam
(GEMA) to monitor,
execute firefighting
proactive pump and oil
action and spill response
they also offer equipment
expert
services to
counter
emergencies.

122
Justification: Safe firefighting facility able to prevent any fire or explosion happening in the
plant.

Total score 20 28 21

Based on the criteria that discuss from the above by comparing different locations,
Gebeng Industrial Estate which is located in Pahang is chosen as a site of manufacturing the
product. There are few reasons to support this decision after undergoing some consideration
from different aspects. The main supplier for the raw material which is palm olein will be
obtained from the ALAMI Commodities Sdn. Bhd which is located at Kuala Lumpur. The
explanation is further elaborated below.

The accessibility of raw materials and chemicals that are located in these few options
of the site selection is important since the company is able to get the chemicals that they require
in the production and able to purchase conveniently. Thus, the chemical supplier companies
must be available and nearby to the company so that the company is able to get the chemicals
immediately if any emergency happens without affecting the entire production.

The land lease period of the Gebeng Industrial Estate is the longest which is 99 years.
By comparing the other locations, the land lease periods are up to 60 years only. The higher
the lease period indicates the higher guarantee of the sustainability of the site.

The pricing of the land is the cheapest compared to the other locations. Hence, a lower
cost is spent to build a bigger plant which is able to produce more products and eventually
increase productivity and profits. Thus, the price is significant which needs to be considered
into the budget for the plant construction.

123
 The facilities that are provided are good which electricity and water supply are
compulsory to start up a business. Thus, building the site in this area will be reassured since
the electricity and water supply will be supplied to the site continuously. Accidents such as
plant shutdown due to unstable electricity supply will not happen since Tenaga Nasional
Berhad will guarantee to supply stable power to support the whole plant in the site. Adequate
and continuous water supply from Syarikat Air Johor Sdn Bhd will be in charge of supplying
water to the industries within Pasir Gudang. It is compulsory to have a continuous water supply
especially to the industries since they need it for the water cooling for the plant.

The facilities that are provided are good which electricity and water supply are
compulsory to start up a business. Thus, building the site in this area will be reassured since
the electricity and water supply will be supplied to the site continuously. Accidents such as
plant shutdown due to unstable electricity supply will not happen since Tenaga Nasional
Berhad will guarantee to supply stable power to support the whole plant in the site. Adequate
and continuous water supply from Syarikat Air Johor Sdn Bhd will be in charge of supplying
water to the industries within Pasir Gudang. It is compulsory to have a continuous water supply
especially to the industries since they need it for the water cooling for the plant.

Palm oil companies in Malaysia are an integral part of the Malaysian economy which
most of the companies are located in Pahang state. Thus, the raw materials that are needed are
more convenient and easier to purchase since the material supplier and the site are located in
the same state. Thus, it would not be worried as the materials are able to supply as much as the
demand. Besides that, the material can be received instantly after ordering since it is being
purchased within the same area. It would save a lot of transportation fees since the company
also required to pay for petrol and manpower to send the materials from the other state to
another.

On the other hand, the presence of port is one of the criterias of choosing a better site
selection since port is a kind of business platform to export and import the product. Thus, the
business mindset would not be limited in the market in Malaysia only. The geography location
is strategic since it is a good location to build up a Kuantan Port. It is a multipurpose port in

124
the East Coast Region of Peninsular Malaysia which is situated about 25 km to the north of
Kuantan city and facing the South China Sea. Thus, it is able to gain new business with others
since the port is known as a trading center among the different countries.

1.7.5 Proposed Site and Plant Layout

FIGURE 1. 43 Plant Layout

125
 CHAPTER II

PROCESS SYNTHESIS AND FLOWSHEETING

2.1 SYNTHESIS OF PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Production of bio-based polyols for synthesis of rigid foam can generally be separated
into three main stages. The first step involves transesterification of palm oil from triglyceride
to monoglycerides. Glycerol, potassium hydroxide and palm olein were heated to 150℃
(Arniza et al., 2015) before entering the first CSTR reactor. Transesterified products were then
washed using water to separate unreacted glycerol components from mixture to remove from
the bottom of the equipment. The unit operation of washer is used instead of clarification tank
as the unit operation offered by Superpro is unable to replicate the intended operation.

Hot product from primary reactor were then cooled to 60℃ (Arniza et al., 2015) before
entering epoxidation reactor. This temperature value has been agreed from several other
researchers stating that 60℃ is the optimum temperature for epoxidation to take place in
presence of performic acid. A stream of performic acid consisting of formic acid and hydrogen
peroxide with 50 wt% each were added into reactor. Hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxygen
donor to form epoxide with monoglycerol to allow for ring-opening reaction later. Epoxidized
products were then neutralized to pH 7 by removing unreacted formic acid. A secondary
neutralization process is implemented to remove hydrochloric acid formed during
neutralization of formic acid. Neutralized and epoxidized product were then sent to a vacuum
evaporator to reduce moisture content down to 0.05wt% (Arniza et al., 2015), however since
Superpro does not have this unit operation, flash distillation column which is able to carry out
a similar function is used instead. The bottom stream was then cooled to 60℃ before sending
to ring-opening reactor.

126
 At the ring-opening reactor, boron trifluoride etherate was added as catalyst while
ethylene glycol was added as reactant to react with neutralized and epoxidized product. The
product from this point onward is known as polyol comprising of mostly monolinolein and
monoolein based structure. Polyol produced were then washed using water in a washer to
deactivate catalytic activity of boron-trifluoride etherate for safe disposal. Washed stream then
enters a final dryer to reduce moisture content to below 0.05 wt% before utilized for synthesis
of rigid foams.

The rigid foam synthesized in this project is a mixture of petroleum and palm-based
polyurethane foam as it is unable to produce foams purely out of palm-based polyol yet. A ratio
of 1:1 for both petroleum and palm-based polyol was used (Arniza et al., 2015), along with
amine catalyst, water as blowing agent, surfactants and polyol to isocyanate ratio at 1:1(Sidek
et al., 2017) was used. The final foam was then formed on top of a conveyer belt to form a
continuous block or as thick sheets. However, due to the lack of unit operations in Superpro
database, this process is unable to be simulated.

FIGURE 2. 1 PFD for production of bio-based polyol based on simulation file

127
2.2 HIERARCHY OF FLOWSHEET

The general hierarchy of a process design is a process which consists of various steps
and decision. It includes of process selection, input or output structure of flowsheet, recycle
structure of flowsheet, separation synthesis and energy recovery system. There are few unit
operations would be used to synthesis the process which must obey the heuristics rules for
sustainable design process flow diagram and hierarchical task sequence.

2.2.1 Batch vs. Continuous

The manufacturing industry process the input to output in a defined series of action.
The input usually includes the reactant and raw materials whereas the output includes the
product and energy. The condition of reactant for reactions and activation of chemical reaction
with catalyst depends on these series of action. The selection of mode of operation is vital for
the performance of the process to produce desired products that is economically viable and
environmentally friendly. The production processes in the chemical industry can be classified
based on type of modes which are: batch reactors, semi-batch reactor and continuous reactors.
The first step in a process designing is to decide whether a process is batch or continuous.

128
 (a) Batch Process

A batch process is a process in which the product comes out in groups and not
continuously. Batch process is usually performed over and over. Batch process is suitable for
small production rate with longer reaction rate and specific reaction which has higher
selectivity of certain products. The operations only happen once at a time and the material
being processed is not divided into identifiable portions. The process consists of few sequences
of steps that will result in limited quantities of material and product at the end of the process
and the process repeated in order to produce another product batch.

The process consists of few sequences of steps in orderly manner to produce a batch of
product. These steps are repeated to produce another batch of products after the completion of
previous batch. The manufacturing of product may not work all the time for this batch process
where it would be more depend on the market demand. Batch reaction is a single step or multi-
stage process. The input is fed into the chemical reaction and then well mixed a certain
condition that suitable for obtaining the desired reaction like temperature and pressure. The
quantity or scale of manufacture does not justify continuous operation because batch process
is running in short time burst.

TABLE 2. 1 The advantages and disadvantages of batch reactor

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple design Time consuming

Hands-Off Management of Large, Repeating Development and training of worker in

Processes handling
Faster and Lower Cost Easily get contaminated
Easy for data collection and operation Require long reaction time
Small scale production Not suitable for large scale production
[Adapted from Stephen Watts, 2012]

129
 (b.) Continuous Process

A continuous process is a flow production method which the product manufacture

without interruption and not in groups. The reactant and product are present in three phases
which are liquid, solid and gas phase. More informally, continuous process can be defined as
works in a single work unit at 24 hours a day, and seven days a week between every step
without any breaks in time, substance, sequence or extend. For instance, stock exchange
markets monitor stock performance continuously and report it regularly to the investor. Each
machine in continuous process is easily construct and cost saving. The reactor operates in a
steady state and allows simple catalyst changing or replacement. For most of the continuous
process applications, it involves high production rate and low reaction time. It can reduce
waste, increase productivity and able to adapt to the need of customers more efficiently than
batch processing when properly implemented the process flow.

TABLE 2. 2 The advantages and disadvantages of continuous reactor

Advantages Disadvantages
Quick return on capital employed Conversion of reactant per reactor is relatively
small
Control of the entire course of High labour cost per unit volume of reactor
production
Cheap cost of construction Much capital is required to install production
lines
Large output volume Low flexibility in changing products
Product quality is consistent Low conversion per unit volume

[Link] Selection of process mode

Continuous process is selected for this project due to these several reasons after review
and analysis. The continuous reactor assembly is a modular design that permits rapid and easy
modification of the reactor to accommodate different reaction requirements imposed by the

130
chosen product. The reactor assembly additionally provides the ability to prepare a polyol that
requires different reaction temperatures at different points in the reaction. Moreover,
continuous process involves moving one work unit at a time between each step of the process
with no breaks in time, sequence, substance or extent, which helps in saving the total
production running time as well as cost. On the other hand, the required volume of the tanks
for a specific batch process is more significant than that required for a parallel continuous
process. Continuous process is more space saving with smaller size installation required which
may reduce the land footprint, thus saving cost on land cost. Thus, continuous process will be
more suitable for the process requirements of producing polyols.

2.2.2 Input Output Structure of Flowsheet

The purpose of this section is to determine the input and output structure of the
production process of polyurethane by using palm olein as raw material. The inputs are
represented by the feed streams, the outputs are the product streams which are both desired and
undesired streams. Generally, there are three types of input and output structure diagram, which
are process concept diagram, process flow diagram and generic block flow process diagram.

[Link] Input Decision

The main input ingredient for the production of polyol is the palm olein which consist
of LOO triglyceride. The fractionation process involves a physical process of cooling the oil
to low temperatures under controlled conditions, followed by filtration of the crystals via
membrane press. The liquid is cooled down to a temperature at which fatty acid with a higher
melting point start to form crystals. Crystallization is the physical process by which is solid
form where the molecules are highly organized into a structure known as crystal. The partially
crystallized mixture is pumped through a filter press to separate the liquid and solid fraction.
The liquid olein is pumped out of the filter press while the solid fraction stearin is removed by
blowing air through the membrane. The liquid palm olein and solid stearin are products of
fractionation, and they are the major products exported. Solid palm stearin is the by-product in

131
this process that can be used for obtaining palm mid fractions (PMF) and also in blends with
other vegetable oils to obtain suitable functional products such as margarine fats.
([Link]. 2011). Lastly, the palm olein is heated to 150℃ with catalyst before being
transfer into trans-esterification reactor.

[Link] Output Decision

The main output of this plant is polyol along with several side products such as
hydrochloric acid, glycerol, hexane and water vapor. In trans-esterification process, the mixture
stirred continuously under dry nitrogen atmosphere. The reaction mixture was transferred to a
separation funnel after the stirring for 6 hours. n-Hexane was added to the contents of the
separation funnel, which was then stirred vigorously to dissolve the TPO. The mixture was
left to separate, and the unreacted glycerol was discarded. N-hexane was removed by
evaporation in vacuum conditions. During Epoxidation stage, Transesterified palm olein was
then heated to 60 °C. Performic acid was slowly added under fast mechanical stirring.
Epoxidation reaction was stopped when reactant components reaches more than 90% of the
theoretical value. The epoxidized transesterified palm olein (ETPO) was then separated from
the spent acid and it was neutralized by washing with sodium chloride followed by sodium
carbonate. During Ring-Opening reaction, dried neutralized ETPO was heated to 60 °C. After
that, the mixture of premixed ethylene glycol and boron trifluoride–ether complex was slowly
added dropwise to ETPO under fast mechanical stirring for 1-3 hours. The reaction was
considered completed when the oxirane oxygen content of the ETPO was less than 0.5 %. The
polyol obtained was then subjected to neutralization, washing and drying until the moisture
content of the polyol was less than 0.05%. At the start of polyurethane foam production, the
reacting raw materials such as polyol and isocyanate are held as liquids in large, stainless steel
tanks. These tanks are equipped with agitators to keep the materials fluid. The reacting
materials are passed through a heat exchanger as they are pumped into pipes. The exchanger
adjusts the temperature to the reactive level. Inside the pipes, the polymerization reaction
occurs. By the time the polymerizing liquid gets to the end of the pipe, the polyurethane is
already formed.

132
[Link] Generic Block Flow Process Diagram of Input and Output Structure

FIGURE 2. 2 Block flow diagram of overall process

2.2.3 Separation Synthesis

Separation is a common process in all the chemical industries. In general, it converts a

mixture or solution of chemical substances into two or more distinct product mixtures.
Additionally, it can also purify a product to achieve the desired purity. Currently, there are
numerous separation techniques such as distillation, filtration, crystallization, absorption, and
absorption. In fact, the major investment and operating costs of a process are costs associated
with separation equipment.

Almost all chemical process requires the separation of chemical species (component) to:

a) Purify a reactor feed

b) Recover unreacted species for recycle to a reactor

c) Separate and purify the product from a reactor

133
 Frequently, the major investment and operating costs of a process will be those cost
associated with the separation equipment. For binary mixture, it may be possible to select a
separation method that can be accomplishing the separation task in just one piece of equipment.
However, more commonly, the feed mixture involves more than two components, involving
more complex separation system. In this production of polyurethane using palm olein is done
by using two flash distillation units. Flash distillation is a technique for separating a single
point. A liquid feed for the mixture is supplied through a heater to increase the mixture's
temperature and enthalpy. This then flows through a valve and the pressure is reduced, causing
partial vaporization of the liquid. If a large enough amount (the "flash drum") is injected into
the mixture, the liquid and vapor separate. Since the vapor and liquid are in such near contact
as the "flash" occurs, the liquid and vapor phases of the substance reach equilibrium.

FIGURE 2. 3 Flash Distillation Column V104

FIGURE 2. 4 Flash Distillation Column V105

134
2.3 PROCESS AND REACTION DESCRIPTION

2.3.1 Transesterification

TABLE 2. 3 Transesterification reaction parameters

Process Transesterification
Temperature 150 °C
Time 6 hours

Transesterification was a process of increasing the functionality by introducing

additional hydroxyl groups to the triglyceride structure which was exchanging the organic
group of the ester with the organic group of alcohol with the presence of acid or base catalyst.
One of the most common methods for transesterification was the reaction of the ester with
alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst. For instance, vegetable oils contain triglyceride
molecules and the presence of alcohol with the presence of catalyst will result in the formation
of esters and glycerol. Figure below was the example of the chemical structure for
transesterification.

FIGURE 2. 5 Transesterification of TAG in the presence of alcohol and catalyst

135
 FIGURE 2. 6 FTIR analysis of palm oil and palm-based polyol

Firstly, the chemical structure of the raw material will be examined under the FTIR
(Perkin-Elmer FT-IR System 200) spectrophotometer and scanning electron microscope (Jeol
JSM5900 LV) was to examine the morphology of the substance. Figure above showed that the
graph which the different raw materials are examined under the FTIR technique. The FT-IR
technique was employed to analyse the functional groups of palm oil and palm oil-based polyol.
The presence of hydroxyl group in the palm oil-based polyol is reflected by the transmittance
peaks which was shown from the figure above. Higher peak indicates higher wavenumber that
consists of secondary alcohol hydroxyl bond whereas lower peak indicates lower wavenumber
which consists of primary alcohol hydroxyl bond. If the product was able to dissolve
completely in ethanol means that the palm oil product is converted into a high functionalized
product through transesterification reaction. In addition, FTIR technique was able to detect the
presence of monoglyceride with the absence of hydroxyl groups. Thus, formation of
monoglyceride was confirmed by GC analysis. GC results indicated that the reaction product
consists of fatty acids, monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides. Besides, the activity of
the catalyst in the reaction was able to be evaluated on the basis of the percentage of
monoglyceride through GC analysis.

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 First and foremost, raw material which was palm olein will be placed in a glass vessel,
equipped with a water-cooling condenser, a thermometer, inert gas inlet tube and motorized
stirrer. Next, glycerol was added followed by the catalyst which is potassium hydroxide. Thus,
the catalyst was added and dissolved into the mixture and then heated up to 150 °C. The mixture
was stirred continuously under the dry nitrogen atmosphere. This process took up to six hours.
When six hours passed, the mixture was transferred to a separation funnel and approximately
amount of n-Hexane (500 mL) was added into it. The mixture was then shaken evenly in order
to separate out the upper and bottom layer. The n-hexane which was added previously will be
removed by evaporation under vacuum. The unwanted bottom layer which was unreacted
glycerol will be removed through filtration and the wanted upper layer which was the
transesterified palm olein product. The product will be prepared to undergo a second process
which was epoxidation.

2.3.2 Epoxidation

TABLE 2. 4 Epoxidation reaction parameters

Process Epoxidation
Temperature In between 50 and 60 °C
Time 3.5 hours

Next, the epoxidation process will be carried on after the completion of the
transesterification. The trans esterified palm olein will be reacted with performic acid which
was generated from the reaction of hydrogen peroxide and formic acid in acidic medium.
Formic acid was a catalyst which was needed for the formation of the oxirane ring and as a
reactant in the hydrolysis of the oxirane ring. Hence, the optimum amount of formic acid was
important in order to obtain the maximum value of oxirane oxygen content. Last but not least,
the iodine value of the epoxidized trans-esterified palm olein is a good indication to test the
effectiveness of the conversion.

137
 First and foremost, the trans-esterified palm olein was placed in a 1-L glass vessel,
equipped with a thermometer, motorized stirrer, reflux condenser and dropping funnel. The
glass vessel was placed in an oil bath and the trans-esterified palm olein was heated up to 60°C.
Then, performic acid and hydrogen peroxide were slowly added to the trans-esterified palm
olein in the glass vessel under the rapid mechanical stirring. The epoxidation process was
conducted at a temperature between 50 and 60 °C for 3.5 hours. The total additional amount of
formic acid and hydrogen peroxide were muchly dependent on the expected degree of oxidation
of the final products. Hence, the progress of the epoxidation reaction was dependent on the
oxirane oxygen content. The epoxidation reaction was stopped once the oxirane oxygen content
of the reaction components reached more than 90 % of the theoretical value. Next, the mixture
will be separated from the spent acid and it was neutralized by washing with the sodium
chloride followed by sodium carbonate until the pH reached between 6 and 7.

Figure above shown from the result of the graph of research from J Am Oil Chem Soc
(2015). The graph showed that the rate of epoxidation increased as the concentration of formic
acid in the system increased. The reaction will keep increasing until the end of the reaction and
remain constant until it reaches a certain point. It can be proved that from the graph as
increasing the concentration of formic acid to 1.5 and 2 mol will not increase the oxirane
oxygen content of epoxidized trans-esterified palm olein to a value higher than 1.84. 1.84 is
the final value since the reaction had completed.

138
 FIGURE 2. 7 Graph Pattern for the epoxidation reaction versus different
concentration.

2.3.3 Ring Opening

TABLE 2. 5 Ring-opening reaction parameters

Process Ring Opening

Temperature 60 °C
Time In between 1- 3 hours

Then, the ring opening process will be conducted after the completion of epoxidation.
The reaction was carried out by using a 500-mL glass vessel, equipped with a thermometer,
motorized stirrer, reflux condenser and dropping funnel. The epoxidized trans-esterified palm
olein was heated up to 60 °C. Next, a mixture of premixed ethylene glycol and boron
trifluoride–ether complex was slowly added into the epoxidized trans-esterified palm olein
after the it was heated until a desired temperature under fast mechanical stirring. The reaction
undergoes continuous stirring for around 1 until 3 hours.

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 The reaction of the mixture will be under monitoring in order to supervise the progress
of the reaction through oxirane oxygen content analysis. When the epoxidized trans-esterified
palm olein less than 0.5 %, the whole reaction was able to be considered as accomplished.
Thus, the product which was polyol will undergo a long process which was neutralization,
washing and drying until the moisture content of the polyol was less than 0.05 %.

There were two steps which took place for the Lewis acid catalysed ring opening of the
epoxidation. The first one would be activated by the catalyst which is called boron trifluoride–
ether complex. The polyhydric alcohol will attack the activated epoxide via an SN2
mechanism. The relationship between the ring-opening reaction time and residual oxirane
oxygen content and hydroxyl value of the trans-esterified palm olein-based polyol was
inversely proportional. Thus, the ring-opening reaction was dependent on the reaction time. In
the meantime, the hydroxyl values of trans-esterified palm olein-based polyols gradually
increased with longer ring-opening reaction time.

In conclusion, Trans-esterified palm olein-based polyol was prepared through three

major processes which are transesterification, epoxidation and ring opening process. The palm
olein will continue to epoxidize with the performic acid after undergoing the transesterification
process and next will be the ring opening. The epoxidation will not affect the hydroxyl value
for the epoxidized transesterified palm olein. (Mohd Zan Arniza, 2015). Then the epoxidized
trans-esterified palm olein was used as the substrate to produce polyol in the alcoholysis.

2.4 BASIC UNIT SELECTION

2.4.1 Reactor

An enclosed volume whereby a chemical reaction takes place with or without the
presence of an agitator depending on the mode of reaction and mechanism of operation. The

140
design and selection of chemical reactors depend on the mode of operation and desired
outcome.

[Link] Batch Reactor

Reactants are fed into the reactor, mixed, left to react and later discharged. There will
be no transfer of reactant and products into and out of the reactor when reaction is happening.

FIGURE 2. 8 Batch reactor schematic diagram

TABLE 2. 6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Batch Reactor

Advantages Disadvantages

● High conversion per unit volume for one ● High operating cost
pass ● Product quality more variable than
● Flexibility of operation-same reactor can with continuous operation
produce one product one time and a
different product the next
● Easy to clean

[Link] CSTR (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor)

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 A continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is a vessel (tank) that is continuously stirred
to maintain a uniform concentration within the vessel. The term CSTR is often used in chemical
engineering to refer to an idealized agitated tank reactor that is used to model the operating
variables needed to achieve a specified output.

Run at steady state with continuous flow of reactants and products; the feed assumes a
uniform composition throughout the reactor, exit stream has the same composition as in the
tank

FIGURE 2. 9 CSTR reactor schematic diagram

TABLE 2. 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of CSTR.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Continuous operation ● Lowest conversion per unit

● Good temperature control volume
● Easily Constructed ● By-passing and channeling
● Versatile; Easily adapts to two possible with poor agitation
phase runs
● Low operating (labor) cost
● Easy to clean

[Link] PFR (Plug Flow Reactor)

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 Reactants are pumped through a pipe or tube and reaction proceeds as the reagents
travel through the reactor. Concentration varies continuously in the axial direction through the
reactor but radial variation at constant in reaction rate.

FIGURE 2. 10 PFR reactor schematic diagram

TABLE 2. 8 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR

Advantages Disadvantages

● Continuous Operation ● Temperatures are hard to control and can

● High volumetric unit conversion result in undesirable temperature gradients
● Run for long periods of time without ● Maintenance is more expensive than CSTR
maintenance maintenance
● Heat transfer rate can be optimized by using
more, thinner tubes or fewer, thicker tubes in
parallel
● Low operating (labor) cost)

[Link] Choice of Reactor: CSTR (Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor) & Semi batch
reactor

There are 4 major reactors in the process of production of polyol from palm olein which is:

1. Reactor 1(CSTR): Transesterification of palm olein to glycerol

143
2. Reactor 2(CSTR): Epoxidation of TPO to ETPO

3. Reactor 3(CSTR): Ring opening of ETPO to polyol

4. Reactor 4(Semi batch): Mixing reactor to form PU foam

The CSTR is chosen for use in this plant cycle after a thorough perusal. CSTR is highly
versatile and is a common ideal chemical engineering reactor type used in many chemical
processing applications such as absorption, distillation, stripping, separation, and catalytic
reactions. Besides that, there are certain considerations that must be taken into account. A
system for continuous palm oil transesterification was built using a continuous stirred-tank
reactor (CSTR) and pumps for continuous oil and catalyst delivery and for continuous product
removal. The catalyst that using is sodium hydroxide (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻), the methanol-to-oil molar ratio
was 6:1, and the temperature of the reaction was 50-60°C. TPO feed assumes a uniform
composition in the reactor for Reactor 2, exit stream has the same composition as in the tank.
The epoxidized transesterified palm olein was obtained at 180 min for the reaction at the end
of the epoxidation cycle using a [Link] mole ratio. (Transesterified palm olein, hydrogen
peroxide and formic acid) For Reactor 3, it operates at a steady state at a temperature of 60 ° C
with continuous flow of reactants and products. The prepared ethylene glycol and boron
trifluoride complex was loaded into the same reactor in portions. The ring opening of ethylene
glycol indicates that the oxirane oxygen content decreases during the reaction.

The production of PU begins with a bulk polymer reaction, the reacting raw materials
with a standard ratio of 1:2, polyol to diisocyanate are stored in large stainless-steel tanks
together with an amine catalyst, surfactant and blowing agent. These semi batch tanks have
agitators to hold the materials inside. When PU production is operated as a semi batch process,
the reactor is modified to allow reactant addition and product removal in time. The process
assumes uniform composition and temperature throughout. One of the advantages of using a
semi-batch reactor is the flexibility of adding more reactants over time.

144
 Therefore, CSTR is selected because it is economically beneficial to operate several
CSTRs in series or in parallel. Across the diverse applications in which they are used, the
physical dimensions of the tanks can vary greatly, the tank sizes range from a few litres to
several thousand litres. Therefore, more products can form due to increased reactant/catalyst
contact due to high contact between reactant and catalyst than in other types of reactors. Besides
that, the by-products such as glycerol can be removed in between the reaction.

2.4.2 Heat Exchanger

[Link] Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The shell and tube heat exchanger are widely used in chemical processes and plants. It
is designed with capabilities to allow for a wide range of temperatures and pressure. The shell
and tube heat exchanger used in chemical plants are accepted by TEMA (Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association). A shell and tube heat exchanger fundamentally consist of tubes
mounted inside a cylindrical shell. Two fluids will be injected to flow and exchange heat, where
one fluid will flow in the tubes and another fluid will flow in the cylindrical shell which will
be in contact with the outer surface of the tubes. The heat will be exchanged between the fluids
by conduction through the tubes and convection in the fluids. A typical shell and tube heat
exchanger consist of front header, read header, tube bundle and a shell. Figure 2.11 shows the
illustration of a shell and tube heat exchanger.

FIGURE 2. 11 An illustration of shell and tube heat exchanger

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 TABLE 2. 9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Advantages Disadvantages

● Low cost ● Less efficiency in heat exchange

● Pressure drop over the tubes is less ● Cleaning and maintenance are
● Any leakage in the tubes can be problematic since a tube cooler
found easily requires enough clearance at one
● Easy and safe operation with high end to remove the tube nest
temperature and pressure ● Capacity of tube cooler cannot be
increased.

[Link] Plate-Type Exchangers

Plate-type exchangers consist of a series of parallel thin sheets corrosion resistant metal
such as stainless steel which will be set with seal gaskets. The thin plates will be hung and piled
on the guide bar. The gap between two adjacent plates allows liquids to flow. Inlet and outlet
holes at the corners of the plates are fixed. It allows hot and cold fluids through alternating
channels in the exchanger so that a plate is always in contact on one side with the hot fluid and
the other with the cold. Each of the plates is corrugated to many kinds of patterns to improvise
the efficiency of heat transfer by increased surface area. Figure 2.12 shows a typical plate type
heat exchanger.

FIGURE 2. 12 Plate-type heat exchanger

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 TABLE 2. 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plate-type heat Exchanger

Advantages Disadvantages

● Simple and compact design ● The plates are expensive

● High efficiency of heat transfer ● Maintenance is time consuming and
● Any leakage in the plates can be plant operation will be disrupted
found easily and maintenance is ● The bonding material between the
easy plates limits the operating
temperature

[Link] Extended-Surface (Fin) Exchanger

Extended-surface exchanger consists of specific shaped material attached to the wall of

the exchanger which is called fins. Fins can be in various kinds of shape and its function is to
increase the existing surface area of the wall. By using extended surface exchangers, the rate
of heat transfer can be increased by increasing the surface area in contact of fluid and the fins.
Besides, the rate also can be improved by selecting the fins material surface with high heat
transfer coefficient. This will increase the heat transfer by convection. The fins must be
optimized so that the heat transfer density is maximized when the space and the material used
for the fins are constraints. Figure 2.13 shows the sketch of extended surface heat exchanger.

FIGURE 2. 13 Extended Surface Heat Exchanger

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 TABLE 2. 11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Extended Surface Heat Exchanger

Advantages Disadvantages

● Low operating cost ● The fins might make the exchanger

● High efficiency of heat transfer with heavier
suitable fins ● Any material rupture on the fins could
● Maintenance is easy be expensive to repair

[Link] Choice of Heat Exchanger: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger is chosen. The reason for choosing it as it provides easy
and safe operation even with high temperature and pressure. Besides, it is also establishes low
operating cost. Any leakage in the tubes can be found easily and it would not disrupt the
operations in case of any undesired state and situation. For the plate type heat exchanger, the
long time consuming is needed if there is any maintenance happening since it might affect the
progression rate of the production. Besides, the operating temperature might be limited due to
the bonding material between the plates. On the other hand, the extended surface exchanger
will not be preferable since any material rupture on the fins could be expensive to repair.

2.4.3 Distillation

Distillation is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid

mixture by using selective boiling and condensation. Distillation may result in essentially
complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of
selected components in the mixture.

[Link] Flash Distillation

148
 Flash distillation (sometimes called "equilibrium distillation") is a single stage
separation technique. A liquid mixture feed is pumped through a heater to raise the temperature
and enthalpy of the mixture. It then flows through a valve and the pressure is reduced, causing
the liquid to partially vaporize. Once the mixture enters a big enough volume (the "flash
drum"), the liquid and vapor separate. Because the vapor and liquid are in such close contact
up until the "flash" occurs, the product liquid and vapor phases approach equilibrium.

Simple flash separations are very common in industry, particularly petroleum refining.
Even when some other method of separation is to be used, it is not uncommon to use a "pre-
flash" to reduce the load on the separation itself.

FIGURE 2. 14 Flash distillation

TABLE 2. 12Advantages and Disadvantages of Flash Distillation

Advantages Disadvantages

149
 ● Flash distillation is a continuous ● Not effective in separating components
process of comparable volatility
● Not suitable for two components
systems
● Not efficient distillation when nearly
pure components are required;
condensed vapour and residual liquid
are far from pure

[Link] Vacuum Distillation

Vacuum distillation is a special method of separating compounds at pressure lower than

the standard atmospheric pressure. Under this condition, the compounds boil below their
normal boiling temperature. Hence, vacuum distillation is best suited for separation of
compounds with higher boiling points (more than 392°F), which tend to decompose at their
boiling temperature. Vacuum distillation can be conducted without heating the mixture, as is
usually followed in other distillation types.

For the separation of some aromatic compounds, vacuum distillation is used along with
steam distillation. When vacuum distillation is combined with a fractional distillation method,
components of a mixture get separated very easily.

FIGURE 2. 15 Vacuum distillation flow diagram

150
 TABLE 2. 13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Distillation

Advantages Disadvantages

● Faster processing time ● Complicated to build

● Effective distillation while keeping the
process under the maximum temperature
of the distillation unit’s heater
● Effective processing of higher boiling
point solvents without igniting them or
causing thermal breakdown.

[Link] Fractional Distillation

Fractionating column is used to separate constituents whose volatility is nearly similar

or differs by 77°F (25°C, at 1 atmosphere pressure) unable to be separated by simple
distillation. In the fractionating column, the plates are arranged, and the most volatile
compounds are collected at the top, while those with higher boiling point are present at the
bottom.

Fractional distillation is used for alcohol and gasoline purification in petroleum refining
industries. It is more effective and easier to use when compared to a simple distillation method.
It is, however, comparatively expensive than any other types of distillation.

151
 FIGURE 2. 16 Fractional distillation working principle
TABLE 2. 14 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fractional distillation

Advantages Disadvantages

● Easy to implementation, requires ● Process takes a lot of time and patience

check of system on a regular basis to ● Setup is more complicated than the
ensure it is functioning properly simple distillation
● Highly efficient, especially for
systems using stacked distillation
columns, which produce more output
at lower costs.

[Link] Steam Distillation

Steam distillation is used for the purification of mixtures in which the components are
temperature or heat sensitive, for example, organic compounds. In this process, steam is
introduced to the apparatus and the temperature of the compounds are depressed, by vaporizing
them at lower temperature. This way, the temperature sensitive compounds are separated
before decomposition. The vapors are collected and condensed in the same way as other
distillation types. The resultant liquid consists of two parts, water and compound, which is then
purified by using simple distillation.

152
 The process requires some initial training and skill to operate the equipment. It also
requires periodic maintenance. Steam distillation is widely used for large-scale separation of
essential oils, fats, waxes, and perfumes.

FIGURE 2. 17 Steam distillation schematic diagram

TABLE 2. 15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam distillation.

Advantages Disadvantages
● Higher Equipment and Operating Cost
● Steam distillation allows you to control the
temperature and amount of steam you apply
to the plant material.
● cost-effective method to invest in to extract
a diverse array of immiscible substances

153
[Link] Choice of distillation: Flash distillation

There are 2 major reactors for the distillation process. Both of the processes are using
flash distillation columns. The first column is located after the neutralization process of ETPO.
The main objective of the first column is to remove targeted impurities such as carbon dioxide,
oxygen and water from the product. The second column is located after the washer which helps
to remove excess water to form the polyol products. Flash distillation is a single-stage
continuous operation where a liquid mixture is partially vaporized then the vapour produced
and the residual liquid are in equilibrium, which are then separated and removed.

2.4.4 Mixing

Mixing is known with the unit operation that combines two or more components
together by agitation, shears or mixers. The final mixture products contain uniform distribution
of both components.

[Link] Tumbler Blender

A tumble mixer is a diffusion mixer that is essentially a hollow vessel that rotates on
its horizontal axis. The vessel is partially filled with material and then slowly rotated so that
friction between the material and the vessel wall carries the material up to long the wall until
gravity causes the material to cascade back down onto the material bed below. Ingredients
diffuse through the blend across the top surface of the material bed to provide the mixing.

A tumble mixer requires the correct rotational speed to provide efficient, effective
mixing. Slower rotation provides more gentle mixing but may be inefficient, while faster
rotation mixes quickly but can be more damaging to fragile particles. If the mixer rotates too
fast, the material will not fall down at all, which will result in an unmixed batch.

154
 FIGURE 2. 18 Tumbler Blender

TABLE 2. 16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tumbler Blender

Advantages Disadvantages

● Simple and cost-effective ● Only suitable for non-segregative

● The mixer is totally sealed and contained, materials
with no internal moving parts or seals. ● Tumble mixers must be disconnected from
This means that all bearings and lubricants upstream and downstream equipment
are removed from material contact, which during operation. Each time material is
provides long operating life. added to or discharged from the mixer, the
● A tumble mixer has low abrasion because inlet and outlet need to be reconnected and
the material just moves up against the then disconnected again to allow the mixer
mixer wall and falls down on itself. to tumble.

155
[Link] Ribbon Blender

A ribbon mixer is a convective mixer that has an internal rotating ribbon or auger that
creates convection current mixing patterns within a stationary mixing trough. The trough is
partially filled with material, usually to a point just above the center line, then the auger rotates,
moving the ingredients in both a circular motion around the auger’s axis and in a lateral motion
along the trough.

Ribbon mixers come in various styles and are easily customizable to specific
applications. Options include single or twin shafts and variations to the auger design depending
on how vigorously you need to mix the material or your desired mixing time. Ribbon mixers
can also be set to different angles to generate different types and amounts of movement inside
the trough.

FIGURE 2. 19 Ribbon Blender

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 TABLE 2. 17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ribbon Blender

Advantages Disadvantages

● Well-suited for segregated materials or

● It is a poor mixer as a result of the
other materials with varying particle size
movement of particles is two dimensional.
and bulk density.
● Shearing action is a smaller amount than
● The mixer is available in a wide variety of
in a planetary mixer.
sizes and designs; the auger can be
● It has a set speed drive.
replaced depending on the application.

[Link] V-Blender

Tumble blenders rely upon the action of gravity to cause the powder to cascade within
a rotating vessel. The V-Blender (also known as a twin shell blender) is one of the most
common used tumbling blenders. The blending performance of this type of blender has
shadowed many of the members in the blender family. They offer both short blending times
and efficient blending.

The V-Blender is made of two hollow cylindrical shells joined at an angle of 75° to 90°.
The blender container is mounted on trunnions to allow it to tumble. As the V-blender tumbles,
the material continuously splits and recombines, with the mixing occurring as the material free-
falls randomly inside the vessel. The repetitive converging and diverging motion of material
combined with increased frictional contact between the material and the vessel’s long, straight
sides result in gentle yet homogeneous blending.

157
 FIGURE 2. 20 V-Blender

TABLE 2. 18 Advantages and Disadvantages of V-Blender

Advantages Disadvantages

● Particle size reduction and attrition are ● They require high headroom for installation
minimized due to the absence of any and operation.
moving blades. Hence it can be used for ● They are not suited for blending particles of
fragile materials different sizes and densities which may
● Charging and discharging of material is segregate at the time of discharge.
easy.
● The shape of the blender body results in a
near complete discharge of product
material, clearly an added advantage over
horizontal blenders.
● The absence of shaft projection
eliminates product contamination.
● V-blenders are easy to clean.

158
[Link] Propeller Mixer

It consists of angle blades attached at the end of the shaft, rotated by motors. The angle
blades of the propeller cause circulation of the liquid in both axial and radial direction ensuring
good bulk transport but low shearing force. The aim of the operation is to improve the
efficiency of a reaction by a better contact between reactive materials.

FIGURE 2. 21 Propeller Mixer

TABLE 2. 19 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propeller Mixer

Advantages Disadvantages
● Effectively mix viscous liquids and ● Higher initial cost
semisolid. ● The sensitivity of operation to the geometry
● Great pumping effect of the container (vessel or tank) and its
● Short mixing time location within the tank/vessel.

159
[Link] Choice of Mixer: Propeller Mixer

There is only one mixing process throughout the production of polyols. At the initial
stage, the palm olein was added into a propeller mixer tank, equipped with a water-cooling
condenser, a thermometer, inert gas inlet tube and motorized stirrer. Then, the glycerol was
added to the propeller mixer tank. The potassium hydroxide catalyst was dissolved into the
mixture, which was then heated to 150 °C and stirred continuously under a dry nitrogen
atmosphere for 6 hours. Propeller mixer is chosen for the mixing process because it can produce
an axial flow, which has a great pumping effect and gives a short mixing time.

2.4.5 Heating

[Link] Electric Heaters

Electric heater is a device that uses electricity to heat up chemicals, gases or any other
liquid inside a tank before any processes. The heater has a metal base and it is long tubular in
shape. This is to increase the surface area of the tube that will in-contact with fluids, thus, the
heat transfer rate also increases. Usually, nickel chromium wire coats the heating tubular rods.
To prevent corrosion or rust, magnesium oxide will be applied to the rods. This heater can be
easily operated by manipulating the setting on the control panel of the heater. Once the
temperature is set, the heating element will convert the electrical energy to heat and the fluids
will get into desired temperature by convection. Figure 2.22 shows a typical schematic diagram
of an electrical heater.

160
 FIGURE 2. 22 Industrial Electric Heater

TABLE 2. 20 Advantages and disadvantages of industrial electric heater

Advantages Disadvantages

● Can control the temperature easily ● Operation cost might be high since uses a lot
● Allow the owner to keep track of where the of electrical energy
heat is being provided.
● Ensure there is minimal heat loss and
greater efficiency for the operation.

[Link] Furnace

Furnace is a heater system which consists of a huge chamber where solids or fluids will
be placed to get treated by heat. Generally, furnace heaters will be used for materials shaping
operations such as rolling, pressing and bending. The operation of the furnace heater is
straightforward where the fuels flow to the burner chamber of the furnace and it will be burnt
with air which will be provided by the air blower. This heat will be absorbed by the solid or
liquid in the chamber. High amount of heat is needed for solid materials whereas low heat is
required for liquids.

161
 FIGURE 2. 23 Furnace working principle

TABLE 2. 21 Advantages and Disadvantages of Furnace working principle

Advantages Disadvantages

● Very suitable for solid material ● Hard to control the temperature

● Easy to maintain ● Not suitable for heating liquids and
● Can be obtained in high scale and gases
small scales of heaters.

[Link] Water Tube Boilers

A water tube boiler can be defined as a Steam boiler in which the flow of water in the
tubes, as well as hot gases, enclose the tubes. Not like fire tube boilers, this boiler attains high-
pressures, as well as high-steam capabilities, can be achieved. This is because of condensed
tangential pressure on tubes which is known as hoop stress.

162
 FIGURE 2. 24 Water Tube Boilers

TABLE 2. 22 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Tube Boilers

Advantages Disadvantages

● Operating a Water Tube Boiler is safe ● Boiler Tube can be damaged if there is
and easy any dust in the feed water; it blocks the
● It has more hitting surface and has many water circulation. The deposition of salt
water tubes that heat the feed water and sediments in the inner surface of the
● Great work efficiency which heating Water Tube is a common problem for
process can be controlled by controlling this type of boiler.
the amount of water supply in the water ● A Water Tube Boiler uses less water and
tube for this reason, the water level needs to
● This Boiler required less space for check randomly. A makeup water pump
installation is used for supplying the necessary water
● Maintenance Cost for this boiler is high

[Link] Choice of Heater: Water tube boiler

Water tube boiler is chosen as the best heat exchanger among all. The reason chosen is
because it does not require high electricity supply compared to the electric heater and is able
to obtain high work efficiency. Besides, it only required a small space for installation instead
of a furnace which is extremely huge. Even though it might have the presence of dust which

163
will affect the circulation of water, frequent maintenance is preferable to ensure the boiler is
working in a good condition. The electric heater will not be preferable since high operation
cost is needed to maintain the production. As instance, this heater required a high amount of
magnesium oxide in order to maintain the heater would not fall into corrosion which would
affect the rate of reaction. However, it can operate at a high efficiency with only high supply
of electricity. The main disadvantages are the owner will need to pay a high cost of the
electricity bills to maintain the process flow. Next, the furnace is only applicable for the solid
and it is not applicable for other sources such as heating liquid or gases. Thus, it is not
applicable since furnaces are only able to use it for heating up solid sources and lack of
selection.

2.4.6 Washer

The washer has a high-speed rotor where through the process all unwanted material is
put in. The flow is opposite for the cleaning process where it is refreshed flows. The water
flows in and acts as an adsorbent to adsorb impurities and contaminants from the product
stream. This reduces the concentration of impurities in the product stream. The unwanted
product is rub off with the constantly high speeds rapid rotations and break into small particles.
(Mujumdar, 2007)

FIGURE 2. 25 Washer

164
 TABLE 2. 23 Advantages and Disadvantages of Washer

Advantages Disadvantages
● Separate impurities such as glycerol and ● High capital cost.
𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍
● The screens are clean automatically by
water injection
● Continuous recycling

There are 2 washing process in the production of polyol from palm olein which is:

1.) Removal of glycerol by using n-hexane.

2.) Removal of salt (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙and sodium formic which is water soluble) from polyols

2.4.7 Evaporator

Evaporation is a process used to concentrate a non-volatile solute solution and a volatile

solvent. A portion of the solvent was vaporized to create a solid, slurry, or dense, viscous liquid
solution. Evaporation varies from drying in that the residue is not solid but a flowable liquid.
Evaporation is distinct from distillation because no effort is made to split the vapors into
separate components.

165
[Link] Vacuum Evaporator

FIGURE 2. 26 Vacuum Evaporator

[Extracted from Condorchem Envitech]

Vacuum evaporation is one of the most widely used methods for deposition on various
substrates of functional films. The vacuum is used to allow vapor particles to directly deposit
onto the substrate, where vapor particles condense back to a solid state, creating a functional
coating. The process of vacuum evaporation includes two basic stages which are the
evaporation of a functional content, and the condensation on the content. For high-vacuum
evaporation, the surface materials are cooled, gasified and evaporated by electric heating or
electron beam [Link] coating material's vapor then moves to the substrate surface and
slowly cools, eventually a thin layer of high quality film is formed (Jankowski and Hayes,
2004). Vacuum is used to prevent the evaporated particles from colliding with background gas
or other unwanted particles. Evaporated usable materials are accumulated onto the substrate
surface.

166
 TABLE 2. 24 Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum Evaporator

Advantages Disadvantages
● High purity films can be deposited ● Poor surface coverage
from feed ● High radiant heat loads may occur
● Low cost and can provide good thin
film vacuum coating.

[Link] Forced circulation evaporators

FIGURE 2. 27 Forced circulation evaporators

[Extracted from GEA Process Engineering Inc.,Columbia, MD]

Forced circulation evaporators incorporate with a pump to circulate feed through the
mechanism. The feed is injected into a heat exchanger in forced circulation evaporators, where
the evaporation occurs. The evaporated mixture then flows into the head of the vapor where
the deflector plate hits any entrained liquid. The vapor flows out the top of the vapor head while
either extracting or recycling the liquid. The submerged-tube type is the most common type of
forced circulation evaporator. The heating unit in these evaporators is at the below the liquid
level. This ensures no boiling takes place in the pipe.

167
 TABLE 2. 25 Advantages and Disadvantages of Forced circulation evaporators

Advantages Disadvantages
● Efficiently heat transfer rate from ● High capital cost.
steam to liquid ● Power necessary for circulating pump
● Continuous flow of liquid
● Less fouling of the operation

[Link] Long-tube Vertical Evaporators

FIGURE 2. 28 Long-tube vertical evaporators

[Extracted from GEA Process Engineering Inc.,Columbia, MD]

There are two primary types of long-tube vertical evaporators that are climbing-film
and falling-film. e In both kinds, feed passes through tubes into the evaporators which then will
be heated and part of it evaporates. Then, the vapor is retrieved. The liquid enters from the
bottom in climbing film evaporators while it enters from the top in falling film types. Because
of the low cost per unit power, long-tube vertical evaporators are used more for evaporation
than any other type combined.

168
 In a climbing film evaporator, feed enters through tubes in the bottom of the evaporator
and is heated by ambient steam. When evaporation takes place, it climbs up the pipe. The
mixture of liquid or vapor moves up the tubes and discharges into the head of the vapour. A
deflector plate present above the tubes divides the liquid entrained in the vapor. Depending on
the mode of process, the vapor escapes from the top, while the liquid is either collected or
allowed to fall back down the tubes. Feed reaches from the top of the evaporator in a falling-
film evaporator. It then flows down the inside walls of the tubes as a thin film. Evaporation
occurs as the feed flows down the tubing. The mixture of vapor / liquid goes down the
remaining length of the tube and into the end of the vapour. The vapor is collected from the top
of the head of the vapor, while the bottom enters the air.

TABLE 2. 26 Advantages and Disadvantages of Long-tube vertical evaporators

Advantages Disadvantages
● Low capital cost ● Less efficient of feed distribution
● Easy cleaning and less time for ● Recirculation is necessary
maintenance
● Excellent heat transfer rate at specific
temperature.
● Wider heating surface area.

[Link] Choice of Evaporator: Vacuum Evaporator

Vacuum evaporation is chosen as the best evaporator among all. The reason is because,
in vacuum evaporation, the evaporation and deposition of film on substrate is carried out in the
vacuum condition. This allows vapour molecules to condense directly on the substrate surface,
creating a solid film, and prevents a reaction with the free space. Secondly, it has a higher
purity after the process compared to conventional evaporators. This will result in a good
outcome in the overall process and product recovery. Technical problems can arise during
evaporation, especially in this polyurethane production process. Some evaporators are sensitive
to differences in viscosity and consistency of the dilute solutions but vacuum evaporation could

169
work efficiently under similar circumstances. The pump of an evaporator may need to be
changed if the evaporator needs to be used to concentrate a highly viscous solution. Vacuum
evaporation does not contain a pump mechanism and can result in low operational cost. It also
has a wider heating surface area and because of this the overall process can be done at a higher
rate.

In the SuperPro Designer tool, there are many options for evaporator to be simulated
but vacuum evaporator is not available in the database of the software. Therefore, flash
distillation is chosen instead of a vacuum evaporator in the simulation. This is because flash
distillation operates similar to a vacuum evaporator. In flash distillation, the fluid is pressurized
and heated and is then passed through a throttling valve or nozzle into the flash drum. Because
of the large drop in pressure, part of the fluid vaporizes. The vapor is taken off overhead, while
the liquid drains to the bottom of the drum, where it is withdrawn. This principle could replace
the operation of a vacuum evaporator since both deal with pressure drops.

2.5 MANUAL CALCULATION FOR MATERIAL BALANCE

2.5.1 Introduction

Material balancing follows the law of conversation of mass, which states that mass in
an enclosed system remains constant overtime and the quantity can never be increased or
decreased. For an open system with continuous flow of materials, the inlet mass flowrate is
equivalent to the outlet mass flow rate. This principle is widely adapted by engineers and plant
designers to ensure all materials are being transported to their respective destination
accordingly as well as preventing unintended disposal of valuable products or harmful waste.

The general formula for calculating the material balance is stated as follows:

Input + Generation=Output +Consumption + Accumulation

170
 Whereby,

Input: Total mass entering the system

Generation: Total mass produced in the system

Output: Total mass leaving the system

Consumption: Total mass consumed in the system

Accumulation: Total built up mass in the system

The equation can be simplified by assuming the entire process is steady state as follow:

Input + Generation = Output + Consumption

By neglecting the total generation and consumption amount and assuming the process in a
steady state:

Input = Output

Few of the assumptions to be taken into consideration for the calculation of material balance
of unit operations throughout the system are stated as follow:

• Assuming no reactions taking place inside, condenser, mixer and pump.

• Assuming the system is in steady state.
• Assuming the material balance is not affected by the presence of catalyst.
• Assuming pipe and unit operation vessels are working in optimal conditions with no
unintended leakage.

171
 TABLE 2. 27 List of Component

Molecular Weight
Component Formula IUPAC name
(g/mol)
Octadeca-9,12-dienoic
C H O
20 36 2 308.5
Linoleic acid acid
Oleic acid C H O18 34 2 282.46 Octadec-9-enoic acid
Mono-Olein C H O
21 40 4 356.54 2-Glyceryl monooleate
Octadeca-9,12-dienoic
Mono-Linolein C H O
18 32 2 280.4
acid
LOO triglyceride C H O57 102 6 883.4 1,2- Dioleoyl-3-linolein
Glycerol CHO
3 8 3 92.09 1,2,3,-Propanetriol
Sodium
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 40.00 Sodium Hydroxide
Hydroxide
Sodium Chloride 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 58.44 Sodium Chloride
Sodium Sodium Hydrogen
CHNaO 3 34.01
Bicarbonate Carbonate
Hexane CH
6 14 36.18 Hexane
Water H O 2 18 Water
Carbon Dioxide CO 2 44.01 Carbon Dioxide
Hydrochloric Acid 𝐻𝐶𝑙 36.46 Chlorane
Performic Acid CH O 2 3 62.02 Methaneperoxoic Acid
Hydrogen
HO 2 2 34.01 Hydrogen Peroxide
Peroxide
Formic Acid CHO
4 8 2 38.11 Methanoic Acid

172
 2.5.2 Manual Calculation of Material Balance

FIGURE 2. 29 Mixer, heater and reactor involve in transesterification process

a. Transesterification Reactor, P-3/CSTR-1

TABLE 2. 28 List of information of the component ratio for transesterification reactor

Component Ratio Flow Rate (kg/hr) Stream

LOO Triglyceride 1 1500 S-101

Glycerol 0.65 975 S-103

NaOH 0.02 30 S-105

TABLE 2. 29 List of information of the component for transesterification reactor

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 1500.000 15.000
Glycerol 975.000 665.204
Sodium Hydroxide 30.000 30.000
Mono olein 0.000 1198.776
Mono linolein 0.000 596.020
Total 2505.000 2505.000

173
b. Neutralization Tank 1, P-4/V-101

FIGURE 2. 30 Neutralization Tank 1

TABLE 2. 30 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 1

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Glycerol 665.204 665.204
Sodium Hydroxide 30.000 0.000
Mono olein 1198.776 1198.776
Mono linolein 596.020 596.020
Hydrochloric Acid 30.113 2.738
Sodium Chloride 0.000 43.875
Water 0.000 13.500
Total 2535.113 2535.113

Outlet vent stream, S-141: 0kg/hr

Outlet liquid stream, S-111: 2240.406 kg/hr

174
c. Washer 1, P-19/WSH-102

FIGURE 2. 31 Washer 1

TABLE 2. 31 List of information of the component for Washer 1

Mass flow Output mass flow

Species (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Glycerol 665.204 665.204
Mono olein 1198.776 1198.776
Mono linolein 596.020 596.020
Hydrochloric Acid 2.738 2.738
Sodium Chloride 43.875 43.875
Water 213.500 210.800
2.700
Total 2735.113 2735.113

Outlet product stream, S-113: 1698.488 kg/hr

Outlet wash stream, S-142: 941.918 kg/hr

175
d. Epoxidation reactor, P-9/CSTR 2

FIGURE 2. 32 Epoxidation reactor

TABLE 2. 32 List of information of the component for Epoxidation Reactor

Mass flow Output mass flow

Species (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 1198.776 11.988
Mono linolein 596.020 5.960
Water 2.700 122.712
Formic Acid 250.000 250.000
Hydrogen Peroxide 250.000 23.310
Epox Mono Olein 0.000 1240.127
Epox Mono Linolein 0.000 643.399
Total 2312.496 2312.496

176
e. Neutralization tank 2, P-10/ V-102

FIGURE 2. 33 Neutralization Tank 2

TABLE 2. 33 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 2

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 11.988 11.988
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960
Water 122.712 134.436
Formic Acid 250.000 12.500
Hydrogen Peroxide 23.310 1.166
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399
Sodium Chloride 332.242 30.204
Sodium Formate 0.000 351.087
Hydrochloric Acid 0.000 188.451
Oxygen 0.000 10.421
Total 2644.738 2644.738

Vent Stream, S-144: 1203.766 kg/h

Product stream, S-120: 2326.964 kg/h

177
f. Flash column, P-11/V103

FIGURE 2. 34 Neutralization Tank 3

TABLE 2. 34 List of information of the component for Neutralization Tank 3

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 11.988 11.988
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960
Water 134.436 139.944
Formic Acid 12.500 0.000
Hydrogen Peroxide 1.166 0.000
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399
Sodium Chloride 30.204 30.204
Sodium Formate 351.087 369.565
Oxygen 0.000 0.548
Sodium Bicarbonate 25.109 2.283
Carbon Dioxide 0.000 11.957
Total 2470.974 2470.974

Vent Stream, S-145: 12.763 kg/h

Product stream, S-123: 2339.311 kg/h

178
g. Washer 2, P-12/WSH-103

FIGURE 2. 35 Washer 2

TABLE 2. 35 List of information of the component for Ring-Opening reactor

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 11.988 11.988
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960
Water 239.944 191.955
47.989
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399
Sodium Chloride 30.204 30.204
Sodium Formate 369.565 369.565
Sodium Bicarbonate 2.283 2.283
Total 2558.469 2558.469

Product Stream, S-125: 1825.303 kg/h

Wash stream, S-146: 614.007 kg/h

179
h. Ring- Opening Reactor, P-13/CSTR -3

FIGURE 2. 36 Ring- Opening Reactor

TABLE 2. 36 List of information of the component for Ring-Opening Reactor

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 11.988 11.988
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960
Water 27.989 27.989
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 62.006
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 32.170
Ethylene Glycol 400.000 7.293
Boron TF3 Etherate 100.000 100.000
Polyol (OA) 0.000 1374.474
Polyol (LA) 0.000 807.582
2444.462 2444.462

180
i. Washer 3, P-14/WSH-101

FIGURE 2. 37 Washer 3

TABLE 2. 37 List of information of the component for Flash column V105

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000
Mono olein 11.988 11.988
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960
Water 27.989 127.989
100.000
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 62.006
Epox Mono Linolein 32.170 32.170
Ethylene Glycol 7.293 7.293
Boron TF3 Etherate 100.000 100.000
Polyol (OA) 1374.474 1374.474
Polyol (LA) 807.582 807.582
Flash Column 2544.462 2544.462

Product Stream, S-134: 2194.342 kg/h

Wash stream, S-147: 229.956 kg/h

181
j. Flash Column

FIGURE 2. 38 Blowing reactor

TABLE 2. 38 List of information of the component for blowing reactor

Species Mass flow (kg/hr) Output mass flow (kg/hr)

LOO triglycceride 15.000 0.009
14.991
Mono olein 11.988 1.309
10.679
Mono linolein 5.960 0.746
5.214
Water 25.598 16.966
8.632
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 0.000
62.006
Epox Mono Linolein 32.170 0.000
32.170
Polyol (OA) 1374.474 1.374
1373.099
Polyol (LA) 807.582 0.000
807.582
2334.778 2334.778

Vapor Stream, S-148: 21.909 kg/h

Liquid stream, S-135: 2172.433 kg/h

182
k. Foam Forming Reactor, P-6/CSTR-4

FIGURE 2. 39 Blowing reactor

TABLE 2. 39 List of information of the component for blowing reactor

Mass flow Output mass flow

Species (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
LOO triglycceride 14.991 14.991
Mono olein 10.679 10.679
Mono linolein 5.214 5.214
Water 8.632 8.632
230.000 230.000
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 62.006
Epox Mono
Linolein 32.170 32.170
Polyol (OA) 1373.099 68.655
Polyol (LA) 807.582 41.146
Ethylene Glycol 920.000 71.840
MDI 1800.000 90.000
TDI 2100.000 125.370
Ethylene Diamine 650.000 650.000
Foam (MDI) 0.000 2134.080
Foam (TDI) 0.000 1614.240
Foam (OA) 0.000 1827.424
Foam (LA) 0.000 1027.926
8014.373 8014.373

183
2.6 COMPUUTER SIMULATED CALCULATION FOR MATERIAL BALANCE

2.6.1 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results

Percentage of error will be calculated by comparing the value from the manual calculation and
the simulation. The formula is stated as follow:
(Actual − Simulated)volume
Variance, % =
Actual volume

TABLE 2. 40 Comparison between manual calculation and simulated value of material

balance

Transesterification Reactor
Mass flow Output mass flow
Species (kg/hr) (kg/hr) Simulated value Variance
LOO triglycceride 1500.000 15.000 100.00%
Glycerol 975.000 665.204 684.570 -2.91%
Sodium Hydroxide 30.000 30.000 30.000 0.00%
Mono olein 0.000 1198.776 1129.608 5.77%
Mono linolein 0.000 596.020 561.625 5.77%

Neutralization Tank 1
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Glycerol 665.204 665.204 684.570 -2.91%
Sodium Hydroxide 30.000 0.000 0.000 0.00%
Mono olein 1198.776 1198.776 1129.608 5.77%
Mono linolein 596.020 596.020 561.625 5.77%
Hydrochloric Acid 30.113 2.738 2.738 -0.02%
Sodium Chloride 0.000 43.875 43.878 -0.01%
Water 0.000 13.500 12.501 7.40%

Washer 1
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Glycerol 665.204 665.204 684.570 -2.91%
Mono olein 1198.776 1198.776 1129.608 5.77%
Mono linolein 596.020 596.020 561.625 5.77%
Hydrochloric Acid 2.738 2.738 2.738 -0.02%
Sodium Chloride 43.875 43.875 43.878 -0.01%
Water 213.500 210.800 210.801 0.00%
2.700 2.700 0.00%

184
 Epoxidation Reactor
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Mono olein 1198.776 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 596.020 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 2.700 120.012 115.787 3.52%
Formic Acid 250.000 250.000 250.000 0.00%
Hydrogen Peroxide 250.000 23.310 36.392 -56.12%
Epox Mono Olein 0.000 1240.127 1168.560 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 0.000 643.399 606.260 5.77%

Neutralization Tank 2
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Mono olein 11.988 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 122.712 134.436 134.090 0.26%
Formic Acid 250.000 12.500 12.500 0.00%
Hydrogen Peroxide 23.310 1.166 1.820 -56.17%
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127 1168.560 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399 606.269 5.77%
Sodium Chloride 332.242 30.204 30.204 0.00%
Sodium Formate 0.000 351.087 351.087 0.00%
Hydrochloric Acid 0.000 188.451 188.451 0.00%
Oxygen 0.000 10.421 16.269 -56.12%

Neutralization Tank 3
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Mono olein 11.988 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 134.436 139.944 139.944 0.00%
Formic Acid 12.500 0.000 0.000 0.00%
Hydrogen Peroxide 1.166 0.000 0.000 0.00%
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127 1168.560 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399 606.269 5.77%
Sodium Chloride 30.204 30.204 30.204 0.00%
Sodium Formate 351.087 369.565 369.565 0.00%
Oxygen 0.000 0.548 0.856 -56.07%
Sodium Bicarbonate 25.109 2.283 2.283 -0.02%
Carbon Dioxide 0.000 11.957 11.957 0.00%

Washer 2
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%

185
 Mono olein 11.988 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 239.944 211.955 211.956 0.00%
27.989 27.989 0.00%
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 1240.127 1168.560 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 643.399 606.269 5.77%
Sodium Chloride 30.204 30.204 30.204 0.00%
Sodium Formate 369.565 369.565 369.565 0.00%
Sodium Bicarbonate 2.283 2.283 2.283 -0.02%

Ring-Opening Reactor
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Mono olein 11.988 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 27.989 27.989 27.989 0.00%
Epox Mono Olein 1240.127 62.006 58.428 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 643.399 32.170 30.313 5.77%
Ethylene Glycol 400.000 7.293 29.956 -310.74%
Boron TF3 Etherate 100.000 100.000 100.000 0.00%
Polyol (OA) 0.000 1374.474 1295.154 5.77%
Polyol (LA) 0.000 807.582 760.978 5.77%

Washer 3
LOO triglycceride 15.000 15.000 100.00%
Mono olein 11.988 11.988 11.308 5.67%
Mono linolein 5.960 5.960 5.616 5.78%
Water 27.989 127.989 122.391 4.37%
100.000
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 62.006 58.428 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 32.170 32.170 30.313 5.77%
Ethylene Glycol 7.293 7.293 29.956 -310.74%
Boron TF3 Etherate 100.000 100.000 100.000 0.00%
Polyol (OA) 1374.474 1374.474 1295.154 5.77%
Polyol (LA) 807.582 807.582 760.978 5.77%

Flash Column
LOO triglycceride 15.000 0.009 100.00%
14.991 100.00%
Mono olein 11.988 1.309 1.246 4.82%
10.679 10.062 5.77%
Mono linolein 5.960 0.746 0.709 4.99%
5.214 4.907 5.89%
Water 25.598 16.966 18.615 -9.72%

186
 8.632 9.374 -8.60%
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 0.000 0.000 0.00%
62.006 58.428 5.77%
Epox Mono Linolein 32.170 0.000 0.000 0.00%
32.170 30.313 5.77%
Polyol (OA) 1374.474 1.374 1.315 4.33%
1373.099 1393.839 -1.51%
Polyol (LA) 807.582 0.000 0.019 100.00%
807.582 760.958 5.77%

Foam Forming Reactor

LOO triglycceride 14.991 14.991 100.00%
Mono olein 10.679 10.679 10.062 5.77%
Mono linolein 5.214 5.214 4.907 5.89%
Water 8.632 8.632 239.439 -0.34%
230.000 230.000
Epox Mono Olein 62.006 62.006 59.012 4.83%
Epox Mono Linolein 32.170 32.170 30.617 4.83%
Polyol (OA) 1373.099 68.655 65.340 4.83%
Polyol (LA) 807.582 41.146 39.143 4.87%
Ethylene Glycol 920.000 71.840 71.840 0.00%
MDI 1800.000 90.000 90.000 0.00%
TDI 2100.000 125.370 170.653 -36.12%
Ethylene Diamine 650.000 650.000 650.000 0.00%
Foam (MDI) 0.000 2134.080 2134.080 0.00%
Foam (TDI) 0.000 1614.240 1614.240 0.00%
Foam (OA) 0.000 1827.424 1739.176 4.83%
Foam (LA) 0.000 1027.926 978.287 4.83%

187
 Referring to the large variance in Epoxidation reactor and Neutralization tank 2 of -
56.12% and -56.17%, this is due to difference from manual calculated amount of Monolinolein
from previous unit operation. When substituted with simulated value of Monolinoliein into
manual calculation, the exact amount can be obtained to that of the simulated Hydrogen
peroxide remained. The limiting reagent in epoxidation reaction is Monolinolein and hence set
as reference for the calculations. The other variance is also justifiable using the same reasoning
and is proven by the calculations done below. The values on the upper rows are from manual
calculation, while the bottom rows are the simulated values.

4 Hydrogen Peroxide + 1Monolinolein + 2Monoolein

→ 1 Epox Monolinolein + 2 Epox Monoolein + 4 Water

Assuming 99% of Monolinolein is reacted during the process, 4 mols of Hydrogen Peroxide is
required for the reaction. Below is the calculation to prove amount of variance obtained is due
to difference in amount of Monolinolein used.

TABLE 2. 41 Material balance data table

Epoxidation Reactor
MR Feed Mols Reaction Mols Mols Outlet
Extent reacted remained flowrate
Monolinolein 354.000 596.020 1.684 0.990 1.667 0.017 5.960
reacted
561.625 1.587 1.571 0.016 5.616
Hyrdrogen 34.000 250.000 7.353 6.667 0.686 23.310
Peroxide required
6.283 1.070 36.392
Neutralization Tank 2
Hydrogen 34.000 23.310 0.686 0.950 0.651 0.034 1.166
Peroxide
36.392 1.070 1.017 0.054 1.820
Neutralization Tank 3
Hydrogen 34.000 1.166 0.034 1.000 0.034 0.000 0.000
Peroxide
1.820 0.054 0.054 0.000 0.000

188
 Oxygen 32.000 0.000 0.000 0.017 0.017 0.549
0.000 0.000 0.027 0.027 0.856
Ring-Opening Reactor and Washer 3
Epox 386.000 643.399 1.667 0.950 1.583 0.083 32.170
Monolinolein
606.269 1.571 1.492 0.079 30.313
Etylene Glycol 62.000 400.000 6.452 6.334 0.118 7.293
400.000 6.452 5.968 0.483 29.956
Foam Forming reactor
Ethylene Glycol 62.000 920.000 14.839 13.680 1.159 71.840
Polyol (LA) 510.000 807.582 1.583 1.503 0.081 41.146
760.958 1.492 1.416 0.076 38.763
Polyol (MO) 434.000 1373.099 3.164 0.950 3.006 0.158 68.655
1293.839 2.981 2.832 0.149 64.692
TDI 174.000 2100.000 12.069 11.348 0.721 125.370
2100.000 12.069 11.088 0.981 170.652
MDI 250.000 1800.000 7.200 0.950 6.840 0.360 90.000

2.7 MANUAL CALCULATION FOR ENERGY BALANCE

2.7.1 Introduction

Energy is expensive. We have not yet learned how to use efficiently the seemingly
endless supply of “free” energy provided by the sun, winds, and tides; nuclear power generation
is feasible, but the need for safe disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors is a serious
unresolved problem; and there are not nearly enough waterfalls and dams to provide sufficient
hydroelectric power to meet the world’s energy needs. This leaves us with fuel combustion
burning a combustible gas, oil, or solid fuel, and using the energy released as a source of
thermal or (indirectly) electrical energy. Process industries have always recognized that
wasting energy leads to reduced profits, but throughout most of this century the cost of energy
was often an insignificant part of the overall process cost, and gross operational inefficiencies
were tolerated.

189
 In the 1970s, a sharp increase in the price of natural gas and petroleum raised the cost
of energy several fold and intensified the need to eliminate unnecessary energy consumption.
If a plant uses more energy than its competitors, its product could be priced out of the
marketplace. As an engineer designing a process, one of your principal jobs would be to
account carefully for the energy that flows into and out of each process unit and to determine
the overall energy requirement for the process. You would do this by writing energy balance
on the process, in much the same way that you write material balances to account for the mass
flows to and from the process and its units.

In designing a process for a plant, both material and energy balance plays a vital role in
providing useful information. For instance, material balances are fundamental to the control of
processing, especially in controlling the yields of the final products. Moreover, material
balance and energy balance are correlated as mass balance is required in order to calculate
energy balance for the entire process. With energy balance information, the process engineers
able to estimate the energy requirements for each and every equipment in the plant such as a
reactor, heater, cooler, purge, phase separator and crude crystallizer. Generally, heating and
cooling duties are estimated as well as the power required to function equipment, such as in
the case of the pump. In order to compute the duties or energy changes between each stream,
the general equation of energy balance can be used to compute the changes for the systems
between each stream.

As with mass balances it is useful to start with our initial definition of a balance
equation:

The general equation of energy balance is shown below:

(Energy In) – (Energy Out) + (Generation) – (Consumption) = (Accumulation)

Ėin – Ėout = Q – Ẇ
ΔĖ = Q – Ẇ

where Ė is the rate of energy transfer of the system (ΔĖ = U + Ėk + Ėp)

190
 Q is the rate of heat input energy transfer to the system
Ẇ is the rate of energy transfer out as work

Where IN and OUT correspond to energy flowing into and out of the system, respectively. In
contrast to mass balances, however, energy is a conserved quantity (First Law of
Thermodynamics) and therefore;
Generation = Consumption= 0

Several assumptions are made in this section to help ease out the calculations in order
to increase the accuracy of the energy balance estimations.

Assumptions:
• The reference state is taken at the condition of 298.15K (25°C) and 1 atm. Enthalpy of
mixing and enthalpy of the solution was neglected.
• Enthalpy is calculated based on individual components, not homogenize mixtures.
• The heat constants of the heat of formation and heat of vaporization are assumed to be
constant under changing pressure and temperature.
• The heat capacity of each component is only a function of temperature, not pressure.
• No moving parts are installed within the plant, therefore work, potential energy and
kinetic energy changes are neglected.
• The equipment and streams are well insulated, so no heat is lost to the surrounding.
• All streams and equipment operate at steady state condition.

2.7.2 Enthalpy

a. Heat of Reaction

Heat of reaction, also known as enthalpy of reaction, is the change in the enthalpy of a
chemical reaction that occurs at a constant pressure. It is a thermodynamic unit of measurement

191
useful for calculating the amount of energy per mole either released or produced in a reaction.
The change in enthalpy arose as a unit of measurement meant to calculate the change in energy
of a system when it became too difficult to find the change in the internal energy of a system
by simultaneously measuring the amount of heat and work exchanged. Given a constant
pressure, the change in enthalpy can be measured as ΔH = q.

ΔH and ΔHºrxn

Where

ΔH = change in the enthalpy; (ΔHproducts -ΔHreactants). A positive value indicates that

the reaction is an endothermic reaction which its products have greater enthalpy. A
negative value on the other hand indicates that the reaction is an exothermic reaction
and its reactants have greater enthalpy.
º = signifies that the reaction is a standard enthalpy change and occurs at a
preset pressure/temperature.
rxn = denotes that this change is the enthalpy of reaction.

The standard enthalpy of a reaction is symbolized by ΔH°rxn with a unit of kJ/mole

and can take on both positive and negative values. The standard state refers to the standard
state of a solid or liquid, which is a pure substance at a pressure of 105 Pa and relevant
temperature. The standard enthalpy of reaction takes place takes place at 25 °C and 1 atm. The
advantage of measuring ΔH under standard conditions lies in the ability to relate one value of
ΔHº to another, since they occur under the same conditions.

To calculate the standard enthalpy of reaction, the standard enthalpy of formation

must be utilized. The detailed form of the standard enthalpy of reaction includes the use of
the standard enthalpy of formation ΔHºf is shown in equation below.

ΔHº = Σvp ΔHºf (products) – Σ vr ΔHºf (reactants)

192
Where,

vp = Stoichiometric coefficient of the product from the balanced reaction

vr = Stoichiometric coefficient of the reactants from the balanced reaction
ΔHºf = Standard enthalpy of formation for the reactants or the products

b. Heat of Formation

Standard enthalpy of formation is defined as the change in enthalpy when one mole of
a substance in the standard state is formed from its pure elements under the same conditions. It
is a measure of the energy released or absorbed when one mole of a substance is created under
standard conditions from its pure elements.

ΔH°=ΣΔnpΔH°f (products) −ΣΔnrΔH°f (reactants)

Where

np = Molar flow rate of the product from the balanced reaction

nr = Molar flow rate of the reactants from the balanced reaction
ΔHºf = Standard enthalpy of formation for the reactants or the products

A few assumptions are made for performing the energy balance calculation. The
assumptions made during the energy balance are as follows:

• Standard conditions: temperature of 25 °C and pressure of 101.325kPa is taken as the

reference state for enthalpy.
• Neglect the potential and kinetic energy, and only consider the enthalpy change.
• Temperature 298K and 1 atm is taken as datum or reference state for enthalpy,
where ΔH = 0.
• Ideal properties are used in evaluating the stream energy.

193
 c. Heat of Vaporisation

Latent heat is the enthalpy change that accompanies a change in phase of a substance
at a constant temperature and pressure. Latent heat of vaporization ΔHov, which is the
negative of the latent heat of condensation, refers to the enthalpy change per unit amount of
liquid when that liquid is vaporized. Similarly, latent heat of melting ΔHom, which is the
negative of the heat of solidification, refers to the amount of heat that add to a unit amount of
material to initial melting. Contributions to latent heats include changes in molecular level
interactions as well as changes in specific volume that accompany the phase change.
Generally, latent heats are the functions of pressure and temperature. However, latent heats
depend much more strongly on temperature than on pressure. Hence, in calculation of the
heat associated with a change of phase, it is important to ensure that the latent heat value used
for the calculation is that for the actual temperature at which the phase transformation occurs.
The heat of vaporization is defined in equation below.

ΔHvap =Hvapor − Hliquid

Where,

ΔHvap = Change in enthalpy of vaporization

Hvapor = Absolute enthalpy of the gas state of a compound or element
Hliquid = Absolute enthalpy of the liquid state of a compound or element

d. Heat of Condensation

Unlike vaporization, condensation is exothermic process. It is the opposite of

vaporization, and thereby the heat absorbs in a reaction and released from the system into the
surroundings. It is always a negative value. The heat of condensation is defined in equation
below.

ΔHcond=−ΔHvap
194
Where,
ΔHcond = Change in enthalpy of condensation
ΔHvap = Change in enthalpy of vaporization

195
2.7.3 Manual Calculation of Energy Balance of Each Operation

a. Pump (PM101)

FIGURE 2. 40 Pumps (PM101, PM102, PM103) and Mixer (MX101)

TABLE 2. 42 General Information of PM101

Inlet (S101) Outlet (S102)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.

196
 • There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 43 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM101)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component Phase out (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in (kg/m3) (m3/h)

LOO
L L 1500.000 925.209 1.621 200.000 324.251
Triglyceride

The energy flow by Pump (PM101) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 324.251 kJ/h

b. Pump (PM102)
TABLE 2. 44 General Information of PM102

Inlet (S105) Outlet (S106)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.

197
 • The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.
TABLE 2. 45 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM102)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component Phase out (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in (kg/m3) (m3/h)

Sodium
L L 30 1913.345 0.016 200 3.136
Hydroxide

The energy flow by Pump (PM102) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 3.136 kJ/h

c. Pump (PM103)
TABLE 2. 46 General Information of PM103

Inlet (S103) Outlet (S104)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

198
 TABLE 2. 47 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM103)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component Phase out (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in (kg/m3) (m3/h)

Glycerol L L 975.000 1258.080 0.775 200.000 154.998

The energy flow by Pump (PM103) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 154.998 kJ/h

d. Mixer (MX101)

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop in streams across the mixer.

There is no energy flow across mixer since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference temperature which is 25°C.

Q = ΔH

Qactual(kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h)

=0+0
= 0 kJ/hr
e. Heater (HX101)

199
 FIGURE 2. 41 Heater HX101

TABLE 2. 48 General Information of HX101

Inlet (S107) Outlet (S108)

T (°C) 25 150
P (kPa) 301.325 301.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop in streams across the heater.

200
 TABLE 2. 49 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX101

Specific Heat
Reference Inlet Outlet
Mass flow rate, Capacity, 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 1122.450 25.000 2.411 25.000 150.000 125.000 338250.308

Linoleic Acid L 448.710 25.000 1.731 25.000 150.000 125.000 97112.062
Oleic Acid L 903.840 25.000 1.891 25.000 150.000 125.000 213645.180
Sodium
L 30.000 25.000 2.180 25.000 150.000 125.000 8173.500
Hydroxide
Total 2505.000 657181.049

The actual heat energy flow by Heater (HX101) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual(kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= 657181.049 kJ/h

201
 f. Transesterification Reactor ( P3/ CSTR1)

FIGURE 2. 42 Transesterification Reactor ( P3/ CSTR1)

TABLE 2. 50 General Information of CSTR1

Inlet (S108) Outlet (S149) Outlet (S109)

T (°C) 150 215.5 215.5
P (kPa) 301.325 101.325 101.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
• Heat of reaction is assumed to be used up by the process itself. Therefore, no heat of reaction released by the system.

202
 TABLE 2. 51 Tabulated data of energy balance of inlet stream (S108) of (CSTR1)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi, (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 1122.450 25.000 2.411 150.000 125.000 338250.308

Linoleic Acid L 448.710 25.000 1.731 150.000 125.000 97112.062
Oleic Acid L 903.840 25.000 1.891 150.000 125.000 213645.180
Sodium Hydroxide L 30.000 25.000 2.180 150.000 125.000 8173.500
Total 2505.000 657181.049

TABLE 2. 52 Tabulated data of energy balance of top outlet stream (S149) of (CSTR1)

Reference Outlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Oleic Acid V 9.038 25.000 1.484 215.500 190.500 2555.346

Water V 85.672 25.000 1.870 215.500 190.500 30519.429
Total 94.711 33074.775

203
 TABLE 2. 53 Tabulated data of energy balance of bottom outlet stream (S109) of (CSTR1)

Reference Outlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 684.570 25.000 2.411 215.500 190.500 314393.820

Sodium Hydroxid L 30.000 25.000 2.180 215.500 190.500 12456.414
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 215.500 190.500 1479.988
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 25.000 0.213 215.500 190.500 22735.269
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 215.500 190.500 45469.703
Total 2410.289 396535.193

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 1Glycerol + 1Linoleic Acid → 1T-Linoleic Acid + 3Water

Extend of reaction: 0.0215 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 86.216 %

204
 TABLE 2. 54 Molar Flowrate for the component before and after reaction.

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Glycerol 12.201 7.441
Linoleic Acid 1.603 0.016
T-Linoleic Acid 0.000 1.587
Water 0.000 4.760

TABLE 2. 55 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

Standard enthalpy of
Reactant Product
Component formation, ΔHfo Molar flowrate Molar flowrate
enthalpy enthalpy
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
(kJ/hr) (kJ/hr)
Glycerol -669600 12.201 -8169481.584 7.441 -4982480.208
Linoleic Acid -674042 1.603 -1080179.267 0.016 -10804.893
T-Linoleic Acid -285830 0.000 0.000 1.587 -453472.153
Water -285830 0.000 0.000 4.760 -1360427.893
Total -9249660.851 -6807185.148

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 2442475.703 kJ/h

205
Reaction 2: 92Glycerol + 282Oleic Acid → 356T-Oleic Acid + 18Water

Extend of reaction: 0.0215 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 86.216 %

TABLE 2. 56 Molar Flowrate for the component before and after reaction.

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Glycerol 12.201 7.441
Oleic Acid 3.205 0.032
T-Oleic Acid 0.000 3.173
Water 0.000 4.760

TABLE 2. 57 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 2

Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

Standard enthalpy of
Reactant Product
Component formation, ΔHfo Molar flowrate Molar flowrate
enthalpy enthalpy
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
(kJ/hr) (kJ/hr)
Glycerol -669600 12.201 -8169481.584 7.441 -4982480.208
Oleic Acid -674042 3.205 -2160378.755 0.032 -21603.046

206
 T-Oleic Acid -285830 0.000 0.000 3.173 -906955.740
Water -285830 0.000 0.000 4.760 -1360427.893
Total -10329860.339 -7271466.887

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,2 (kJ/h) = 3058393.452 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Reactor (R101) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reactions (kJ/h)

= (33074.775 + 396535.193) - 657181.049 + 2442475.703 + 3058393.452

= 5273298.074 kJ/h

207
 g. Neutralization Tank 1 (P10/V101)

FIGURE 2. 43 Neutralizer (V101)

TABLE 2. 58 General Information of V101

Inlet (S109) Inlet (S110) Outlet (S141) Outlet (S111)

T (°C) 215.5 25 25 193.47
P (kPa) 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
• The heat of vaporization of each component is refer to its heat of vaporization under its normal boiling point.
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S110) and outlet stream (S141) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference
temperature which is 25°C.

208
 TABLE 2. 59 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S109) of (V101)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 684.570 25.000 2.411 215.500 190.500 314393.820

Sodium
L 30.000 25.000 2.180 215.500 190.500 12456.414
Hydroxide
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 215.500 190.500 1479.988
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 25.000 0.213 215.500 190.500 22735.269
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 215.500 190.500 45469.703
Total 2410.289 396535.193

209
 TABLE 2. 60 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S111) of (V101)

Reference Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Capacity, Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) Cpi (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)
Glycerol L 684.570 25.000 2.411 193.470 168.470 278036.361
HCl V 2.738 25.000 1.799 193.470 168.470 829.508
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 193.470 168.470 1308.838
Sodium Chloride L 43.878 25.000 2.612 193.470 168.470 19308.362
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 25.000 0.213 193.470 168.470 20106.093
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 193.470 168.470 40211.448
Water V 13.501 25.000 1.870 193.470 168.470 4252.888
Total 2440.406 364053.499

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

210
Reaction 1: 1HCl + 1Sodium Hydroxide → 1Sodium Chloride + 1Water

Extent of reaction: 0.0231 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 95%

TABLE 2. 61 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
HCl 0.825 0.075
Sodium Hydroxide 0.750 0.000
Sodium Chloride 0.000 0.750
Water 0.000 0.750

TABLE 2. 62 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction

Standard enthalpy Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

Component of formation, ΔHfo Molar flowrate Reactant enthalpy Molar flowrate Product
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr) (kgmole/hr) enthalpy (kJ/hr)
Formic Acid -425500 0.825 -351063.030 0.075 -31916.755
Sodium Chloride -411120 0.750 -308364.667 0.000 0.000
HCl -92310 0.000 0.000 0.750 -69238.039
Salts -285830 0.000 0.000 0.750 -214389.650

211
 Total -659427.697 -315544.443

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 343883.2538 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Neutralizer (V101) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= 364053.499 – 396535.193 + 343883.254

= 311401.559 kJ/h

h. Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-102)

FIGURE 2. 44 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH102)

212
 TABLE 2. 63 General Information of WSH102

Inlet (S111) Inlet (S112) Outlet (S142) Outlet (S113)

T (°C) 193.47 25 25 193.47
P (kPa) 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S112) and outlet stream (S142) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference
temperature which is 25°C.

TABLE 2. 64 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S111) of (WSH102)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 684.570 25.000 2.411 193.470 168.470 278036.361

HCl V 2.738 25.000 1.799 193.470 168.470 829.508
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 193.470 168 .470 1308.838

213
 Sodium Chloride L 43.878 25.000 2.612 193.470 168.470 19308.362
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 25.000 0.213 193.470 168.470 20106.093
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 193.470 168.470 40211.448
Water V 13.501 25.000 1.870 193.470 168.470 4252.888
Total 2440.406 364053.499

TABLE 2. 65 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S113) of (WSH102)

Reference Outlet
Mass flow rate, Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 193.470 168.470 27.805

Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 193.470 168.470 1308.838
T-Linoleic
L 561.625 25.000 0.213 193.470 168.470 20106.093
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 193.470 168.470 40211.448
Water V 2.700 25.000 1.870 193.470 168.470 850.577
Total 1695.788 62504.761

The actual heat energy flow by Bulk Flow Washer (WSH102) is calculated from the formula:

214
Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQin (kJ/h) – ΣQout (kJ/h)

= (364053.499 + 0) – (62504.761 + 0)

= -301548.738 kJ/hr

i. Pump (PM104)

FIGURE 2. 45 Pump (PM104) and Cooler (HX102)

TABLE 2. 66 General Information of PM104

Inlet (S113) Outlet (S114)

T (°C) 193.47 193.47
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

215
Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 67 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM104)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)

Glycerol L L 0.068 1258.800 0.000 200.000 0.011

Linoleic Acid L L 4.487 899.257 0.005 200.000 0.998
T-Linoleic
L L 561.625 994.704 0.565 200.000 112.923
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L L 1129.608 994.704 1.136 200.000 227.124
Water V V 2.700 997.000 0.003 200.000 0.542
Total 1698.488 1.708 341.598

The energy flow by Pump (PM104) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 341.598 kJ/h

216
 j. Cooler (HX102)
TABLE 2. 68 General Information of HX102

Inlet (S114) Outlet (S115)

T (°C) 193.9 60
P (kPa) 301.325 301.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop in streams across the heater.

TABLE 2. 69 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX102

Specific
Mass flow Reference Heat Inlet Outlet
𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Temperature Capacity, Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kJ/hr)
(kg/hr) (°C) Cpi (°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 193.900 60.000 -133.900 -22.099

Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 193.900 60.000 -133.900 -1040.264
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 25.000 0.213 193.900 60.000 -133.900 -15980.328
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 25.000 0.211 193.900 60.000 -133.900 -31960.069

217
 Water 2.700 25.000 4.180 193.900 60.000 -133.900 -1511.307
Total 1698.488 -50514.068
The actual heat energy flow by Cooler (HX102) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual(kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= -50514.068 kJ/h

k. Epoxidation Reactor (P9/CSTR2)

FIGURE 2. 46 Epoxidation Reactor (CSTR2) and Pump (PM105)

218
 TABLE 2. 70 General Information of CSTR2

Inlet (S115) Inlet (S143) Outlet (S117)

T (degC) 60 25 33.93
P (kPa) 301.325 301.325 301.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor
There is no energy flow at inlet stream (S143) since the inlet temperature and reference temperature are the same at 25°C.

TABLE 2. 71 Tabulated data of energy balance of inlet stream (S115) of (CSTR2)

Mass flow rate, Reference Specific Heat Inlet ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓

Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Temperature Capacity, Cpi, Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) (kJ/kg.K) (°C)
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 60.000 35.000 5.777
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 60.000 35.000 271.914
T-Linoleic Acid L 561.625 0.213 25.000 60.000 35.000 4177.083
T-Oleic Acid L 1129.608 0.211 25.000 60.000 35.000 8354.014
Water L 2.700 4.180 25.000 60.000 35.000 395.039

219
 Total 1698.488 13203.827

TABLE 2. 72 Tabulated data of energy balance of outlet stream (S117) of (CSTR2)

Mass flow rate, Reference Specific Heat Outlet ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓

Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Temperature Capacity, Cpi, Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) (kJ/kg.K) (°C)
ET-Linoleic Acid L 606.269 25.000 0.195 33.930 8.930 1055.185
ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 33.930 8.930 2111.049
Formic Acid L 250.000 25.000 2.146 33.930 8.930 4790.275
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 33.930 8.930 1.474
Hydroperoxide L 36.392 25.000 2.620 33.930 8.930 851.292
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 33.930 8.930 69.377
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 33.930 8.930 10.658
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 33.930 8.930 21.338
Water L 115.787 25.000 4.180 33.930 8.930 4322.015
Total 2198.488 13232.663

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

220
 Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 4Hydroperoxide +1T-Linoliec Acid + 2T-Oleic Acid --> 1ET-Linoleic Acid + 2ET-Oleic Acid + 4Water
Extent of reaction: 0.454 kgmol/hr
Conversion rate: 93.95%

TABLE 2. 73 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Hydroperoxide 250.000 36.392
T-Linoleic Acid 561.625 5.616
T-Oleic Acid 1129.608 11.308
ET-Linoleic Acid 0.000 606.269
ET-Oleic Acid 0.000 1168.560
Water 2.700 115.787

221
 TABLE 2. 74 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

Standard enthalpy
Molar
Component of formation, ΔHfo Molar flowrate Reactant enthalpy Product enthalpy
flowrate
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr) (kJ/hr)
(kgmole/hr)
Hydroperoxide -188114 250.000 -47028500.000 36.392 -6845891.717
T-Linoleic Acid -285830 561.625 -160529179.426 5.616 -1605292.738
T-Oleic Acid -919090 1129.608 -1038211131.802 11.308 -10393317.874
ET-Linoleic Acid -285830 0.000 0.000 606.269 -173289888.278
ET-Oleic Acid -285830 0.000 0.000 1168.560 -334009524.808
Water -285830 2.700 -771798.166 115.787 -33095301.028
Total -1246540609.394 -559239216.442

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 687301393 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by CSTR2 is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= 13232.663 – 13203.826 + 687301393

= 687301421.800 kJ/h

222
 l. Pump (PM105)

TABLE 2. 75 General Information of PM105

Inlet (S116) Outlet (S143)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 76 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM105)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)

Formic Acid L L 250.000 1220.000 0.205 200.000 40.984

Hydroperoxide L L 250.000 1450.000 0.172 200.000 34.483
Total 500.000 0.377 75.466

The energy flow by Pump (PM105) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 75.466 kJ/h

223
 m. Neutralization Tank 1 (P10/V102)

FIGURE 2. 47 Neutralizer (V102) and Pump (PM106)

TABLE 2. 77 General Information of V102

Inlet (S117) Inlet (S119) Outlet (S144) Outlet (S120)

T (°C) 33.93 25 34.55 34.55
P (kPa) 301.325 201.325 101.325 101.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.

224
 • There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
• The heat of vaporization of each component is refer to its heat of vaporization under its normal boiling point.
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S119) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference temperature which is 25°C.

TABLE 2. 78 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S117) of (V102)

Reference Specific Heat Inlet ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓

Mass flow rate,
Component Phase Temperature Capacity, Cpi Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr)
(°C) (kJ/kg.K) (°C)
ET-Linoleic Acid L 606.269 25.000 0.195 33.930 8.930 1055.185
ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 33.930 8.930 2111.049
Formic Acid L 250.000 25.000 2.146 33.930 8.930 4790.275
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 33.930 8.930 1.474
Hydroperoxide L 36.392 25.000 2.620 33.930 8.930 851.292
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 33.930 8.930 69.377
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 33.930 8.930 10.658
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 33.930 8.930 21.338
Water L 115.787 25.000 4.180 33.930 8.930 4322.015
Total 2198.488 13232.663

225
 TABLE 2. 79 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S144) of (V102)

Reference Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Capacity, Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) Cpi (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)
HCl V 188.451 25.000 1.799 34.550 9.550 3236.775
Oxygen V 16.269 25.000 0.922 34.550 9.550 143.239
Total 204.721 3380.013

TABLE 2. 80 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S120) of (V103)

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Heat of vaporisation Latent Heat

Component
(kg/hr) (kJ/kg) (kJ/hr)

HCl 188.451 245.440 46253.436

Oxygen 16.269 0.000 0.000
Total 46253.436

Total energy flow at outlet stream (S144) = 3380.013448 + 46253.4355 = 49633.445 kJ/hr

226
 TABLE 2. 81 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S120) of (V103)

Reference Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Capacity, Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) Cpi (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)
ET-Linoleic Acid L 606.269 25.000 0.195 34.550 9.550 1128.446
ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 34.550 9.550 2257.617
Formic Acid L 12.500 25.000 2.146 34.550 9.550 256.143
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 34.550 9.550 1.576
Hydroperoxide L 1.820 25.000 2.620 34.550 9.550 45.520
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 34.550 9.550 74.194
Salts L 351.087 25.000 1.106 34.550 9.550 3709.627
Sodium Chloride L 30.204 25.000 2.612 34.550 9.550 753.422
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 34.550 9.550 11.397
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 34.550 9.550 22.819
Water L 134.090 25.000 4.180 34.550 9.550 5352.732
Total 2326.009 13613.492

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

227
The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 1Formic Acid + 1Sodium Chloride → 1HCl + 1Salts

Extent of reaction: 0.0231 kgmol/hr
Conversion: 95%

TABLE 2. 82 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Formic Acid 5.435 0.272
Sodium Chloride 5.679 0.516
HCl 0.000 5.163
Salts 0.000 5.163

228
 TABLE 2. 83 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Reactant Molar Product
Component Molar flowrate
formation, ΔHfo enthalpy flowrate enthalpy
(kgmole/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kJ/hr) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr)
Formic Acid -425500 5.435 -2312498.890 0.272 -115625.370
Sodium Chloride -411120 5.679 -2334894.372 0.516 -212261.256
HCl -92310 0.000 0.000 5.163 -476600.222
Salts -285830 0.000 0.000 5.163 -1475751.723
Total -4647393.262 -2280238.572

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 236154.690 kJ/h

Reaction 2: 2Hydro peroxide --> 1Oxygen + 2Water

Extent of reaction: 0.0231 kgmol/hr
Conversion: 95%

229
 TABLE 2. 84 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Hydroperoxide 1.070 0.054
Oxygen 0.000 0.508
Water 6.433 7.449

TABLE 2. 85 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Reactant Molar Product
Component Molar flowrate
formation, ΔHfo enthalpy flowrate enthalpy
(kgmole/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kJ/hr) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr)
Hydroperoxide -188114 1.070 -201349.701 0.054 -10067.861
Oxygen 0 0.000 0.000 0.508 0.000
Water -285830 6.433 -1838627.200 7.449 -2129270.577
Total -2039976.901 -2139338.438

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,2 (kJ/h) = -99361.537 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Neutralizer (V103) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

230
Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= (49633.44898 + 13613.49202) – 13232.66314 + 2367154.69 + (-99361.53744)

= 2317807.431 kJ/h

n. Pump (PM106)

TABLE 2. 86 General Information of PM103

Inlet (S118) Outlet (S119)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 201.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

231
 TABLE 2. 87 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM103)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
Sodium
L L 332.242 2160 0.154 100 15.382
Chloride

The energy flow by Pump (PM106) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 15.382 kJ/h

o. Neutralization Tank 2 (P11/V103)

FIGURE 2. 48 Neutralizer (V103) and Pump (PM107)

232
 TABLE 2. 88 General Information of V103

Inlet (S120) Inlet (S122) Outlet (S145) Outlet (S123)

T (°C) 34.55 25 35.82 35.82
P (kPa) 101.325 201.325 101.325 101.325
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
• The heat of vaporization of each component is refer to its heat of vaporization under its normal boiling point.
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S122) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference temperature which is 25°C.

TABLE 2. 89 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S120) of (V103)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Temperatur Specific Heat Temperatur ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Component Phase (kg/hr) e Capacity, Cpi e (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) (kJ/kg.K) (°C)

ET-Linoleic L 0.195
Acid 606.269 25.000 34.550 9.550 1128.446
ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 34.550 9.550 2257.617
Formic Acid L 12.500 25.000 2.146 34.550 9.550 256.143

233
 Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 34.550 9.550 1.576
Hydroperoxide L 1.820 25.000 2.620 34.550 9.550 45.520
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 34.550 9.550 74.194
Salts L 351.087 25.000 1.106 34.550 9.550 3709.627
Sodium Chloride L 30.204 25.000 2.612 34.550 9.550 753.422
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 34.550 9.550 11.397
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 34.550 9.550 22.819
Water L 134.090 25.000 4.180 34.550 9.550 5352.732
Total 2326.009 13613.492

TABLE 2. 90 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S145) of (V103)

Reference Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Capacity, Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) Cpi (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)
Carb. Dioxide V 11.957 25.000 0.845 35.820 10.820 109.291
Oxygen V 0.856 25.000 1.922 35.820 10.820 17.807
Total 12.813 127.098

234
 TABLE 2. 91 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S145) of (V103)

Mass flow rate,

Heat of vaporisation Latent Heat
Component 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr)
(kJ/kg) (kJ/hr)

Carb. Dioxide 11.957 144.214 1724.293

Oxygen 0.856 0.000 0.000
Total 1724.293

Total energy flow at outlet stream (S145) = 127.097907 + 1724.292793 = 1851.391 kJ/hr

TABLE 2. 92 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S123) of (V103)

Reference Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Capacity, Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) (°C) (kJ/hr)
(°C) Cpi (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)
ET-Linoleic Aci L 606.269 25.000 0.195 35.820 10.820 1278.511
ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 35.820 10.820 2557.845
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 35.820 10.820 1.786
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 35.820 10.820 84.060

235
 Sodium
L 2.283 25.000 1.071 35.820 10.820 26.461
Bicarbonate
Salts L 369.565 25.000 1.106 35.820 10.820 4424.157
Sodium Chloride L 30.204 25.000 2.612 35.820 10.820 853.615
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 35.820 10.820 12.913
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 35.820 10.820 25.854
Water L 139.944 25.000 4.180 35.820 10.820 6329.352
Total 2338.305 15594.553

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 1Formic Acid + 1Sodium Bicarbonate → 1Carbon dioxide +1Salts +1Water

Extent of reaction: 0.0231 kgmol/hr
Conversion: 95%

236
 TABLE 2. 93 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Formic Acid 0.272 0.000
Sodium Bicarbonate 0.299 0.027
Carbon Dioxide 0.000 0.272
Salts 5.163 5.435
Water 7.449 7.775

TABLE 2. 94 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Reactant Molar Product
Component Molar flowrate
formation, ΔHfo enthalpy flowrate enthalpy
(kgmole/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kJ/hr) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr)
Formic Acid -425500 0.272 -115625.370 0.000 0.000
Sodium
-950810 0.299 -284206.617 0.027 -25833.508
Bicarbonate
Carbon Dioxide -393510 0.000 0.000 0.272 -106932.407
Salts -285830 5.163 -1475751.723 5.435 -1553423.167
Water -285830 7.449 -2129270.577 7.775 -2222239.643

237
 Total -4004854.287 -3908428.725

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 96425.556 kJ/h

Reaction 2: 2Hydroperoxide → 1Oxygen + 2Water

Extent of reaction: 0.0231 kgmol/hr
Conversion: 95%

TABLE 2. 95 Molar Flowrate for the component with before and after reaction

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component
Before reaction After reaction
Hydro Peroxide 0.054 0.000
Oxygen 0.000 0.027
Water 7.449 7.775

TABLE 2. 96 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Reactant Molar Product
Component Molar flowrate
formation, ΔHfo enthalpy flowrate enthalpy
(kgmole/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kJ/hr) (kgmole/hr) (kJ/hr)
Hydro Peroxide -188114 0.054 -10067.861 0.000 0.000

238
 Oxygen 0 0.000 0.000 0.027 0.000
Water -285830 7.449 -2129270.577 7.775 -2222239.643
Total -2139338.438 -2222239.643

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = -82901.205 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Neutralizer (V103) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= (15594.55349 + 1851.3907) - 13613.49202 + 96425.562 + -82901.20452

= 17356.810 kJ/h

p. Pump (PM107)
TABLE 2. 97 General Information of PM107

Inlet (S121) Outlet (S122)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 201.325

239
Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 98 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM107)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
Sodium
L L 25.109 2217 0.0113 100 1.133
Bicarbonate

The energy flow by Pump (PM107) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 1.133 kJ/h

240
 q. Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-103)

FIGURE 2. 49 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH103)

TABLE 2. 99 General Information of WSH103

Inlet (S123) Inlet (S124) Outlet (S146) Outlet (S125)

T (°C) 35.82 25 25 35.82
P (kPa) 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S124) and outlet stream (S146) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference
temperature which is 25°C.

241
 TABLE 2. 100 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S123) of (WSH103)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 606.269 25.000 0.195 35.820 10.820 1278.511

ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 35.820 10.820 2557.845
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 35.820 10.820 1.786
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 35.820 10.820 84.060
Sodium
L 2.283 25.000 1.071 35.820 10.820 26.461
Bicarbonate
Salts L 369.565 25.000 1.106 35.820 10.820 4424.157
Sodium Chloride L 30.204 25.000 2.612 35.820 10.820 853.615
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 35.820 10.820 12.913
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 35.820 10.820 25.854
Water L 139.944 25.000 4.180 35.820 10.820 6329.352
Total 2338.305 15594.553

242
 TABLE 2. 101 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S125) of (WSH103)

Reference Outlet
Mass flow rate, Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

ET-Linoleic Acid L 606.269 25.000 0.195 35.820 10.820 1278.511

ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 35.820 10.820 2557.845
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 35.820 10.820 1.786
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 35.820 10.820 84.060
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 35.820 10.820 12.913
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 35.820 10.820 25.854
Water L 27.989 25.000 4.180 35.820 10.820 1265.870
Total 1824.298 5226.839

The actual heat energy flow by Bulk Flow Washer (WSH102) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= (5226.8391 + 0) - (15594.553 + 0)

= -10367.714 kJ/hr

243
 r. Pump (PM108)

FIGURE 2. 50 Pump (PM108) and Heater (HX103)

TABLE 2. 102 General Information of PM108

Inlet (S125) Outlet (S126)

T (°C) 35.82 36
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

244
 TABLE 2. 103 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM108)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
ET-Linoleic
L L 606.269 994.704 0.609 200.000 121.899
Acid
ET-Oleic Acid L L 1168.560 994.704 1.175 200.000 234.956
Glycerol L L 0.068 1258.800 0.000 200.000 0.011
Linoleic Acid L L 4.487 899.257 0.005 200.000 0.998
T-Linoleic
L L 5.616 994.704 0.006 200.000 1.129
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L L 11.308 994.704 0.011 200.000 2.274
Water L L 27.989 997.000 0.028 200.000 5.615
Total 1824.298 366.882

The energy flow by Pump (PM108) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 366.882 kJ/h

s. Heating (HX-103)
TABLE 2. 104 General Information of HX103

Inlet (S126) Outlet (S127)

T (°C) 36.14 60
P (kPa) 101.325 101.325

245
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop in streams across the heater.

TABLE 2. 105 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX103

Specific
Mass flow Reference Heat Inlet Outlet
𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Temperature Capacity, Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kJ/hr)
(kg/hr) (°C) Cpi (°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 606.269 25.000 0.195 36.140 60.000 23.860 2819.342

ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 25.000 0.202 36.140 60.000 23.860 5640.497
Glycerol L 0.068 25.000 2.411 36.140 60.000 23.860 3.938
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 25.000 1.731 36.140 60.000 23.860 185.368
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 25.000 0.213 36.140 60.000 23.860 28.476
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 25.000 0.211 36.140 60.000 23.860 57.012
Water L 27.989 25.000 4.180 36.140 60.000 23.860 2791.466
Total 1824.298 11526.098

The actual heat energy flow by Heater (HX103) is calculated from the formula:

246
Q = ΔH

Qactual(kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= 11526.010 kJ/h

t. Ring Opening Reactor (P13/CSTR3)

FIGURE 2. 51 Ring Opening Reactor (CSTR3) and Pumps (PM110 and PM109)

TABLE 2. 106 General Information of CSTR3

Inlet Inlet Inlet Outlet

(S127) (S129) (S131) (S132)
T (°C) 60 25 25 52.86

247
 P (kPa) 301.325 301.325 301.325 301.325
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
There is no energy flow at the inlet streams (S129) and (S131) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference temperature which is
25°C.

TABLE 2. 107 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S127) of (CSTR3)

Specific Heat Capacity, Inlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Reference ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Cpi Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg.K) (°C)
(°C)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 606.269 0.195 25.000 60.000 35.000 4135.664

ET-Oleic Acid L 1168.560 0.202 25.000 60.000 35.000 8273.990
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 60.000 35.000 5.777
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 60.000 35.000 271.914
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 0.213 25.000 60.000 35.000 41.771
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 0.211 25.000 60.000 35.000 83.630
Water L 27.989 4.180 25.000 60.000 35.000 4094.775
Total 1824.298 16907.520

248
 TABLE 2. 108 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S132) of (CSTR3)

Mass flow Outlet

Specific Heat Capacity, Cpi Reference ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Temperature
Component Phase (kJ/kg.K) Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(kg/hr) (°C)
(°C)

Boron Trifluori L 100.000 0.530 25.000 52.860 27.860 1476.301

ET-Linoleic Acid L 30.313 0.195 25.000 52.860 27.860 164.599
ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 52.860 27.860 329.305
Ethylene Glycol L 29.956 2.408 25.000 52.860 27.860 2009.737
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 52.860 27.860 4.598
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 52.860 27.860 216.443
Polyol (LA) L 760.978 0.148 25.000 52.860 27.860 3127.123
Polyol (OA) L 1295.154 0.173 25.000 52.860 27.860 6256.791
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 0.213 25.000 52.860 27.860 33.250
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 0.211 25.000 52.860 27.860 66.570
Water L 27.989 4.180 25.000 52.860 27.860 3259.441
Total 2324.298 16944.158

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

249
The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 1ET Linoliec Acid + 2ET Oleic Acid + 4Ethylene Glycol --> 1Polyol (LA) + 2Polyol (OA)
Extent of reaction: 0.454 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 95%

TABLE 2. 109 Tabulated data for molar flow rate of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Component Before After
reaction reaction
ET-Linoleic Acid 1.571 0.079
ET-Oleic Acid 3.141 0.157
Ethylene Glycol 6.452 0.483
Polyol (LA) 0.000 1.492
Polyol (OA) 0.000 2.984

250
 TABLE 2. 110 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Molar Molar
Component Reactant Product
formation, ΔHfo flowrate flowrate
enthalpy (kJ/hr) enthalpy (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
ET-Linoleic Aci -285830 1.571 -448938.890 0.079 -22446.230
ET-Oleic Acid -285830 3.141 -897874.921 0.157 -44892.460
Ethylene Glycol -460000 6.452 -2967740.600 0.483 -222253.600
Polyol (LA) -285830 0.000 0.000 1.492 -426489.801
Polyol (OA) -285830 0.000 0.000 2.984 -852982.461
Total -4314554.410 -1569064.552

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 2745489.858 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Stoichiometric Reactor (R103) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= 16944.15803 - 16907.5201 + 2745489.858

= 2745526.496 kJ/h

251
 u. Pump (PM110)
TABLE 2. 111 General Information of PM110

Inlet (S128) Outlet (S129)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 112 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM110)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
Ethylene
L L 400 1110.166 0.360 200 72.0613
Glycol

The energy flow by Pump (PM110) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 72.061 kJ/h

252
 v. Pump (PM109)
TABLE 2. 113 General Information of PM109

Inlet (S130) Outlet (S131)

T (°C) 25 25
P (kPa) 101.325 301.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 114 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM109)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
Boron
L L 100 994.645 0.101 200 20.108
Trifluoride

The energy flow by Pump (PM109) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 20.108 kJ/h

253
 w. Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-101)

FIGURE 2. 52 Bulk Flow Washer (WSH101)

TABLE 2. 115 General Information of WSH101

Inlet (S132) Inlet (S133) Outlet (S134) Outlet (S147)

T (°C) 52.86 25 52.86 25
P (kPa) 301.325 101.325 301.325 101.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.

254
There is no energy flow at the inlet stream (S133) and outlet stream (S147) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference
temperature which is 25°C.

TABLE 2. 116 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S132) of (WSH101)

Reference Inlet
Mass flow rate, Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

Boron Trifluori L 100.000 0.530 25.000 52.860 27.860 1476.301

ET-Linoleic Acid L 30.313 0.195 25.000 52.860 27.860 164.599
ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 52.860 27.860 329.305
Ethylene Glycol L 29.956 2.408 25.000 52.860 27.860 2009.737
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 52.860 27.860 4.598
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 52.860 27.860 216.443
Polyol (LA) L 760.978 0.148 25.000 52.860 27.860 3127.123
Polyol (OA) L 1295.154 0.173 25.000 52.860 27.860 6256.791
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 0.213 25.000 52.860 27.860 33.250
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 0.211 25.000 52.860 27.860 66.570
Water L 27.989 4.180 25.000 52.860 27.860 3259.441
Total 2324.298 16944.158

255
 TABLE 2. 117 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S134) of (WSH101)

Reference Outlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase (kg/hr) Capacity, Cpi (kJ/hr)
(°C) (°C)
(kJ/kg.K)

ET-Linoleic
L 30.313 0.195 25.000 52.860 27.860 164.599
Acid
ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 52.860 27.860 329.305
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 52.860 27.860 4.598
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 52.860 27.860 216.443
Polyol (LA) L 760.978 0.148 25.000 52.860 27.860 3127.123
Polyol (OA) L 1295.154 0.173 25.000 52.860 27.860 6256.791
T-Linoleic
L 5.616 0.213 25.000 52.860 27.860 33.250
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 0.211 25.000 52.860 27.860 66.570
Water L 27.989 4.180 25.000 52.860 27.860 3259.441
Total 2194.342 13458.120

The actual heat energy flow by Bulk Flow Washer (WSH102) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

256
Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= (13458.11993 + 0) - (16944.15803 + 0)

= -3486.038 kJ/hr

x. Pump (PM112)
TABLE 2. 118 General Information of PM112

Inlet (S134) Outlet (S150)

T (°C) 52.86 53.66
P (kPa) 301.325 701.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 119 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM112)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
ET-Linoleic
L L 30.313 994.704 0.030 400.000 12.190
Acid

257
 ET-Oleic Acid L L 58.428 994.704 0.059 400.000 23.496
Glycerol L L 0.068 1258.800 0.000 400.000 0.022
Linoleic Acid L L 4.487 899.257 0.005 400.000 1.996
Polyol (LA) L L 760.978 994.704 0.765 400.000 306.012
Polyol (OA) L L 1295.154 994.704 1.302 400.000 520.820
T-Linoleic
L L 5.616 994.704 0.006 400.000 2.258
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L L 11.308 994.704 0.011 400.000 4.547
Water L L 27.989 997.000 0.028 400.000 11.229
Total 2194.342 2.206 882.570

The energy flow by Pump (PM112) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 882.570 kJ/h

258
 y. Flash (P15/V105)

FIGURE 2. 53 Flash Column (V105) and Pumps (PM112 and PM111)

TABLE 2. 120 General Information of V105

Inlet (S150) Outlet (S148) Outlet (S135)

T (°C) 53.66 180 180
P (kPa) 701.325 101.325 101.325
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop across the reactor.
• The heat of vaporization of each component is refer to its heat of vaporization under its normal boiling point.

259
 TABLE 2. 121 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S150) of (V105)

Specific Heat Inlet

Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Reference ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Capacity, Cpi Temperature
Component Phase (kg/hr) Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg.K) (°C)
(°C)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 30.313 0.195 25.000 53.660 28.660 169.326

ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 53.660 28.660 338.761
Glycerol L 0.068 2.411 25.000 53.660 28.660 4.730
Linoleic Acid L 4.487 1.731 25.000 53.660 28.660 222.659
Polyol (LA) L 760.978 0.148 25.000 53.660 28.660 3216.919
Polyol (OA) L 1295.154 0.173 25.000 53.660 28.660 6436.455
T-Linoleic Acid L 5.616 0.213 25.000 53.660 28.660 34.204
T-Oleic Acid L 11.308 0.211 25.000 53.660 28.660 68.481
Water L 27.989 4.180 25.000 53.660 28.660 3353.035
Total 2194.342 13844.570

260
 TABLE 2. 122 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S148) of (V105)

Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, Reference 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Capacity, Cpi Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Temperature (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg.K) (°C)
(°C)

ET-Linoleic Aci V 0.000 0.087 25.000 180.000 155.000 0.000

Glycerol V 0.001 1.200 25.000 180.000 155.000 0.205
Linoleic Acid V 0.003 1.284 25.000 180.000 155.000 0.561
Polyol (LA) V 0.019 0.061 25.000 180.000 155.000 0.182
Polyol (OA) V 1.315 0.074 25.000 180.000 155.000 15.065
T-Linoleic Acid V 0.709 0.095 25.000 180.000 155.000 10.454
T-Oleic Acid V 1.246 0.095 25.000 180.000 155.000 18.261
Water V 18.615 1.870 25.000 180.000 155.000 5395.593
Total 21.909 5440.320

261
 TABLE 2. 123 Manual calculation of heat of vaporization for outlet stream (S148) of (V105)

Mass flow
Heat of
rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Latent Heat
Component vaporisation
(kg/hr) (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg)

ET-Linoleic Acid 0.000 46753.200 0.000

Glycerol 0.000 79661.700 0.797
Linoleic Acid 0.000 93723.500 0.937
Polyol (LA) 0.000 46753.200 1.870
Polyol (OA) 0.003 46753.200 141.662
T-Linoleic Acid 0.002 0.000 0.000
T-Oleic Acid 0.004 158786.000 555.751
Water 1.034 46753.200 48350.757
Total 1.043 49051.774

Total energy flow at outlet stream (S148) = 5440.3201 + 49051.7740 = 54492.094 kJ/hr

262
 TABLE 2. 124 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S135) of (V105)

Specific Heat Outlet

Mass flow rate, Reference 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Capacity, Cpi Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) Temperature (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg.K) (°C)
(°C)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 30.313 0.195 25.000 180.000 155.000 915.754

ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 180.000 155.000 1832.098
Glycerol L 0.067 2.411 25.000 180.000 155.000 25.167
Linoleic Acid L 4.484 1.731 25.000 180.000 155.000 1203.433
Polyol (LA) L 760.958 0.148 25.000 180.000 155.000 17397.409
Polyol (OA) L 1293.839 0.173 25.000 180.000 155.000 34774.508
T-Linoleic Acid L 4.907 0.213 25.000 180.000 155.000 161.619
T-Oleic Acid L 10.062 0.211 25.000 180.000 155.000 329.548
Water L 9.374 4.180 25.000 180.000 155.000 6073.266
Total 2172.433 62712.801

The actual heat energy flow by Flash Column (V105) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h)

= (62712.801 + 54492.094) – 13844.569 = 103360.325 kJ/h

263
 z. Pump (PM111)
TABLE 2. 125 General Information of PM111

Inlet (S135) Outlet (S136)

T (°C) 180.25 180.25
P (kPa) 101.325 201.325

Assumption:
• The heat capacity of each component is obtained by referring to the stream temperature.
• There is no temperature change across the pump.
• The efficiency of the pump is 75 %.

TABLE 2. 126 Manual calculation of energy flow of Pump (PM111)

Mass flow rate, 𝒎̇ ΔP Q=

Phase Phase Density Vol flowrate
Component (kg/hr) (kPa) ΔPV (kJ/hr)
in out (kg/m3) (m3/h)
ET-Linoleic
L L 30.313 994.704 0.030 100.000 3.047
Acid
ET-Oleic Acid L L 58.428 994.704 0.059 100.000 5.874
Glycerol L L 0.067 1258.800 0.000 100.000 0.005
Linoleic Acid L L 4.484 899.257 0.005 100.000 0.499
Polyol (LA) L L 760.958 994.704 0.765 100.000 76.501
Polyol (OA) L L 1293.839 994.704 1.301 100.000 130.073

264
 T-Linoleic
L L 4.907 994.704 0.005 100.000 0.493
Acid
T-Oleic Acid L L 10.062 994.704 0.010 100.000 1.012
Water L L 9.374 997.000 0.009 100.000 0.940
Total 2172.433 2.184 218.444

The energy flow by Pump (PM111) is calculated from the formula:

𝑄 = Δ𝐻 =Σ ΔPV = 218.4442 kJ/h

aa. Cooling (HX104)

TABLE 2. 127 General Information of HX104

Inlet (S107) Outlet (S108)

T (°C) 25 150
P (kPa) 301.325 301.325

Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
• There is no pressure drop in streams across the heater.

265
 TABLE 2. 128 Tabulated data for energy balance of HX104

Specific Heat
Reference Capacity, Inlet Outlet
Mass flow rate, 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
Temperature Cpi Temperature Temperature ΔT (°C)
Component Phase 𝐦̇𝐢 (kg/hr) (kJ/hr)
(°C) (kJ/kg.K) (°C) (°C)

ET-Linoleic Acid L 30.313 25.000 0.195 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -828.610

ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 25.000 0.202 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -1657.753
Glycerol L 0.067 25.000 2.411 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -22.772
Linoleic Acid L 4.484 25.000 1.731 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -1088.913
Polyol (LA) L 760.958 25.000 0.148 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -15741.849
Polyol (OA) L 1293.839 25.000 0.173 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -31465.321
T-Linoleic Acid L 4.907 25.000 0.213 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -146.239
T-Oleic Acid L 10.062 25.000 0.211 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -298.188
Water L 9.374 25.000 4.180 180.250 40.000 -140.250 -5495.326
Total 2172.433 -56744.970

The actual heat energy flow by Cooler (HX104) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

266
Qactual(kJ/h) = ΣQout (kJ/h) – ΣQin (kJ/h)

= -56744.970 kJ/h

bb. Foam Forming Reactor (P13/CSTR4)

FIGURE 2. 54 Foam Forming Reactor (CSTR4) and Cooler (HX104)

TABLE 2. 129 General Information of CSTR4

Inlet Inlet Inlet Inlet Outlet

(S151) (S137) (S138) (S139) (S140)
T (°C) 40 25 25 25 26.26
P (kPa) 201.325 101.325 101.325 101.325 101.325

267
Assumption:

• The heat capacity of each component is obtained at reference temperature which is 25°C.
There is no energy flow at the inlet streams (S137), (S138) and (S139) since the inlet and outlet temperature is same with reference temperature
which is 25°C.

TABLE 2. 130 Tabulated data for energy balance of inlet stream (S151) of (CSTR4)

Component Phase Mass flow rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Specific Heat Capacity, Reference Inlet ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
(kg/hr) Cpi Temperature Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kg.K) (°C) (°C)

ET-Linoleic Acid L 30.313 0.195 25.000 40.000 15.000 88.621

ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 40.000 15.000 177.300
Glycerol L 0.067 2.411 25.000 40.000 15.000 2.436
Linoleic Acid L 4.484 1.731 25.000 40.000 15.000 116.461
Polyol (LA) L 760.958 0.148 25.000 40.000 15.000 1683.620
Polyol (OA) L 1293.839 0.173 25.000 40.000 15.000 3365.275
T-Linoleic Acid L 4.907 0.213 25.000 40.000 15.000 15.641
T-Oleic Acid L 10.062 0.211 25.000 40.000 15.000 31.892
Water L 9.374 4.180 25.000 40.000 15.000 587.735
Total 2172.433 6068.981

268
 TABLE 2. 131 Tabulated data for energy balance of outlet stream (S140) of (CSTR4)

Mass flow Outlet

Specific Heat Capacity, Cpi Reference ΔT 𝐐𝐢=𝐦̇𝐂𝐩Δ𝐓
rate, 𝐦̇𝐢 Temperature
Component Phase (kJ/kg.K) Temperature (°C) (kJ/hr)
(kg/hr) (°C)
(°C)

ET-Linoleic Aci L 30.313 0.195 25.000 26.260 1.260 7.444

ET-Oleic Acid L 58.428 0.202 25.000 26.260 1.260 14.893
Ethylene Diamin L 650.000 2.867 25.000 26.260 1.260 2347.827
Ethylene Glycol L 71.840 2.408 25.000 26.260 1.260 217.977
Foam (LO) L 968.590 0.110 25.000 26.260 1.260 134.247
Foam (MO) L 1721.939 0.124 25.000 26.260 1.260 268.493
Foam (Pet) L 1614.240 0.319 25.000 26.260 1.260 648.421
Foam (Pet-MDI) L 2134.080 0.241 25.000 26.260 1.260 648.573
Glycerol L 0.067 2.411 25.000 26.260 1.260 0.205
Linoleic Acid L 4.484 1.731 25.000 26.260 1.260 9.783
MDI Isocyanate L 90.000 1.228 25.000 26.260 1.260 139.255
Polyol (LA) L 38.764 0.148 25.000 26.260 1.260 7.204
Polyol (OA) L 64.692 0.173 25.000 26.260 1.260 14.134
T-Linoleic Acid L 4.907 0.213 25.000 26.260 1.260 1.314
T-Oleic Acid L 10.062 0.211 25.000 26.260 1.260 2.679
TDI L 170.653 1.649 25.000 26.260 1.260 354.658

269
 Water L 239.374 4.180 25.000 26.260 1.260 1260.734
Total 7872.433 6077.840

The reactant and product enthalpies are calculated using the equation below.

Enthalpy = Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔHf° (kJ/kgmol) × Molar flow rate (kgmol/h)

The heat of reaction can be calculated through the equation below.

Heat of reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = Product enthalpy (kJ/h) − Reactant enthalpy (kJ/h)

Reaction 1: 1Polyol (LA) + 2Polyol (OA) + 3TDI --> 1Foam (LO) + 2Foam (MO)
Extent of reaction: 0.454 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 95%

TABLE 2. 132 Tabulated data for molar flow of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Component Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Before After
reaction reaction
Polyol (LA) 1.492 0.076
Polyol (OA) 2.981 0.149
TDI 12.069 0.981

270
 Foam (LO) 0.000 1.416
Foam (MO) 0.000 2.832

TABLE 2. 133 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Molar Molar
Component Reactant Product
formation, ΔHfo flowrate flowrate
enthalpy (kJ/hr) enthalpy (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
Polyol (LA) -285830 1.492 -426481.226 0.076 -21725.938
Polyol (OA) -1671420 2.981 -4982837.304 0.149 -249141.865
TDI -423500 12.069 -5111208.795 0.981 -415351.860
Foam (LO) -285830 0.000 0.000 1.416 -404755.288
Foam (MO) -285830 0.000 0.000 2.832 -809510.576
Total -10520527.325 -1900485.528

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 8620041.798 kJ/h

Reaction 2: 2Ethylene Glycol + 1MDI Isocyanate + 1TDI --> 1Foam (Pet) + 1Foam (Pet-MDI)
Extent of reaction: 0.454 kgmol/hr

Conversion: 95%

271
 TABLE 2. 134 Tabulated data for molar flow of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Component Molar flowrate (kgmole/hr)

Before After
reaction reaction
Ethylene Glycol 14.839 1.159
MDI Isocyanate 7.200 0.360
TDI 12.069 0.981
Foam (Pet) 0.000 6.840
Foam (Pet-MDI) 0.000 6.840

TABLE 2. 135 Tabulated data for enthalpies of reactant and product before and after reaction 1

Standard Reactant (Before reaction) Product (After reaction)

enthalpy of Molar Molar
Component Reactant Product
formation, ΔHfo flowrate flowrate
enthalpy (kJ/hr) enthalpy (kJ/hr)
(kJ/kgmol) (kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
Ethylene Glycol -460000 14.839 -6825806.600 1.159 -533006.600
MDI Isocyanate -285830 7.200 -2057976.000 0.360 -102898.800
TDI -423500 12.069 -5111208.795 0.981 -415351.860
Foam (Pet) -285830 0.000 0.000 6.840 -1955077.200
Foam (Pet-MDI) -285830 0.000 0.000 6.840 -1955077.200

272
 Total -13994991.395 -4961411.660

Heat of Reaction, ΔHrxn,1 (kJ/h) = 9033579.735 kJ/h

The actual heat energy flow by Stoichiometric Reactor (R103) is calculated from the formula:

Q = ΔH

Qactual (kJ/h) = ΣQproduct (kJ/h) – ΣQreactant (kJ/h) + ΣHeat of reaction (kJ/h)

= 6077.840352 - 6068.980753 + 8620041.798 + 9033579.735

= 17653630.390 kJ/h

273
2.8 SUMMARY FOR COMPUTER SIMULATED ENERGY BALANCE

2.8.1 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Results for Energy Balance by

Equipment

Percentage of error will be calculated by comparing the value from the manual calculation and
the simulation. The formula is stated as follow:

|Manual Calculation−Simulated Value|

Percentage error = X 100%
Simulated Value

TABLE 2. 136 Comparison table for the percentage error between the manual
calculation and simulation value

Manual Calculation Simulation Variance (%)

(kJ/hr) Value (kJ/hr)
Pump (PM101)
Duty 324.251 324.000 0.078
Pump (PM102)
Duty 3.136 4.000 27.556
Pump (PM103)
Duty 154.998 154.000 0.644
Heater (HX101)
Duty 657181.049 656974.252 0.031
Transesterification Reactor ( P3/ CSTR1)
Inlet S108 657181.049 657181.005 0.000
Outlet S149 33074.775 260631.806 68.008
Outlet S109 396535.193 396549.182 0.004
Neutralization Tank 1 (P10/V101)
Inlet S109 396535.193 396549.182 0.004
Inlet S110 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S141 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S111 364053.499 399428.943 9.717
Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-102)
Inlet S111 364053.499 399428.943 9.717
Inlet S112 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S142 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S113 62504.761 69548.721 11.269

274
 Pump (PM104)
Duty 341.598 364.000 6.558
Cooling (HX102)
Duty -50514.068 -56500.194 11.850
Epoxidation Reactor (P9/CSTR2)
Inlet S115 13203.827 13206.576 0.021
Inlet S143 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S117 13232.663 13238.843 0.047
Pump (PM105)
Duty 75.466 76.000 0.707
Pump (PM106)
Duty 15.382 17.000 10.522
Neutralization Tank 1 (P10/V102)
Inlet S117 13232.663 13238.843 0.047
Inlet S119 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S144 49633.449 47834.524 3.624
Outlet S120 13613.492 13612.636 0.006
Pump (PM107)
Duty 1.133 1.000 11.704
Neutralization Tank 2 (P11/V103)
Inlet S120 13613.492 13612.636 0.006
Inlet S122 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S145 1851.391 1545.220 16.537
Outlet S123 15594.553 15591.171 0.022
Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-103)
Inlet S123 15594.553 15591.171 0.022
Inlet S124 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S146 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S125 5226.839 5225.366 0.028
Pump (PM108)
Duty 366.882 368.000 0.304
Heating (HX-103)
Duty 11526.098 11523.077 0.026
Pump (PM110)
Duty 72.061 72.000 0.085
Pump (PM109)
Duty 20.108 20.000 0.538
Ring Opening Reactor (P13/CSTR3)
Inlet S127 16907.520 16906.311 0.007
Inlet S129 0.000 0.000 -
Inlet S131 0.000 0.000 -

275
 Outlet S132 16944.158 16945.810 0.010
Washer (Bulk Flow) (P4/WSH-101)
Inlet S132 16944.158 16945.810 0.010
Inlet S133 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S147 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S134 13458.120 13459.403 0.010
Pump (PM112)
Duty 882.570 892.000 1.068
Flash (P15/V105)
Inlet S150 13844.570 13841.568 0.022
Outlet S148 54492.094 54777.443 0.524
Outlet S135 62712.801 62708.921 0.006
Pump (PM111)
Duty 218.444 232.000 6.206
Cooling (HX104)
Duty -56744.970 -77775.401 37.061
Foam Forming Reactor (P13/CSTR4)
Inlet S151 6068.981 6068.605 0.006
Inlet S137 0.000 0.000 -
Inlet S138 0.000 0.000 -
Inlet S139 0.000 0.000 -
Outlet S140 6077.840 6068.605 0.152

Based on the table above which shows the percentage error between the manual
calculation and SuperPro calculation, it can be generally deduced that the errors obtained for
all the energy stream are within acceptable limit for the deviation between the manual
calculation and SuperPro calculation for energy balance except for certain equipment. One of
the possible reasons that cause those large deviations is due to the values of heat of
condensation, heat of vaporization, heat of reactions as well as specific heat capacity of
components used by both manual calculation and SuperPro calculation.

The discrepancy of percentage errors between manual calculation and SuperPro calculation
of energy balance are probably due to several factors. For instance:

• The existing deviations in manual material balance calculation are brought forward to
the energy balance manual calculation. The discrepancy in the mass flow rate and

276
 composition of streams results in the deviation of manual calculation of energy balance
from the SuperPro.
• The thermodynamic data used for the manual calculation might be different from the
database of simulator.
• There is some difference in the temperature used for manual calculation compared to
simulator which causes the deviations between the manual energy balance calculations
with simulation.
• In manual energy balance calculation, the process is assumed to be in ideal case. Some
of minor changes in pressure and temperature are neglected. Thus, these may cause
deviation between manual calculation and SuperPro calculation as the simulator may
consider all those effects but manual calculation does not.

277
2.9 PROCESS DESIGN OPTIMISATION

2.9.1 Parametric optimization

Analysis from itemized cost report from the simulation software used indicates the
heating of incoming mixture stream S-104 contributes to the largest portion of steam
consumption. Subsequent stream exiting from reactor P-3 is also found to be cooling the
temperature drastically from 237℃ to 60℃. Implementation of a cooler to bring down the
temperature is a great loss as the heat remove is not utilized efficiently, instead
implementation of a heat exchanger is recommended to heat incoming stream S-104 to
minimize required heat to increase its temperature to 150℃ from 25℃. Savings are resulted
from drop in steam consumption to heat S-104. Heating and cooling processes throughout
this project is done via heat transferring medium such as steam for heating and chilled water
for temperature reductions.

Temperatures for all other than at the first reactor(transesterification) was conducted at
60℃ as all existing researchers and journals agreed that at this temperature, the conversion
of reactants were the highest. Biphasic catalytic system can be implemented to increase
conversion of triglycerides and monoglycerides to epoxides due to better interface between
oxygen donors and oil component.(Firdaus, 2011). Hydrogen peroxide is known to
dissociate into water and oxygen molecule, whilst it can function as oxygen donor
theoretically, the immiscibility between fluid phase and oil phase reduces the conversion
rate of palm oil to epoxides.

278
FIGURE 2. 55 Process flow diagram after implementation of heat exchangers in SuperPro Designer

279
TABLE 2. 137 Comparison Table for the before and after of the heat transfer agent
demand

Heat transfer agent demand

Before After
Steam kg/yr kg/yr
P-2 2,469,021.81 2,015,299.12
P-7 43305.70
Section Total 2,512,327.51 2,015,299.12
TOTAL 2,512,327.51 2,015,299.12

Steam (High P) kg/yr kg/yr

P-15 519,481.04 519,481.04
Section Total 519,481.04 519,481.04
TOTAL 519,481.04 519,481.04

Chilled Water kg/yr kg/yr

P-5 21,054,782.86
P-28 28,583,806.13 762,454.9
Section Total 49,638,588.99 762,454.9
TOTAL 49,638,588.99 762,454.9
Power Demand
Std Power kW-h/yr kW-h/yr
Main Section
P-10 4,281.42 4,267.61
P-11 4,612.38 4,600.56
P-8 1,019.20 1,019.20
P-16 9.86 9.86
P-17 487.14 487.14
P-18 1,142.61 1,142.61
P-4 4,857.22 4,857.22

P-20 236.63 236.63

P-21 53.96 53.96
P-22 3.56 3.56

280
 P-23 1,157.70 1,154.80
P-24 63.19 63.19
P-25 226.47 226.47

P-26 727.98 727.98

P-27 2,802.54 2,838.51
Unlisted Equipment 1,355.12 1,355.58
General Load 4,065.35 4,066.74
Section Total 27,102.30 27,111.61

TOTAL 27,102.30 27,111.61

2.9.2 Topology optimization

Topology optimization refers to the mathematical method in optimization of material

layout for a given process design by manipulating boundary conditions along with constraints
in order to maximize performance of system.

In optimizing heat usage throughout the process, heat exchanger equipment can be
implemented to recover waste heat and reduce energy consumption to maintain temperature
flow in streams. Streams with very high temperature can be used to heat up streams with lower
temperature to minimize energy dependency from burner and minimize heat loss to
surroundings. Optimization methods such as plotting Composite Curve, Pinch method and
Problem Table Algorithm, PTA method can be used to predict number of heat exchanger,
heater and cooler needed to optimize energy flow in this plant layout. The calculation and
details will be discussed more in Chapter 3 for process heat integration.

281
 CHAPTER III

PROCESS HEAT INTEGRATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Process heat integration is known as one of the technologies that used to improve the
energy and material efficiency in the industry. Heat integration is developed for the continuous
process with the heating and cooling supplies with the addition of conventional fuels. It works
as integrating the heat into the heat exchanger network which acts to recover the thermal
energy. Next, it is a technology which is able to decrease the energy consumption without
changing the entire process. The heat output for the processes is able to be reused. In addition,
it has a direct effect on the economic performance and sustainability of the plant by reducing
the carbon intensity of the product. There are few advantages for the process heat integration
and the first one will be helpful in improving the operation and design of the entire system.
Besides, the process units from the processes are able to be optimized properly through the
analytical approach. This can be said as the heat energy which is rejected from the other process
unit able to be reused to the other unit that eventually would reduce the energy consumption.
Lastly, it is crucial to have this technology for improving the plant processes in the industry.

Heat integration is a process which would require a huge endothermic and exothermic
processes unit since heat integration is needed to ensure the entire process undergoes a good
efficiency. It has been practiced widely to conserve the efficiency of the material and improve
the energy. However, mechanical and other forms of energy are not able to be recovered in this
system. It is important in the optimization design for the chemical plants. Next, it is the key in
the optimization design of the chemical plant which is also known as the third step of the design
hierarchy by identifying the heat specifications from the temperature effects from the first two
steps of the design hierarchy which is reaction and separation system. One of the ways to
proceed with heat integration is comparing the standard value of the heat integration when
stream flow rates and temperatures are fixed. In the meantime, the temperature intervals used

282
for getting energy targets cannot be established which eventually causes the location of the
pinch point to be unable to be identified (Rahul Anantharaman., 2014).

3.1.1 Pinch Technology

Pinch Technology is known as one of the outstanding and systematic methods for
energy saving where heating and cooling are characterizing the processing operations (Gadalla,
M. A., 2015). It is a graphical heat exchanger network (HEN) which refers to the first law of
thermodynamics and some constraints originated from the second law of thermodynamics. The
first law of thermodynamics is related to the energy balance whereas the second law is related
to the positive temperature difference between the hot stream and the cold stream during the
heat exchanging. It is having advantages to design multi pass HEN by applying the first and
second laws of thermodynamics based on the concepts of pinch technology (Sun, L and Luo,
X., 2011).

The overall process design hierarchy can be represented by the onion diagram which is
shown on the figure below. Firstly, the design of a process will be started from the core which
is reactors. Next, the separator is able to design once the data of the feeds, products, recycle
concentrations and flow rates are known. Then, the heat exchanger network is the next to be
designed when the basic process heat and material balance are completed. The heating and
cooling utilities will be handled by the utility system which equals as a part of a centralized
site-wide utility system. Lastly, the water and waste treatment is able to be identified once the
heating and cooling utilities are accomplished.

283
 FIGURE 3. 1 Onion Diagram for Chemical Process Design
[Adapted from Mamdouh A. Gadalla., 2015]

3.1.2 Advantages of Pinch Technology

Various fields of industries do apply pinch technology due to its numerous advantages.
First, it provides strategic planning which involves the saving of the potential energy and hence
able to provide the key data and how to implement the energy supplies such as energy storage
units. Next, it can show the requirement for the current energy that is involved with the element
of the Energy Management System. With the knowledge of the pinch technology, it can help
in preventing the poor investment which would lead to the incorrect measure for efficiency
such as false integration of the heat pump. In contrast, it would facilitate the connection among
the whole zones of the industry by applying the holistic systematic approach and holistic
optimization. For instance, system design, capital cost, operating cost and more.

284
3.1.3 Pinch Technology Method Rule

Based on the composite curve, it consists of two flows which are cold stream and heat
stream from heat exchangers. The data from the process flow will include the energy flows,
streams and enthalpy against the temperature and eventually form a composite graph. The
pinch temperature can be identified by observing the closet point which is approaching the hot
and cold composite curve. Thus, pinch temperature is important because it can achieve the
energy targets in order to recover heat between hot and cold streams. There are assumptions
that are required to be obeyed to ensure the minimum energy target is achieved. First and
foremost, the heat energy cannot transfer throughout the pinch. The cooler cannot be applied
above pinch point and heater cannot be applied below pinch point. If any of these criteria are
happened through the pinch, this will lead to the increasing of the energy above the specific
target.

Since it is having heat and cold streams in the entire process, the inequality of the heat
and cold capacity pairs will be identified based on the number of sequences of the heat capacity.
If it is from the above pinch, the pairing of the heat capacity for the heat stream will be smaller
than the heat capacity for the cold stream. On the other hand, pairing for the below pinch will
be applied by the heat capacity of the heat stream will be greater than the heat capacity of the
cold stream. Furthermore, a certain stream can be ticked off once the heat energy from a stream
is being transferred to another stream. Either hot or cold utility will be applied on the certain
stream followed by the types of stream respectively. After that, a complete network diagram is
accomplished, and it can proceed to the next step which is identify the number of units for the
heat exchangers. The formula for calculating is N= S-1 which N represents number of units
and S represents number of streams that include utilities. Since there are presence of above
pinch and below pinch in the calculation of the heat integration, the formula will be derived in
the other form by considering the presence of both pinches.

285
3.1.4 Problem Table Algorithm (PTA)

Problem Table Algorithm can be used to identify the pinch temperature. Firstly, the
minimum temperature ΔTmin will be used to identify the shift temperature. The shift
temperature of the hot stream can be calculated by adding the original temperature minus the
half of the ΔTmin. On the other hand, the shift temperature of the cold stream will be calculated
by using the original target temperature minus the half of the ΔTmin. The formula is shown as
follows:

Hot stream: subtract ΔTmin /2 to make it colder

Cold stream: add ΔTmin / 2 to make it hotter

When all the shifted temperatures are done calculating, the calculated temperature will
be arranged from the highest to lowest value. Thus, the heat energy for each of the temperature
will be calculated respectively using the formula as follows:

ΔH = [ΣCPC - ΣCPH ] ΔT
Which,
CP = heat capacity
ΔT = temperature intervals

Zero value will be used as a starting value on the top of the cascade. The smallest
negative value of the will be chosen and then placed onto the top of the cascade and repeating
the same steps by minus the heat energy until zero value is obtained. Thus, the heat cascade is
done, and the most top value is the heat energy for the hot utility and the most bottom value is
the heat energy for the cold utility.

286
3.1.5 Determining Δ Tmin

Minimum temperature is the smallest gap of the temperature which will travel across
the heat transfer in the system and it occurs at the pinch. Research shows that the minimum
temperature which is used in pinch technology should be greater than zero which is in the range
of between 5 °C and 30 °C. Minimum temperature is required for the pinch analysis because
the entire system is impossible to transfer all the heat from the hot utility to cold utility in reality
hence it will act as a driving force to ensure the heat exchanging system between the hot and
cold fluid is running smoothly in the heat exchanging network (Towler and Sinnott, 2013).
Thus, the minimum temperature of 20°C is chosen to calculate the minimum temperature of
the hot and cold utility in the study. This is because if using a slightly lower temperature it will
lead to the non-feasible to the data. Thus, 20°C is used as the reference for the minimum
temperature to identify the pinch temperature for hot and cold streams.

287
3.2 Process Flow Diagram of Pinch Technology

The entire procedure of the pinch technology will be present in the flow diagram as
follows:

FIGURE 3. 2 Procedure of Pinch Technology

3.2.1 Stream Data Extraction

The data of hot and cold streams that existed in the process are extracted. The stream
data is extracted from manual calculation. The important data are the inlet (supply)
temperature, outlet (target) temperature and the heat duty of equipment. The heat capacity flow
rate can be calculated from theses information.

288
 TABLE 3. 1 Streams Data
No. Streams Type Denotation Supply Target ΔH (kJ/h) ΔH CP
Temperature(°C) Temperature(°C)
(kW) (kW/°C)

1 S-107 Cold C1 25 150 657181.05 182.55 1.460

2 S-114 Hot H1 193 60 -50514.07 -14.03 0.105

3 S-126 Cold C2 36 60 11526.10 3.20 0.133

4 S-136 Hot H2 180 40 -56744.97 -15.76 0.113

3.2.2 Shifted Temperature

Shifted temperature represents the smallest temperature difference that two streams
leaving or entering a heat exchanger can have. The composites curves show the minimum
temperature difference that found between cold streamline and hot streamline at pinch point.
ΔTmin = 20 °C was used in this heat integrated process.

Set up shifted temperature intervals from original stream Supply and Target Temperature
values:

• Cold stream: add Δ Tmin/2 to make it hotter (+20 °C/2 = +10°C)

• Hot stream: subtract ΔTmin/2 to make it colder (-20°C /2 = -10°C)

The heat capacity flow rates are calculated as:

For example, Heater (HX101):
CP (kW/°C) = ΔH/ΔT
= 182.55/ (150-25)
= 1.460 kW/°C

289
 TABLE 3. 2 Shifted Temperature
No. Type Denotation Supply Target Ts* Tt* ΔH CP
Temperature Temperature
(°C) (°C) (kW) (kW/°C)
(°C) (°C)

1 Cold C1 25 150 35 160 182.55 1.460

2 Hot H1 193 60 183 50 -14.03 0.105

3 Cold C2 36 60 46 70 3.20 0.133

4 Hot H2 180 40 170 30 -15.76 0.113

3.2.3 Heat Interval

All streams are represented by a vertical line, where cold stream (represented as “C”)
and hot stream (represented as “H”) are placed in the grid diagram. The cold and heat duty of
each temperature interval is calculated. The difference in cold and hot duty is then calculated
and the result is represented as deficit for (+) value and surplus for (-) value. This step is
important for constructing the cascade diagram at the following step.

The enthalpy change, ΔH (kW) is calculated in each shifted temperature interval as below:

For example,

ΔH (kW) = (ΣCPC– ΣCPH) x ΔT*

= (-0.105) x (183-170)
= -0.105 x 13
= -1.365kW
If hot stream dominate: ΔHin +ve= heat surplus

If cold stream dominate: ΔHin –ve = heat deficit

290
T* (°C) Stream Population ΔT*(°C) (ΣCPc– ΔH (kW) Surplus/
ΣCPh) Deficit
H1
183 13 -0.105 -1.365 Deficit
H2
170 10 -0.218 -2.180 Deficit
5
CP=0.10

160 90 1.242 111.78 Surplus

3
CP=0.11

70 20 1.375 27.50 Surplus

3
CP=0.13
0
CP=1.46

50 4 1.480 5.92 Surplus

46 11 1.347 14.82 Surplus

C2

35 5 -0.113 -0.565 Deficit

C1

30

FIGURE 3. 3 Calculated Heat Interval

3.2.4 Heat Cascade

The heat cascade uses the surplus heat from one hot utility and moves it into the next
interval so that the heat from the system will not be wasted. From the heat cascade diagram,
we can determine the minimum utility requirements. The heat cascade is drawn based on the
problem table. If there is an excess energy at a certain temperature interval, this energy will be
cascaded down to the next temperature level. The heat flow showed in this cascade diagram
must be in positive value throughout the course. The heat loads for each interval is added to
that of the previous interval. The heat cascade that shown at Figure 3.4 is not feasible because
it has negative net heat load. Meanwhile, the feasible heat cascade does not have any negative
heat flows. The temperature at which there is no heat flow is the pinch point.

291
T* (°C) ΔH (kW)
Hot Utility

183 ΔH= -1.365 0

170 ΔH= -2.180 1.365

160 ΔH= 111.78 3.545

ΔH= 27.50
70 -108.235
ΔH= 5.92
50 -135.735
ΔH= 14.82
46 -141.655 *Largest deficit
ΔH= -0.565

35 Cold Utility
-156.472

30 -155.907

FIGURE 3. 4 Unfeasible Heat Cascade

292
 T* (°C) ΔH (kW)
Hot Utility

*QHmin= 156.472kW
183 ΔH= -1.365 156.472

170 ΔH= -2.180 157.837

160 ΔH= 111.78 160.017

ΔH= 27.50
70 48.237
ΔH= 5.92
50 20.737
ΔH= 14.82
46 14.817
ΔH= -0.565

35 Cold Utility
0 *QCmin= 0.565kW

30 0.565

FIGURE 3. 5 Feasible Heat Cascade

3.2.5 Pinch Temperature

Hot stream = 35 + 10

= 45 °C

Cold stream = 35 - 10

= 25 °C

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3.2.6 Utility

Hot utility= 156.472 kW

Cold utility= 0.565kW

3.2.7 Energy Recovery

Q recovery = ((Σ ΔHhot + Σ ΔHcold ) - (QH min + QC min)/ 2

= (182.55+14.03+3.20+15.76) – (156.472+0.565) /2

= (215.54-157.037) / 2

= 29.25 kW

3.3 COMPOSITE CURVE (CC METHOD)

The composite curve is used to determine the maximum heat recovery and the
minimum cooling and heating requirement. ΔTmin= 20°C is set to obtain the composite
curve. Two lines are drawn to indicate the cold stream and hot stream.

FIGURE 3. 6 Composite Curve before shifting

294
 QH min=222.9kW

QC min=0.752kW

FIGURE 3. 7 Composite Curve after shifting

3.4 HEAT EXCHANGE NETWORK BY PINCH ANLYSIS

3.4.1 Grid Diagram

Grid diagram is one of the methods to apply the rules of pinch analysis by visualize the
streams in the analysis. There are few rules must be applied in order to get a successful analysis
and these rules are stated as follows.

(i) Do not transfer heat across the pinch.

(ii) Do not use cold utilities above the pinch.

(iii) Do not use hot utilities below the pinch.

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 FIGURE 3. 8 Grid diagram

FIGURE 3. 9 Heat exchanger network above pinch

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 Below Pinch

45𝐶 𝑜
CP(kW) ΔH (kW)
H2 C 40𝐶 𝑜
QC min=0.565kW 0.133 0.133(45-40)=0.565

FIGURE 3. 10 Heat exchanger network below pinch

3.4.2 Energy Recovery

Qrecovery = 10.773+3.192+15.255

= 29.22kW

3.4.3 Minimum Number of Heat Exchange Unit

N units = (S above - 1) + (S below -1)

Where N units is the number of heat exchange units and S pinch is the number of streams. *
The extra stream for cooling water and steam needs to be assumed into the grid diagram.

The S above should be equal to the number streams above the pinch PLUS the number of

Hot utilities = (4+1) = 5

The S below should be equal to the number streams below the pinch PLUS the number of

Cold utilities = (1+1) = 2

*Remarks, there is only one hot utilities as shown in cascade diagram.

297
Nunits = S - 1

= [S above pinch -1] + [S below pinch -1]

= (5 – 1) + (2 – 1)

=5

Hence, the minimum number of unit Heat Exchange Units is 5.

3.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Heat integration is done using Pinch Analysis method where the pinch temperatures of
hot stream and cold stream are obtained using PTA and Pinch Method before developing the
integrated heat exchanger network. The developed heat exchanger network grid diagram is
shown in Figure 3.10 and the overall process flow diagram (PFD) is shown in Figure 3.11.

Based on the Table 3.3 below, the energy calculated from PTA method was similar as
the Pinch Analysis. Thus, it can conclude that 29.22 kW of energy can be recovered. Table 3.4
show the summary of energy required before and after heat integration. Before heat integration,
the plant required one heater and two coolers to run. However, after performing heat
integration, one heater with lower energy consumption needed. Overall, the plant has saved
total 59.068 kW.

TABLE 3. 3 Comparison of energy recovery obtained from PTA and Pinch Analysis.

Method Energy Recovery

Problem Table Algorithm 29.25

(PTA)
Pinch Analysis 29.22

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 TABLE 3. 4 Summary of Energy before and after Heat Integration

Heating and Cooling Units Heat Duty (kW)

Before Heat Integration After Heat Integration

Heater (HX101) 182.55 156.472

Cooler (HX102) 14.03 -

Heater (HX 103) 3.20 -

Cooler (HX 104) 15.76 0.565

Total Duty (kW) 215.54 157.037

Total energy saved (total of cooling and heating) = 215.54 kW – 157.037kW

= 58.503 kW

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3.5.1 Process Flow Diagram (Heat Integration)

FIGURE 3. 11 Process flow diagram with heat integration

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 CHAPTER IV

WASTE TREATMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Waste treatment is essential for controlling environmental pollutants, even those with
the least impact on the environment. There are a few wastes, including agricultural waste,
industrial waste, domestic waste, radioactive waste, and so on (Aja et al., 2016). All countries
have different laws and regulations to treat these wastes (Vimal, 2019).

The rampant increase in urbanization and industrialization has led to the aggravation of
land, water, and air pollution. Land or soil pollution has been recognized as a major concern of
the 21st century as well as being an important international challenge. Soil is a nonrenewable
resource. Therefore, its remediation and management are essential for the production of food,
fodder, fiber, fuel, and medicinal products for a sustainable future. They exist in ecosystems
for a long time and their toxicity adversely affect soil quality, crop growth and production, and
human health (Okieimen, 2011).

Hazardous waste treatment consists of manipulating biological, chemical, or physical

attributes. However, current methods are not necessarily the best technology to treat hazardous
wastes and there are still improvements to be made. Updated methods attempt not to cause
major environmental damage or require much human intervention (Tedder and Pohland, 2000).

In this chapter, we will study the waste production and the waste treatment process. The
waste materials that are costly will undergo reduce and reuse process to be utilized by the same
application or different applications.

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4.2 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND HIERARCHY

FIGURE 4. 1 Waste Management Hierarchy

[Adapted from Environmental Protection Agency, 2017]

Figure 4.1 shows the waste management hierarchy. This means that the hierarchy
includes two activities that aim to prevent material becoming waste in the first place. Reuse is
defined as the use of the materials of a product with or without remanufacturing. Recycling is
nowadays common in many industrial processes, for example, pulp and paper, aluminum,
glass, and electronics. In many cities, centralized waste recycling stations are available for the
sorting of waste to redirect it to its respective recyclable material. Reduction, reuse, and
recycling are all subjects of research and development in multidisciplinary initiatives
worldwide. Material planning and waste sorting at the source are examples of key factors for
success (“Recycling Advantages & Disadvantages: The Ups & Downs of Recycling,” 2019).

Sorting and treating waste allow it to be further processed into reusable materials,
thereby maximizing the savings of primary resources and energy as well as reducing
environmental burdens. This process is referred to as recycling, a key component in modern
waste reduction hierarchy ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’.

302
4.2.1 Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention

Waste minimization or source reduction is the practice of preventing waste by

decreasing or eliminating the amount of source initially used. Source reduction is a waste
prevention and source reduction refer to the reuse of products and the change in the design,
manufacture, purchase, or use of materials or products to reduce their amount or toxicity before
they become municipal solid waste. Source reduction is often thought of in terms of mass, the
amount of volume reduced at the source. Source reduction, however, is also the activity that
reduces, substitutes, or eliminates the generation of harmful products or components that
become hazardous waste at the source (US EPA, 2018).

Waste reduction also refers to the recycling of products or materials. Recycle is the
second preferred waste management option after waste reduction. Recycle is the practice of
producing a new material with a different function using the waste. The essence of recycle is
that it preserves some or all of the energy and materials that went into making an item. Society
has long embraced the practice of recycling by finding alternate uses for an item rather than
disposing or reusing it. It is the practice of designing, manufacturing, purchasing, or using items
(such as products and packaging) in ways that reduce the quantity or toxicity of trash created
(OWSER, 2018).

Three major benefits can be derived from the application of source reduction and
recycle, as follows:

● Reducing consumption of resources. Waste is not just created when consumers throw
items away. Throughout the life cycle of a product—from extraction of raw materials
to transportation, processing and manufacturing facilities and end use—waste is
generated. Reusing items or making them with less material decreases waste
dramatically. Ultimately, fewer materials will need to be recycled or sent to landfills or
waste combustion facilities.

303
 ● Reducing waste toxicity. Selecting non-hazardous or less hazardous items is another
important component of source reduction. Using less hazardous alternatives for certain
items (e.g., cleaning products and pesticides), sharing products that contain hazardous
chemicals instead of throwing out leftovers, reading label directions carefully, and
using the smallest amount necessary are ways to reduce waste toxicity.
● Reducing cost. The benefits of preventing waste go beyond reducing reliance on other
forms of waste disposal. Preventing waste also can mean economic savings for
production plants. For example, energy and natural resources are saved when products
are made from recycled rather than new materials. Production plants can also cut
disposal costs greatly by recycling. Besides, selling the valuable products produced
from waste materials contributes as a second income for the production plant (ORCR,
2018).

4.2.2 Objectives of Minimization and Treatment

The significant concern of waste minimization and treatment is to achieve the waste
hierarchy as shown in the previous subsection. However, there is also a wider scope where the
social, environmental and economic factors are involved (Jayashree, 2012). The main
objectives of waste management are:

1. To protect the environment through effective waste management techniques.

2. To protect health, wellbeing and environment.
3. To reduce and reuse waste
4. To prevent pollution and ensure safe disposal of waste
5. To minimize the production of waste
6. To maintain sustainable development and encourage waste to energy development
7. To ensure proper solid, liquid and gas waste management.
8. To create awareness on the impact of waste.

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4.3 TYPE OF WASTE

The wastes produced in this production plant are as stated in Table 4.1. The waste
produced is mostly in liquid or vapor phase. The solid phase components that are fed into the
reaction are released as a waste in liquid or vapor phase. Gaseous waste released from the plant
is carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrochloric acid and water vapor. For liquid waste, the
minimization and treatment are done respectively. Expensive waste from the production is
recycled back to the plant or utilized for other applications such as producing different valuable
products and sold as second income while the other wastes are treated and released to the
environment.

4.3.1 Identification of Waste Stream

Table 4.1 shows the identifications of the waste stream based on the simulation file.
These waste streams should be either recycled, treated and released to the environment or
treated and utilized in other applications.

TABLE 4. 1 Identification of Stream

Outlet Flow Rate Possible Way To

Components Waste Phase
Stream (Kg/h) Treat The Waste

Oleic Acid 9.038 Treat and release to

S-149 Liquid
Water 85.672 environment

Glycerol 684.502 Recycle

HCL 2.738
S-142 Liquid Treat and release to
Sodium Chloride 43.878
environment
Water 210.801

S-144 HCL 188.451 Gas

305
 Treat and release to
Oxygen 16.270
the environment

Carb. Dioxide 11.957 Treat and release it

S-145 Gas
Oxygen 0.856 to the environment

Sodium Bicarbonate 2.283

Salts 369.565 Treat and release it

S-146 Liquid
Sodium Chloride 30.204 to the environment

Water 211.956

Boron Trifluoride 100.000 Recycle

S-147 Ethylene Glycol 29.956 Liquid Treat and release it

Water 100.000 to the environment

ET-Linoleic Acid 0.0000

Glycerol 0.001

Linoleic Acid 0.003

Polyol (LA) 0.019 Treat and release it

S-148 Liquid
Polyol (OA) 1.315 to the environment

T-Linoleic Acid 0.709

T-Oleic Acid 1.246

Water 18.615

S-149 consists of oleic acid and water in a flow rate of 9.0384 and 85.6722 kg/h. Since
these components are harmless, it can be further treated by wastewater treatment and released
to the environment instead of having a separate treatment process. This eventually saves the
cost of the production plant.

306
 S-142 consists of glycerol, hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water with a flow
rate of 684.502, 2.738, 43.878 and 210.801 kg/h respectively. Glycerol is one of the expensive
components used in this production plant. Thus, excess glycerol is recovered and recycled to
produce valuable products. Glycerol is separated from these components by basic separation
methods such as gravity separation or centrifugation. The rest of the components are conveyed
to the wastewater treatment and further treated before releasing it to the environment.

S-144 and S-145 are waste streams that are in gaseous phase. S-144 consists of HCl
and oxygen with a flow rate of 188.451 and 16.270 kg/h whereby S-145 consist of carbon
dioxide and oxygen with a flow rate of 11.957 and 0.856 kg/h respectively. These waste streams
are treated with a scrubber before releasing it to the environment. A scrubber is a waste gas
treatment installation in which a gas stream is brought into intensive contact with a liquid, with
the aim of allowing certain gaseous components to pass from the gas to the liquid. The aim is
to remove the HCl from waste gas streams. This is because in many countries there are strict
maximum emission levels for hydrogen chloride which mean that it must be removed from
waste gas streams.

Waste stream 146 which is known as S-146 consists of sodium bicarbonate, salts,
sodium chloride and water with flow rate of 2.283, 369.565, 30.2038 and 211.956 kg/h
respectively. This stream will be directly treated as wastewater treatment since it is less harmful
to the environment.

S-147 has 3 components such as boron trifluoride etherate complex, ethylene glycol
and water with flow rate of 100, 29.956 and 100 kg/h respectively. Boron trifluoride etherate
complex which is a catalyst will be recovered and reused for other applications as stated in
section [Link] whereby the ethylene glycol which is obtained in small flow rate together with
the water is further treated at wastewater treatment as described in section [Link]. The ethylene
glycol will be reduced from water before releasing to the environment to avoid any poisoning
happening. Even though it might not be fully reduced but it can be reduced before release
because overexposure will lead to the poisoning that might affect the metabolic acidosis, renal
failure and the worst is causing fatal. As an instance, ethylene glycol is able to absorb through
307
the skin and may cause serious toxicity. Fomepizole is an agent which has specific indications
for the treatment of ethylene glycol. It is a competitive inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase
which is able to catalyze the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde. In the meantime, alcohol
dehydrogenase can catalyze the initial steps in the metabolism of ethylene glycol and methanol
to their toxic metabolites.

S-148 has some components such as glycerol, linoleic acid, polyol, water, linoleic acid
and oleic acid with flow rate of 0.000028, 0.000073, 0.000499, 0.018, 0.032 and 0.480 kg/h
respectively. Since the concentration for these components are relatively low, one of ways to
treat these components is dilution by air and release it slowly. Air dilution is known as a high
preheated air combustion that is effective in controlling the components emission and hence
improving the temperature uniformity. Dilution in air is chosen because the installation,
maintenance and operator training are expected to cost less than most other methods since the
main equipment is fans or blowers. (Gupta J. P., 2005). On the other hand, this method does
not occupy any spaces since no storage tank is required and air can be got everywhere
meanwhile other methods might require water or neutralizing chemicals which needed to be
stored properly. Safety precaution is required to put into consideration for the design stage of
the air dilution. Firstly, sources of ignition present must be avoided in the vicinity since dilution
with air may bring a combustible gas release into the flammable range and make sure the sparks
from the fan motor do not cause an explosion.

4.3.2 Hydrochloric Acid

HCl is the chemical formula for the hydrochloric acid and it has the molecular weight
of 36.47 g/mol. It is a diatomic molecule which consists of hydrogen and chloride atoms that
are connected by covalent bond. It is a colorless and non-flammable aqueous solution at room
temperature and has a pungent odor. Hydrochloric acid is one of the stronger acids which is
known as one of the major components of gastric acid and applied in various industries.
Hydrochloric acids are very corrosive solutions and will attack construction materials

308
surrounding chemical processing industries. Hence, it must be handled with safety precautions
since it is an extremely corrosive acid (PubChem, 2019).

[Link] Waste Treatment Process

HCl waste is found at waste stream S-142 and waste stream S-144 in liquid and gas
phases respectively. Waste stream S-142 has a flow rate of 2.73771 kg/h and waste stream 144
have a flow rate of 188.45109 kg/h. Since the flow rate of HCl in waste stream S-142 is low, a
separate treatment is not needed. The HCl in waste stream S-142 can be directed into
wastewater treatment. Hydrogen chloride gas produced as a waste in waste stream S-144 is
further treated using a scrubber before releasing it to the environment.

Hydrogen chloride gas is generated as a by-product or waste gas by the production

plant. In Malaysia, there are strict maximum emission levels for hydrogen chloride, mandating
that it be removed from waste gas streams that obey the NESHAP (National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants) from 2003. The emission standard for the nationwide
baseline is set for the outlet concentration is lesser than or 12 parts per million by volume
(ppmv) of hydrochloride gas and 20 ppmv chlorine gas from each process vent. (Federal
Register., n.d). The proposed rule would also require the cooperation from the owners or
operators to establish operating limits for the final control device which is based on monitored
parameters and levels established during the performance test.

This may be done simply by scrubbing hydrochloric acid out of the waste gas, or where
the concentration is high enough, absorbing HCl to produce hydrochloric acid as a product.
Hydrogen chloride has a great affinity for water and the most appropriate HCI absorption
process for any particular application depends on the nature of the feedstock and on the product
required.

The HCl gas scrubber represents the simplest form of an HCl absorber operating
continuously with respect to the gas flow and batch-wise with respect to the absorbing liquid.

309
This apparatus is useful for applications where the concentration of the hydrogen chloride is
low and further processing to form hydrochloric acid has no economic advantage. The aim is
to remove the HCl from waste gas streams. In this type of unit the liquid to gas ratio in the
column is usually very high. Any heat of solution generated in the process will therefore be
taken up by the liquid phase, thus avoiding the need for coolers. Increased concentration or
increased total amount of HCl in the gas stream may be required to remove the generated heat.
Removal of the heat is done by a cooler placed in the recirculation loop. The addition of sodium
hydroxide to the absorption liquid neutralizes absorbed HCl, improving mass transfer and
providing a more efficient scrubbing process. To achieve this, a vessel with a pump is placed
at the base of the column where the neutralizing absorption liquid is stored. This liquid is
sprayed from the top, continuously absorbing HCl gas until the absorbing liquid becomes semi-
batch wise neutralized. This can be monitored by continuous pH measurement.

The hydrochloric acid scrubber uses random dumped packing, a mist eliminator, and a
liquid distribution system to remove HCl through absorption and neutralization. Gas flows up
through the packed bed. Liquid flows countercurrent to the gas, absorbing the HCl. In the
liquid, the HCl can be neutralized by a caustic reagent such as sodium hydroxide, producing
benign sodium chloride. Packing media improves the efficiency of absorption by exposing
more liquid to the gas in a given volume. The HCl scrubber can be supplied as a vertical tower,
or as a rectangular, pre-assembled system.

310
 FIGURE 4. 2 HCl scrubber

On the other hand, liquid hydrochloric waste which is produced during the second stage
of neutralization. It can be treated using magnesium-aluminum oxide. Based on the study from
(Kameda, T et al., 2002), magnesium-aluminum oxide can be used for treating dilute
hydrochloric acid by considering a lots of criteria which is effects of the time, quantity of
magnesium-aluminum oxide, concentration of hydrochloric acid and temperature on chlorine
removal. Next, another reason for choosing this component as a treating component for
hydrochloric acid is because magnesium-aluminum oxide is able to work for waste acid
treatment as a neutralizer and a fixative of anions. It is not working to remove the anions in the
alkaline and neutral solution due to the extremely strong alkaline property of the magnesium-
aluminum oxide which may cause difficulty to treat a neutral saline solution. On the other hand,
the feature of this reaction is the release of hydroxide ions along with the intercalation of anions
which is related to the selectivity of anion intercalation into the magnesium-aluminum oxide
increases with increasing charge density of the anion. As instance, the lists of ions from the
electrochemical series which their charge density is smaller than that of hydroxide ions such
as fluoride ions, chloride ions, bromide ions, nitrate ions, iodine ions which magnesium-
aluminum oxide able to intercalate the released hydroxide ions rather than those anions in a
neutral solution. Even though the production rate for the hydrochloric acid waste is relatively

311
low but this can be used as an alternative way for the treatment if there are any large production
amounts of hydrochloric acid being produced in the future.

4.3.3 Glycerol

Glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) is a multi-functional organic compound, showing

hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties due to a stable chemical structure with three hydroxyl
groups. Due to its thermal stability, a high energetic availability for bond breaking and
formation of other compounds is required. The global annual production of glycerol is
estimated to reach 4.2 million tons in 2020, while the demand for glycerol is predicted to be
less than 3.5 million tons. In this context, the large surplus accumulation of glycerol has been
a major burden. Thus, it is of great importance to explore novel approaches for the
biotransformation of glycerol into value-added compounds, both for the development of the
biodiesel industry and from the perspective of environmental protection.

Glycerol is used in excess and the excess glycerol is released at waste stream S-142 and
waste stream S-148 with flow rate of 684.50150 kg/h and 0.00110 kg/h respectively. Due to
low concentration of glycerol at waste stream S-148, it is treated as wastewater and not
recovered. Whereby for waste stream S-142, the glycerol is used to produce different valuable
products and sold as second income. Since waste stream 142 consists of a mixture of glycerol,
hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water, a separation process is needed to remove other
substances and obtain the glycerol for further processing. The remaining components were
further treated in wastewater treatment before releasing it to the environment. The traditional
method of removing glycerol is mainly by gravity separation or centrifugation. This method
generates crude glycerol, which may still contain impurities. The cost of glycerol purification
is high, thus it is not purified to obtain crude glycerol but it is converted into valuable products
as a second income.

312
[Link] Recycling of waste

At present, due to properties of pure glycerol, it has more than 2000 different
applications. However, the cost of glycerol purification from waste glycerol is high, thus the
waste glycerol is converted into more valuable products which can be sold as second income.
Several strategies based on chemical and biological transformations are being pursued to
convert waste glycerol into valuable products. Example of some valuable products obtained
from waste glycerol is the conversion of glycerol into propylene glycol and acetone through
thermo-chemical processes. Next will be the etherification of glycerol with either alcohols or
alkenes and the production of oxygen-containing components, which could have suitable
properties for use in fuel or solvents. The third application of waste glycerol is the microbial
conversion which is a fermentation process of glycerol to 1,3-propanediol, which can be used
as a basic ingredient of polyesters. The last application of waste glycerol is by using glycerol
as a carbon source to produce products such as butanol, propionic acid, ethanol and formate.

4.3.4 Boron Trifluoride Etherate Complex (Catalyst)

Boron Trifluoride Etherate Complex is used as a catalyst for production of palm-based

bio-polyol to produce rigid polyurethane foam. It is used at the ring opening of ETPO process.
Boron Trifluoride Etherate complex was found at waste stream 147 which has a flow rate of
100kg/h. Stream S-147 is the waste stream from the washing process. The catalyst in the
industry will be recovered by using aqueous or organic mixture which catalysts are able to
dissolve in the aqueous phase and the reagents are in the organic phase. Since this catalyst is
expensive, it is recovered and regenerated.

[Link] Application of spent catalyst

Catalysts gradually lose their catalytic activity, usually through structural changes,
poisoning and deposition of extraneous material. A catalyst is “spent” when it no longer
exhibits the necessary activity or specificity required by the user (“Handbook of Spent

313
Hydroprocessing Catalysts,” 2017). Depending primarily upon the chemical and structural
changes in the catalyst during use, the user may have a few options for dealing with the spent
catalyst, which include:

1. Regeneration and reuse of the material

2. Use of the material in another process
3. Recovery of some or all the components in the material
4. Disposal of the material

The first alternative which is to regenerate and reuse the catalyst is always preferred as
catalyst disposal is usually the last resort, especially in view of environmental considerations
and cost. Catalyst regeneration involves the processing of spent catalysts to make them
reusable. This is done by restoring the chemical properties of spent catalysts and thus restoring
their efficiency through a process called regeneration of catalysts. There are several reasons for
regeneration. Initially, the reasons were economic, while later awareness was brought about by
environmental concerns about disposals. The main advantage of catalyst regeneration is that it
costs less than fresh catalysts. If a catalyst has been deactivated by the surface deposition of a
foreign substance or by the incorporation of a removable poison, it may be possible to
regenerate the catalyst and restore the catalytic activity. Regeneration of deactivated catalysts
is possible for most catalytic processes and is widely practiced. The main purpose is to
eliminate the temporary poisons on the catalyst surface and restore the free adsorption sites.
Some poisons or foulants can be selectively removed by chemical washing, mechanical
treatments, heat treatments, or oxidation. If the regeneration is technically possible, it is the
preferred option for the environment and economically to face the spent catalysts as it
facilitates prolonged use of the catalyst, minimizing the use of new raw materials and reducing
the need for definitive recovery of disposal.

4.3.5 Wastewater Treatment (Sodium bicarbonate, Sodium chloride, Traces of Oil,

Catalyst)

Water pollution is defined as the addition of harmful or objectionable material causing

an alteration of water quality when they cross their threshold concentration levels. Any

314
chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living
organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired usage.

There are different types of water pollution such as oxygen depletion, nutrients,
suspended matter, microbiological, and organic and inorganic chemicals. In the wastewater
stream after the first reactor in transesterification process and ring opening process, the vital
type of pollution is as stated below:

• Organic and Inorganic Chemicals – Oil, acids, catalyst, and toxic chemicals from
production plants.

Wastewater treatment is crucial to transform the materials available in the wastewater

into secure end products that can be safely disposed into domestic water devoid of any negative
environmental effects and protecting public health. Besides, recycling and recovering the
valuable components available in wastewaters is another goal of the wastewater treatment
process. It is also complying with the legislation, acts and legal standards, and approval
conditions of discharge and disposal (“Wastewater Treatment Water Use,” 2009).

From the simulation, sodium bicarbonate is introduced during the second stage of
neutralization after epoxidation reaction with the sole purpose of adequately neutralizing the
product stream. It is used as a neutralizing agent for this process, like that of sodium chloride,
NaCl. Reactants in excess will be carried away from the product stream into a flash evaporator
where it is evaporated along with liquid stream and emitted into the surrounding environment.
But since the amount released is in emitted gas streams and in small quantities, it is suggested
to dilute or minimize the concentration of emission before releasing instead of investing in
treatment facilities. The high capital required for building of facilities is not justifiable for the
small amount of waste stream required to be treated.

315
[Link] Primary Process for Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater is filled with suspended and dissolved organic materials which include
ionic and non-ionic surfactants at solids concentrations typically ranging from 0.05 to 5 weight
percent. Based on ecological considerations, disposal of such untreated wastewater by
downstream dumping or draining in leach fields is often restricted or prohibited and considered
against the regulations. Hence, wastewater treatment is introduced to treat them before
releasing them to the environment. Firstly, the primary process for wastewater treatment is
known as a process to reduce the organic loading by removing a huge amount of suspended,
settle able or floatable material from the wastewater. Hence, primary treatment will undergo a
process which is pretreatment such as grit removal, grinding and screening. On the other hand,
pre aeration does take place before primary treatment in order to improve the grit removal,
increase grease flotation and enhance coagulation. In addition, this process will take place in a
slow flow through a clarifier to ensure the suspended solids are able to be removed by settling
and flotation. This is to ensure that the solids which are denser than the water will settle in the
bottom. Primary treatment is favorable to take place as it does provide a clearer effluent for the
wastewater treatment. (Glenn [Link].,1991).

[Link] Secondary Process for Wastewater Treatment

Secondary process is the continuous process after the primary process of wastewater
treatment. Once the effluent has gone through the primary stage, it will go through secondary
treatment in order to remove both small suspended solids and biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) such as bacteria and protozoa that are not yet removed from the primary stage.
Approximately 85% of BOD and suspended solids can be removed successfully during the
secondary process. Moreover, this treatment will go through a biological process to break down
organic matter. A high rate biological process is characterized by relatively small reactor
volumes and high concentrations of microorganisms compared with low rate processes.
Consequently, the growth rate of new organisms is much greater in high-rate systems because
of the well-controlled environment. The microorganisms must be separated from the treated
wastewater by sedimentation to produce clarified secondary effluent. Normally, secondary

316
treatment will be used sedimentation tanks that can operate in the same basic manner as the
primary clarifiers described previously. The biological solids that are being removed during
secondary sedimentation will be called secondary or biological sludge which combined with
primary sludge for sludge processing.

Sodium bicarbonate is produced during the second stage of neutralization. It can be

treated as an alkalinity control and further applied in wastewater treatment. Firstly, it is known
as a good control agent which has a reserve buffering ability to help prevent upsets in the
operating systems of secondary treatment plants that depend on microorganisms to digest
organic wastes and control odor. Acids produced in the waste breakdown process, along with
other conditions prevalent in treatment plants tend to lower pH. Since sodium bicarbonate is
buffered and it cannot cause the pH to overrun that harsh alkaline chemicals like lime, caustic
soda and ammonia. Moreover, low loading takes place at most wastewater treatment plants
during the night however sodium bicarbonate must be added in the late afternoon or early
evening for best results. It is recommended that product be applied in the wet well or scum pit
on the sludge line leading to the digester with anaerobic systems. (Waterline technologies,. n.d)

The wastewater with oil and salt consist of organic toxic waste which will cause the
damage of living things such as human beings, aquatic organisms and plants. If these
substances are not further treated by removing them before release to the environment, these
organic toxic will be affected by the biological activity of the treatment process which result in
the formation of oil film around microbes in suspended matter and water. These substances
will be accumulated and become bigger and bigger which will create a form of layer on the
water surface. This eventually causes the low dissolved oxygen levels in the water. (H.S. Abd
El-Gawad., 2014). Thus, one of the alternative ways to treat these components from the
industrial wastewater can be applied using a biochemical route that consists of enzymes and
lipases since they have a good potential and gained more attention due to their clean and
friendly application in order to overcome some limitations which securing the quality of
wastewater to minimize the pollution to the environment. This can be said so as the existence
of oil will affect the physical property of the soil that results in the clogging of the pore space
and eventually cause the growth of the living things if it is not well treated before release.

317
 Furthermore, this microbial activity plays a significant role in performance, strength
purification process as well as the elimination of pretreatment process in wastewater treatment
plants. Lipase consists with a large category of enzymes that are water soluble. It will hydrolyze
ester bonds of water in soluble substrates and act at the interface between a substrate phase and
an aqueous phase. On the other hand, one of the reasons for choosing it as a substance for
treating wastewater is because it has low production cost, plays ecological significance in
oxidation reduction as well as being able to reflect organic matter circulation for wastewater
treatment. In addition, it does not require any purification and enzyme activity serves as a
biological indicator for sediment to reflect eutrophication level of water resources. Lastly, it
may help in degrading the organic matter or components with commercial mixture which is
lipase enzyme to remove the components successfully.

Sodium chloride is known as one of the inorganic substances which is typically found
in the organic wastewater. This component can be found in wastewater which is being
discharged by many industries such as the dairy and chemical industries. The high salt content
of wastewater that was not well treated before releasing will cause tremendous economic losses
due to corrosion attacks on pipes as well as machines and other equipment within the industry.
(Ericsson.B and Hallmans.B., 1994). Hence, not all kinds of biological treatment are suitable
for saline wastewater treatment due to the inhibiting effect of sodium chloride on
microorganisms. One of the ways to treat the sodium chloride in wastewater is to apply a two-
stage contact oxidation method. (An Li and Gu Guowei., 1993).

FIGURE 4. 3 Two-stage contact oxidation method

The contact oxidation reactors are columns in which half-flexible fibre stuffing is used.
The reactors will be incubated in between 25°C and 35°C. It can continuously run under a
controlled temperature. On the other hand, the hydraulic retention time is 50 minutes in the
first contact oxidation reactor whereas the second one will be in 2 hours and 45 minutes. The
two sedimentation basins are the same size.

318
 CHAPTER V

EQUIPMENT DESIGN, SIZING AND COSTING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Equipment design, sizing and design is one of the essential parts for plant design project
to ensure all the equipment are designed based on the process specification. In previous
chapters, the preliminary mass and energy balance were done. Once the process flow and heat
duties were obtained through mass and energy balance, investment and operating costs can be
calculated. The important dimension for each equipment such as diameter, height, length and
thickness are needed to be calculated in order to ensure that the equipment is suitable for such
operating pressure and temperature. In addition, the equipment also needs to ensure suitable
for parameter change during the plant operation. Also, the equipment needs to be able to resist
to all the stress that exerted on it. In order to ensure that all the equipment can withstand with
their dead weight and the mass of the input and output, skirt support is normally designed.

Besides, the rough cost estimation can be performed after the design and sizing step of
each of the equipment. This step to ensure the profitability of each project to be carried out.
This is because the parameter of each equipment was needed for equipment cost determination.
In this plant design project, 5 major unit operation were selected for the purpose of sizing and
costing analysis. The following section provides very rough cost estimates for a wide variety
of process equipment.

319
5.2 SELECTION OF 5 MAJOR UNIT OPERATIONS

TABLE 5. 1 Categorized equipment list

Equipment Quantity

CSTR Reactor (Total : 7 units)

Transesterification Reactor 1

Epoxidation Reactor 1

Ring-Opening Reactor 1

Neutralization Reactor 3

Foam Foaming Reactor 1

Phase Separator (Total : 4 unit)

Flash Column 1

Washing Column 3

Heat Exchanger (Total : 3 units)

Heater 1

Cooler 1

Heat Exchanger 3

Other Equipment (Total : 12 units)

Pump 12

320
Five major unit operations selected:
● Transesterification Reactor (CSTR-1)
● Epoxidation Reactor (CSTR-2)
● Ring-Opening Reactor (CSTR-3)
● Flash Column (V-105)
● Heat Exchanger (HX-105)

5.3 LIST OF ANALYSIS OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN, SIZING AND COSTING

1. Volume analysis
2. Thickness analysis
3. Loading analysis
4. Wind loading analysis
5. Stress analysis
6. Skirt support analysis
7. Cost analysis

5.4 SIZING AND COSTING OF TRANSESTERIFICATION REACTOR (CSTR 1)

5.4.1 Design data specifications of Transesterification Reactor

Transesterification reactor is located as the first major unit operation in this project and
is located directly after the mixer in the first row of PFD. The input stream takes in all of the
combined stream, S-108 of raw material at 150 ℃ and 3.013 bar. The mixture stream contains
all of the raw materials such as palm olein, NaOH and glycerol. Transesterification is allowed
to take place for at least 2.5 hours before passing into the next equipment. Product from this
reactor consist of purely liquid via stream S-109.

321
 TABLE 5. 2 Equipment specification

m3
Flowrate 2.700 h
Welding
efficiency 1.000
Operating
temperature 150.000 ℃
Operating
pressure 3.013 bar
Material 304SS
Youngs modulus 29000.000 ksi
N
228955.000 mm2

5.4.2 Volume Analysis

Reactor volume of the reactor is calculated by assuming a residence time of 2.5 hr and
allowance of additional 30% above calculated volume to allocate safety considerations in
design stage.

TABLE 5. 3 Volume analysis

Residence time 2.500 hr

Volume 6.750 m3
8.775 m3 (30% allowance)
9.000 m3 Round-Off
Height 2.864 m3

322
 3
V = τv0 = 2.5hr × 2.7 𝑚 ⁄ℎ = 6.75 m3

V+30% = 6.75m3 × 1.3 = 8.775 m3 ~ 9 m3

πD2 H
V= ; let H = 2D
4

3 16𝑉
H= √ = 3.579 m ~4m
𝜋

5.4.3 Thickness Analysis

In designing of a pressure vessel, the equipment should be able to maintain its structural
integrity during operation which is constantly dependent on operator and operating conditions.
Referring to standard designing procedure, design pressure is also the operation pressure for
relieving devices and is about 10% in excess of the regular operating pressure to prevent
accidental overlook during minor process occurrence.

FIGURE 5. 1 Design Stress

323
 [Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

TABLE 5. 4 Thickness analysis

Thickness Analysis
Design Pressure 2.214 bar
0.221 N/mm2

Design Stress 113.5.000 N/mm2 at 215 ℃

Reactor body
Wall Thickness 1.953 mm
3.953 mm (+2mm C.A)
4.000 mm Round-Off
0.004 m

For vertical cylindrical body

N 2
Pi Di 0.221 2 × 2000mm
Thickness, t = = mm = 1.953mm
2SE − Pi N N
2 (113.5 × 1.0) − 0.221
mm2 mm2

Total shell thickness is 1.953mm + 2mm (C.A.) = 3.953mm, rounded-off to 4mm.

Comparing closure type

Head thickness: Ellipsoidal head

TABLE 5. 5 Ellipsoidal head thickness

Thickness, t 1.951 mm
3.951 mm (+2mm C.A)
4.000 mm Round-Off

324
 N 2
Pi Di 0.221 2 × 2000mm
t min = = mm = 1.951mm
2SE − 0.2Pi 2 (113.5 N × 1.0) − 0.2(0.221 N )
mm2 mm2

Total head thickness is 1.951 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 3.951 mm, rounded-off to 4 mm.

Torrispherical head

TABLE 5. 6 Torrispherical head thickness

Thickness, t 3.449 mm
5.449 mm (+2mm C.A)
6.000 mm Round-Off

Pi R c Cs
t min =
2SE + Pi (Cs − 0.2)

R
3 + √R c
k
Cs = ; R c = Di ; R k = 0.06R c
4

Pi R c Cs
t min =
2SE + Pi (Cs − 0.2)

N 2
0.221 2 × 2000mm × Cs
= mm = 3.449mm
N N
2 (113.5 × 1.0) + 0.221 (C − 0.2)
mm2 mm2 s

Total head thickness is 3.449mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 5.449 mm, rounded-off to 6 mm.

Flat Head

325
 TABLE 5. 7 Flat head thickness

Thickness, t 48.586 mm

50.586 mm (+2mm C.A)

51.000 mm Round-Off

N
Pi 0.5 0.221
t min = Cp De ( ) = 0.55 × 2000mm × ( mm2 )0.5 = 48.586mm
f N
113.5
mm2

Total head is 48.586 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 50.586 mm, rounded-off to 51 mm.

For the most economical alternative, Ellipsoidal Head closure type is chosen due to the
lowest thickness of closure obtained which in turn correlates to lower materials required,
lowering the material cost.

5.4.4 Loading Analysis

Dead Weight

TABLE 5. 8 Dead weight values

Cv 1.080

Dead Weight, Wv 9583.376 N

Dead Weight, Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm )t

Mean Diameter, Dm = 2m + 2(0.004m) = 2.008m

Hv = 4 m

Wv = 240 × 1.08 × 2.008m × (4m + 0.8(2.008m)) × 4mm = 11671.933N

326
Insulation Weight

TABLE 5. 9 Insulation weight calculation

Material Mineral Wool

Density 130.000 kg/𝑚3

Assumed thickness 20.000 mm

0.020 m

Uninsulated area 3.142

Insulated area 3.269

Insulation Volume 0.508 𝑚3

Insulation Weight 49.505 kg

485.648 N

Double the value for fitting

allowance 871.295 N

Total Weight 10554.671 N

πD2
Ainsulated & uninsulated =
4

πH 2
Insulation volume = (Dinsulated − D2uninsulated ) = 0.508 m3
2

kg
Insulated Weight = Mass × Density = 0.508m3 × 130 = 66.007 kg
m3

N
66.007 kg × 9.81 = 647.530 N
kg

Doubling insulated weight for enabling fitting allowances = 1295.060 N

Total Weight = Dead Weight + Weight with fitting allowances = 12 966.993 N

327
Wind Loading Analysis:

Wind Pressure, Fw = Pw Deff

N
Dynamic Wind Pressure, Pw = 1280 m2

Effective Diameter, Deff = Diameter + 2(Thickness)

= 2m + 2(0.004 + 0.02)m = 2.048m

N
Fw = 1280 × 2.048m = 2621.44 N
mm2

Fw H2 2621.44 N×(3m)2
Bending moment at tangent, Iw = = = 20 971.520 Nm
2 2

5.4.5 Stress Analysis

Assuming bottom thickness to be 4mm (equivalent with head thickness)

Pressure stresses

Pi Di 0.221 N/mm2 × 2000mm

σL = = = 27.679 N/mm2
4t 4(4mm)

Pi Di
σH = = 2σL = 55.358 N/mm2
2t

Deadweight stress

Wv 11 671.933 N
σw = = = 0.463 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(2000 + 4)mm × 4mm

Bending Stress

Outer Diameter, Do = Di + 2t = 2008 mm

π
Inertia, Iv = 64 (D4o − D4i ) = 1.264 × 1010 mm4

Mx Di 11796.48 Nm 2000mm
Bending stress, σB = ± ( 2 + t) = ± 1.264×1010mm4 ( + 4) = ±1.665 N/mm2
Iv 2

σz = σL + σw ± σb

328
Since σw is above the skirt, therefore it is positive.

N
σz (upwind) = (27.679 + 0.463 + 1.665) mm2 = 29.807 N/mm2

N
σz (downwind) = (27.679 + 0.463 – 1.665) mm2 = 26.477 N/mm2

Greatest difference = (55.358 – 26.477) N/mm2 = 28.881 N/mm2 < 113.5 N/mm2

Since this is way below the maximum allowable design stress, S = 113.5 N/mm2 , hence the
vessel thickness of 4.00 mm is acceptable.

5.4.6 Skirt Support

Several assumptions are made before calculating skirt support thickness.

a. A straight cylindrical skirt of plain carbon steel is used (θs = 90°).

b. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt occurs when the vessel is full of materials.

c. Water weight is applied during calculation of maximum dead weight.

d. Skirt support height is 1.00 m

π π 980kg 9.81m
Weight of water in vessel when full = 4 D2 HWg = 4 (2m)2 (4m) ( )( )
m3 s

= 123 045.496 N

Current total weight = 12 966.993 N + 123 045.496 N = 136 012.489 N

4Ms 4×20 971.520 Nm

Bending stress, σbs = π(D = = 0.002 N/mm2
s +ts) ts Ds π(2000+4)mm × 4mm × 2000mm

W 136 012.489Nm
Deadweight stress, σws (test) = π(D = π(2000+4)mm × 4mm = 5.400 N/mm2
s +ts) ts

W 12 966.993 N
σws (operational) = = = 0.515 N/mm2
π(Ds + t s) t s π(2000 + 4)mm × 4mm

Difference in Stress

329
Max, σs = (0.002 + 5.400)N/mm2 = 5.402 N/mm2

Min, σs = 0.002 − 0.515 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = −0.513 N/mm2

Finalizing skirt analysis

Let Welding factor = 1.0

σs (tensile) < fs Jsin∅

113.5N
−0.513 < ( ) (1)sin90°
mm2

N
−0.513 < 113.5
mm2
ts
σs (compressive) < 0.125E ( ) sin∅
Ds

4mm
5.402 < 0.125(200000) ( ) sin90°
2000mm

N
5.402 < 50
mm2

Hence, the skirt thickness of 4 mm is acceptable.

5.4.7 Costing Analysis

Purchase cost

Ce = a + bS N

12966.993 𝑁 0.85
Ce = 1500 + 68( ) = 32 084.66
9.81 𝑁⁄𝑘𝑔

Installation factor = 4

Installed cost = 4 × 32 084.66 = 128 338.64

By using extrapolation method, index of year 2020 can be obtained.

Index in year 2005 = 490.0

330
Index in year 2007 = 509.7

By using extrapolation method,

FIGURE 5. 2 Cost escalation graph

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Y − 490.0 2020 − 2005

=
509.7 − 490.0 2007 − 2005

Y = 637.75

Cost estimation based on U.S. Gulf Coast basis, 2020 would be:

637.750
Cost escalation = 65508.135 × = 160 580.663
509.7

FIGURE 5. 3 Location factor table

331
 [Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Location factor = 1.12 (S.E.A)

Final costing = 1.12 × 81965.50 = 𝐑𝐌 𝟏𝟕𝟗 𝟖𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟒

5.5 SIZING AND COSTING OF EPOXIDATION REACTOR (CSTR 2)

TABLE 5. 10 Equipment specification

m3
Flowrate 2.110 h

Welding efficiency 1.000

Operating temperature 60.000 ℃

Operating pressure 3.013 bar

Material 304SS

Youngs modulus 29000.000 ksi

N
228955.000 mm2

5.5.1 Volume Analysis

Reactor volume of the reactor is calculated by assuming a residence time of 5.0 hr and
allowance of additional 30% above calculated volume to allocate safety considerations in
design stage.

332
 TABLE 5. 11 Volume analysis

Residence time 5.000 hr

Volume 10.550 m3

13.715 m3 (30% allowance)

14.000 m3 Round-Off

Height 5.000 m3 Round-Off

V = τv0 = 5.0hr × 2.110m3 = 10.550 m3

V+30% = 10.550m3 × 1.3 = 13.715 m3 ~ 14 m3

πD2 H
V= ; let H = 2D
4

3 16𝑉
H= √ = 4.147 m~ 5𝑚
𝜋

333
5.5.2 Thickness Analysis

FIGURE 5. 4 Typical design stress values for plate

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

TABLE 5. 12 Thickness analysis

Design Pressure 2.214 bar

0.221 N/mm2

Design Stress 161.000 N/mm2 at 60 ℃

Reactor body

Wall Thickness 1.720 mm

3.720 mm (+2mm C.A)

4.000 mm Round-Off

0.004 m

334
For vertical cylindrical body

N 2
Pi Di 0.221 2 × 2500mm
Thickness, t = = mm = 1.720mm
2SE − Pi N N
2 (161 × 1.0) − 0.221
mm2 mm2

Total shell thickness is 1.720 mm + 2mm (C.A.) = 3.720 mm, rounded-off to 4mm.

Comparing closure type

Head thickness

Ellipsoidal head

TABLE 5. 13 Ellipsoidal head thickness

Thickness, t 1.719 mm

3.719 mm (+2mm C.A)

4.000 mm Round-Off

N 2
Pi Di 0.221 2 × 2500mm
t min = = mm = 1.719mm
2SE − 0.2Pi 2 (161 N × 1.0) − 0.2(0.221 N )
mm2 mm2

Total head thickness is 1.719 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 3.719 mm, rounded-off to 4 mm.

335
Torrispherical head

TABLE 5. 14 Torrispherical head thickness

Thickness, t 3.041 mm

5.041 mm (+2mm C.A)

6.000 mm Round-Off

Pi R c Cs
t min =
2SE + Pi (Cs − 0.2)

R
3 + √R c
k
Cs = ; R c = Di ; R k = 0.06R c
4

N 2
0.221 2 × 2500mm × Cs
t= mm = 3.041mm
N N
2 (161 × 1.0) + 0.221 (C − 0.2)
mm2 mm2 s

Total head thickness is 3.041 2mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 5.041 mm, rounded-off to 6 mm.

Flat Head

TABLE 5. 15 Flat head thickness

Thickness, t 50.993 mm

52.993 mm (+2mm C.A)

53.000 mm Round-Off

N
Pi 0.5 0.221
t min = Cp De ( ) = 0.55 × 2500mm × ( mm2 )0.5 = 50.993 mm
f N
161
mm2

336
Total head is 50.993 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 52.993 mm, rounded-off to 53 mm.

For the most economical alternative, Ellipsoidal Head closure type is chosen due to the
lowest thickness of closure obtained which in turn correlates to lower materials required,
lowering the material cost.

5.5.3 Loading Analysis

Dead Weight

TABLE 5. 16 Dead weight analysis

Cv 1.080

Dead Weight, Wv 18 218.703 N

Dead Weight, Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm )t

Mean Diameter, Dm = 2.5m + 2(0.004m) = 2.508m

Hv = 5 m

Wv = 240 × 1.08 × 2.508 m × (5m + 0.8(2.508m)) × 4mm = 18 218.703 N

Insulation Weight

TABLE 5. 17 Insulation weight analysis

Material Mineral Wool

Density 130.000 kg/m3

Assumed thickness 20.000 mm

0.020 m

Uninsulated area 4.909

337
 Insulated area 5.068

Insulation Volume 0.792 m3

Insulation Weight 102.932 kg

1 009.762 N

Double the value for fitting

allowance 2 019.524 N

Total Weight 20 238.227 N

πD2
Ainsulated & uninsulated =
4

πH 2
Insulation volume = (Dinsulated − D2uninsulated ) = 0.792 m3
2

kg
Insulated Weight = Mass × Density = 0.635m3 × 130 = 102.932 kg
m3

N
102.932 × 9.81 = 1 009.762 N
kg

Doubling insulated weight for enabling fitting allowances = 2 019.524 N

Total Weight = Dead Weight + Weight with fitting allowances = 20 238.227 N

338
5.5.4 Wind Loading Analysis

Wind Pressure, Fw = Pw Deff

N
Dynamic Wind Pressure, Pw = 1280 m2

Effective Diameter, Deff = Diameter + 2(Thickness)

= 2.5m + 2(0.004 + 0.02)m = 2.548m

N
Fw = 1280 × 2.548m = 3261.440 N
mm2

Fw H2 3261.440 N×(5m)2
Bending moment at tangent, Iw = = = 40 768 Nm
2 2

5.5.5 Stress Analysis

Assuming bottom thickness to be 4mm (equivalent with head thickness)

Pressure stresses

Pi Di 0.221 N/mm2 × 2000mm

σL = = = 34.598 N/mm2
4t 4(4mm)

Pi Di
σH = = 2σL = 69.197 N/mm2
2t

Deadweight stress

Wv 13753.827 N
σw = = = 0.579 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(2000 + 4)mm × 4mm

Bending Stress

Outer Diameter, Do = Di + 2t = 2508 mm

π
Inertia, Iv = 64 (D4o − D4i ) = 2.466 × 1010 mm4

Mx Di 32768 Nm 2000mm
Bending stress, σB = ± ( 2 + t) = ± 1.264×1010mm4 ( + 4) = ± 2.073 N/mm2
Iv 2

σz = σL + σw ± σb

339
Since σw is above the skirt, therefore it is positive.

N
σz (upwind) = (27.679 + 0.546 + 2.602) mm2 = 37.250 N/mm2

N
σz (downwind) = (27.679 + 0.546 – 2.602) mm2 = 33.105 N/mm2

Greatest difference = (69.197 – 33.105) N/mm2 = 36.092 N/mm2 < 130 N/mm2

Since this is way below the maximum allowable design stress, S = 130 N/mm2 , hence the
vessel thickness of 4.00 mm is acceptable.

5.5.6 Skirt Support

Several assumptions are made before calculating skirt support thickness.

a. A straight cylindrical skirt of plain carbon steel is used (θs = 90°).

b. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt occurs when the vessel is full of materials.

c. Water weight is applied during calculation of maximum dead weight.

d. Skirt support height is 1.00 m

π π 980kg 9.81m
Weight of water in vessel when full = 4 D2 HWg = 4 (2.5m)2 (5m) ( )( )
m3 s

= 240323.234 N

Current total weight = 20 238.227 N + 240323.234 N = 260561.461 N

4Ms 4×32768 Nm
Bending stress, σbs = π(D = = 0.002 N/mm2
s +ts) ts Ds π(2000+4)mm × 4mm × 2000mm

W 169179.522 Nm
Deadweight stress, σws (test) = π(D = π(2000+4)mm × 4mm = 8.280 N/mm2
s +ts) ts

W 15371.652 N
σws (operational) = = = 0.643 N/mm2
π(Ds + t s) t s π(2000 + 4)mm × 4mm

340
Difference in Stress

Max, σs = (8.280 + 0.002)N/mm2 = 8.282 N/mm2

Min, σs = (0.002 − 0.643) 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = −0.641 N/mm2

Finalizing skirt analysis

Let Welding factor = 1.0

σs (tensile) < fs Jsin∅

161N
−0.641 < ( ) (1)sin90°
mm2

N
−0.641 < 161
mm2
ts
σs (compressive) < 0.125E ( ) sin∅
Ds

4mm
6.282 < 0.125(200000) ( ) sin90°
2000mm

N
6.282 < 50
mm2

Hence, the skirt thickness of 4 mm is acceptable.

341
5.5.7 Costing Analysis

Purchase cost

Ce = a + bS N

Ce = 1500 + 68(2063.020)0.85 = 46151.58

TABLE 2. 138 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958)

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Installation factor = 4

Installed cost = 4 × 46151.58 = 184 606.372

FIGURE 5. 5 Cost escalation figure

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

342
By using extrapolation method, index of year 2020 can be obtained.

Index in year 2005 = 490.0

Index in year 2007 = 509.7

By using extrapolation method,

Y − 490.0 2020 − 2005

=
509.7 − 490.0 2007 − 2005

Y = 637.75

Cost estimation based on U.S. Gulf Coast basis, 2020 would be:

637.750
Cost escalation = 184 606.371 × = 230 984.28
509.7

FIGURE 5. 6 Location factor table

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Location factor = 1.12 (S.E.A)

Final costing = 1.12 × 230 984.28 = RM 258 702.39

343
5.6 SIZING AND COSTING OF RING-OPENING REACTOR (CSTR 3)

TABLE 5. 18 Equipment specification

m3
Flowrate 2.314 h

Welding efficiency 1.000

Operating ℃
temperature 60.000

Operating pressure 3.013 bar

Material 304SS

Youngs modulus 29000.000 ksi

N
228955.000 mm2

5.6.1 Volume Analysis

Reactor volume of the reactor is calculated by assuming a residence time of 2.5 hr and
allowance of additional 30% above calculated volume to allocate safety considerations in
design stage.

TABLE 5. 19 Volume analysis

Residence time 4.000 hr

Volume 9.256 m3

12.033 m3 (30% allowance)

13.000 m3 Round-Off

Height 5.000 m3

V = τv0 = 4hr × 2.314m3 = 9.256 m3

344
 V+30% = 9.256m3 × 1.3 = 12.033 m3 ~ 13 m3

πD2 H
V= ; let H = 2D
4

3 16𝑉
H= √ = 4.045m ~ 5 m
𝜋

5.6.2 Thickness Analysis

In designing of a pressure vessel, the equipment should be able to maintain its structural
integrity during operation which is constantly dependent on operator and operating conditions.
Referring to standard designing procedure, design pressure is also the operation pressure for
relieving devices and is about 10% in excess of the regular operating pressure to prevent
accidental overlook during minor process occurrence.

FIGURE 5. 7 Typical design stresses for plate

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

345
 TABLE 5. 20 Thickness analysis

Design
Pressure 2.214 bar

0.221 N/mm2

Design Stress 161.000 N/mm2 at 60 ℃

Reactor body

Wall Thickness 1.720 mm

(+2mm
3.720 mm C.A)

4.000 mm Round-Off

0.004 m

For vertical cylindrical body

N
Pi Di 0.221 × 2500 mm
Thickness, t = = mm2 = 1.720mm
2SE − Pi N N
2 (161 × 1.0) − 0.221
mm2 mm2

Total shell thickness is 1.720 mm + 2mm (C.A.) = 3.720 mm, rounded-off to 4mm.

Comparing closure type

Head thickness

Ellipsoidal head

346
 TABLE 5. 21 Ellipsoidal head thickness

Thickness, t 1.719 mm

3.719 mm (+2mm C.A)

4.000 mm Round-Off

N
Pi Di 0.221 × 2500 𝑚𝑚
t min = = mm2 = 1.719 mm
2SE − 0.2Pi 2 (161 N × 1.0) − 0.2(0.221 N )
mm2 mm2

Total head thickness is 1.719 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 3.719 mm, rounded-off to 4 mm.

Torrispherical head

TABLE 5. 22 Torrispherical head thickness

Thickness, t 3.041 mm

5.041 mm (+2mm C.A)

6.000 mm Round-Off

Pi R c Cs
t min =
2SE + Pi (Cs − 0.2)

N 2
0.221 2 × 2500mm × Cs
= mm = 3.041 mm
N N
2 (161 × 1.0) + 0.221 (C − 0.2)
mm2 mm2 s

Total head thickness is 3.041 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 5.041 mm, rounded-off to 6 mm.

347
Flat Head

TABLE 5. 23 Flat head thickness

Thickness, t 50.993 mm

52.993 mm (+2mm C.A)

53.000 mm Round-Off

N
Pi 0.5 0.221
t min = Cp De ( ) = 0.55 × 2500mm × ( mm2 )0.5 = 50.993mm
f N
161
mm2

Total head is 50.993 mm + 2 mm (C.A.) = 52.993 mm, rounded-off to 53 mm.

For the most economic alternative, Ellipsoidal Head closure type is chosen due to the lowest
thickness of closure obtained which in turn correlates to lower materials required, lowering
the material cost.

5.6.3 Loading Analysis

Dead Weight

TABLE 5. 24 Dead weight analysis

Cv 1.080

Dead Weight, Wv 18 218.703 N

Dead Weight, Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm )t

Mean Diameter, Dm = 2.5m + 2(0.004m) = 2.508m

348
 Hv = 5 m

Wv = 240 × 1.08 × 2.508m × (5m + 0.8(2.508m)) × 4mm = 18 218.703N

Insulation Weight

TABLE 5. 25 Insulation weight analysis

Material Mineral Wool

Density 130.000 kg/m3

Assumed thickness 20.000 mm

0.020 m

Uninsulated area 4.909 m2

Insulated area 5.068 m2

Insulation Volume 0.792 m3

Insulation Weight 102.932 kg

1009.762 N

Double the value for fitting

allowance 2019.524 N

Total Weight 20238.227 N

πD2
Ainsulated & uninsulated =
4

πH 2
Insulation volume = (Dinsulated − D2uninsulated ) = 0.792 m3
2

kg
Insulated Weight = Mass × Density = 0.792m3 × 130 = 102.932 kg
m3

349
 N
102.932 kg × 9.81 = 1009.762 N
kg

Doubling insulated weight for enabling fitting allowances = 2019.524 N

Total Weight = Dead Weight + Weight with fitting allowances = 20238.227 N

5.6.4 Wind Loading Analysis

Wind Pressure, Fw = Pw Deff

N
Dynamic Wind Pressure, Pw = 1280 m2

Effective Diameter, Deff = Diameter + 2(Thickness)

= 2.500 m + 2(0.004 + 0.02)m = 2.548m

N
Fw = 1280 × 2.548m = 3621.440 N
mm2

Fw H2 2621.44 N×(5m)2
Bending moment at tangent, Iw = = = 40 768 Nm
2 2

5.6.5 Stress Analysis

Assuming bottom thickness to be 4mm (equivalent with head thickness)

Pressure stresses

Pi Di 0.221 N/mm2 × 2500mm

σL = = = 34.598 N/mm2
4t 4(4mm)

Pi Di
σH = = 2σL = 69.197 N/mm2
2t

Deadweight stress

Wv 13753.827 N
σw = = = 0.579 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(2000 + 4)mm × 4mm

350
Bending Stress

Outer Diameter, Do = Di + 2t = 2508 mm

π
Inertia, Iv = 64 (D4o − D4i ) = 2.466 × 1010 mm4

Mx Di 32640 Nm 2000mm
Bending stress, σB = ± ( 2 + t) = ± 1.264×1010mm4 ( + 4) = ±2.073 N/mm2
Iv 2

σz = σL + σw ± σb

Since σw is above the skirt, therefore it is positive.

N
σz (upwind) = (27.679 + 0.546 + 2.073) mm2 = 37.250 N/mm2

N
σz (downwind) = (27.679 + 0.546 – 2.073) mm2 = 33.105 N/mm2

Greatest difference = (69.197 – 33.105) N/mm2 = 36.092 N/mm2 < 161 N/mm2

Since this is way below the maximum allowable design stress, S = 161 N/mm2 , hence the
vessel thickness of 4.00 mm is acceptable.

5.6.6 Skirt Support

Several assumptions are made before calculating skirt support thickness.

a. A straight cylindrical skirt of plain carbon steel is used (θs = 90°).

b. The maximum dead weight load on the skirt occurs when the vessel is full of materials.

c. Water weight is applied during calculation of maximum dead weight.

d. Skirt support height is 1.00 m

π π 980kg 9.81m
Weight of water in vessel when full = 4 D2 HWg = 4 (2.5m)2 (5 m) ( )( )
m3 s

= 240 323.234 N

351
Current total weight = 20 238.227 N + 240323.234 N = 260 561.461 N

4Ms 4×40768 Nm
Bending stress, σbs = π(D = = 0.002 N/mm2
s +ts) ts Ds π(2500+4)mm × 4mm × 2500mm

W 260 561.461 Nm
Deadweight stress, σws (test) = π(D = π(2000+4)mm × 4mm = 8.280 N/mm2
s +ts) ts

W 20 238.227 N
σws (operational) = = = 0.643 N/mm2
π(Ds + t s) t s π(2500 + 4)mm × 4mm

Difference in Stress

Max, σs = (0.002 + 8.280)N/mm2 = 8.282 N/mm2

Min, σs = (0.002 − 0.643) N/mm2 = −0.641 N/mm2

Finalising skirt analysis

Let Welding factor = 1.0

σs (tensile) < fs Jsin∅

161N
−0.641 < ( ) (1)sin90°
mm2

N
−0.641 < 161
mm2

ts
σs (compressive) < 0.125E ( ) sin∅
Ds

4mm
8.282 < 0.125(200000) ( ) sin90°
2000mm

N
8.282 < 50
mm2

Hence, the skirt thickness of 4 mm is acceptable.

352
5.6.7 Costing Analysis

Purchase cost

FIGURE 5. 8 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958)

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Since the equipment is heat exchanger, an installation factor of 3.5 must be included. As the
default material is carbon steel for the calculated value, a correction factor for 1.3 for
stainless steel SS304 is required.

Ce = a + bS N

Ce = 1500 + 68(817.829)0.85 = 46 151.58

Installation factor = 4

Installed cost = 4 × 46 151.58 = 184 606.33

By using extrapolation method, index of year 2020 can be obtained.

Index in year 2005 = 490.0

Index in year 2007 = 509.7

By using extrapolation method,

Y − 490.0 2020 − 2005

=
509.7 − 490.0 2007 − 2005

353
Y = 637.75

Cost estimation based on U.S. Gulf Coast basis, 2020 would be:

637.750
Cost escalation = 184 606.33 × = 230 984.28
509.7

FIGURE 5. 9 Cost escalation graph

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

FIGURE 5. 10 Location factor table

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Location factor = 1.12 (S.E.A)

Final costing = 1.12 × 230 984.28 = RM 258 702.39

354
5.7 SIZING AND COSTING OF FLASH COLUMN (V-105)

5.7.1 Design data specifications of flash column

This flash column is located after the washing equipment. The input stream of the flash
column is stream S-150 at the temperature of 53.66°C and 7.013bar. This stream consists of
ET-Linoleic Acid, ET-Oleic Acid, Glycerol, Linoleic Acid, Polyol (LA), Polyol (OA), T-
Linoleic Acid, T-Oleic Acid and Water. This separator is used to separate the vapour phase and
liquid phase. The outlet streams are labelled as stream S-148 (vapour phase) and stream S-135
(liquid phase).

TABLE 5. 26 Specification data for flash column

Specification Dimension

Type of vessel Pressure Vessel

Joint Factor 1 (well fully radiographed)

Operating temperature 180°C

Operating pressure 1.013bar

Vapour Mass Flow Rate (Stream 148) 6.086 × 10−3 kg/s

Vapour Density, ρv 0.5649 kg/m3

Liquid Mass Flow Rate (Stream 135) 0.6035 kg/s

Liquid Density, ρl 937.89 kg/m3

355
5.7.2 Sizing of separator

The designing of flash column is based on Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition by
R. K. Sinnott and Gavin Towler, 2009 are adapted in this session.

TABLE 5. 27 Density of materials

Vapour Mass Flow Rate (Stream 148) = 6.086 × 10−3 kg/s

Vapour Density, ρv = 0.5649 kg/m3

Liquid Mass Flow Rate (Stream 135) = 0.6035 kg/s

Liquid Density, ρl = 937.89 kg/m3

The settling velocity, Ut is calculated as follows.

ρl − ρv
Ut = 0.07√
ρv

937.89 − 0.5649
Ut = 0.07√ = 2.8514 m/s
0.5649

The vessel across sectional area, Ac is calculated as follows.

V
Ac =
Us ρv

Where V = vapour flow rate, kg/s

356
Assumed demister pads are used in this separator and therefore Us = Ut

6.086 × 10−3
Ac = = 3.7784 × 10−3 m2
2.8514 × 0.5649

The diameter is calculated from the cross-sectional area as equation below.

4Ac
D=√
π

4 × 3.7784 × 10−3
D=√ = 0.0694m
π

Diameter of the separator is 0.0694m based on the calculations. Due to the standard of
market, an assumption was made that the diameter of the vessel is 0.1m.

4Ac
D=√
π

D2 π 0.12 π
Ac = = = 7.8540 × 10−3 m2
4 4

Height of vapour, Hv is calculated as follows.

Dv
Hv = Dv +
2

0.1
Hv = 0.1 + = 0.15m
2

Assumed a minimum of 10 minutes is allowed to hold up the liquid.

The depth of liquid required; HL is calculated as follows.

357
 Volume held in the vessel
Liquid depth required, HL =
Vessel cross sectional area

The volume held in the vessel must be determined.

Liquid mass flowrate

Volume held in vessel = × hold up time
Liquid density

0.6035
Volume held in vessel = × (10 × 60) = 0.3861 m3
937.89

Hence,

0.3861
Liquid depth required, HL = = 49.16m
7.8540 × 10−3

The total height of the vessel is calculated as follows.

Ht = Hv + HL + Hdemister

Ht = 0.15 + 49.16m + 0.4 = 49.71 m

The total height of the vessel is assumed to be 50 due to the market standard. Since both
diameter and volume have been determined, thus, the vessel volume can be calculated.

LπD2 50π × 0.12

V= = = 0.39 m3
4 4

Hence, the vessel volume is 0.39 m3 which is assumed to be 0.4m3 .

The L/D ratio of the vessel is calculated as follows.

L 50
= = 500
D 0.1

358
5.7.3 Volume Analysis

The volume of the flash column, V is 0.4m3 as determined in section 5.7.2.

5.7.4 Thickness Analysis

TABLE 5. 28 Equipment specification

Specification Dimension

Vessel Volume 0.4 m3

Vessel Height 50 m

Internal Diameter 0.1 m

Joint Factor 1 (Weld Fully Radiographed)

Young Modulus 200 000 N/mm2

Operating Temperature 180 °C

Operating Pressure 1.013 bar

Material of Construction Stainless steel SS304

To design a vessel, the vessel pressure is taken into considerations whereby a vessel must be
designed to withstand the maximum pressure and it is usually 5 to 10% above the normal
working pressure. This is to ensure that there is no damage to the equipment or occurrence of
any incident when the pressure reached the maximum level.

Design pressure, Pi = (Absolute pressure − Ambient pressure) × 1.1

= 1.013 × 1.1

= 1.1143 bar

= 0.11 N/mm2

359
 FIGURE 5. 11 Typical design stresses for plates

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

The design stress for carbon steel is calculated based on Figure 5.12. By using interpolation,
the design stress at 180 °C is calculated as shown below.

X − 115 180 − 150

=
105 − 115 200 − 150

X = 109 N/mm2

In this case, 109 N/mm2 is used for 180 °C.

Cylindrical Shell Thickness

Pi Di
Minimum wall thickness, e =
2Jf − Pi

360
 0.11 × 100
=
2 × 1 × 109 − 0.11

= 0.0505 mm

Total thickness = 0.0505 mm + 2 mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.0505 mm ≈ 3 mm

Vessel Head and Closure Thickness

Ellipsoidal head

The minimum thickness of ellipsoidal head

Pi Di
Minimum head thickness, e =
2Jf − 0.2Pi

0.11 × 100
=
2 × 1 × 109 − 0.2(0.11)

= 0.0505 mm

Total thickness = 0.0505 mm + 2 mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.0505 mm ≈ 3 mm

Torispherical head

Crown radius, R c = 100 mm

6
Knuckle radius, R k = 6% of R c = 100 × 100 = 6 mm

1 Rc 1 100
Stress concentration factor, Cs = (3 + √ ) = (3 + √ ) = 1.7706
4 Rk 4 6

The minimum thickness of torispherical head

Pi R c Cs
Minimum head thickness, e =
2Jf + Pi (Cs − 0.2)

0.11 × 100 × 1.7706

=
2(1)(109) + 0.11(1.7706 − 0.2)

= 0.0893 mm

361
Total thickness = 0.0893 mm + 2 mm (corrosion allowance) = 2.0893 mm ≈ 3 mm

Flat head

The plates welded to shell end with a fillet weld is selected which is shown in the figure 5.2
whereby the Cp = 0.55 and De = Di = 100 mm

FIGURE 5. 12 Design constant and nominal diameter for the separator

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

The minimum thickness of flat head

Pi 0.11
Minimum head thickness, e = Cp De (√ ) = 0.55 × 100 × (√ ) = 1.7472 mm
f 109

Total thickness = 1.7472 mm + 2 mm (corrosion allowance) = 3.7472 mm ≈ 4 mm

Ellipsoidal head closure minimum thickness = 3 mm

Torispherical head closure minimum thickness = 3 mm

Flat head closure minimum thickness = 4 mm

362
In conclusion, since both ellipsoidal head closure and torispherical head closure have the
similar minimum thickness, torispherical head closure is preferred as it is commonly used end
closure for vessels up to operating pressure of 15 bar. Thus, the material cost can be reduced.

5.7.5 Loading Analysis

a) Dead weight of Empty Vessel

Wv = 240Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm )t

Where,
Wv = Total weight of shell
Cv = 1.08 for vessel with few internal fittings or 1.15 for distillation column or similar
vessels
Dm = Mean diameter of vessel = Di + (t ×10−3) m
Hv = Height of cylindrical section, m
t = Wall thickness, mm

For the dead weight of empty vessel calculation,

Cv = 1.08
Dm = 0.1 + (3 ×10−3 ) m = 0.103 m
Hv = 49.71 m
t = 3 mm

Dead weight, Wv = 240(1.08)(0.103)(49.71 + 0.8 × 0.103)(3)

= 3988.0127N
≈ 4 kN

b) Weight of Plate

No plate involved in this flash column. Therefore, Plate weight, Wp = 0 kN.

363
c) Weight of Tube

Demister pad is an efficient and economical device used for gas and liquid separating and
filtering. The demister pad is used for removal of the mist from gaseous phase.

TABLE 5. 29 The Properties of Demister Pad

Demister Pad Values

Number of Demister Pad 1

Density of Pad 150 kg/m3

Demister Pad Height 0.4m

Demister Pad Diameter 0.1 m

Di 2 0.1 2
Volume of Demister Pad = π ( ) (Height of Pad) = π ( ) (0.4)
2 2

= 3.1416×10−3 m3

Weight of Pad = Density of Pad × Volume × Number of Pad × Gravitational Acceleration

= 150 kg/m3 × 3.1416×10−3 m3 × 1 × 9.81 m/s 2

= 4.6229 N

≈ 5×10−3 kN

d) Weight of Insulation

Insulating material = Mineral wool

Insulating material density = 130 kg/m3

364
 Assume thickness of insulation = 50 mm

π(D + 2 × vessel thickness)2

Area without insulation =
4

π(0.1 + 2 × 0.003)2
=
4

= 28.8247×10−3 m2

π(D + 2 × vessel thickness + 2 × insulation thickness)2

Total area of vessel =
4

π(0.1 + 2 × 0.003 + 2 × 0.05)2

=
4

= 0.0333m2

Volume of insulation = (0.0333 - 28.8247×10−3) × 49.71 = 0.222 m3

Weight of insulation = 0.222 m3 × 130 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 = 283.117 N

Double this value to allow for fitting = 2(283.117) = 566.233 N ≈ 0.566 kN

e) Total Weight of Vessel

Total Weight of Vessel = Dead weight of empty vessel + Tube weight + Insulation weight

= 4 kN + 5×10−3 kN + 0.566 kN

= 4.571 kN

5.7.6 Wind Loading Analysis

a) Wind Loading, Fw

Wind loading, Fw = Pw × Deff

365
 Take dynamic wind pressure, Pw = 1280 N/m2

Effective Diameter, Deff = Diameter + 2(Vessel Thickness) + 2(Insulation Thickness)

= 0.1 + 2 (0.003) + 2 (0.05)

= 0.206 m

Wind Loading, Fw = 1280 × 0.206 = 263.68 N/m

b) Bending Moment at Bottom Tangent Line

Bending moment, Mx = (Fw × x 2 ) / 2

= (263.68)( 49.712 ) / 2

= 325787.7277 Nm

5.7.7 Stress Analysis

For first trial, the bottom thickness is assumed to be 3 mm + 2 mm = 5 mm

a) Pressure Stress

σL = Pi Di / 4t

= (0.11 × 100) / (4 × 5)

= 0.55 N/mm2

σh = Pi Di / 2t

= (0.11 × 100) / (2 × 5)

= 1.1 N/mm2

366
b) Dead Weight Stress, σw

Wv 4 × 1000
σw = = = 2.4252 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(100 + 5) × 5

c) Bending Stress, σb

Do = Di + 2 × Vessel bottom thickness

= 100 + 2(5)

= 110 mm

= 0.11 m

π π
Iv = (D4o − D4i ) = (0.114 − 0.14 ) = 2.2781×10−6 m4 = 2.2781×106 mm4
64 64

Mx D 325787.7277 100
σb = ± ( 2i + t) = ± ( + 5) = ±7.8654 N/mm2
Iv 2.2781×106 2

d) Resultant Stress

Resultant Longitudinal Stress, σz = σL − σw ± σb

σz (upwind) = 0.55 − 2.4252 + 7.8654 = 5.9905 N/mm2

σz (downwind) = 0.55 −2.4252 − 7.8654 = − 9.7409 N/mm2

Thus, greatest difference between principal stresses = σh − σz (downwind)

= 1.1 − (9.7409)

= 10.8409 N/mm2 < 109 N/mm2

367
 This value is well below the maximum allowable design stress, f = 109 N/mm2 . Hence,
this design and its dimensions are acceptable.

5.7.8 Skirt Support

In the first trial, the skirt thickness, t s is assumed to be as 5mm, which is equal to the vessel
bottom thickness and a straight cylindrical skirt with height of 3m is used. The maximum dead
weight load can be determined by assuming the vessel is filled with water as shown below.

π 2
Weight of water in vessel = D hρ g
4 i w
π
= 4 (0.1)2 (49.71)(1000)(9.81)

= 3830.0342 N

= 3.83 kN

Total weight of vessel with water = 4.571 + 3.83 kN

= 8.401 kN

Wind Loading, Fw = 1280 × 0.206 = 263.68 N/m

Bending moment at base of skirt, Ms = (Fw × x 2 ) / 2

= (263.68)( 49.71 + 3)2 / 2

= 366296.8861 Nm

368
a) Bending Stress, σbs
4Ms 4(366296.8861)
σbs = = = 8.8835 N/mm2
π (Ds + t s )t s Ds π (100 + 5)(5)(100)

b) Dead Weight Stress, σws

W 8.401 × 1000
σws (test) = = = 5.0936 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(100 + 5) × 5

W 4.571 × 1000
σws (operating) = = = 2.7714 N/mm2
π(Di + t)t π(100 + 5) × 5

c) Resultant Stress

Maximum σs (compressive) = 8.8835 + 5.0936 = 13.9771 N/mm2

Maximum σs (tensile) = 8.8835 − 2.7714 = 6.1121 N/mm2

fs Jsin(θ s ) = 109 (1)sin 90° = 109 N/mm2

ts 5
0.125E ( ) sin(θ s ) = 0.125 (200000) ( ) sin 90° = 1250 N/mm2
Ds 100

t
σs (compressive) < 0.125E (Ds ) sin(θ s )
s

13.9771 < 1250 N/mm2

σs (tensile) < fs Jsin(θ s )

6.1121 < 109 N/mm2

Both criteria are satisfied, 2mm is added as corrosion allowance. Thus, the skirt thickness
is 7mm.

369
5.7.9 Costing Analysis

a) Purchased Equipment Cost

The approximate cost of the equipment is calculated based on the equation below,

Ce = a + bS N

Where,

Ce = purchased equipment cost on a US GULF Coast Basis, Jan. 2007 (CE index
(CEPCI) = 509.7, NF refinery inflation index = 2059.1)

a, b = cost constants in Table 5.14

S = capacity parameter, units given in Table 5.14

N = exponent for that type of equipment

FIGURE 5. 13 Purchase Equipment Cost for Common Plant Equipment

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Based on section 5.7.5, the total weight of the vessel is 4.571kN. Based on the conversion
1kN = 102kg, the weight of the vessel is 466.242kg. According to the Figure *, the cost of
the separator is calculated as shown.

Ce = a + bS N

Ce = 10000 + 29(466.242)0.85

370
 = $15379.2 × 4.17 RM/$

= RM 64, 131.26

≈RM 64, 132

b) Installed Cost

Installed cost is calculated based on Hands method. Figure 5.14 shown Hand (1958)
proposed installation factor.

FIGURE 5. 14 Installation Factor proposed by Hand (1958)

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Installed cost = FΣ(Ce)

= 4 x 64, 132

= RM 256, 528

c) Cost Escalation

As the cost estimation is based on Jan. 2007 U.S. Gulf Coast basis, cost escalation
should be used to correct the estimated value to year 2020.

371
 FIGURE 5. 15 Cost Index for years
[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

By using extrapolation method, index of year 2020 can be obtained.

Index in year 2005 = 490.0

Index in year 2007 = 509.7

Index in year 2020 = Y

By using extrapolation method,

Y − 490.0 2020 − 2005

=
509.7 − 490.0 2007 − 2005

Y = 637.75

Cost estimation based on U.S. Gulf Coast basis, 2020 would be:

637.75
Ce = RM 256, 528 ( 509.7 )

= RM 320, 974. 58

≈ RM 320, 975

372
 d) Location Factor

FIGURE 5. 16 Location Factors

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Based on the location factor, SE Asia is chosen.

Ce = RM 320, 975 × 1.12 = RM 359, 492

373
5.8 SIZING AND COSTING OF HEAT EXCHANGER

5.8.1 Heat Exchanger Design

The heat exchanger HX105 is designed to heat up the mixture feed stream which
includes glycerol, linoleic acid, oleic acid and sodium hydroxide using Stream 154 as a heat
exchanger and as a heating agent. The preliminary design data is shown as in Table 5.30,
where the design pressure is 1 bar.

TABLE 5. 30 Preliminary Design Data of Heat Exchanger (HX105)

[Extracted from Superpro simulation tool, BASF and Hongfu et al. 2012]

Tube side (Service Fluid)

Substance Mixed Stream

Inlet temperature (t1), °C 25.04

Outlet temperature (t2), °C 39.45

Specific heat capacity, kJ/kg K 2.099

Mass flow rate, kg/hr 2505

Density, kg/m3 1030.94

Thermal conductivity, W/m k 0.321

Viscosity, Pa s 0.0014746

Shell side (Process Fluid)

Substance Mixed Stream

Inlet temperature (T1), °C 180.25

Outlet temperature (T2), °C 45.00

374
 Specific heat capacity, kJ/kg K 0.186

Mass flow rate, kg/hr 2172.433

Density, kg/m3 992.65

Thermal conductivity, W/m k 1.548

Viscosity, Pa s 0.000373

5.8.2 Basic Design Procedure

a. Heat load

Heat load, Q = mCpΔT = (2172.433/3600) x 0.186 x (180.25-45.00) = 15.181 kW

b. Log mean temperature, ΔTlm

Overall temperature profile,

T1 =shell inlet temperature, 180.25 °C

T2 = shell outlet temperature, 45.00 °C

t1 = tube inlet temperature, 25.04 °C

t2 = tube outlet temperature, 39.45 °C

(T1 − t2) − (T2 − t1)

ΔTlm =
(T1 − t2)
ln
(T2 − t1)

(180.25 − 39.45) − (45.00 − 25.04)

ΔTlm =
(180.25 − 39.45)
ln
(45.00 − 25.04)

ΔTlm = 61.91 °C

c. R and S

Use one shell pass and two tube passes as design passes,
375
 (T1 − T2)
R =
(t2 − t1)

(180.25 − 45.00)
R =
(39.45 − 25.04)

R = 9.39

(t2 − t1)
S =
(T1 − t1)

(39.45 − 25.04)
S =
(180.25 − 25.04)

S = 0.1

FIGURE 5. 17Temperature correction factor: one shell pass; two or more even tube
passes
[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Ft = 0.83

376
 d. True Temperature difference, ΔTm

Corrected LMTD:

Ft = 0.83

ΔTm = ΔTlm × Ft

ΔTm = 61.91 x 0.83

ΔTm = 51.39 °C

e. Provision area for tube

FIGURE 5. 18 Typical overall coefficients of heat transfer equipment

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

From the figure, the overall coefficients for heat exchanger with assumptions of hot fluid as
organic solvents and cold fluid as organic solvent is in the range of 100-300 W/m2 °C.

Assume overall thermal conductivity, U is 100 W/m2 °C

Provisional area of heat exchanger, Q = U x A x ΔTm

Rearranging,

377
 Q
A =
UΔTm

15.181 x 1000
A =
100 x 51.39

A = 2.95 m2

Tube dimensions selected for design

16 mm outside diameter, with a wall thickness of 1.2 mm, 13.6 mm inside diameter, 1 m long
tubes on a triangular pitch (pitch/dia. = 1.25).

Area of one tube = πdL

Area of one tube = π × 0.016 × 1

Area of one tube = 0.05 m2

Number of tubes needed = Heat Transferred Area Required / Area of one tube

= 2.95 / 0.05 = 59 tubes

f. Bundle diameter, Db

Use a 1.25 Triangular pitch:

Nt 1/n1
Db = d0( )
K1

FIGURE 5. 19 Constants use for triangle pitch = 1.25.

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

378
 59 1/2.207
Db = 16( )
0.249

Db = 190.59 = 200 mm

g. Shell Bundle clearance

*A split-ring floating head exchanger is used for efficiency and easy of cleaning. Stainless
steel can be used for shell and tubes since both fluids are not corrosive.

Use the minimum, bundle diameter as 200 mm,

FIGURE 5. 20 Shell bundle clearance

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

379
Shell bundle clearance = 50 mm

Shell diameter, Ds = 200 + 50 = 250 mm

h. Tube-side Coefficient

(t2−t1) 39.45−25.04
Mean temperature = = = 7.21 °C
2 2

Tube cross sectional area

π
= (13.6)2 = 145.267 mm2
4

Tubes per pass

Nt 59
= = = 29.5
2 2

Total flow area

= 29.5 x 145.267 x 10-6 = 0.00439 m2

Mass velocity

0.696 kg
= = 158.542 2
0.00439 sm

Linear velocity, Ut

mass velocity 158.542 m

Ut = = = 0.154
density 1030.94 s

Coefficient, hi

2099(1.35 + 0.02t)Ut 0.8 2099(1.35 + 0.02 x 7.21)0.1540.8 W

hi = 0.2
= 0.2
= 416 2
di 13.6 m °C

i. Shell-side Coefficient

Choose baffle spacing, lb

Ds 250
lb = = = 50 mm
5 5

380
Tube pitch, pt

pt = 1.25 x 16 = 20 mm

Cross flow area, As

(pt − do)Ds. lb (20 − 16)250 x 50 x 10−6

As = = = 0.0025 m2
pt 20

Mass velocity, Gs

2172.433
Ws kg
Gs = = 3600 = 241.381 2
As 0.0025 sm

Equivalent diameter, de

1.1 1.1
de = (pt 2 − 0.917do2 ) = (202 − 0.917(16)2 ) = 11.361 mm
do 16

Mean shell side temperature

(T1 + T2) 180.25 + 45.00

= = = 112.63 °C
2 2

Gs. de 163.982 x 11.361 x 10−3

Re = = = 4994.636
μ 0.000373

Cp. μ 186 x 0.00373

Pr = = = 0.448
kf 1.548

Choose 25 percent baffle cut.

381
 FIGURE 5. 21 Shell side heat transfer factor
[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

jh= 8.0 x 10-3

1 μ 0.14
js. Re. Pr 3 (μw) kf
ho =
de
1
(8.0 x10−3 )(499.463)(0.448)3 (1)0.14 (1.548) W
= −3
= 1249.875 2
11.361 x 10 m °C

j. Overall coefficient

Thermal conductivity of stainless steel = 45 W/m°C, taking the fouling coefficient of mixture
of product stream as 5000 W/m2 °C, heat transfer fluid, Stream 127, as 5000 W/m2°C:

do
1 1 1 doln ( ) do 1 1
= + + di + ( + )
Uo ho hod 2kw di hdi hi

16
1 1 1 16x10−3 ln (13.6) 16 1 1
= + + + ( + )
Uo 1249.875 5000 2(45) 13.6 5000 416

382
 Uo = 244.365 W/m2°C

k. Pressure Drop – Tube side

L μ −m ρUt 2
∆Pt = Np (8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5) ( )
di μw 2

Where

Δ Pt = tube-side pressure drop,

N/m2 (Pa), Np = number of tube-side passes,

Ut = tube-side velocity, m/s,

L = length of one tube

ρ. Ut. di 1030.94 x 0.154 x 13.6 x 10−3

Re = = = 1465.262
μ 0.0014746

FIGURE 5. 22 Tube-side friction factors

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

jf = 8.5 x 10-3

383
 L μ −m ρUt 2
∆Pt = Np (8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5) ( )
di μw 2

1000
−3
1030.94(0.154)2 N
∆Pt = 2 (8(8.5x10 ) ( ) + 2.5) ( ) = 183.373 2 = 0.183 kPa
13.6 2 m

l. Pressure Drop – Shell side

−0.14
Ds ρ. μs 2 L μ
∆Pt = (8jf ( ) ( )( )( ) )
de 2 lb μw

From Figure 5.23, jf at 25 % baffle cut, Reynold number of shell side = 4994.636, value of
friction factor, jf =5.5 x 10-2

FIGURE 5. 23 Shell side friction factor, segmental baffles

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

−0.14
Ds ρ. μs 2 L μ
∆Pt = (8jf ( ) ( )( )( ) )
de 2 lb μw

384
 250 992.65 x 0.1652 1000
∆Pt = (8(5.5x10−2 ) ( )( )( ))
11.361 2 50

N
= 2616.55 = 2.616 kPa
m2

5.8.3 Thickness Analysis

a. Design Temperature

The design temperature should take as the maximum working temperature of the
column with extra allowance. A 10°C of extra allowance is added. Hence the design
temperature of this vessel is 190.0 ºC.

b. Design Pressure

The heat exchanger needs to be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which
it is likely to be subjected in operation. For heat exchanger under internal pressure, the design
pressure is normally taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally
be 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process
upset. The operating pressure for both tube side and shell side are the same. Therefore, the
design pressure is:

Design pressure, Pi = (Pabs) (1.1)

Pi = (1bar) (1.1)

Pi = 1.1 bar

Pi = 0.11 N/mm2

385
 c. Design stress

FIGURE 5. 24 Typical design stress for plate

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

200 − 150 115 − 130

=
200 − 190 115 − x

x = 118

According to Figure 5.24, the design stress = 118 N/mm2

d. Construction Material

The selected material is stainless steel 304. This material is chosen as it has excellent corrosion
resistance, good strength and high ductility and toughness. Due to its corrosion resistance,
stainless steel can be easily maintained and give an attractive appearance. The 100%
recyclability of stainless steel also supports the sustainability concepts of this plant design
project. The corrosion resistance of the material is a preferable characteristic for choosing the
material.

386
 e. Corrosion Allowance

The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material lost
by corrosion and erosion. The minimum corrosion is taken as 1.2 mm.

f. Welded Joint Efficiency

Joint efficiency selected is 1 by assuming fully radiographed welding.

g. Tube Thickness

Minimum wall thickness, e

Pi x di
e= + Corrosion allowance
2Jf − Pi

0.11 x 13.6
e= + 1.2mm = 1.2 mm
2(1)(118) − 0.11

Therefore, the selection of tube with standard tube size of 16 mm outer diameter, 13.6 mm
inner diameter (2.4 mm thickness) is a valid selection.

h. Cylindrical Shell Thickness

Minimum wall thickness, e

Pi x Di
e= + Corrosion allowance
2Jf − Pi

0.11 x 250
e= + 2mm = 2.117 mm
2(1)(118) − 0.11

i. Rear End header of Shell side

The end cover of the shell side is designed as ellipsoidal head due to the strength for
minimum thickness requirement.

Minimum head thickness,

387
 Pi x Di
e= + Corrosion allowance
2Jf − 0.2Pi

0.11 x 250
e= + 2mm = 2.117 mm
2(1)(118) − (0.2)0.11

j. Front End Header of Shell Side

Flat end is of header is designed for the front-end header of heat exchanger. From Figure
5.25, Cp is taken as 0.55 and De=Di=302 mm.

FIGURE 5. 25 Design constant for flat end closures

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

Minimum head thickness, e

Pi
e = CpDe√( ) + Corrosion allowance
f

0.11
e = (0.55)(250)√( ) + 2mm = 6.198 mm
118

Based on the calculated minimum thicknesses and the standard tube size, and standard steel
plate size, the design thickness is shown as follows:

388
 TABLE 5. 31 Summary of design thickness of heat exchanger components

Heat Exchanger Component Thickness (mm)

Tube 2

Shell body 3

Shell rear end header 3

Shell front end header 7

5.8.4 Design Summary

The design summary for the designed heat exchanger is shown in following tables.

TABLE 5. 32 Heat Exchanger Type

Heat Exchanger Type Shell and Tube heat exchanger

TEMA Designation AEU

Front End Stationary Head Channel and removable cover (A)

Shell Type One pass shell (E)

Rear End Stationary Head U-tube bundle (U)

TABLE 5. 33 Construction of heat exchanger

Number of tubes 59

Tube outer diameter 16 mm

Tube inner diameter 13.6 mm

Tube length 1000 mm

Total exchange area 2.95 m2

389
 Shell outer diameter 250 mm

Baffle spacing 50 mm

Connection flange ANSI 3” Flange

TABLE 5. 34 Material of heat exchanger

Tube Stainless steel SS304

Shell Stainless steel SS304

Connection/Joint Pipe Stainless steel SS304

Tightening Bolt Carbon Steel

5.8.5 Costing Analysis

a. Purchased cost

The estimated cost of the equipment is calculated using the equation:

Ce = a + bS n

Where Ce = purchased equipment cost on a US GULF Coast Basis, Jan. 2007 (CE index
(CEPCI)=509.7, NF refinery inflation index = 2059.1)

a, b = cost constants

S = size parameter

n = exponent for that type of equipment

390
 FIGURE 5. 26 Purchase Equipment Cost for Common Plant Equipment
[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

According to Figure 5.26, for U-tube Shell and tube heat exchanger,

Ce = a + bS n

Ce = 24000 + 46(2.95)1.2

Ce = $ 24168.48

b. Installation Cost and Material Cost

FIGURE 5. 27 Installation Factors Proposed by Hand (1958)

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

391
 FIGURE 5. 28 Material Cost Factor Relative to Carbon Steel

Since the equipment is heat exchanger, an installation factor of 3.5 must be included. As the
default material is carbon steel for the calculated value, a correction factor for 1.3 for stainless
steel SS304 is required.

Ce = 24168.48 x 1.3 x 3.5 = $ 109966.58

c. Cost escalation

FIGURE 5. 29 The costs of labor are subjected to inflation

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

392
By using extrapolation method, index of year 2019 is able to be obtained.

Year 2005, 490.0

Year 2007, 509.7

Year 2020, x

x − 490 2020 − 2005

=
509.7 − 490 2007 − 2005

x = 637.75

Cost estimation based on U.S. Gulf Coast basis, 2020 would be:

637.75
Ce = 109966.58 ( ) = $ 143124.87
490

FIGURE 5. 30 Location factor

[Adapted from Chemical Engineering Design 5th Edition]

393
Based on the location factor, SE Asia is chosen.

Ce = $ 143124.87 x 1.12 = $ 160299.85

To convert into currency Malaysia Ringgit

Ce = 161298.80 x 4.35 = RM 697.304.35

394
 CHAPTER VI

PROCESS CONTROL

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Process control is required in all industries, especially continuous processes requiring

automatic control of operating conditions to ensure better quality and great efficiency for the
product. Process control which is also known as industrial control does carry a function which
helps to ensure the equipment that is used along the production line is working well during
production and manufacturing processes. Many fields such as chemical plants, agriculture,
water treatment plants do apply process control systems to enhance the production and
efficiency. (TechTarget Network., 2020). It is a mechanical or electronic device that regulates
other devices or systems by way of control loops. Besides, it is able to test the process in many
ways such as returning data for monitoring and troubleshooting.

On the other hand, the process control system does work with the primary transducer
which is also called a sensor. Primary transducer acts as a receiver that can receive the input
and output along with the controller. It is widely used in the production and manufacturing line
as they need it for the pressure sensors, flow meters, force sensors, and temperature sensors.
The installation of these sensors do help to detect the operation automatically to ensure the
entire production is going smoothly. Thus, process control systems are important as it can
ensure the equipment is maintained in a normal condition which is temperature, pressure, flow,
stress, velocity and weight. There are some process control devices that are robotic and able to
perform many kinds of tasks. Moreover, there are various types of control loops of process
control systems which include supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA),
programmable logic controllers (PLC) and distributed control systems (DCS). There are two
main types of control loops which are open loops and closed loops. Open loops can operate
with human input meanwhile closed loops are fully autonomous. Some loops can be switched
between the open and closed modes. Hence, the switchable loop is manually controlled when

395
it is opened whereas it is fully automated when closed. They can work together in order to
gather and transmit the data during the production and manufacturing processes. (Martin
Murray., 2019). PLC is one of the best control systems as it is good to use in the devices that
involve automation processes such as material handling, state machines, sequencing, and status
reports. In addition, DCS is good in controlling analogue devices.

6.1.1 Importance of Process Control

There are a lot of benefits that can be found in the process control that help to ease the
production and manufacturing so that they are able to work in an efficient way. Some of the
examples are stated as follow:

(a) Enhanced automation system

● Automation systems reduce the need for manual checking, minimizing human error which
is time-consuming and might reduce production efficiency of the plant. Automation of
processing lines also directly relates to the reduction of manpower to be physically
attending to site for control of the system and consequently reducing labour cost.

(b) Reduce the failing rate of the product

● Process control can ensure the entire system in the plant is operating at maximum
efficiency and able to work in a rhythm flow. It can control the quality during the
manufacturing process so that products with flaws and defects will be avoided. If there are
too many defect products being produced in the certain process, these defective products
might not be able to sell it in the market or eventually dispose of it. It will cause the loss
of profit of the company. Hence, if the rate of producing defective products increases
rapidly, it will affect the overall success rate of the respective product. On the other hand,
the quality control of the company will need to spend time to solve the problem and hence
affect the progress of production.

(c) Enhanced process capability

● Process capability in the process control does help to increase the Process Capability Index
(Cpk) that is able to evaluate the output of the process in comparison to the specific limits
that is determined by the target value and tolerance range. Cpk will be measured in terms

396
 of how close a process performing is compared to its specification limits from the process.
Furthermore, a product with a high Cpk value that is higher than 4 sigma is more preferable
as it can ensure that the products are able to reach the requirements and satisfaction from
the customers or buyers.

(d) Increase the efficiency of the system

● With the introduction of the process control system, the production can be automated
without relying too much on human control, minimizing changes of misconduct. Thus, the
product yield should be higher than manual as it enhances the maximum efficiency for the
production.

6.2 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

A typical control system does help to manage operation for the system so that the
response of the system is able to work in the commanded behaviour. On the other hand, it is
known as an important system which can alter the state of the system based on the input to the
system. For instance, a back-end control system is able to provide the desired response by
controlling the output whereas front end control can provide desired response by controlling
the input. Furthermore, front end control is known as a system that can be applied in software
applications for the hardware and network resources. An efficient control system will enhance
the productivity of a product or component by providing fine control over the desired range.
Thus, the control system is represented by a single block as shown in Figure 6.1 which the
output is controlled by varying input. The typical control system consists of three components
which are input, logic operation and output or decision device. Input is the cause parameter on
which the control system acts. Logic operation is the intended or desired operation to perform
on the input for generating a new output state. The output device is a parameter which actuates
the end component to perform the desired task. These can be worked in either open loop or
closed loop control systems depending on output feedback.

397
 FIGURE 6. 1Block Diagram of Control System
[Adapted from Tutorialspoint., n.d]

6.2.1 Open Loop Control System

FIGURE 6. 2 Block Diagram of Open Loop System

[Adapted from Tutorialspoint., n.d]

Based on Figure 6.2, the output will not carry backward to the input for the open loop
control systems. Thus, the control action is independent of the desired output. Subsequently,
the input that is applied to a controller will produce a signal which indicates as an input to a
plant or process which can be controlled. So, the output which is being produced is able to be
controlled.

398
6.2.2 Closed Loop Control System

FIGURE 6. 3 Block Diagram of Closed Loop System

[Adapted from Tutorialspoint., n.d]

Based on Figure 6.3, the output is fed back to the input in closed loop control systems.
On the other hand, closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems.
Thus, it can be shown that the control action is dependent on the desired output. The error
detector will produce an error signal which is to detect the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the feedback elements by considering
the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Hence, the error signal is applied as
an input to a controller. After that, the controller will produce a signal which is able to control
the plant. In this case, the output of the control system will be adjusted automatically until the
desired response is obtained.

TABLE 6. 1 Comparison Table for Open and Closed Loop System

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Do not have a feedback path. Have a feedback path.

Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent on the desired
output. output.

Economical cost Expensive cost

399
 Simpler design More complex design

6.3 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM - HARDWARE

Process control system that is involved with hardware is also known as the industrial
control system (ICS) which is the different types of control systems and associated
instrumentation that include the devices, systems, networks, and controls used to operate the
automate industrial processes. Thus, depending on the industry, ICS is able to have different
types of functions based on the request of the industries so that it can manage the tasks
efficiently. ICS has been widely used in every industrial sector and critical infrastructure such
as the manufacturing, transportation, energy, and water treatment industries.

6.3.1 Types of Process Control System

Every process control system has their individual functions so that they are able to work
depending on the needs of different fields of industry to ensure that the tasks can be handled
efficiently. There are several types of process control systems which can function depending
on its functionality and complexity of the control action are shown as the table below:

400
 TABLE 6. 2 Types of Process Control System

Process Control System Elaboration

Contain user-programmable memory to store instructions in

Programmable Logic order to implement specific functions such as input and output
Controllers (PLCs) control, logic, timing, counting, PID control, communication
and data and file processing.

Able to control in a distributed manner which various

Distributed Control
distributed control systems or processes are controlled
Systems (DCS)
individually.

Able to gather, process data and apply operational controls over

Supervisory control and long distances. It carries a function that can connect to the
Data Acquisition unique communication challenges which are delays and data
(SCADA) integrity posed by the various media such as phone lines,
microwave, and satellite.

Allow the transferring of the information and communications

Industrial Automation
as well as smart devices. It is involved in hardware, software,
and Control Systems
and communication alternatives in order to transform sensor
(IACS)
information into information.

Contain electronic components such as a regulator and circuit

Intelligent Electronic
control. It contains a microprocessor and can communicate
Devices (IEDs)
digitally using industrial protocols.

401
6.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages for Process Control System

Some of the advantages and disadvantages for different types of process control system is
shown in the Table 6.3:

TABLE 6. 3 Advantages and Disadvantages for Process Control System

Types Advantages Disadvantages

● Hold-up time is very

● Small physical size long when PLCs is
Programmable Logic ● Able to run in high speed loses control
Controllers (PLCs) ● Has a wide range of control ● Required high
applications. temperature that may
easily cause accident

● If this happens any

failure of one of the
● Data presentation is in a controllers, it might
Distributed Control systematic format affect more than one
Systems (DCS) ● Able to control through loop and hence
dynamic graphic increase MTBF
(Mean Time
Between Failures)

● Able to store large amounts

of data ● High installation cost
Supervisory control ● Fast response ● The SCADA system
and Data Acquisition ● Data can be displayed in is complex in terms
(SCADA) various formats according of hardware units and
to the requirement of the dependent modules
user

402
 Industrial Automation ● Fast response ● High cost of
and Control Systems ● Can work in consistency implementing the
(IACS) and uniformity system

● Required to hire
excellent operators to
keep control of the
● Simple installation
system because IEDs
● Can communicate with
is a combination of
multiple channels at a time
Intelligent Electronic hardware and
● Able to work in
Devices (IEDs) software. Thus, the
synchronized which
operator should
controlling all data in real
know about
time
programming of
devices and have
computer knowledge.

By referring to the advantages and disadvantages for different types of control systems,
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) is preferable since it would not require too high cost for
installation compared to the SCADA and IACS. It is also able to work in a fast response as
same as others control systems. On the other hand, PLCs and DLC will not put into
consideration since they are easily to cause a severe case if the problem is not being solved in
time

403
6.3.3 Protocol of Process Control System

Protocol is a standard set of rules which allow the electronic devices to communicate
with each other. The rules that are included in the protocol are required to be transmitted,
commands that need to be used in order to send and receive data as well as the way of
transferring the data. Moreover, it can be implemented by hardware and software. Thus,
protocol is applied in the process control system because it can allow two or more of a
communications system to transmit information through any kind of variation of a physical
quantity. Devices and control modules in process control systems do send information through
communication protocols. For instance, some of the protocols are designed in order to work
for specific purposes such as process automation, building automation, power systems
automation. However, there are some protocols that only work if the protocols and equipment
come from the same manufacturer.

TABLE 6. 4 Types of Protocol

Types of Protocol Elaboration

There are two types of Profibus:

(a) DP (decentralized peripherals) which is used to operate

Process Field Bus
sensors and actuators through a central controller
(PROFIBUS)
(b) Profibus PA (process automation) which is used to
monitor measuring equipment through a process control system

One of the oldest ICS protocols. There are two types of Modbus:

(a) Serial Modbus – uses high-level data link control (HDLC)

Modbus standard for data transmission

(b) Modbus-TCP – uses the TCP/IP protocol stack to transmit

data.

404
 A set of services that work in control, security, synchronization,
Common Industrial configuration, information, and so forth. It has adaptations which
Protocol (CIP) provide the intercommunication and integration for different
types of networks

Building Automation A communication protocol that is designed to control heating,

and Control Networks ventilating, and air-conditioning control such as lighting and fire
(BACnet) detection

6.4 Control System Designs for Individual Unit

There are several control methods that have been implemented in the manufacturing plant, the
basic concepts of such control are stated below.

6.4.1 Feedback Control

A feedback control system is a system whose output is controlled as a feedback signal,

using its measurement. This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to create an
error signal that is filtered by a controller to produce control input for the system. The feedback
control system adjusts the values of the manipulated variables using direct measurements of
the manipulated variables.

There are several advantages of using feedback control such as it can reject many
unnecessary disturbances and noise signals from outside the system and minimal knowledge
of the process is sufficient to set up this type of control. Feedback control is a technique
designed to achieve and sustain the optimal condition of the process by comparing the feedback
with the desired state in order to take corrective measures. It is also both versatile and robust
which means that re-tuning would still deliver a satisfactory result if the process condition

405
changes. On the other hand, using feedback can have several disadvantages such as the system
will become more complicated by the increased number of components, such as sensors and
error detectors. If the process experiences significant and constant disturbance, the action of
the controller will be such that the process will run in a transient state continuously and never
achieve the desired steady state. In addition, the input system will be affected when there is a
change in an output. (Electrical Academia., 2020.)

6.4.2 Feedforward Control

Feedforward control is a well-suited advanced control scheme for processes that are
regularly influenced by a known upstream source of disturbances. Feedforward control is a
concept that describes an element or pathway that passes a controlling signal from a source in
its external environment within a control system.

The advantages of using feedforward control is that the corrective action is done before
the disturbances entering into the process. Hence, it does not affect the stability of the system.
Since it responds to error it is always catching up as the effects of a disturbance steadily
accumulate over time. By contrast, the use of a disturbance model by feed-forward enables it
to evaluate the full magnitude of the disturbance and to implement an appropriate
countermeasure. However there are disadvantages of this control technique as the load
disturbances must be measured during operation and in many applications this is not feasible.
Moreover, the feedforward control is not self-correcting, if the input adjustments failed to
produce correct output, then the process will continue to produce the wrong output.

406
6.4.3 Inferential Control Configuration

The main idea behind inferential control is to reduce the deadtime of sensors or
transmitters. Inferential control system has many excellent results, such as resistance to
disturbance and tracking set-points. It uses process variables that are easily measured to infer
other quantities of measurement, such as compositions and molecular weight. Besides that,
inferential control can be much cheaper in terms of capital and operating cost. However, the
application is restricted when strong load disturbance exists, or response speed is required in
the system. If a wrong estimation is done on the system, it will result in wrong control action
and hence it will detrimental the process operation.

6.4.4 Cascade Control

Cascade control involves the use of two controllers with the output of the first controller
giving the second controller the set point, the feedback loop for one controller nestling inside
the other as shown in figure below. This system can give an improved response to disturbances.

FIGURE 6. 4 General block diagram of a feed-forward control system

There are several benefits that can be achieved through the application of cascade
control such as the operator can directly control the inner loop during start-up operation. A
faster inner loop reduces the overall variability that the process experiences. Since the inner
loop can respond to disturbances more quickly than the outer loop, it reduces the severity of a
given disturbance and limits the degree of variability that would otherwise have an effect on

407
the process. However, the drawback to this sophisticated control system can be summed up in
terms of cost and complexity. The negative aspects of the cascade control is that the
instrumentation costs nearly double with the implementation of cascade control. The
architecture requires a second sensor to be installed and then used to measure the inner process
variable. Furthermore, the configuration costs are nearly double as well. The added hardware
costs will be complimented by increased installation and configuration costs. It may take
considerable time and energy to adjust the two PID controllers in order to deliver optimum
responsiveness. (Control Station, 2020.)

6.4.5 Ratio Control

A ratio controller is a special type of feed forward controller where disturbances are
determined, and their ratio is held by regulating one of the streams at a desired set point. The
objective of this controller is to maintain the flow rate of one stream in a process at a defined
or specified proportion relative to that of another. The typical application of a ratio control is
to maintain the stoichiometric ratio of reactant to a reactor and the reflux ratio in the distillation
column.

The benefits of using the ratio controller are that the users can link two streams to
produce and maintain a given ratio between the streams. Furthermore, this controller is simple
to use because it does not require a complex model. However, sometimes one of the flow is not
measured directly and the controller assumes that the flow has a correct ratio through the
control of only the measured flow rate. The other limitation of ratio control is that it requires a
ratio relationship between variables that need to be maintained. Ratio control is not as useful
for variables other than flow rates.

408
6.5 Control Systems Design Procedure

A basic example of engineering design is the design of the control systems. Before
designing a specific control scheme, the parameter or variable to be managed and objectives
should be defined. The objective of control engineering design is to obtain the configuration,
specifications, and identification of the key parameters of a proposed system to meet an actual
need. After that, crucial controlled variables are defined, whereby measured variables must be
determined to conceptualize the control strategies. The following procedure is used to classify
the control instruments and locate them in the process.

i. Identify and draw in those control loops that are required for steady operation of the
plant, such as level control, flow control, pressure control, temperature control or
composition control.

ii. Identify the process variables that need to be controlled to achieve the specified product
quality which include controlled loops using direct measurement of the controlled
variable, where possible. Potential manipulated variables are also identified and
selected.

iii. Identify and include those additional control loops required for safe operation, not
covered in step 1 and 2. Next, it determines the cause and existence of the disturbances
which must be mitigated.

iv. Decide and show the ancillary instruments required for plant activity monitoring and
troubleshooting. Then, decide on the required alarm. There are generally five types of
controllers used in this plant for the above purpose which including:

● Temperature Controller (TC)

● Pressure Controller (PC)
● Flow Controller (FC)
● Level Controller (LC)
● Composition Controller (AC)

409
The five basic components of a control system are:

● Sensor (primary element)

● Transmitter (secondary element)
● Controller (brain of the control system)
● Final Control Elements (such as control valve)
● Alarm system (temperature alarm (TA), pressure alarm low and high (PAH, PAL),
level alarm low and high (LAL,LAH), Flow alarm (FA)

In the control system, the sensor measures the process variables to be controlled in the
process stream. The sensor connects to the transmitter and the outputs from the sensor are
converted into signal form then transmitted into a digital. The transmitter will transmit the
signal to the controller. Then, the controller receives the signal and compares it with the desired
value. The controller will decide what action should be taken to maintain at its desired value
based on the comparison. The controller will then decide and act by sending the signal to the
final control element. The final control element will pose an action to make changes on the
manipulated variables. The steps involved in the control system design are:

410
FIGURE 6. 5 Flow chart in designing of control system

411
 6.6 Control Systems Design for Major Equipment

6.6.1 Storage tank of Palm Olein, Glycerol and NaOH and mixing valve

FIGURE 6. 6 P&ID diagram on Palm olein, Glycerol and NaOH storage tanks

TABLE 6. 5 Description on Palm olein, Glycerol and NaOH tanks P&ID

Set
Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action
Point

To measure flow rate

of palm olein from the
FT01 storage vessel and - - -
generate electrical
signal to FC01.

412
 FC01 will moderate the
To receive electrical
pump output by increasing or
signals from FT01 and Flowrate of palm olein
FC01 reducing flow to ensure -
control the working from stream S-102
constant supply when the
output of the pump.
process is taking place

To measure flow rate

of NaOH from the
FT02 storage vessel and - - -
generate electrical
signal to FC02.

FC02 will moderate the

To receive electrical
pump output by increasing or
signals from FT02 and Flow Rate of NaOH
FC02 reducing flow to ensure -
control the working from stream S-106
constant supply when the
output of the pump.
process is taking place

To measure the
composition of raw
material mixture fed to
AT01 the reactor and - - -
generate electrical
signal to be transmitted
to AC01.

Any excessive deviation 60%(wt/

To receive electrical beyond tolerated value will wt) Olein,
signals from AT01 and be detected. AC01 will relay 39%(wt/
Composition of
AC01 regulate flow of the the signal to pump(S-103) to wt)
reactants inside reactor
glycerol into the mixer moderate composition of the glycerol,1
valve. mixture by altering the flow %(wt/wt)
of the glycerol. NaOH

413
6.6.2 Heat exchanger

FIGURE 6. 7 P&ID diagram on HX-106

TABLE 6. 6 Description on HX-106 P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the
temperature of hot
output stream
from heat
TT03 exchanger and - - -
convert into
electrical signal to
be detected by
TC03

TC03 will send signals

To receive
to adjust opening of
electrical signal
valves. If the
from TT03 and Temperature of
TC03 temperature is too high, 41.40°C
control flow rate process stream S-157
flow rate of cold stream
of cold incoming
will be reduced to allow
stream
higher residential time

414
6.6.3 Transesterification reactor

FIGURE 6. 8 P&ID diagram on Transesterification reactor and HX-101

TABLE 6. 7 Description on Transesterification and HX-101 P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the
temperature of the
stream S-108 and
TT01 - - -
generate electrical
signal to be
detected by TC01

TIC01 will send a

To receive
signal to regulate
electrical signal
Temperature of the steam input to
TC01 from TT01 and 150°C
stream S-108 maintain heating
control heating rate
function according
of heater
to the set point.

To measure the
LT01 level of reactants - - -

inside

415
 Transesterification
reactor and convert
into electrical
signal to be
transmitted to
LC01

LIC01 will generate

10% to
electrical signals
the height
depending on the
above the
level of reactants. If
bottom
To receive too low, the opening
Level of reactants tangent
electrical signal of the valve will be
inside point and
LC01 from LT01 and increased to promote
Transesterification 10%
control opening of inlet flow whereby if
reactor below the
valve level is too high, the
top
opening of the valve
tangent
will be reduced to
point at
decrease the inlet
vessel
flow into the vessel.

416
6.6.4 Neutralization tank 1

FIGURE 6. 9 P&ID diagram on Neutralisation tank 1 and HCl storage

TABLE 6. 8 Description on Neutralisation tank 1 and HCl storage tank P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the
pH of the liquid
in Neutralization
Tank 1 and
pHT01 - - -
convert it into
electrical signal to
be transmitted to
pHC01.

pHC01 will send a signal

To receive
to regulate output of the
electrical signals pH of the liquid in
HCl. When pH is too
pHC01 from pHT01 and Neutralization Tank pH 7
low, valve opening will
control the inlet 1.
be reduced and vice
flow of HCl.
versa.

417
6.6.5 Washing column

FIGURE 6. 10 P&ID diagram on washing column WSH-102 and water tank with PM-
104

TABLE 6. 9 Description on washing column WSH-102 and water tank with PM-104
P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variable

To measure the
level of medium
inside flash
column and
LT02 - - -
convert into
electrical signal
to be transmitted
to LC02

To receive Level of LC02 will generate 10% to the

LC02 electrical signals medium electrical signals height above
from LT02 and inside depending on the level of the bottom

418
 control the flash the medium. If level is tangent point
opening of the column too low, the opening of and 10% below
water inlet the valve will be the top tangent
valve. increased water supply point at vessel
and vice versa.

To measure
flow rate of
liquid flow from
the washing
FT03 column (S-113) - - -
and electrical
signal is
transmitted to
FC03

To receive
FC03 will moderate the
electrical signals Flowrate
pump output to ensure
from FT03 and of
FC03 materials are being -
control working products
passed onto the next
output of the in S-126
process.
pump.

419
6.6.6 Heat exchanger

FIGURE 6. 11 P&ID diagram on HX-102

TABLE 6. 10 Description on HX-102 P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the
temperature of cold
outlet stream of
heat exchanger and
TT02 - - -
convert into
electrical signal to
be detected by
TC02

TC02 will send a signal

to regulate flow of hot
stream into the heat
To receive
exchanger. If the
electrical signal
Temperature of the temperature is too high,
from TT02 and
TC02 cold outlet stream of flow rate of inlet hot -
control flow rate of
heat exchanger stream of heat
cold incoming
exchanger will be
stream
reduced to allow higher
residential time and vice
versa

420
6.6.7 Epoxidation reactor

FIGURE 6. 12 P&ID for Epoxidation reactor, performic acid storage tank and HX-102

TABLE 6. 11 Description on Epoxidation reactor, performic acid storage tank and HX-
102 P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variable

To measure the level

of reactants inside
Epoxidation reactor
LT03 - - -
and convert into
electrical signal to be
transmitted to LC03

To receive electrical LC03 will generate 10% to the

Level of
signal from LT03 electrical signals height above
LC03 reactants
and control opening depending on the level the bottom
inside
of valve of reactants. If level is tangent point

421
 Epoxidation too low, the opening and 10%
reactor of the valve will be below the
increased to promote top tangent
inlet flow and vice point at
versa vessel

To measure the
composition inside
Epoxidation reactor
AT02 - - -
and generate
electrical signal to be
transmitted to AC02

AT02 will relay the

Composition
To receive electrical signal to the pump to
of reactants 23%(wt/wt)
signal from AT02 moderate the flow of
AC02 inside performic
and regulate flow of performic acid into the
Epoxidation acid
Performic Acid reactor to ensure a
reactor
complete reaction.

422
6.6.8 Neutralization tank 2

FIGURE 6. 13 P&ID on Neutralisation tank and NaCl storage

TABLE 6. 12 Description of Neutralisation tank and NaCl storage P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the pH of
the liquid in
Neutralization Tank 2
pHT02 and convert it into - - -
electrical signal to be
transmitted to
pHC02.

pHC02 will send a signal

To receive electrical to regulate output of the
signals from pHT02 pH of the liquid in NaCl to ensure that the pH
pHC02 pH 6
and control the inlet neutralization tank 2 of the liquid in the
flow of NaCl. neutralization tank is
within the range.

423
6.6.10 Neutralization tank 3

FIGURE 6. 14 P&ID on Neutralization tank and 𝐍𝐚𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 storage

TABLE 6. 13 Description of Neutralisation tank 3 with 𝐍𝐚𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 storage P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variable Control Action Set Point

To measure the
pH of the liquid in
Neutralization
Tank 3 and
pHT03 - - -
convert it into
electrical signal to
be transmitted to
pHC03.

pHC03 will send a signal

To receive
to regulate output of the
electrical signals pH of the liquid in
𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 to ensure that the
pHC03 from pHT03 and neutralization tank pH 7
pH of the liquid in the
control the inlet 3
neutralization tank is
flow of 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 .
within the range.

424
6.6.11 Washing column

FIGURE 6. 15 P&ID on washing column WSH-103 and PM-108

TABLE 6. 14 Description on washing column WSH-103 and PM-108 P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variable

To measure the level

of medium inside
washing column and
LT04 - - -
convert into electrical
signal to be
transmitted to LC04

10% to the
To receive electrical LC04 will generate
height
signals from LT04 Level of medium electrical signals depending
above the
LC04 and control the inside flash on the level of medium. If
bottom
opening of the water column level is too low, the
tangent
inlet valve. opening of the valve will be
point and

425
 increased to promote inlet 10% below
flow and vice versa the top
tangent
point at
vessel

To measure flow rate

of liquid flow from
the washing column
FT04 - - -
(S-125) and electrical
signal is transmitted
to FC04

To receive electrical FC04 will moderate the

Flowrate of water
signals from FT04 pump output to ensure
FC04 from stream S- -
and control working materials are able to reach
125
output of the pump. the next process

426
 6.6.12 Ring opening reactor, EG, BF3 storage tank and heater

FIGURE 6. 16 P&ID on Ring-opening reactor, HX-103, Ethylene Glycol and 𝐁𝐅𝟑

storage tank

TABLE 6. 15 Description on Ring-opening reactor, HX-103, Ethylene Glycol and 𝐁𝐅𝟑

storage tank P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variables

To measure the level of

reactants inside Ring-
LT05 - - -
Opening reactor and
convert into electrical

427
 signal to be detected by
LT04

10% to the height

Level of LC06 will generate
above the bottom
To receive electrical reactants electrical signal to cut off
tangent point and
LC05 signal from LT04 and inside Ring- supply into reactor if
10% below the top
control opening of valve Opening level is too high to stop
tangent point at
reactor inlet flow and vice versa.
vessel
To measure composition
of inlet stream by
controlling main
AT03 reactant, ethylene glycol - -
stream and conversion
into electrical signal
readable by AC03

Composition Any deviations in

To receive electrical
of stream composition, AC will
signal from AT03 and
AC03 entering to send an electrical signal 17%(wt/wt) EG,
control pumping of
ring-opening to cut the supply of
ethylene glycol
reactor ethylene glycol.

To measure flowrate of
liquid flow from BF3
FT05 etherate storage vessel - - -
into electrical signal to
be detected by FT05

To receive electrical FC05 will moderate the

Flowrate of
signal from FT05 and pump output to ensure
FC05 liquid from -
control working output constant supply when the
stream S-131
of pump process is taking place

428
6.6.13 Washing column

FIGURE 6. 17 P&ID on Washing column WSH-101

TABLE 6. 16 Description on WSH-101 P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variables
To measure the
level of medium
inside flash
column and
LT06 - - -
convert into
electrical signal
to be detected by
LT05

429
 To receive
electrical signal LC05 will generate 10% to the height
Level of
from LT05 and electrical signals to cut above the bottom
medium
LC06 control opening off supply into the tangent point and 10%
inside flash
of valve reactor if level is too below the top tangent
column
controlling water high to stop inlet flow. point at vessel
storage vessel

6.6.14 Flash column

FIGURE 6. 18 P&ID on Flash column

TABLE 6. 17 Description on flash column P&ID

Process
Instrument Function Control Action Set Point
Variables
To measure the
pressure of stream
S-150 to ensure
PT01 - - -
the stream is well
pressurized and
compressed

430
 adequately before
entering flash
column and
generate electrical
signal to be
detected by PC01
PC01 will generate
electrical signal to regulate
To receive
pumping work to ensure the
electrical signal
Pressure of pressure is compressed
PC01 from PT01 and to 7 bar
stream S-150 adequately. If pressure is
moderate pumping
not met, motor will
work
continue to compress the
stream
To measure the
pressure of stream
S-148 and
PT02 - - -
generate electrical
signal to be
detected by PC02
PC02 will generate
To receive
electrical signal to control
electrical signal
pressure of flash column as
from PT02 and to
Pressure of well as preventing
PC02 control opening of 2 bar
stream S-148 explosion of equipment. If
control valve to
pressure is too high, valve
regulate flash
will be opened to purge
column pressure
excessive pressure
To measure flow
rate of liquid flow
FT07 from flash column - - --
and convert into
electrical signal to

431
 be detected by
FT06

To receive
electrical signal Flow Rate of FC06 will reduce the pump
FC07 from FT06 and liquid from output if the flow is too 2 bar
control working stream S-154 high.
output of pump
To measure level
of liquid within
flash column and
LT07 convert into - - --
electrical signal to
be detected by
LT06
To receive The valve will be opened
electrical signal Liquid level wider if the liquid level is
Midpoint of
LC07 from LT06 and inside flash too high and vice versa to
column height
control opening of column maintain vapor pressure
valve inside column

432
 6.6.15 Plate heat exchanger

FIGURE 6. 19 P&ID for HX-105

TABLE 6. 18 Description for HX-105 P&ID

Set
Instrument Function Process Variables Control Action
Point
To measure the
temperature of hot
output stream from
TT04 heat exchanger and - - -
convert into
electrical signal to be
detected by TC04
TC04 will send a signal to
To receive electrical
regulate flow of hot
signal from TT04
Temperature of stream S-107. If the
TC04 and control flow rate 45°C
process stream S-107 temperature is too high,
of cold incoming
flow of cold input stream
stream
can be increased.

433
 6.6.16 Foam forming reactor and pumps

FIGURE 6. 20 P&ID for HX-104, Ethylene Glycol, Isocyanate, Ethylene diamine

storage tank and foam forming reactor

TABLE 6. 19 Description for HX-104, Ethylene Glycol, Isocyanate, Ethylene diamine

storage tank and foam forming reactor P&ID

Instrument Function Process Variables Control Action Set Point

To measure the
temperature of
output stream S-151
TT05 - - -
and convert into
electrical signal to be
detected by TC05
TC05 will send signals to
To receive electrical regulate flow rate of
signal from TT05 Temperature of stream. If the temperature
TC05 40°C
and control flow of process stream S-151 is still too high, more
outgoing stream cooling water will be used
to lower the temperature

434
 To measure the
composition inside
Foam forming
AT04 - - -
reactor and generate
electrical signal to be
received by AC04
To receive electrical
AT04 will relay the signal 50%(wt/
signal from AT04 Composition of
to pump to moderate wt)
AC04 and regulate flow of reactants inside
existing composition to Isocyan
Ethylene Glycol reactor
reduce material wastage ate
(main composition)
To measure flowrate
of liquid flow from
isocyanate storage
FT08 - - -
vessel into electrical
signal to be detected
by FT08

To receive electrical FC08 will moderate the

signal from FT08 Flowrate of liquid pump output to ensure
FC08 -
and control working from stream S-159 constant supply when the
output of pump process is taking place

To measure flowrate
of liquid flow from
EDTA storage vessel
FT09 - - -
into electrical signal
to be detected by
FT09

To receive electrical FC09 will moderate the

signal from FT09 Flowrate of liquid pump output to ensure
FC09 -
and control working from stream S-160 constant supply when the
output of pump process is taking place

435
6.7 Piping Systems Design

6.7.1 Piping System Design

A pipe can be defined as a tube made of metal, plastic, wood, concrete or fiberglass.
Pipes are used to carry liquids, gases, slurries, or fine particles. A piping system is generally
considered to include the complete interconnection of pipes, including in-line components such
as pipe fittings and flanges. Pumps, heat exchanges, valves and tanks are also considered part
of piping system. Piping systems are the arteries of our industrial processes and the contribution
of piping systems are essential in an industrialized society. The piping system plays a major
part of most of the chemical process industries. In these industries, the pipes are used to convey
fluids from one place to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the
efficient transport of fluid and the piping systems are documented in piping and instrumentation
diagrams (P&ID). Besides selecting the right piping material, pipe diameter is also an important
aspect in designing the piping system. Suitable pipe diameter for every single stream needs to
be determined to ensure optimum and safe plant operations. Optimum diameter of pipe can be
estimated based on type of fluid flowing inside the pipe, flow rate, and operating material
qualities. Normally, the size of all pipes is identified by nominal pipe size rather than the
calculated true optimum diameter of the pipe. Carbon steel is chosen as the fabrication material
for the pipes due to its nature of good resistance on chemical materials, ease of fabrication, and
economic benefits. Schedule 40S pipe is commonly used for general purposes. The pipe size
is chosen based on the American Standard ASME and British Standard 1600.

6.7.2 Piping System Design for Liquid Flow

For stainless steel pipes, the following equation can be used to estimate the economic pipe
diameter by using the equation below:

Equation (6. 1):

Doptimum = 0.366G0.53 μ0.03 ρ−0.37

436
Where :
Doptimum = Optimum diameter, m
G = Flow rate, kg/s
ρ = Density, kg/m3
μ = Viscosity, Ns/m2

Due to the exponent of the viscosity term is small, its value will change very little over a
wide range of viscosity, for example:

μ = 10−5 Nm−2 s(0.01cp), μ0.03 = 0.71

μ = 10−5 Nm−2 s(10cp), μ0.03 = 0.88

Assuming the viscosity is the mean value which is 0.8, Equation (6.1) can be simplified into
the equation below for calculation of optimum diameter.

Equation (6. 2):

Doptimum = 0.293G0.53 ρ−0.37

FIGURE 6. 21 Dimensions of piping

437
 TABLE 6. 20 The result of the optimum pipe diameter for every liquid stream

[Data of nominal diameter standards were extracted from Piping Dimensions Chart of Tioga Pipe, Inc]

Stainless
G, G, Outer Wall Inner
Density,ρ Doptimu Doptimu Dnominal Material steel
Stream flowrate flowrat Diamete thicknes Diameter
(kg/m3) m (m) m (mm) (mm) selection schedule
(kg/hr) e (kg/s) r (mm) s (mm) (mm)
number

S101 1500 0.417 925.097 0.015 14.719 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S102 1500 0.417 925.097 0.015 14.719 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S103 975 0.271 1258.078 0.010 10.455 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S104 975 0.271 1258.078 0.010 10.455 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S105 30 0.008 1913.387 0.001 1.415 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S106 30 0.008 1913.387 0.001 1.415 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S107 2505 0.696 1030.943 0.019 18.557 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S108 2505 0.696 949.263 0.019 19.132 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S109 2410.289 0.670 982.533 0.019 18.508 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S110 30.115 0.008 1.492 0.020 20.021 25 33.4 SS 40S 3.38 26.64

438
S112 200 0.056 994.703 0.005 4.925 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S115 2505 0.696 1020.791 0.019 18.625 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S116 500 0.139 1328.191 0.007 7.192 8 13.7 SS 40S 2.24 9.22

S117 2198.488 0.611 1016.721 0.017 17.406 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S118 332.242 0.092 1935.071 0.005 5.039 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S119 333.242 0.093 1940.895 0.005 5.041 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S120 2326.009 0.646 998.508 0.018 18.054 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S121 25.109 0.007 2216.934 0.001 1.219 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S122 25.109 0.007 2216.934 0.001 1.219 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S123 2338.305 0.650 997.364 0.018 18.112 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S124 100 0.028 994.708 0.003 3.411 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S125 1824.298 0.507 990.502 0.016 15.920 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S126 1698.488 0.472 986.909 0.015 15.349 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S127 1824.298 0.507 981.669 0.016 15.973 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S128 400 0.111 1110.189 0.007 6.828 8 13.7 SS 40S 2.24 9.22

439
S129 400 0.111 1110.189 0.007 6.828 8 13.7 SS 40S 2.24 9.22

S130 100 0.028 994.708 0.003 3.411 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S131 100 0.028 994.708 0.003 3.411 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S132 2324.298 0.646 985.568 0.018 18.134 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S133 100 0.028 994.708 0.003 3.411 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S134 2194.342 0.610 984.321 0.018 17.598 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S135 2172.433 0.603 937.895 0.018 17.820 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S137 920 0.256 1110.189 0.011 10.618 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S138 3900 1.083 994.704 0.024 23.776 25 33.4 SS 40S 3.38 26.64

S139 880 0.244 994.704 0.011 10.801 15 21.3 SS 40S 2.77 15.76

S140 7872.433 2.187 995.129 0.034 34.494 40 48.3 SS 40S 3.68 40.94

S143 500 0.139 1328.191 0.007 7.192 8 13.7 SS 40S 2.24 9.22

S146 614.007 0.171 1021.209 0.009 8.839 10 17.1 SS 40S 2.31 12.48

S147 229.956 0.064 1008.367 0.005 5.277 6 10.3 SS 40S 1.73 6.84

S149 94.711 0.026 0.493 0.055 55.358 65 73 SS 40S 5.16 62.68

440
S150 2194.342 0.610 984.032 0.018 17.600 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S151 2172.433 0.603 989.016 0.017 17.474 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S152 2505 0.696 1013.102 0.019 18.677 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S153 1697.488 0.472 981.071 0.015 15.378 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S154 1698.488 0.472 988.536 0.015 15.340 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S155 2172.433 0.603 992.653 0.017 17.450 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S156 1824.298 0.507 990.382 0.016 15.921 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

S157 1824.298 0.507 989.111 0.016 15.928 20 26.7 SS 40S 2.87 20.96

441
6.7.3 Piping System Design for Vapor Flow

For long size pipe, the vapour velocity is near with the sonic velocity or velocity of sound
(Crowl & Louvar 2002). The velocity of sound is determined using the thermodynamic
relationship as Equation (6.3).

Equation (6.3):

1
δP 2
a = [g c ( ) ]
δp s

Assuming an ideal gas, Equation (6.3) is equivalent to Equation (6.4).

Equation (6.4):

1
γg c R g T 2
a=[ ]
M

Where γ = 1.67 for monoatomic gas, 1.40 for diatomic gas and 1.32 for triatomic gas
gc = 32.174 [Link]/[Link]
Rg = 1545 [Link]/lbmol.°R
T = 1.8(T°C + 273.15), °R
M = Molecular weight, lbm/lbmol

Given the flow rate of gas (kg/s) as expressed in Equation 6.5:

442
Equation (6.5):

Qm = ρaA

Where,
ρ = Density of fluid, kg/m3
a = Sonic velocity, m/s
A = Cross sectional area of pipe, m2

Therefore, the diameter of pipe, D can be calculated from the Equation (6.6).

Equation (6.6):

4A
D = √( )
π

Using Equation 6.4 to 6.6, the diameter of pipe for vapor stream can be determined. The
diameter is then compared to the standards based on ASME/ANSI B16.5 Flanges Class 150-
Welding neck as tabulated in Table 5.13 to determine the nominal pipe dimensions. Table
5.12 shows the result obtained.

443
 TABLE 6. 21 Vapour flow pipe sizing

MW Mass Mass
Temperature Temperature ρ Velocity Velocity Area Diameter Diameter
Stream (lb/lb flow flow
(°R) (°C) (kg/m3) (ft/s) (m/s) (m2) (m) (inch)
mol) (kg/h) (kg/s)

S144 553.86 34.55 36.10 204.721 0.057 1.430 1003.345 305.820 0.00013 0.013 0.512

S145 556.15 35.82 42.93 12.813 0.004 1.693 921.975 281.018 7.5 x 10-6 0.003 0.118

S148 815.67 180.00 21.01 21.909 0.006 0.565 1596.055 486.478 2.2 x 10-5 0.005 0.197

444
 TABLE 6. 22 Commercial pipe data based on ASME/ANSI B16.5 Flanges Class 150-Welding neck

[Data of nominal diameter standards were extracted from Piping Dimensions Chart of Tioga Pipe, Inc]

Wall
Dnominal
Stream Dout (inch) Schedule No. thickness Din (inch) Material
(inch)
(inch)

S144 0.750 1.050 40S 0.113 0.824 SS

S145 0.125 0.405 40S 0.068 0.269 SS

S148 0.250 0.540 40S 0.088 0.364 SS

445
6.7.4 Piping System Design for Mixture Flow

Lines transporting gas and liquid in two-phase flow should be sized primarily on the basis of
flow velocity. Flow velocity should be kept at least below fluid erosional velocity. The
velocity above which erosion may occur can be determined by the following Empirical
Equation (6.7).

Equation (6.7):

c
Ve =
√ρm

Where
Ve = Fluid erosional velocity, ft/s
C = Empirical constant
= 125 for non-continuous service
= 100 for continuous service
ρm = Gas/liquid mixture density at operating pressure and temperature, lbm/ft3

Once Ve is known, the minimum cross-sectional area required to avoid fluid erosion may be
determined from the following derived Equation (6.8).

Equation (6.8):

ZRT
9.35G + ( )
A= 21.25P
Ve

Where,
A = Minimum pipe cross-sectional flow area required, ft2
G = Mixture flow rate, lbm/s

446
Z = Gas compressibility factor
R = Gas/liquid ratio, m3(gas)/m3(liquid)
T = Operating temperature, °R
P = Operating pressure, psia

Assume that c = 100 for continuous service.

Table 6.14 shows the result of pipeline for mixture flow and the standard commercial
pipeline size is tabulated in Table 6.15.

447
 TABLE 6. 23 Mixture flow pipe sizing

Mixture
Mass Fluid R,
G flow rate, T P A D D D
Stream Density erosional Z m3(gas)/
G (lbm/s)
(kg/s) (°R) (psia) (ft2) (ft) (mm) (in)
(lbm/ft3) velocity, Ve m3(liq)

S111 4.477 47.261 0.678 1.494 1 12.963 839.92 14.696 10.492 3.582 1091.794 41.984

S113 14.023 26.704 0.472 1.040 1 3.159 839.92 14.696 5.227 2.580 786.255 30.955

S114 28.266 18.809 0.472 1.040 1 1.063 840.68 43.704 2.842 1.902 579.792 22.826

S136 11.247 29.818 0.603 1.329 1 4.227 816.11 29.196 7.652 3.121 951.337 37.454

S142 22.497 21.083 0.262 0.578 1 2.356 536.67 14.696 1.888 1.550 472.489 18.602

448
 TABLE 6. 24 Standard commercial pipeline size

Nominal Outside Wall Inner

Stream pipe size diameter Schedule no thickness diameter Material

(in) (mm) (mm) (mm)

S111 42 1067 XS 12.70 1041.60 SS

S113 32 864 STD 9.53 742.94 SS

S114 24 610 40S 9.53 590.94 SS

S136 42 1067 XS 12.70 1041.60 SS

S142 20 508 40S 9.53 488.94 SS

449
6.7.5 Pipe Supports

Pipe is held either from above by hangers or supports of various types on which it rests.
Hangers are also referred to as supports. There are a number of typical pipes supports that can
be installed to support dead weight loads, and restrain the pipe for thermal and dynamic loads.
The designs are only limited by the imagination of the engineer and designer, as literally
thousands of different designs have been used for special purposes. Pipe is rested on or secured
to a support member usually of a standard structural shape. The pipe may be secured to this
member with a pipe support. Pipe supports and hangers are devices which transfer the loads
from the pipe or the structural attachment to the supporting structure or equipment. They
include rod hangers, spring hangers, sway braces, turnbuckles, struts, anchors, saddles, rollers,
brackets, and sliding supports. Structural attachments are elements that are welded, bolted, or
clamped to the pipe, such as clips, lugs, clamps, clevises, and stops. The correct and economical
selection of the supports for any piping system usually presents difficulties of varying degrees,
some relatively minor and others of a more critical nature. Proper support selection should be
the objective of all phases of design and construction.

[Link] Pipe Supports Locations

Support locations are dependent on many considerations, such as pipe size, piping
configuration, the location of heavy Valves and fittings, and the structure that is available for
support. Following rules of thumb will help when doing the flexibility analysis and operation
and maintenance:

• As much as possible, attach supports to straight pipe rather than elbows, other fittings,
Valves, flanges or instruments, but provide supports near instruments, and other
devices that are likely to be removed for maintenance.
• Provide space for adding loops to piping near load sensitive equipment, e.g. in pump
suction lines.
• Consider the need to add friction reducing slides between the piping and support steel.

450
 • Support piping such that spools to be removed for equipment maintenance can be
removed without adding temporary supports.
• Minimize the use of spring hangers.

[Link] Types of Pipe Supports

• Anchors

A rigid support that restricts movement in all three orthogonal directions and all three rotational
directions. This usually is a welded stanchion that is welded or bolted to steel or concrete.

• Leg-type

A dummy leg is an extension piece welded to an elbow in order to support a pipe line, and rests
or anchors on some steel member.

• Hanger Rods

A vertical pipe support that incorporates a rod. It may be a rigid, variable spring or constant
support hanger. The rod hanger provides support in the vertical direction and allows limited
motion in the horizontal direction. Adjustment in the vertical direction can be accomplished by
threads or a turnbuckle.

[Link] Pipe Supports Standards

The code ASME B 31.3 specifies under clause 321.1.1 the about and design of piping and its
supporting elements shall be directed toward preventing the following:

• Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the Code

• Leakage at joints
• Excessive thrusts and moments on connected equipment (such as pumps and turbines)
• Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements
• Resonance with imposed or fluid-induced vibrations

451
 • Excessive interference with thermal expansion and contraction in piping which is
otherwise adequately flexible
• Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports
• Excessive piping sag in piping requiring drainage slope
• Excessive distortion or sag of piping subject to creep under conditions of repeated
thermal cycling
• Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes outside
their design limits

6.7.6 Pipe Fittings

A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe sections, adapt to different
sizes or shapes and for other purposes, such as regulating (or measuring) fluid flow. Pipe
Fittings (especially uncommon types) require money, time, materials and tools to install, and
are an important part of piping and plumbing systems. Valves are technically fittings, but are
usually discussed separately. The purposes of the fittings, shown in Figure X may be generally
stated as follows:

• Elbows – for making angle turns in piping.

• Nipples – for making close connections. They are threaded on both ends with the
close nipple threaded for its entire length.
• Couplings – for connecting two pieces of pipe of the same size in a straight line.
• Unions – for providing an easy method for dismantling piping.
• Tees and Crosses – for making branch line connections at 90º.
• Y-bends – for making branch line connections at 45º.
• Return Bends – for reversing direction of a pipe run.
• Plugs and Caps – for closing off open pipe ends or fittings.
• Bushings – for connecting pipes of different sizes. The male end fits into a coupling
and the smaller pipe is then screwed into the female end. The smaller connection may
be tapped eccentrically to permit free drainage of water.

452
 • Reducers – for reducing pipe size. Has two female connections into which the
different sized pipes fit. May also be made with one connection eccentric for free
drainage of water.

FIGURE 6. 22 Types of pipe fittings

6.7.7 Pipe Stressing

Pipe stress analysis is an analytical method to determine how a piping system behaves
based on its material, pressure, temperature, fluid, and support. Pipe stress analysis is not an
accurate depiction of the piping behaviour, but it is a good approximation. The analytical
method can be by inspection, simple to complex hand calculations, or a computer model. The
computer models can vary from 1-D beam elements to complex, finite element models. For
instance, if it is a liquid flow system with no outside forces applied to the piping system,
inspection or hand calculations are usually sufficient. If it is a high-pressure, high-temperature,
hazardous-fluids system, or large outside forces are applied to the piping system, a computer-
aided model may be required. Understanding pipe stress analysis software does not make for a
solid foundation of pipe stress analysis. It is important to understand the various types of pipe
stresses, the process, and other items related to pipe stress analysis for best practices in
performing a pipe stress analysis. There are many piping codes and standards that could be
used during a pipe stress analysis for process chemical and location. However, to keep things
simple, this discussion is based on American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) B31.1
Power Piping. The physics of pipe stress analysis does not change with piping code.

453
6.8 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM (P&ID)

FIGURE 6. 23 Complete P&ID part A

454
 From Boiler

From
Stream 127

Water
163 ˚C
3 bar LI
04
To safe
location
M
127 V1016 HCl 110
R500 1 161
pHC LC
TC 01 V1004
LT 02
01 LC 01
01
FC
03
FI TI FI LT
06 03 TT
01 215.5 ˚C 07 02
From
V1002
1 bar
pHT
01 FI M FT
08 03
Stream 114 115 108 109
39.5˚C 48˚C 150 ˚C To Stream 126
3 bar 3 bar 3 bar C2004 193.5 ˚C
V1003 C2005 194 ˚C
HX-106 1 bar
Heater 3 bar
D3005 C2006 193.5 ˚C
HX-101 D3006
TC
03 Neutralisation Washing 1 bar
D3007
tank 1 Column
11
FI

TT Transesterification Wastewater
03 Reactor Treatment
150 ˚C
06
TI

3 bar

60 ˚C
3 bar LI LI LI
06 07
05
136
M M
Performic 116 NaCl 118
NaHCO3

14
FI
12
FI

acid Water
AC
02 121
To safe 119

18
143

FI
location
124
25˚C pHC
25˚C
3 bar 3 bar
02 M FC
V1007 LC 04

16
FI
LC C2007 pHC 04
AC
LT 03
03 122 03

C2009
LT
M FT
AT 04 36˚C
02 FI TI FI TI FI TI 04 FI 1 bar
13 07 pHT 15 08 pHT 17 09 19
02 03 152 To Stream 152
117 120 123 125
34 ˚C C2008 36 ˚C
V1006 34 ˚C C2010 C2011 C2012
3 bar 1 bar
1 bar
D3008 pH 7 D3010
Neutralisation Neutralisation D3009 V1008
tank 2 tank 3 Washing
Wastewater
Epoxidation Column treatment
reactor

FIGURE 6. 24 Complete P&ID part B

455
 To Stream 154
180 ˚C
To HX-101
2 bar

To Stream 127
163 ˚C

PI
03
3 bar FI TI
20 10 Water

10
FI

21
154

TI
152 To safe
To safe location PC

05
TI
36˚C location 02
1 bar PT 26
FI TI 133 02 FI

28
194 ˚C

FI
09 04 R5003
3 bar
V1005 R5002
148
LT TI

15
Gas

TI
127 12 V1012
05 LC R5004
V1010 PC
06 01 Emission
HX-102
LC
TC 05 FI
02 FI TI 24 52.86 ˚C PI PT
60 ˚C 21 11 FI
TT 3 bar
M4004 3 bar LT
06
M 01 01 25
02
153 132 Flash FT
V1009 150 07
C2013 134 TI
column LT
From LI 53.66 ˚C 13 07 FC
Stream 126 08 7 bar 07
M AC AT D3011 D3012 Washing
03 03
Column
LC
Ethylene
Ring-Opening
D3013
07 M

14
129

TI
Glycol 135 FI
128 V1013 27
reactor Wastewater FT 180 ˚C
22
FI

treatment 06 1 bar
To safe location R5003 FD V1011
01

M4003 PI LI D3014
FC R5004 02 10 LY
05 01
LI
09 FC
06
M FT Water tube Feedwater
23
FI

05
Boron boiler V1015
From Trifluoride LC
131 08
Stream 152 Etherate 130

Drain
V1014

D3016

FIGURE 6. 25 Complete P&ID part C

456
 AC
LI M 04
11
FI
30
To safe location
Ethylene
Glycol 158
TC 137 TI
05 C2016 18
AT R5005
TT TI M4006 04
05 17 40 ˚C
1 bar
155 151 140 Rigid Foam

C2019
FC
Cooler 08 Conveyer
LI
12
FI
D3015 Foam forming reactor
FT
M 08 31

Isocynate 159 M4005

138
C2017

45 ˚C FC
2 bar 09
LI
13
FT FI
M 09 32

From Ethylene
Stream 155 160
Diamine
139
C2018

FIGURE 6. 26 Complete P&ID part D

457
6.9 Conclusion

To summarize this chapter, five types of controls were used, namely temperature,
pressure, composition, pH and level transducer and controllers. Closed loop back-end control
system is chosen over the other due to its lower cost, simpler operations, and lower complexity
during designing phase. In the final count, there are 4 composition controllers, 9 flow
controllers, 5 temperature controllers, 7 level controllers and 2 pressure controllers. Three-way
vales were used to combine incoming streams from different source and two way valves were
used to limit and cut supply of streams. Check valves were used to prevent backflow of
materials, avoiding contamination of raw materials. Drain valves were used for sampling of
materials and ensure pipelines were drained during shutdown and maintenance work. Pressure
relief valves were installed in closed and pressurized reactors to prevent explosion of
equipment.

458
 CHAPTER VII

PROCESS OPERATION & SAFETY

7.1 Introduction

Nowadays, people are living in a society with high respect for human life and well-
being. A complex chemical plant process requires advanced safety technology. Hence, process
safety is essential for ensuring secure process and activity throughout the life of a plant. Process
safety is a structured mechanism for maintaining the integrity of operating systems. An
effective safety management system is a critical part of any chemical plant to achieve efficient
production of the plant and reduce the accidents that occur in the work environment, resulting
in lower accident-related costs. The safety of the workers can be ensured by recognizing all the
potential hazards and incident scenarios. Industries minimize the potential risks using loss
prevention techniques such as inherent safety concepts in design and better control in
technological advances. In memories, there are few major industrial disasters that happen in a
process plant that cause serious problems to individuals, society and the environment. This has
been all too clearly pictured by Bhopal in India that nearly killed 2500 people and injured more
than 20,000 people due to the toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) vapor release from the pressure
relief system. To prevent accidents from happening again, the Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA)1994 has been implemented to the process safety management. The purpose of
OSHA 1994 is to promote and encourage occupational safety and health awareness among
workers and to create organization along with effective safety and health measures. The scope
of this legislation covers all economic activities and government except armed forces and
seafarers. The principle is to protect the workers against risks in connection with activities at
work. The objectives of OSHA 1994 are:

● To secure the safety, health and welfare of persons at work against hazards and risks
arising out of the activities of persons at work.

459
 ● To protect persons at a place of work, other than persons at work, against risks arising
out of the activities of persons at work.

● To promote an occupational environment for persons at work which is adapted to their

physiological and psychological needs.

● To provide the means whereby the associated occupational safety and health legislation
may be progressively replaced by a system of regulations and approved industry codes
of practice operating in combination with the provisions of this Act designed to
maintain or improve the standards of safety and health.

Apart from OSHA 1994 legislations, The Health and Safety at Work Act (HASAW),
1974 is also another piece of health and safety legislation which provides a new administrative
framework to improve and encourage even higher standards of health and safety at work.
HASAW aims to protect people from the risk of injury or ill health and regulates health, safety
and welfare of the workplace. It also aims to promote safety awareness and effective safety
organization duties by controlling the keeping and use of explosive or highly flammable or
dangerous substances. On top of that, inspection should be done regularly and scheduled safety
training should be implemented in the plant.

7.2 Potential Hazard

7.2.1 Hazards of Raw Material

The main feed used in production of polyurethane is palm olein. The palm olein is
obtained with crystallization and separation processes of palm oil. This palm olein is not
classified as hazardous substances. However, there are some potential hazards that might harm
people from palm olein, including risk of inhalation and ingestion, skin contact and eye contact.
Palm olein is unlikely to cause adverse effects from inhalation but ingesting large amounts of
it will irritate the gastric tract that induces nausea and vomit. In addition, skin contact with
palm olein can cause mild skin irritation while eye contact can cause redness, itching, and eye

460
tearing. Apart from that, palm olein will burn if involved in a fire or ignition sources and it will
release carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and smoke. But, palm olein in general is not
considered to be a major fire risk. Some of the particular danger can occur during
transportation, for example when exposed to sunlight or heat the closed tank container may
build up pressure. The solution to the problem is to cool down the closed tank container with
water spray. On the other hand, spillage of palm olein may cause slipping hazards. The spillage
should clean up with hot water and detergent then contain the spilled material into a disposal
container. Lastly, the palm olein should keep in a closed container when not in use and store in
a cool, dry and well-ventilated area. (Sucrogen, 2011.)

In addition to main feed, potential hazards also exist with the other raw material. One
of the raw materials that is used in this production plant is ethylene glycol. These chemicals
are considered dangerous and can cause organ damage through prolonged or repeated exposure.
It is harmful if swallowed and will cause drowsiness or dizziness. Thermal decomposition of
ethylene glycol can lead to release of irritating gases and vapors. Therefore, keep the product
and empty container away from heat and sources of ignition. ([Link], 2020.) Next, the
light yellow boron trifluoride etherate is a hazardous, water reactive and flammable liquid. The
vapors may form explosive mixtures with air. The vapors may travel to the source of ignition
and flash back and may explode when heated. Thermal decomposition can lead to release of
irritating gases and vapors. This is harmful and can cause serious skin burns and damage to the
eyes if the chemical comes in contact with it. A self-contained breathing apparatus and
protective suit must be worn when handling the chemical. ([Link], 2020.) Besides that,
ethylenediamine is another raw material that is used in the production plant which is a toxic
and flammable viscous liquid. The condition to avoid for this chemical is excess heat, open
flames, hot surfaces and sources of ignition. When handling the chemical, appropriate
protective eyeglasses or chemical safety goggles must be worn for eye protection. Keep the
containers tightly closed in a dry, cool and well-ventilated place. Other than that, MDI and TDI
isocyanate is classified as a hazardous chemical that can irritate the eyes, respiratory system
and skin if contact. Inhalation of this chemical at level above the occupational exposure limit
could cause respiratory sensitization which can cause serious damage to the respiratory system.
It will also react with water to produce carbon dioxide, which may rupture closed containers.

461
 Furthermore, glycerol is may have potential health effects which cause eye irritation,
skin irritation. If there is someone who in contact with the glycerol by accident, they should
flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower
eyelids. If it is any serious irritation develops, get medical aid. Besides, if ingest with a large
amount may cause gastrointestinal irritation and cause a headache. If the person is conscious
and alert after the ingestion, make sure to rinse their mouth and drink 2-4 cupful of milk or
water to make sure they are full awake.

Next, performic acid is a colorless liquid which is unstable and it is widely used in
epoxidation and hydroxylation reaction. Besides, it does miscible with H2O, alcohol, ether
soluble benzene and chloroform. It is nontoxic but it is a skin and eye irritant. Performic acid
is active oxygen content (25.8%) is greater than that of other peroxy compounds. It is therefore
expected to undergo extremely violent decomposition. However, in practice, this compound
forms only in situ and the commercial formulations contain its aqueous or dilute solutions in
organic solvents. Thus, it can react violently with formaldehyde, benzaldehyde, aniline,
powdered aluminum and lead dioxide. Hence, the water from a sprinkler system may be used
from an explosion-resistant location to fight fire and keep the containers cool.

In addition, hydrochloric acid is miscible with water which is stable under normal
conditions. It is preferable to store in a cool, dry, ventilated area away from incompatible
materials which store in the original container. Make sure the containers are tightly closed and
upright. Also, keep the acid away from food and drink. The routes of exposure of hydrochloric
acid can be happening though inhalation, ingestion, skin contact and eye contact as which will
causing damage to mucous membranes in nose, throat, lungs and bronchial system, severe
burns if in contact with skin contact, cause eye damage if accidentally contact with eyes. If
there are any cases happening from the mentioning above, the person who in contact with the
acid should be flushing their eyes with water immediately or change their contaminated
clothing which attached with the acid. They should consult the medical consultation
immediately to prevent it becomes severe. Moreover, it is a hazardous acid as it contains
hydrogen chloride and chlorine which is easily decompose upon heating to produce corrosive
and toxic fumes. Thus, if there are any toxic fumes or fire release in the workplace, the workers

462
should be wearing protective equipment which having full protective gear to prevent them from
inhaling too much of toxic gases.

7.2.2 Hazards of Product

Rigid polyurethane foam is the main product that is formed by reacting isocyanates and
polyols. Polyurethane foam is highly flammable and quickly catches fire when exposed to heat,
flames and any ignition sources. When fire occurs, it can be extinguished by using water spray,
fog or mist. Apart from that, fumes emitted by polyurethane is toxic by inhalation, and can
irritate the eyes, respiratory system, and skin, causing significant health damage. High
concentrations of these chemical vapor can irritate the respiratory system and cause headache,
tiredness, nausea and vomiting. Polyurethane is stable under normal temperature conditions
but when exposed to high temperatures, it will generate toxic gases of carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The products should be stored in tightly
closed original containers at a dry, cool and well-ventilated place. A person with impaired lung
functions and susceptible to allergic reactions should not handle the storage preparation.
(Electrolube, 2011.)

7.2.3 Process Hazards

The design and production of chemical processes is very dangerous, which is why it is
necessary to assess the process hazard in any company that works in the chemical industry.
The process hazards focus on how to handle the hazards that are inherent in the final design.
Both workers and operators need to be careful on any changes in process hazards such as
unusual conditions, or unexpected emissions while working. In the case of unintentional
releases of chemicals, fires and explosions during the course of chemical processes, proper
safety hazard analysis will help minimize injuries and damage to the facility and environment.
One of the process hazards is overpressure that can occur when mass, moles, or energy
accumulates in a confined volume or space with minimal outflow, which can be incredibly
dangerous. If a pressure safety valve does not release pressure, a vessel can burst or explode
leading to a loss of containment. All pressure vessels should be fitted with the pressure relief

463
valves and rupture disks. Chemical plant fires can damage control systems and equipment
rapidly, causing overpressure, containment failure and explosions. In addition to protecting
costly equipment, there is a risk to the health and lives of workers, local residents and the
community when a fire occurs. Thus, it is necessary to follow the government's guidelines for
fire safety and legal requirements. Additionally, containment loss can occur due to pressure
relief, operator error, poor maintenance procedures, such as failure to properly drain and purge,
or damaged equipment leaks. If hazardous materials cannot be disposed of, they should be
contained in a vessel with mechanical integrity above any temperature or pressure excursion
reasonably anticipated. Lastly, noise is also considered a process hazard which can cause
permanent damage to hearing. The equipment such as compressors, generators, motors, and
pumps can be very noisy, both within the plant and in the neighborhood. (Turton R, et al.,
2012.)

7.3 Safety and Health Committee

Safety and health committees are formal consultative groups on safety and health which
provide a designated forum for discussion on safety and health issues at work. They are
important because they make it easier for managers, management and staff to collaborate and
cooperate in the development and implementation of safety and health measures and
monitoring programs. The benefit of safety and health committees is that they bring
management and worker members together in a prepared, organized and focused way,
providing a means for implementation of policies and procedures to the whole organization. It
helps to develop skills and knowledge of all the workers in the plant thus the committee can
play an effective role in the workplace safety and health system. An effective committee can
help prevent injury and illness occurring on the job, increase awareness of health and safety
issues among workers, supervisors, and managers. The importance of safety and health
committees is to develop strategies to make the work environment safe and healthy for the
workers and management. In the chemical plant, the committee is established to investigate
accidents, including their root causes. Committee should establish procedures for reviewing
reports of all safety incidents, including accidents, illnesses and deaths. An appropriate
corrective action should be taken based on the review of accident/incident reports. The

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following is a list of possible roles of a health and safety committee on hazards identification,
evaluation and control.

● Study data related to accidents, incident reports and workers' compensation records.
● Conduct routine walk-around inspections to identify possible risks to health and safety.
● Perform occupational safety and health analysis to identify issues.
● Collect and review Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs).
● Propose and evaluate multiple ways of improving the health and safety conditions.
● Review and evaluate corrective actions taken by management.
● Immediately “shut down” unsafe operations until the hazard is corrected
● Collect and review information prior to implementation on new chemicals, methods,
and processes.
● Establish or develop procedures for employees to report safety hazards and recommend
changes without fear of reprisal.
● Review issues and reports from safety officers and submit reports to safety officers.

7.4 Process Safety

Process Safety is known as a disciplined framework which helps to manage the integrity
of operating systems and processes handling hazardous substances by applying good design
principles, engineering, and operating practices. Besides, it deals with the prevention and
control of incidents that have the potential to release hazardous materials or energy. Incidents
can cause toxic effects, fire, or explosion and could ultimately result in serious injuries,
property damage, lost production, and environmental impact.

The following listed up some basic knowledge to handle the hazards or any emergencies
happening:

1. Familiarize with sound of the emergency alarm and other emergency communication
alarms from the plant and workplace.

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 2. Be well versed to evacuate through alternative routes during an emergency. Place
evacuation kit at easily accessible locations to avoid delay when escaping.
3. In case of an off-plant release, instructions from local government officials will be
issued, which most likely will be instructed to “shelter-in-place.” Shelter-in-place
means closing all windows and doors, shutting off all heating and air conditioning and
sealing other openings to the outside such as room air conditioner inlets and cracks
under external doors.

There are some elements from OSHA that included in the scope of process safety is stated as
follow:

1. Process hazard analysis

2. Process safety information
3. Training
4. Pre-startup safety review
5. Emergency planning and response
6. Operating procedures
7. Incident investigations
8. Compliance audits
9. Management of change
10. Contractors

7.4.1 Risk Assessment for Storage and Handling of Hazardous Chemicals

Risk assessment is a combination of the severity of hazard and probability of the

occurrence of the incident. It is a process of evaluating the potential risks that may be happening
or involved in certain activity or project. In order to handle the risk from happening, it is
necessary to know the potential hazards and the probability of occurrence of the hazardous
event. By then, the risk can be handled through 4 ‘T’ such as treat, transfer, tolerate and
terminate. Tolerate is living themselves in low risk activities whereas treat indicates to manage
the risk activities by suitable control and mitigation measures. Terminate and transfer indicate
avoiding and eliminating high risk activities or transfer themselves to somewhere else. Thus,

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this will ensure good work conditions for years in the workplace or plant. The storage of the
chemicals should be handled well as chemical emissions are one of the main reasons to cause
hazard and risk if it is not stored properly. There are some examples that are caused by the
improper handling of the chemicals.

1. Damage of the chemical container that would cause spilling when it is being placed in
an unstable ground or rack.
2. Chemical spillage due to the container turns brittle over time and softening due to being
long exposed to the heat.
3. Explosion happens due to the carelessness when transferring the chemicals.

[Link] Proper Way for Chemical Storage

There are some ways which can store the chemical in proper way is stated as below:

1. Company or organization must have a dedicated area to handle the local exhaust and
spill containment system.
2. The shelf-life, storage conditions and compatibility of the chemicals must be listed
down as recorded by the management or authorities from the company and
organization.
3. Company or organization should follow the legal requirements regarding the storage
location and the stored goods especially for the hazardous chemicals.
4. Chemical waste should be stored separately from the other chemicals to avoid the use
of it accidentally as new chemicals.

Chemical storage falls within the scope of three legislative and regulatory frameworks which
fulfills the legal requirements:

1. Protection of the public

2. Environmental protection
3. Health and safety for the operators

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7.4.2 Explosion Risk Assessment

The following listed out the scope of works of the explosion risk assessment:

1. The development of the Explosion Risk Assessment document relates to the

determination of explosion hazard zones for process installations and facilities with
possible dust, gas hybrid explosive atmospheres.
2. The development of the Explosion Risk Assessment document which related to the
determination of explosion hazard zones for the designs of process installations and
facilities in order to identify and eliminate hazards resulting from incorrect design
assumptions.
3. The Explosion Risk Assessment document for process installations and facilities which
were subject to changes with significant impact on process safety.

One of the main reasons for causing combustion and explosions is fire. Thus, various
safety awareness must be conducted to avoid it leading to the risk of the explosions. There are
three main criteria that cause a fire which is oxygen, heat and fuel. Fuel is a flammable and
combustible product that might catch a fire. Oxygen is crucial as fire may happen if there is a
presence of 16% of oxygen in a specific area. Heat is an energy to increase the temperature for
the fuel and hence cause ignition to occur.

FIGURE 7. 1 Fire Triangle

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Ways to handle the risk assessment:
1. Under Section 19 of the Safety Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005, every employer
shall identify hazards, assess risks and have a written risk assessment including any
unusual or other risks.
2. Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report if any danger happens.
3. Control sources of ignition.
4. Ensure the chimneys are cleaned regularly.

7.4.3 Safety Audit

Safety Audit is the one of the comprehensive ways for an organization or company to
gauge the efficiency, effectiveness and legality of the health and safety management system.
A safety audit is involved with a walk-through of the facility which interviews the management,
employees and reviewing company documentation. Hence, the objective of safety audit is to
determine whether the company is in compliance with safety legislation. It can be performed
by representatives of a regulatory body or by the company itself. Next, it can help to identify
weaknesses in their safety programs and processes. Safety audits being used as a guide to
design safety plans and identify corrective actions that should be undertaken.

The following listed out the advantages of applying safety audit:

1. Demonstrate the dedication of management towards the health and safety of the
employee.
2. Provide a constant review of systems to ensure that it will not become weakened.
3. Ability to identify the weakness of the human resources department.
4. Good and facilitate plans towards the improvements of programs, policies, and
procedures.

The safety audits that applied in the industry workplace are conducted for the purpose
of health, safety, and fire hazard identification. It does provide an evaluation of compliance to

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards which is related to
ergonomics, respirator use, hearing conservation, blood-borne pathogens and use of personal
protective equipment. For instance, ergonomics is a study of work and the relationships of
which the objective is help the worker to adapt the job and by its designing tasks, workstations,
tools, and equipment (Safetyinfo., 1996)

7.5 Fire Hazards

Fire hazards is the presence of uncontrolled fire with the presence of flame that occurred
in the workplace. Fire is a continuous threat to life and property and this incident has been
known as a common one in normal life as humans are surrounded by a wide range of highly
combustible materials which might ignite and burn vigorously under the right conditions. For
instance, the combustible materials include natural or artificial polymers. This can be said so
as polymers have the ability to generate heat, smoke, toxic gases and irritant compounds that
might cause a fire easily. Normally, the fire will start during the ignition stage where a source
of heat comes into contact with a fuel in the presence of oxygen. After that, these flammable
products will react with oxygen from the air to produce a flame and heat. Thus, fire occurs and
it is a dynamic process. There is an equilibrium between the rate of heat transfer back to the
fuel and heat losses from the fuel as well as the production of degradation products. The fire
may flow out or smolder for a long time before developing as well as become vigorous
relatively quickly depending on different circumstances. When the fire starts, some primary
hazards are generated which are heat, smoke, irritant by products from incomplete combustion
and toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. (Irvine, D. J et al., 2000).

7.5.1 Classification of Fire

Fires can be classified in five different classes depending on the different types of fuels
which are Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class K. Table below shows the list of the
classes of fire.

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 TABLE 7. 1 Classification of Fire

Class Elaboration

Class A Fires involve solid materials which are wood, paper, plastic, trash or clothing.

Class B Fires involve flammable liquids like oil, alcohol, paint or gasoline.

Class C Fires involve a source of electricity. For example, old wiring, frayed electrical
cords, worn-out breaker boxes, or faulty appliances.

Class D Fires that are rare which happen when an alkali metal ignites. For example,
potassium, magnesium, aluminum, and sodium can ignite when exposed to air or
water.

Class K Fires involve cooking oils such as vegetable oil or animal fats due to high flash
points. For example, when the pan is left unattended for too long on a stove.

7.5.2 Fire Prevention and Safety Procedures

The main purpose of fire prevention is to prevent a fire from occurring in a workplace.
A fire happening in the company or workplace can be concluded as one of the most devastating
hazards for the workers and the public as it will result in numerous injuries or even fatalities as
well as causing damage to the property. Thus, everyone including workers and management
must familiarize themselves with the fire safety from the fire procedure from the company so
that they can know what they need to do to protect themselves if fire happens. There are some
basic safety procedures that should be known by everyone in their company or workplace.
Firstly, they must know where the fire extinguisher is located and always be aware of the
nearest extinguisher at all times in their workplace. Next, they must know the way to the
emergency exits so they can evacuate immediately if any incident happens. They must be
familiar with the alarm signals for the fire alarm so that they are aware of what is their exact
situation at the moment. When they are being evacuated from the workplace, they can gather
in an assembly point and alert their respective supervisors to make sure they are safe.

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Below are the list of fire protection equipment that can be installed in the workplace:
o Fire extinguisher
o Smoke detector
o Fire alarm system
o Fire sprinkler system
o Emergency lighting
o Emergency generators

7.5.3 Fire Hazard Checklist

Table below shows the possible ignition that may happen along with the possible
control to minimize the fire hazard happening.

TABLE 7. 2 Solution to ignition source

Ignition Source Solution

● Make sure there are routes of exit in the storage room.

● The operators and workers must be prohibited from
smoking in the workplace and plant.
● Ensure the flammable liquids are stored in a safe place
and the container is well covered when not in use.
● Ensure fire extinguishers are mounted within a
Flammable and distance which can be placing nearby to the flammable
Combustible Materials and combustible material for both indoor and outdoor
areas
● Provide appropriate ventilation, including continuous
mechanical exhaust ventilation system for the indoor
storage room

Electrical wires ● Repair or replace any exposed wires

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 ● Do not overload electrical equipment or electrical
outlets
● Replace extension cords that are being used for long
term purposes with permanent wiring
● Educate and train employees on electrical safety

● Make sure all the equipment and accessories used in

hot work are in good working condition
● Separate hot work areas from other operations

Operation of Work ● Keep combustible or flammable materials away from

(Welding, Grinding or hot work areas

Cooking) ● Operators can use appropriate personal protective

equipment such as face shield, respirators, eye
protection so that they will not be hurt and wounded
when handling the work

7.6 Emergency Response

Emergency is an undesirable occurrence of events of such magnitude and nature that

adversely affect production, cause loss of human lives and property as well as damage to
property and belongings. There are some common emergencies that might occur in the
industries. For instance, explosion from flammable gases, sudden leakage of toxic gases, civil
work plant failure and human errors.

Thus, a company of industries must be well prepared to handle the emergency that
might cause serious consequences and impact to their company. Even though it is very difficult
to foresee the time for the emergency happening, the better choice is to try to prevent or
minimize the risks or accidents that may occur.

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7.6.1 Emergency Control Center

Emergency control center is a center to help handle the emergencies that are happening
at the plant or workplace. Thus, below is the listing which included emergency control for
certain criteria.

● Pre-calculated concentrations of toxic release at various distances

● Daily attendance of employees in the plant or workplace
● Drawing for the plant layout
● Flow sheets for the plant system
● Safety report

7.6.2 Level of Emergency

The level of Emergency can be classified to three types according to the different
situation at plant or workplace.

On-Site Emergency
● Emergency which can be handled and controlled by the management with its own
resources

Local crisis (Off-Site Emergency)

● This happens when an on-site emergency is unable to be handled by the management.
The management might need to seek help from neighboring units that are able to help
them to solve the problem. Thus, this emergency will be handled and controlled by
others.

District Crisis (Off-Site Emergency)

● This happens when an off-site emergency is unable to solve the problem. It will be
handled by Local Crisis Management to take over the emergency situation.

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7.6.3 Fire Protection System

Fire Protection System is one of the systems that can be used in a long run and long
period. Normally the owner or investor of a company will plan to install this fire protection
system as this is very good and preferable which is able to work automatically. It will sense
and start to work to immediately suppress the fire as well as notifying the authorities to send
emergency professionals to the location. Moreover, it is a good investment as it helps to save
money as it is able to work for a significant period of time.

• Smoke Detector

FIGURE 7. 2 Smoke Detector

Smoke detector is an electronic device that can sense the presence of smoke automatically,
known as a key indication of fire. After that, it will produce a sound as a warning so that people
can realize that a certain place might cause a fire.

• Industrial Sprinkler System

FIGURE 7. 3 Industrial Sprinkler System

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 Industrial sprinkler systems are a network of fixed water pipes which are supplied by
two water sources with sprinkler heads fitted at recommended distances apart. Water can be
supplied from a tank through pumps to ensure the flow is sufficient and able to fill the pipes.
Detector heads are nozzles that direct a jet of water onto a deflector plate which diffuses over
a large area and the water is held back by a glass bulb. When the system senses the heat is
applied, the glass bulb will burst due to expansion of the liquid in the bulb. After that the plug
will be released and water starts flowing through the sprinkler head.

7.6.4 Labels and Sign

Every company should take responsibility to ensure their employees and others who
work or visit their workplace or plant are in safe condition. Hence, they should ensure that
everyone is aware of the danger zone by implementing the labels and signs so that they will be
precautious when anyone is stepping inside the workplace. Thus, Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) compliant safety labels and it is being designed to standardize
safety signs. The photos in the following are some examples of signs which are usually placed
in the workplace or plant.

• Caution Sign

Operators must wear safety glasses when they are conducting work which relates to heat or
electricity such as welding to protect their eyes from injury.

FIGURE 7. 4 Cautious Sign

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 • Visitors Warning Sign

Visitors are not allowed to enter into the plant freely. They must register in front of the guard
house to obtain the pass with the aid of the management of the company before entering.

FIGURE 7. 5 Visitors Warning Sign

• Safety First Sign

Safety signs are placed all over the plant in order to increase the awareness of the operators
so that they are able to work in a safe and clean environment.

FIGURE 7. 6 Safety First Sign

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7.6.5 Leakage Prevention

Gas or liquid leaks are not something to be taken lightly in manufacturing facilities, as
exposure to these gasses can cause serious health problems and even death. It is important to
consider the safety of employees in order to avoid any serious injuries resulting from
negligence in the safety procedures for the gas leakage. The plants have to comply with certain
laws and standards to ensure the safety of all those operating inside an industrial facility that
uses gas, and these must be enforced periodically. Other than these regular inspections,
employees maintain safety processes internally to help avoid and minimize the occurrence of
gas or liquid leakage.

Moreover, leakage or loss from the main manufacturing process can incur additional
costs which are deemed unnecessary each year. The additional costs mentioned are repair costs
to replace damaged parts of the plant machinery, claims from third parties and employee
insurance if any accidents occur. The unattended leaks can result in downtime, affect product
quality, pollute the environment and also affect product sales and eventually the overall
revenue of the company. Hence, the prevention of leakage is one of the vital elements in
conducting safety studies and loss prevention on the chemical plants.

[Link] Control of Leaks

Pipelines are formed of multiple pipes with joints and leakage generally occurs where
the pipe joints are faulty or where defects develop in the pipe body. It can be caused by cracks
at the equipment or transportation pipelines, poor installation and connection in equipment,
external impact in long duration and others. Leakage control work involves the following major
step.

• Planning of activities and preparatory work by updating the maps, databases of consumer
connections, water mains, valves and fire hydrants.

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• Test for loss assessment and locating the defects.
• Repair and replacement of damaged parts of the components.
• Program monitoring.
• Build up procedures and standardized activities applied to the pipeline system.
• Training of staff.

[Link] Detection of Leaks

Every organization or company must have knowledge on how to detect the leakage that
might be happening in their plant to ensure the safety of the operator in order to decrease the
risk of the injury of the workers as there may be some poisonous gas which is leaks from the
pipe or any equipment. One of the ways to solve this problem is installing Closed-circuit
television (CCTV) in the plant. This can ensure that the operator who works in the control room
is able to monitor whether the pipes are working in a good condition. If there are any leakages
of the pipes that are happening, operators can be found out instantly and solve them
immediately without letting the problem become serious which may affect the work
progression of the plant.

On the other hand, a leakage detection test can be applied which is easier to monitor by
the operator if there is any case happening inside the pipe which is high pressure or high
temperature that might cause the burst of the pipe and lead to the leakage. The test is called
bubble testing which is a convenient way to detect and locate gas leaks. During the bubble
testing, a technician will pressurize a component to create a pressure differential. Next, the
technician will immerse the pressurized component in a solution or apply a soapy film to the
exterior of the component. Thus, the location of the leakage will be indicated by the presence
of bubbles. (Plant Engineering., n.d)

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[Link] Leaking Protective Equipment

There is leakage of pipes happening in the plant because of those substances that flow
from the leakage might be some poisonous gas or acid. The operator will be hurt if they are
accidentally in contact with these poisonous acids or gas without any protective equipment.
Hence, the plant should have a room to store all of the protective equipment so that operators
can get what they need easily. Every operator should wear thick cutting gloves all the time
because it may protect their hard from being corroded by the flow of the acid if there is any
leakage of pipes happening. Operators must ensure that they are wearing the full face mask to
protect themselves from inhaling directly from the poisonous gas which comes from the
leakage pipes. The management should place sufficient amounts of full face mask at the plant
so the operators are able to wear it to protect themselves if any emergency happens. This can
prevent themselves inhale too much of toxic gas which would lead to the difficult of breathing
or coughing.

7.7 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is classified under the OSHA Hazard
Communication Standard that is applied in several countries including Malaysia that have
similar regulations and requirements. The purpose of MSDS is to safeguard occupational health
which provides legal information to the operators so that they are able to handle any emergency
situation. It is an informational document which is prepared by the manufacturer or importer
regarding the hazardous chemical. On the other hand, it is also able to provide the physical and
chemical properties of the product which is some useful information such as flash point,
toxicity, procedures for spills and leaks as well as storage guidelines. Hence, there is various
information that can be found in the MSDS that includes the way on how to select the products
which are safe to use. Moreover, the information provided can help people to understand the
potential health and physical hazards of a chemical and further describes how to respond
effectively whenever people are being exposed to their hazard situations.

480
 Thus, any business that might use hazardous chemicals, especially manufacturing
industries, must obtain a MSDS from the manufacturer so that they can keep it as their records
and use it in their workplace. This is because Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) from
OSHA specifies certain information that must be included on MSDS. On the other hand, they
are known as a part of compliance obligation and it is required to be followed and displayed
prominently in the plant or workplace. Hence, there are some criteria that must be written in
English:

1. Name of the chemical must be same as on the label

2. Chemical and common names of the substance
3. Listing of the ingredients
4. Statement of the ingredients that are known as carcinogens.
5. Name of the specific hazards

There are some MSDS regulations that should be follow:

(a) The name, address and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer, importer,
employer or other responsible party preparing or distributing the material safety data
sheet who can provide additional information on the hazardous chemical and
appropriate emergency procedures must be provided.
(b) Permissible exposure limit from OSHA and Threshold Limit Value which is
recommended by the chemical manufacturer, importer or employer when preparing the
material safety data sheet.
(c) Emergency and first aid procedures.
(d) If no relevant information is found for any given category on the material safety data
sheet, the chemical manufacturer, importer or employer who is preparing the material
safety data sheet shall mark it to indicate that no applicable information was found.
(e) If complex mixtures have similar hazards and contents which chemical ingredients are
essentially the same but the specific composition varies from mixture to mixture, the
chemical manufacturer, importer or employer must prepare one material safety data
sheet to apply to all of these similar mixtures.
(f) Any generally applicable precautions for safe handling and use which are known to the
chemical manufacturer, importer or employer preparing the material safety data sheet,
including appropriate hygienic practices, protective measures during repair and
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 maintenance of contaminated equipment, and procedures for clean-up of spills and
leaks.
(g) The chemical manufacturer, importer or employer who prepares the material safety data
sheet shall ensure that the information recorded accurately reflects the scientific
evidence used in making the hazard determination. If the chemical manufacturer,
importer or employer preparing the material safety data sheet becomes newly aware of
any significant information regarding the hazards of a chemical or ways to protect
against the hazards, this new information shall be added to the material safety data sheet
within three months.
(h) If the chemical is not currently being produced or imported, the chemical manufacturer
or importer shall add the information to the material safety data sheet before the
chemical is introduced into the workplace.

7.8 Site and Plant Layout

FIGURE 7. 7 Plant Layout

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7.9 General Safety Procedure

7.9.1 Storage System

In a chemical plant, the storage of raw material, products and chemical substances is
important to meet regulatory compliance and also to ensure employee safety and efficient
inventory management. Improper chemical storage can cause safety hazards at work including
the presence of heat, fire, explosion and toxic gas leakage. Thus, it is essential to take into
account all hazardous properties of chemicals when designing a chemical storage facility.

The key component in accident prevention is the proper handling and storage of
hazardous materials. Non-hazardous chemicals could be stored with liquids and oxidizers in a
storage tank or in cabinets fitted with secondary containment. Hazardous chemicals have to be
divided by compatibility groups before alphabetically sorted. The hazardous chemicals should
always be stored below eye level to reduce the possibility of accidental splashed to the eyes
and face. All chemical containers must be labeled with appropriate hazard alerts during storage,
in words, pictures, symbols, which include all the hazard information. In addition to proper
labeling, storage areas should be inspected monthly to ensure that these materials are properly
used, stored, and disposed of. The fire preventive measures must be taken when the storage
facility contains flammable material in order to reduce the fire impact. (INRS, 2005.) When
such chemicals are stored, further action must be taken such as avoidance of ignition sources
in the facility and installation of smoke detectors and fire extinguishers. Furthermore, the
chemical storage must be visibly indicated and the associated hazards must be clearly
identified, for example by means of appropriate warning signs. The Figure 7.8 shows some
examples of warning signs.

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FIGURE 7. 8 Examples of prohibitive, warning and mandatory signs relative to
chemicals

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7.9.2 Ventilation

In order to prevent the formation of hazardous vapors, the storage facility must be
ventilated, with the air renewal rate adjusted to the stored chemicals and the activities carried
out in the facility. The actual purpose of ventilation in a facility is to provide healthy air for
breathing by both diluting the pollutants originating in the building and removing the
contaminants from it. The plant design ventilation system should supply fresh air for normal
operation to help ensure chemical safety in the workplace. The label of air inlet and outlet
should be placed in the storage room so as to avoid any ‘dead zone’ that might cause the
accumulation of toxic vapor. In addition, air conditioning must be installed in the facility if the
products or materials will be damaged by heat or frost. The chemical products that are
flammable should be stored near the open air so that natural ventilation will dissipate small
leaks or thermal outbreaks. Where flammable materials are contained in a chemical storage
cabinet, any ventilation device should exert fumes to the outside environment, and away from
any sources of ignition or places where people are likely to gather. Steel piping is suggested
for ventilation ducting of a cabinet containing flammable chemicals. However, it is not advised
to use PVC ventilation piping for a flammable cabinet, as it does not withstand the extreme
temperatures induced by a fire.

7.9.3 Transportation

A Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) of loading and unloading operations should be

enforced, and vehicle driver practices should be applied to reduce the potential for injury,
particularly as a result of vehicle and human interaction. This policy applies to all workers,
truck operators and other personnel involved in the loading and unloading operations of all
trucks and forklifts in areas operated by chemical plants, in compliance with company and
government safety policies. When transporting chemicals, make sure the following precautions
are taken.

● Avoid transporting with foodstuff and other reactive chemicals

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 ● Follow the separation and segregation rules for the transport of hazardous chemical
mixtures.
● Secure the position of hazardous chemicals on the vehicle so they will not fall.
● Keep a record of the chemicals that are carrying.
● Make sure the truck driver has the correct license and is trained in emergency
procedures.

The following are general loading and unloading procedures for truck and forklift operator:

● To ensure a spotter is in operation at all times and at all times while reversing.
● To ensure that any particular loading requirements are passed on to the supervisor in
charge of loading.
● The loading and unloading cargo by forklift is to be done by the competent forklift
operator utilising safe zones and work areas.
● The trucks may be loaded and unloaded either by cranes or forklifts. The use of the
crane or forklift is determined by the supervisor or person in charge.

7.9.4 Plant Location

The importance of plant location, both permanent and temporary, relative to highly
hazardous processing facilities is highlighted by several death-involving incidents. So, we are
seeking ways to reduce the risk of accidents and implementing fall prevention strategies are
vital to workplace safety. The distance between populated buildings and plant buildings will
be controlled by the need to reduce the risks associated with explosion, fire and toxicity. To
reduce the risk of chemical exposure to the public, the chemical plant needs to be located far
from any residential areas. Normally, occurring incidents may be attributed to fire, explosion
or vapor cloud, which may possibly lead to a major disaster. Besides, the plant location is
important and will help to reduce the sound pollution coming out from the daily operation
which may affect the normal life of a housing area.

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7.9.5 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment

Every employer has responsibilities with respect to the provision and use of personal
protective equipment (PPE) at work. PPE is an equipment that will protect the user against
health or safety risks at work by reducing the impact and minimizing the injuries. There is a
range of personal protective equipment and accessories on the current market, including
products such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, safety boots and safety harnesses. All
personal protective equipment should be built and assembled properly and should be
maintained in a clean and secure manner. It should fit comfortably, encouraging employee use.
If the personal protective equipment does not fit correctly, the difference between being
securely protected or exposed to danger can be created. The chemical operative will ask the
supervisor for an opinion on the correct type of PPE to be used for each activity they will need
to perform. It is the responsibility of the supervisor to make sure that PPE is always available
and worn where necessary. Figure 7.9 shows an infographic of PPE provided with some key
facts and figures.

FIGURE 7. 9 The info graphic of PPE

[Adapted from Safety and Health Practitioner, 2020]

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[Link] Safety and Scalp Protection

The metal caps, laminated plastic or other impact resistant fabrics should be worn while
overhead work is performed. There are five primary purposes of head protection:

● To protect the head against falling objects, impact with fixed objects, or wielded
weapons.
● To protect the head by offering thermal insulation.
● Protecting the head from entanglement and skull fracture.
● Protecting against scalping particularly on machinery where there are still numerous
injuries. Hair-nets and caps are also used for hygiene reasons.
● All types of protection for the head and scalp must be suitable, designed properly and
have an easily adjustable headband, nape and chin strap where necessary.

[Link] Eye Protection

The selection of suitable safety glasses is very important to provide protection against
impact, cuts, splashes, mists and sprays. When working near chemicals the goggles with good
top fit and side shields is preferred, or face shields may be used in conjunction with the goggles.
All PPE needs to be cleaned regularly, but this is especially important in the case of eye
protection because dirty lenses lead to poor vision and can contribute to accidents. The lenses
that scratched, pitted or cracked should be replaced. The users who need to wear glasses should
be able to meet the requirement when the PPE provides them with protection over glasses.
Where they may be required to wear eye protection on a regular and prolonged basis then any
goggles, safety-glasses and should meet the user’s prescription requirements.

[Link] Foot and Leg Protection

There are a wide variety of safety footwear available that protects the feet or legs
against many hazards like crushing, falling, scratching, temperature, fire, chemicals, cutting
and chopping. Industrial safety shoes and boots are supplied free or at reduced cost, with steel,
which are of good appearance and comfortable to wear. Various PPE options may be suitable

488
depending on the hazard including safety boots and shoes with protective toe caps and midsole
penetration resistant.

[Link] Hand and Arm Protection

One of the most common types of personal injury in the plants is hand and finger injury.
Most of the work in the plant involves a degree of physical strength and thus the hands are
exposed to a wide range of hazards such as cuts, abrasions, heat, cold, chemical contamination,
burns, infection, skin irritation and dermatitis. The hierarchy of control measures must be
followed before hand and arm protection is selected. There are various kinds of gloves available
in the market. Gloves is the primary form of hand protection against a variety of industrial
hazards, but other types of PPE can also be used, such as mitts, wrist cuffs or armlets. In the
case of manual handling where there may be a risk of cutting by sharp or pointed objects, gloves
should be provided where these hazards cannot be removed, isolated or reduced to an
acceptable level. Normally however, gloves should not be worn where there is a risk that they
will be caught in machinery. Where chemical exposure is a hazard, and the risk extends to
contact with the arms, gauntlets should be specified rather than gloves.

[Link] Hearing protection

In this sort of workplaces, workers are advised to wear hearing protectors to reduce the
noise exposure level and the risk of hearing loss. In offering hearing protection, employees
should choose safety equipment that are suitable for the work environment and determine how
safe and hygienic they are. The hearing protection will need to be compatible with other PPE
such as hard hats, dust masks and eye protection that is worn by workers. Employers may also
wish to provide a range of protectors to allow employees to choose ones which suit them. When
selecting hearing protection, use the detailed noise assessment to determine the attenuation
required at high, medium and low frequencies and match this against suitable products. The
training will be needed to ensure that the ear plugs are used correctly. It may be suitable to use
both plugs and defenders for high noise environments.

489
[Link] First-aid kit

First aid kits are a must have at every workplace. First aid kits are necessary so that you
can treat ailments and injuries that happen at the workplace. A first aid kit may help to reduce
the risk of infection or the severity of injury from the mild ailment to the more severe injury.
First aid kits should be locked out of reach of children and stored in a safe, dry spot. First aid
kits provide a variety of items to help treat wounds, scrapes, and injuries including sprains,
burns, and medications for a range of common ailments.

7.10 Start-Up and Shut Down Procedure

A start-up is a programmed series of steps to take a process from an idle, at rest state to
normal operation while shutdown is the reverse sequence. The Centre for Chemical Process
Safety (CCPS), a member organization funded by industry that recognizes and addresses
process safety needs within the plant. The organization determined that a majority of process
safety incidents occur during a plant start-up, although it only constitutes a small portion of the
operating life of a plant. Process unit start-ups and shutdowns are much more dangerous than
normal operations at oil refineries or chemical facilities. According to CCPS, the process safety
incidents happen five times more often during start-up than during normal operations. This is
because the start-up and shutdown procedure involve many non-routine procedures, and these
periods can result in unexpected and unusual situations. Workers are typically the first line of
victims when such incidents occur. In order to prevent these types of incidents from occurring,
facilities should employ good communication, provide sufficient training to workers, and
procedures for hazardous operations such as start-ups and shutdowns.

490
7.10.1 Start-Up Procedure

The plant start-up process should be simple and safe, and the operating conditions
should not exceed the limits during plant start-up. To ensure that a plant undergoes a smooth
start-up, it is critical that the last phase of mechanical completion and the preparatory
commissioning activities are carried out thoroughly. The operating limit of the plant should not
be exceeded throughout the plant start-up to reduce the likelihood of revealing a risk to both
the employees and the public. In addition, the control part plays an important role during this
stage due to control of flow, temperature, pressure, and operating range levels. Employees who
take part in this duty must be familiar with the plants process and engineering, plus the specific
location of the equipment and the piping. The final inspection of each unit operation should be
made before the start-up. All control elements and indicators must be ensured to be functional
for each equipment. (Siddhartha. M, 2005.) Following the plant turnaround, the following
things must be performed in the processing unit before plant start-up. There are certain
protocols that will need to be followed by all operators during the start-up process which
including:

• Cleaning, and leak-testing pipelines and vessels, make sure all the pipelines are
connected properly and correctly.
• All mechanical seals, column and vessel internals are required to be installed properly
to prevent leakage.
• Aligning the equipment and test runs the equipment.
• The ventilation and drainage systems are checked thoroughly.
• All the flange fittings are confirmed to be fitted with a good gasket, in order to avoid
leakage.
• The state of drains is checked to make sure that it is unplugged and water is drained out
from the equipment.
• All the control valves are checked to regulate its operability.
• The work list is tested and the corresponding lines have also been correctly resembled.

491
 • The control loops of the instrument are tested from the transmission of the signal from
the plant to the control system, and also the warning system circuits to ensure that it is
properly placed.
• All the power supply, steam supply, utilities and cooling water supply are checked.
• All fire safety equipment on-site, such as extinguishers, water hoses, nozzles and steam
hoses, are in place and are all set for immediate application.

7.10.2 Shutdown Procedure

A chemical plant's shutdown operation particularly involves a complex operating

procedure with different constraints, which can be divided into the three categories which is
normal shutdown, emergency shutdown and partial shutdown. These plant shutdown measures
cover the entire unit shut down for essential maintenance work such as a turnaround, which
could take weeks or even months to complete. If a short shutdown is necessary for a few days,
the procedures can be streamlined at the correct stage. Normal shutdown is the immediate
shutdown of the plant and is usually performed for the maintenance, retrofitting and ending of
a batch. The shutdown for maintenance work had varied in duration depending on the size of
the plant. All of the equipment must be kept in safe and harmless condition during the
shutdown. When conducting an inspection or repair on a vessel or column, it should be blinded
and, depending on the operation, systematically purged with steam. The turnaround work list
shall include all the items for repair, cleaning, inspection, and modification.

Emergency shutdown is an unexpected shutdown that can be caused by process

variables exceeding the safety limits or failure in the unit or utility supplies. The example of
emergency conditions are equipment failure, abnormal operating condition, hazardous gas
leakage, fire loss, and utility loss. The emergency situation of the operation is mainly caused
by some conditions such as the failure of the equipment whereby the equipment is not
functioning in the proper manner in which there may have a serious fire or leakage may have
occurred. Hence, the emergency shutdown and installation of the protection control system is
required in case of an emergency situation occurs. A protection control system that is explicitly

492
designed to manage the problem and resolve the effect of the emergency when a plant shutdown
occurs. This would be carried from the push button when passed according to the designated
activity by a plant operator.

Partial shutdown is a temporary shutdown that brings a part of the plant into a normal
state of operation. If the shutdown is of a partial or temporary nature, it is possible to save a
great deal of cost, avoidable incineration and time by putting each column on total reflux,
closing off the overhead condenser coolant and re-boiler heating medium. The following are
some of the best safety practices for a successful plant shutdown. Regardless of what type of
shutdown it is, each type of shutdown has its significant considerations. The following checklist
is the items to be measured and checked during plant shut down:

• Ensure that any planned changes to the plant and facilities are approved just before
the shutdown, not during the day.
• All mobile equipment and products should be bagged, tagged and stored to prevent
contamination. Equipment which cannot be moved should be tightly sealed. Open
pipes must be sealed/capped off to prevent pollution.
• Controlled access to the plant during shutdowns, people cannot enter the plant.
• Review and approval of requalification activities to ensure that all equipment is
operating within its validated state.
• The plant operator should write a complete shutdown report daily. The report should
include executive summary: A short paragraph of what went well, what didn’t, any
risks and how these have been managed or contained.
• For any emergency, the personal protective equipment (PPE) should be available
for immediate usage. The special precaution is taken into consideration when the
plant is facing shutdown.
• Erection of scaffolding is an example where advanced preparation is required. This
to carry out the following unit shut down and prevent any delay in the mechanical
work when the actual shutdown occurs.

493
7.11 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)

7.11.1 The HAZOP Concept

HAZOP is a formal systematic rigorous examination of the process and manufacturing

facility. The HAZOP study takes a complete description of the process, systematically asks
each part of it to find out how deviation from the design intention can occur and to decide
whether these deviations can result in hazards. Analysis of HAZOP is carried by using a
template to determine the procedure for implementing the safety features for each of the
equipment which is then recorded. It can be conducted on an existing facility to identify
modifications that should be implemented to reduce risk and operability problems.

7.11.2 HAZOP Objectives

The HAZOP technique is qualitative, and the objectives are listed below.

• To define cause and effects of perceived equipment malfunctions and associated

operator interfaces in the context of the whole network systems.
• To reduce the chances of overlooking disturbances when conducting a review of
Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs) that could result in hazardous situations
or operability problems.
• To stimulate the imagination of participants to identify potential hazards and
operability problems, not necessarily on solving them.

494
7.11.3 The HAZOP Team

The HAZOP team consists of individuals representing a variety of departments or

specialties. This multidisciplinary team idea helps the various team members perspectives to
inspire the thinking of the other team members and lead to creative thinking. Therefore, a more
thorough review is accomplished than would have occurred if team members reviewed the
same process individually. A HAZOP team comprises a leader, a secretary and team members.

Leader: The person who leads and facilitates the HAZOP study by asking questions of the
team. The leader's duty is to schedule meetings and timetables, encourage imagination of
team members, and judge important issues.

Secretary: The person who records the discussions and produces interim lists of
recommendations.

Members: Members of the group provide essential inputs and discussions for the study of
HAZOP according to their knowledge and understanding of the process being studied. They
represent each of the key disciplines involved in the facility such as process design,
operations, control, instrument and safety. The team members include process engineer,
mechanical design engineer, instrument engineer, and plant manager.

7.11.4 HAZOP procedure

The HAZOP procedure is applicable to all types of specific operational sequences and
can be used for planned and existing systems. It is most effective when conducted during the
conceptual design phase where recommendations affecting the general design may be made.
The figure below shows the typical HAZOP flowchart of a system.

495
 FIGURE 7. 10 HAZOP Flowchart

A HAZOP study encourages the use of “guide words” to help explore all potential
deviations. Here is an example of how the team could use common guide words to explore
deviations. “Guide words” is a short word to create the imagination of a deviation of the design
or process intent. The guidewords are applied, in turn, to all the parameters, in order to identify
unexpected and yet credible deviations from the design/process intent. The list of typical guide
words is given in table below:

496
 TABLE 7. 3 List of guide words

Guide Words Meanings Deviations

The complete negation of

NO or NOT No flow, No pressure, etc.
these intentions

More temperature, more

MORE Quantitative increases
pressure, more level, etc.

Less flow, less pressure, less

LESS Quantitative decreases
temperature, etc.

Contamination, extra phase

AS WELL AS Qualitative increases
present

PART OF Qualitative decreases Part of composition

The logical opposite of the

REVERSE Reverse flow
intention

7.11.5 Hazard and Operability Study on Various Operation Units

As part of the closure for the HAZOP report, it should be checked that the process exists
to ensure a satisfactory closure of the assigned actions. The HAZOP study output would be
documented based on individual company documentation policies. The HAZOP studies on the
equipment in this chemical plant are performed in the HAZOP analysis template forms as
below.

497
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Pump

TABLE 7. 4 HAZOP Worksheet of Pump

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam.
Date: 14/
Node: Pump (PM101, PM102, PM103, PM104,PM105,PM106,PM107,PM108, MAY/2020
PM109,PM110,PM111,PM112)

Guide-
No Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require
word
• Overflow of • Regular
More • Malfunction of product in the maintenance of
More
Flow flow controller following flow controller
vessels and sensor
• Installation of
• Malfunction of
indicators for
flow transducer
monitoring
• Regular
• Blockage in pump •Less product maintenance of
Less Less Flow
and input or output formed flow controller
1 Flow and sensor
• Installation of
• Lower product
• Blocked pipelines indicators for
formation
monitoring
• Unable to • Regular
transfer maintenance of
No No Flow • Pump is damaged
materials to next flow controller
unit operation and sensor
• Pipeline is • Installation of
• No formation
disconnected to or indicators for
of product
from pump monitoring
• Frequent
• Malfunction of
• Incomplete maintenance of
High High ratio composition
reaction controller and
controller
sensor
2 Composition
• Malfunction of • Frequent
• Incomplete maintenance of
Low Low ratio composition
reaction controller and
controller
sensor

498
 TABLE 7. 5 HAZOP Worksheet of Pump (cont’)

No Parameter Guide-word Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require

• Potentially
depositing
• Frequent
• Excessive NaCl excessive
maintenance of
High High pH or NaHCO3 materials in
pH controller
added reactor,
and sensor
clogging the
pipelines
• Malfunction of
• Lowers
pH controller and
3 pH product yield
sensor
• Frequent
• Corrosion of
• Excessive HCl maintenance of
Low Low pH downstream
added pH controller
equipment
and sensor
• Malfunction of
• Lower
pH controller and
product quality
sensor

499
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Mixing Tank

TABLE 7. 6 HAZOP Worksheet of Mixing Tank

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam. Date: 14/
Node: Mixer (MX101) MAY/2020
Guide- Action
No Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences
word Require
High • Malfunction of • Overflow at
Flow pump CSTR • Installation of
High •Error from •Deviated from temperature
composition ideal reactant indicator
controller composition
1 Flow •Dry mixing
Less
•Empty storage tank will damage
Flow
equipment • Installation of
Less
•Deviated from flow indicator
•Failure of pump to
ideal reactant
work
composition
• Either one of the • Incomplete •
High High ratio
supply pipes are not reaction Implementation
2 Composition
providing the • Material of controllers
Low Low ratio
reactants wastage and sensors

500
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Heater

TABLE 7. 7 HAZOP Worksheet of Heater

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam.
Date: 14/ MAY/2020
Node: Heater (HX101,HX103)
No Parameter Guide-word Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require
• Potential damage • Inspection on flow
• Excessive
More More flow to equipment and control valve
steam supply
pipelines regularly
• Excessive
• Lower product
steam pressure in
quality
pipelines
• Leakage in • Ensure boiler is
Less Low flow
stream working properly
•Unable to heat
pipeline • Check pipeline for
feed stream
1 Flow •Boiler has dried
leakage testing
up
• The pipeline of
• Unable to heat up •Installation of flow
No No flow the stream is
feed stream indicator
blocked
•Daily inspection and
• Malfunction of • Lower product maintenance to
valve yield streams and
equipment
• Boiler is not in
operation
• Potential damage •Maintenance and
High • Excessive
High to equipment and checking of
temperature steam supply
pipelines temperature indicator

• Ensure steam
• Lower product
supply is regulated as
quality
intended

2 Temperature

• Maintenance and
Low • Insufficient • Incomplete
Low checking of
temperature steam supply reactions in reactors
temperature indicator

• Ensure steam
supply is regulated as
intended

501
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Cooler

TABLE 7. 8 HAZOP Worksheet of Cooler

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane

foam. Date: 14/ MAY/2020
Node: Cooler (HX102,HX104)
No Parameter Guide-word Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require
• Excessive
• Malfunction • Inspection on flow
cooling of
More More flow of flow control control valve
material
valve regularly
stream
• Excessive
• Reduce cooling
cooling water
water flowrate
flowrate
• Possibility of
unintended • Periodic inspection
• Leakage in
Less Low flow and more and maintenance on
pipeline
reactive the pipeline system
1 Flow reaction
• Blockage in
• Install flow control
cooling supply
valve
stream
• The pipeline of
• Equipment is •Installation of flow
No No flow the stream is
not cooled indicator
blocked
• Supply • Next unit •Daily inspection and
pipeline has operation will maintenance of flow
been not receive controller and cooling
disconnected any feed water supply
•Failure of •Maintenance and
temperature checking of
sensor and temperature indicator
controller • Unable to and controller
High
achieve
High temperatur •Malfunction of
desired
e control valve
cooling effect • Ensure valve is in
lead to higher
good condition
flow rate in the
cooler
2 Temperature
•Failure of • Maintenance and
temperature checking of
sensor and temperature indicator
• Excessive
Low controller and controller
cooling of
Low temperatur •Malfunction of
material
e control valve • Ensure cooling
stream
lead to lower water supply is
flow rate in the consistent
cooler

502
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Neutralization Tank

TABLE 7. 9 HAZOP Worksheet of Neutralization Tank

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane

foam. Date: 14/
MAY/2020
Node: Neutralization Tank (V101, V102, V103)
Guide-
No Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require
word
• Potentially
depositing
• Frequent
• Excessive excessive
maintenance of
1 pH High High pH NaCl or materials in
pH controller
NaHCO3 added reactor,
and sensor
clogging the
pipelines
• Malfunction of
• Lowers
pH controller and
product yield
sensor
• Frequent
• Corrosion of
• Excessive HCl maintenance of
Low Low pH downstream
added pH controller
equipment
and sensor
• Malfunction of
• Lower
pH controller and
product quality
sensor

503
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Transesterification Reactor

TABLE 7. 10 HAZOP Worksheet of Transesterification Reactor

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam. Date: 14/
MAY/2020
Node: Transesterification Reactor (CSTR1)
Guide- Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Require
word causes
• Malfunction • Material • Frequent
More flow
More of control overflow in maintenance on
into CSTR
valves CSTR level sensors
• Malfunction
•Ensure
of pumps and • Lower stirring
functionality of
composition efficiency
valves
sensors
• Material
wastage

• Blockage • Insufficient • Frequent

Less flow
Less and or leakage materials for maintenance on
into CSTR
in pipelines reaction level sensors

•Ensure
• Breakdown • Lowers mixing
functionality of
in pumps efficiency in tank
valves
1 Flow • Valves are
• Generation of
No flow into closed due to
No excessive heat
CSTR malfunction of • Implementation
due to friction
controllers of indicators to
ensure constant
• Blockage • Wearing and
flow
and or leakage damage of
in pipelines equipment

Reverse • Implementation
• Drainage of
flow into • Malfunction of check valve to
Reverse materials away
and from of pump ensure single flow
from reactor
CSTR 1 direction

•Ensure rotation of
• Contamination
pump is
at material
functioning
storage tank
properly
• Frequent
High • Excessive
• Reduces product monitoring and
High temperature heating from
yield maintenance of
in CSTR feed
controllers

2 Temperature
• Installation of
• Failure in the
• Risk of material temperature
temperature
failure indicators in feed
controller
stream

504
 TABLE 7. 11 HAZOP Worksheet of Transesterification Reactor (cont’)

Guide-
No Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Action Require
word
• Implementation
Low • Reduced
• Low temperature of temperature
Low temperature conversion in
from feed indicator with
in CSTR reactor
controllers
2 Temperature
• Failure of
temperature
controllers to
regulate flow
•Frequent
• Malfunction of • Potentially
High level maintenance of
High level sensor and overflowing of
in CSTR controller and
controller reactor
sensor
• Outlet flow is • Periodic
• Lower
limited due to cleaning and
conversion of
clogging in maintenance of
products
pipelines pipeline
3 Level •Frequent
• Lowered
Low level in • Valves opened maintenance of
Low mixing
CSTR too small controller and
efficiency
sensor
• Lower
• Periodic
• Reactor inlet is conversion of
cleaning and
limited due to products and
maintenance of
clogging in entry higher energy
reactor
consumption
• Unplanned • Installation of
High
elevation of • Explosion of pressure relief
High pressure in
temperature inside reactor valves at the top
CSTR
reactor of reactor
• Wrong
composition of
• Reduced
reactants leading
4 Pressure product
to more
conversion
exothermic
reaction
• Unplanned • Frequent
Low
reduction of • Reduced maintenance on
Low pressure in
temperature inside reaction rate heating element
CSTR
reactor of CSTR

505
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Washer

TABLE 7. 12 HAZOP Worksheet of Washer

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam. Date: 15th May
2020
Node: Washing Column
Guide
No Parameter Deviation Possible Causes Consequences Action Required
Word
• Increase output/
• Water supplied Overflow of
High level drainage flow to
High into column is too materials in
in Washer wastewater
much column
treatment
• Excessive • Reduce water
removal of supply into
product stream column
1 Level • Reduced • Reduce output/
• Water supplied
Low level in removal drainage flow to
Low into column is too
Washer efficiency of wastewater
low
product stream treatment
• Increase water
supply into
column
• Excessive • Excessive
• Results in
More flow pressure push from pressure push
More overflow at
into column previous unit from previous unit
washing column
operations operations
• Reduced • Frequent and
Less flow • Leakage in removal careful monitoring
Less
into column pipelines efficiency of of pipelines to
product stream detect leakages
• Output
• Installation of
product contains
flow indicators for
higher side
monitoring
product
• Side products
• Blockage of • Regular
and unreacted
No flow pipeline or monitoring and
2 Flow No materials are
into column previous maintenance of
not removed
equipment outlet processing line
from stream

• Installation of
flow indicators for
monitoring

• Backflow of
washed
• Lower pressure products along
Reverse in previous with water, • Implementation
Reverse
flow column equipment at cold contaminating of check valves
temperatures or diluting
reacting
mixtures

506
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Epoxidation Reactor

TABLE 7. 13 HAZOP Worksheet of Epoxidation Reactor

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam.
Date: 15th May 2020
Node: Epoxidation Reactor (CSTR-2)
Guide Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Required
Word Causes
• Excessive
pressure built • Probability to • Ensure level
High flow
More up from overflow of controller and pump
into reactor
previous materials in CSTR is in good condition
equipment
• Pump • Damage of the • Installation of flow
malfunction equipment indicators
• Leakage in • Ensure level
Low flow • Pressure build up
Less pipeline before controller and pump
into reactor in pipeline
entering CSTR is in good condition
• Blockage in • Reduced mixing
• Installation of flow
pipeline efficiency in
indicators
reduces flow reactors

• Ensure level
No flow • Blockage of • No product yield
1 Flow No controller and pump
into reactor pipeline can be produced
is functioning well

• Valve is • Installation of flow

closed indicators

• Contamination of
Reverse product by back
• Blockage of • Implementation of
Reverse flow from mixing with
reactor outlet check valves
reactor materials in
pipelines

• Higher • Ensure seals in

pressure in equipment and
reactor pushing pipelines are in good
the liquid back condition

• Malfunction
of relief valve • Reduced product • Periodic inspection
High
High to release conversion and maintenance on
pressure
excessive desirability relief valve
pressure
2 Pressure
• Unexpected • Periodic inspection
elevation of and maintenance on
temperature heating element
inside reactor inside reactor

507
 TABLE 7. 14 HAZOP Worksheet of Worksheet of Epoxidation Reactor (cont’)

Guide Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Required
Word Causes
• Equipment • Periodic
• Reduced
Low facing inspection and
Low product
pressure pressure maintenance on
conversion
leakage relief valve
2 Pressure • Periodic
• Unexpected
inspection and
drop of
maintenance on
temperature
heating element
inside reactor
inside reactor
•Frequent
• Malfunction • Potentially
maintenance of
High High level of level sensor overflowing of
controller and
and controller reactor
sensor
• Outlet flow
• Lower • Periodic cleaning
is limited due
conversion of and maintenance
to clogging in
products of pipeline
pipelines
3 Level •Frequent
• Valves
• Lowered maintenance of
Low Low level opened too
mixing efficiency controller and
small
sensor
• Lower
• Reactor inlet
conversion of • Periodic cleaning
is limited due
products and and maintenance
to clogging in
higher energy of reactor
entry
consumption
• Excessive
• Increase material
heating at heat
• Reducing flow to minimize
High exchangers
High product heat transfer
temperature due to
conversion duration between
clogged
streams
piping
• Pressure
buildup inside • Implementation
• Flow is too
reactor due to of temperature and
low
4 Temperature increased flow indicators
evaporation
• Ensure heat
• Reducing
• Insufficient exchanger
Low conversion
Low heating at heat surfaces are clean
temperature desirability of
exchangers to maximize heat
targeted product
transfer efficiency
• Implementation
• Flow is too
of temperature
high
indicators

508
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Ring Opening reactor

TABLE 7. 15 HAZOP Worksheet of Ring Opening reactor

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam.
Date: 15th May 2020
Node: Ring-Opening Reactor (CSTR-3)
Guide Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Required
Word Causes
• Excessive
pressure built • Probability to • Ensure level
High flow
More up from overflow of controller and pump
into reactor
previous materials in CSTR is in good condition
equipment
• Pump • Damage of the • Installation of flow
malfunction equipment indicators
• Leakage in • Ensure level
Less flow • Pressure build up
Less pipeline before controller and pump
into reactor in pipeline
entering CSTR is in good condition
• Blockage in • Reduced mixing
• Installation of flow
pipeline efficiency in
indicators
reduces flow reactors

• Ensure level
No flow • Blockage of • No product yield
1 Flow No controller and pump
into reactor pipeline can be produced
is functioning well

• Valve is • Installation of flow

closed indicators

• Contamination of
Reverse product by back
• Blockage of • Implementation of
Reverse flow from mixing with
reactor outlet check valves
reactor materials in
pipelines

• Higher • Ensure seals in

pressure in equipment and
reactor pushing pipelines are in good
the liquid back condition

• Malfunction
of relief valve • Reduced product • Periodic inspection
High
High to release conversion and maintenance on
pressure
excessive desirability relief valve
pressure
2 Pressure
• Unexpected • Periodic inspection
elevation of and maintenance on
temperature heating element
inside reactor inside reactor

509
 TABLE 7. 16 HAZOP Worksheet of Ring Opening reactor (cont’)

Guide Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Required
Word Causes
• Equipment • Periodic
• Reduced
Low facing inspection and
Low product
pressure pressure maintenance on
conversion
leakage relief valve
2 Pressure • Periodic
• Unexpected
inspection and
drop of
maintenance on
temperature
heating element
inside reactor
inside reactor
•Frequent
• Malfunction • Potentially
maintenance of
High High level of level sensor overflowing of
controller and
and controller reactor
sensor
• Outlet flow
• Lower • Periodic cleaning
is limited due
conversion of and maintenance
to clogging in
products of pipeline
pipelines
3 Level •Frequent
• Valves
• Lowered maintenance of
Low Low level opened too
mixing efficiency controller and
small
sensor
• Lower
• Reactor inlet
conversion of • Periodic cleaning
is limited due
products and and maintenance
to clogging in
higher energy of reactor
entry
consumption
• Excessive
• Increase material
heating at heat
• Reducing flow to minimize
High exchangers
High product heat transfer
temperature due to
conversion duration between
clogged
streams
piping
• Pressure
• Flow in buildup inside • Implementation
pipeline is too reactor due to of temperature and
4 Temperature low increased flow indicators
evaporation
• Ensure heat
• Reducing
• Insufficient exchanger
Low conversion
Low heating at heat surfaces are clean
temperature desirability of
exchangers to maximize heat
targeted product
transfer efficiency
• Flow in • Implementation
pipeline is too of temperature
high indicators

510
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Flash Column

TABLE 7. 17 HAZOP Worksheet of Flash Column

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid

polyurethane foam. Date: 15th May 2020
Node: Flash Column Reactor (V-105)
Guide
No Parameter Deviation Possible Causes Consequences Action Required
Word
• Excessive • Frequent maintenance and
High • Explosion of
High compressing by inspection on operation of
pressure column
pump relief valve
• Reduced
• Installation of pressure
separation
• Failure of relief controller and sensor to
efficiency due
valve to open regulate pressure as
to elevation of
alternative control
boiling point
1 Pressure
• Lower • Frequent maintenance and
Low • Malfunction
Low bottoms inspection on operation of
pressure from pump
product relief valve
• Material
• Pressure leakage wastage since • Ensure fittings and gasket
from column and most of the on connectors are in good
or pipeline products were condition
vaporized
• Reduced
High • Internal • Regulate liquid level via
separation
High liquid temperature is too output stream from the
efficiency of
level low bottom
materials
• Reduced
• Internal pressure • Implement level sensor
vapor pressure
is too high and controller
in column
• Reduced
Level • Internal • Increase liquid level via
Low liquid separation
Low temperature is too minimization of output
level efficiency of
2 high stream from the bottom
materials

• Reduced
• Internal pressure • Implement level sensor
vapor pressure
is too low and controller
in column

511
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Washer
TABLE 7. 18 HAZOP Worksheet of Flash Column (cont’)
Guide
No Parameter Deviation Possible Causes Consequences Action Required
Word
• Excessive
High flow • Lower • Ensure level
pressure built up
More into separation controller and pump
from previous
column efficiency is in good condition
equipment
• Pump • Overflow of • Installation of flow
malfunction column indicators
Less flow • Leakage in • Reduced desired • Ensure level
Less into pipeline before product output in controller and pump
column entering column bottoms is in good condition
• Blockage in • Excessive
• Installation of flow
pipeline reduces separation of
indicators
flow products
No flow • Ensure pressure
• Blockage of • No product can
No into controller and pump
pipeline be separated
3 Flow column is functioning well

• Pump is not • Installation of flow

damaged indicators

• Explosion in
previous
Reverse
• Blockage of equipment due to • Implementation of
Reverse flow from
reactor outlet excessively high check valves
column
pressure from
column

• Higher pressure • Ensure seals in

in column equipment and
pushing the liquid pipelines are in good
back condition

• Installing
• Excessive steam • Excessive
High temperature
High supply from material
temperature indicator for
boiler separation
monitoring
• Implementing
• Excessive • Probability for relief valve to
pressure built up explosion of release excessive
in column column pressure and reduce
temperature

4 Temperature • Installing
• Insufficient
Low • Higher bottoms temperature
Low steam supply
temperature product output indicator for
from boiler
monitoring

• Ensure boiler is
• Leakage in • Lower
functioning as
pipeline and separation of
intended to supply
column product
steam

512
[Link] HAZOP Worksheet of Foam Foaming Reactor

TABLE 7. 19 HAZOP Worksheet of Foam Foaming Reactor

Project: Production of 50,000 tons per year of composite rigid polyurethane foam.
Date: 15th May 2020
Node: Ring-Opening Reactor (CSTR-3)
Guide Possible
No Parameter Deviation Consequences Action Required
Word Causes
• Excessive
pressure built • Probability to • Ensure level
High flow
More up from overflow of controller and pump
into reactor
previous materials in CSTR is in good condition
equipment
• Pump • Damage of the • Installation of flow
malfunction equipment indicators
• Leakage in • Ensure level
Less flow • Pressure build up
Less pipeline before controller and pump
into reactor in pipeline
entering CSTR is in good condition
• Blockage in • Reduced mixing
• Installation of flow
pipeline efficiency in
indicators
reduces flow reactors

• Ensure level
No flow • Blockage of • No product yield
1 Flow No controller and pump
into reactor pipeline can be produced
is functioning well

• Valve is • Installation of flow

closed indicators

• Contamination of
Reverse product by back
• Blockage of • Implementation of
Reverse flow from mixing with
reactor outlet check valves
reactor materials in
pipelines

• Higher • Ensure seals in

pressure in equipment and
reactor pushing pipelines are in good
the liquid back condition

• Malfunction
of relief valve • Reduced product • Periodic inspection
High
High to release conversion and maintenance on
pressure
excessive desirability relief valve
2 Pressure pressure
• Unexpected • Periodic inspection
elevation of and maintenance on
temperature heating element
inside reactor inside reactor

513
 TABLE 7. 20 HAZOP Worksheet of Foam Foaming Reactor (cont’)

Guide
No Parameter Deviation Possible Causes Consequences Action Required
Word

• Periodic
• Equipment
Low • Reduced product inspection and
Low facing pressure
pressure conversion maintenance on
leakage
relief valve
2 Pressure
• Periodic
• Unexpected
inspection and
drop of
maintenance on
temperature
heating element
inside reactor
inside reactor
•Frequent
• Malfunction of
• Potentially maintenance of
High High level level sensor and
overflowing of reactor controller and
controller
sensor

• Outlet flow is
• Periodic cleaning
limited due to • Lower conversion of
and maintenance of
clogging in products
pipeline
pipelines
3 Level
•Frequent
• Valves opened • Lowered mixing maintenance of
Low Low level
too small efficiency controller and
sensor

• Reactor inlet is • Lower conversion of • Periodic cleaning

limited due to products and higher and maintenance of
clogging in entry energy consumption reactor

• Increase material
• Excessive
flow to minimize
High heating at heat • Reducing product
High heat transfer
temperature exchangers due to conversion
duration between
clogged piping
streams

• Pressure buildup • Implementation

• Flow in pipeline
inside reactor due to of temperature and
is too low
increased evaporation flow indicators
4 Temperature

• Ensure heat
• Insufficient • Reducing conversion exchanger surfaces
Low
Low heating at heat desirability of targeted are clean to
temperature
exchangers product maximize heat
transfer efficiency
• Implementation
• Flow in pipeline
of temperature
is too high
indicators

514
7.12 Conclusion

Safety is part of the performance, along with quality assurance, reliability management
and financial management and we must be cognizant how all these elements are interrelated
and how decisions in one area impact all others. There are a variety of human roles at play in
production plant that need to be coordinated in order to operate the plant safely. The role of
safety and health committees is importance to develop the data bases, analysis methods, and
institutional incentives needed to foster broader use of risk analysis. Safety and health
committees also can improve the allocations of resources to achieve more balanced reductions
of risks at all stages of the building process, from early planning through continuing operations
and maintenance. A few key points emerged when having a discussion at the various aspects
of safety management systems, there is a need to align our understanding of what an safety
management systems actually is. The safety management systems brings safety to the level of
other corporate management systems. It is an organizational tool that helps to manage safety
in the same way that a financial system helps manage finances.

On the other hand, process safety does help to manage the process on how to handle
the hazardous chemicals by listing some suggested ways to handle any accidents happening.
Hence, OSHA is introduced in the process of safety to ensure the plant and organizations are
working in a safe and smooth way. Safety Audit is crucial in process operational and safety
which it helps to ensure that the company is compliant with the safety legislation. In addition,
the emergency control center should be carried out in the organization as it would help to handle
and solve the emergencies which are happening at the plant or workplace. An organization with
the installation of a fire protection system would help them to prevent the spreading of the fire
so that it would minimize the loss and damage of the property. With the aid of label and sign
which is placed throughout the plant, the operators are able to work in a safe and cautious way
as they will follow the instruction from the label so that they will not cause themselves injury
easily. Subsequently, the importance of MSDS is to safeguard the occupational health which
provides the legal information to the operators so that they have an idea on how to handle any
emergencies happening. The implementation of HAZOP is a technique which helps to identify
the potential hazards in the system and the operational problems for the equipment.

515
 CHAPTER VIII

PROFITABILITY & ECONOMY ANALYSIS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Malaysia is known as third of the largest economies from Southeast Asia after Thailand
and Indonesia and it is developing gradually due to the strong global demand for electronics,
increased demand for commodities such as oil and gas and improvement in the labour market.
Furthermore, Malaysia has successfully diversified the economy from agriculture and
commodity-based to solid manufacturing and service sectors.

Economic analysis is an analysis in which business owners are able to gain a clear
picture of the existing economic climate that is related to stability and improvement of their
company. Hence, businessmen, economists and mathematicians will carry out economic
analysis on behalf of their profit and nonprofit businesses. The purpose of economic analysis
is to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the economy in the market. This analysis can be
performed in small companies as well as it is not limited to large sizes of business and
companies. On the other way round, the small business or companies have the most demand to
perform economic analysis in order to sustain the economic downturn.

Furthermore, economic analysis allowed to incorporate elements from the economic

environment such as inflation, interest rates, exchange rate and growth domestic product (GDP)
into the corporate planning. Hence, it is a proper platform in this economy which is able to
evaluate the overall performance of the organizations by identifying the opportunities or threats
that might be affected to the respective organization so that they can be aware of their economic
status from time to time.

516
 On the other hand, the profitability analysis is to evaluate the profitability for the output
of a company or organization. Normally the output can be classified into the transactions,
products and customers. Hence, profitability analysis can be performed by allocating the total
cost from the respective company and organization which the process can be named as costing.
After the costs are done allocated, the cost will be deducted from the revenues per output unit
and the remainder cost will show the total unit margin of the transactions and products. When
the total profit margin is being calculated, the management of the organization can summarize
the outcome of the profit margin to expand and improve their total sales or profits for future
purposes. First and foremost, the profitability of the plant design will be calculating and
estimating the costs and revenue which is listed as below:

(a) Fixed Capital Investment

(b) Working Capital
(c) Variable Cost of Production
(d) Fixed Cost of Production
(e) Revenue

8.2 ECONOMIC STUDY FOR COST ESTIMATION IN PLANT DESIGN

In the plant design process, equipment costing is one of the crucial processes that must
be done by every organization so that they have a rough idea on estimating the overall cost that
should be spent in the plant design process. Thus, organizations are able to tally their estimated
cost with the real estimation cost so that they can prepare the funds for their development and
expansion for the future plan of their organization. Hence, cost estimation is procedures able
to help to support the cost of purchasing and installing the equipment. Moreover, these costs
are known as private costs as it reflects the choices and decisions of the owners from the
organization. Hence, the owner is able to estimate the money that they have to spend in order
to purchase the equipment that they require for their plant.

517
There are few criteria that must know before proceed with the cost estimation:
1. Design parameters such as size and capacity
2. Utility requirement such as electricity, water and waste disposal
3. Location of the plant
4. Economic parameters which is equipment life, annual interest rate
5. Sketching of the process flow sheet which shown the total number of equipment in the
system

Costing estimation will be classified as two types which is direct cost and indirect cost that will
shown as follow:

(a) Direct Cost

● Equipment: heat exchanger, pump, tanks and others
● Installation of equipment
● Piping
● Electrical equipment

(b) Indirect Cost

● Contingency
● Expenses of the construction
● Start-up expenses
● Engineering and supervision

On the other hand, the economic study will be applied in the cost estimation in order to
identify and estimate the profitability of the plant life. Study from Smith and DuPont showed
that a normal lifetime of the plant will last from 25 until 50 years depending on how the owner
takes care and handles their plant. The examples of economic study will be stated as follow:

1. Net Present Value

518
2. Cash Flow Analysis
3. Return of Investment
4. Payback Time

8.3 CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST

TABLE 8. 1 Land Purchasing Cost

Size of Plant (acre) Size of Plant (ft2) Total Land Cost (RM)

5 217,800 3,920,400

Remark:
(a) 1 acre = 43560 ft2
(b) RM18.00 per square feet for land price at Pahang

TABLE 8. 2 Equipment Costing

Equipment Tag No. Quantity Equipment Cost Total Purchasing

per unit (RM) Cost (RM)

CSTR Reactor CSTR-1 1 179850.34 179850.34

CSTR-2 1 258702.39 258702.39

CSTR-3 1 258702.39 258702.39

CSTR-4 1 43448.68 43448.68

Neutralization V-101 1 25594.96 25594.96

Reactor
V-102 1 24768.95 24768.95

V-103 1 25217.49 25217.49

519
 Heat HX-101 5 543319.45 2716597.25
Exchanger HX-102
HX-104
HX-105
HX-106

Flash V-105 1 359492 359492.00

Separator

Washing WSH-101 3 15219.49 45658.49

Column
WSH-102
Reactor
WSH-103

Pump PM-101 12 1192252.14 14307025.72

PM-102
PM-103
PM-104
PM-105
PM-106
PM-107
PM-108
PM-109
PM-110
PM-111
PM-112

Mixer MX-101 1 91801.36 91801.36

TOTAL 29 18,336,860.02

Based on Table 8.2, the total cost for all of the equipment is RM 18,336,860.02. Thus,
other additional factors that also need to be taken into consideration such as equipment erection,

520
piping, instrumentation control, electrical and others in order to evaluate the capital cost for the
entire project in the plant. The full list of the factors can be referred to the Figure 8.1.

Contingency Fee can be calculated based on the formula and factor given by 0.1 by refer to the
Figure 8.1

Contingency Fee= ( 0.1 x ΣCe )

=0.1 x RM 18,336,860.02
= RM 1,833,686.00

FIGURE 8. 1 Factor List for the Estimation of the Capital Cost

[Adapted from Chemicalengineeringprojects.,n.d]

PPC = PCE (1 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 + f5 + f6 + f7 + f8 + f9)

= RM (1 + 0.4 + 0.7 + 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.15 +0.5 + 0.15 + 0.05 + 0.15)
= RM 18,336,860.02 (3.4)
= RM 62,345,324.07

Fixed Capital Cost = PPC ( 1 + f10 + f11 + f12)

= RM 62,345,324.07 (1 + 0.3 + 0.05 + 0.1)
521
 = RM 62,345,324.07 (1.45)
= RM 90,400,719.90

5% of working capital is included in the overall costing which is assumed by R. K. Sinnott

and Gavin Towler in the plant design process.

Working Capital = RM 90,400,719.90x 5%

= RM 4,520,036.00

Last but not least, total investment cost will be the final summation that is included in the
project with the overall cost for the fixed capital cost, working capital cost and land purchased
cost.

Total Investment Cost = Fixed Capital + Working Capital + Land Purchased Cost
= RM(90,400,719.90 + 4,520,036.00 + 3,920,400)
= RM 98,841,155.90

8.4 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST

A company should be able to keep a fair and correct financial history in order to run a
business successfully. There are two types of expenses included in the overall manufacturing
cost which are direct and indirect manufacturing expenses. Direct expenses is an expense that
is related to the production output of the services and anything that is related to what company
has purchased. Direct costs are the costs which vary depending on the volume of production,
it increases as production increases and decreases as output decreases. Direct expenses that
need to be addressed in any business are very much the same throughout. Indirect expenses are
the costs incurred in the daily operation of a business which are not related to the products. It
is the expenses that have to be paid by a company and does not change as a function of the
activity of a business or plant operating activity.

522
8.4.1 Direct Manufacturing Expenses (Variable)

The direct expenses of the polyurethane foam production plant include the cost of
materials, miscellaneous material, and utilities which will affect the costing of the products
sold. The calculation and estimation for some costs are shown in the following section.

[Link] Raw materials

TABLE 8. 3 Total cost of raw materials

[Adapted from Alibaba Group, 2020]

Raw Consumption Unit price Raw materials

Materials
(tonne/year) (RM/tonne) costs (RM)

Boron 792.00 20416.80 16,170,105.60

Trifluoride
([Link], 2020.)
Etherate
Complex

Ethylene 5148.00 4260.00 21,930,480.00

Diamine

Ethylene 10454.40 3196.50 33,417,489.60

Glycol

Glycerol 7722.00 2557.20 19,746,698.40

523
 Hydrochloric 500.31 383.58 191,908.91
acid

Palm Olein 11880.00 639.30 7,594,884.00

MDI 14256.00 6393.00 91,138,608.00

Isocyanate

NaHCO3 198.86 767.16 152,557.44

Performic Acid 3960.00 1193.36 4,725,705.60

Sodium 2631.36 85.24 224,297.13

Chloride

Sodium 237.60 426.20 101,265.12

Hydroxide

TDI Isocyanate 16632.00 4262.00 70,885,584.00

Water 4989.60 1.21 6,037.42

Total Raw Material Cost RM266,285,621.20

[Link] Miscellaneous material

524
 The miscellaneous materials needed for the plant daily operation which include all
types of PPE (safety clothing, safety glasses, etc), cleaning materials or equipment and
accessories. The miscellaneous materials were calculated to be 10 % of the maintenance cost
of the plant. (Saeed,W., 2020.)

Miscellaneous materials = 0.10 × RM5,319,561.44 = RM531,956.14

[Link] Utilities

a.) Electricity

The power requirements are obtained from the energy balance calculations made in
CHAPTER 2. The unit price of electricity for chemical industries in Malaysia is RM0.36/kWh.
The electricity consumption of the pumps in the polyurethane foam production facility are
shown in Table 8.4.

TABLE 8. 4 Summary of electricity consumption

Equipment Electricity Unit Price Utility Cost

Consumption (RM/kWh) (RM/year)
(kWh/year)

Pump (PM101) 1019.20 0.36 366.91

Pump (PM102) 9.86 0.36 3.55

Pump (PM103) 487.14 0.36 175.37

Pump (PM104) 1123.51 0.36 404.46

525
 Pump (PM105) 236.63 0.36 85.19

Pump (PM106) 53.96 0.36 19.43

Pump (PM107) 3.56 0.36 1.28

Pump (PM108) 1158.71 0.36 417.14

Pump (PM109) 63.19 0.36 22.75

Pump (PM110) 226.47 0.36 81.53

Pump (PM111) 727.90 0.36 262.04

Pump (PM112) 2804.30 0.36 1009.55

Neutralization Tank 4857.22 0.36 1748.60

(V101)

Neutralization Tank 4295.51 0.36 1546.38

(V102)

Neutralization Tank 4626.34 0.36 1665.48

(V103)

Total Electricity Cost RM7,809.66

526
b.) Cooling Water

Cooling water is usually used as coolant in order to maintain the process. Some of the
advantages of utilization of water sources are water can easily obtained at low cost and
affordable as water is found with abundance. The water required for general purposes on a site
will be obtained from local supply in Gebeng Industrial Estate, Kuantan, Pahang. The cooling
consumption is obtained from CHAPTER 2 and the unit cost is estimated to be $0.10/1000 gal.
or RM0.43/1000 gal. (Elsevier, 2013) The calculation of cooling water is stated below:

1000 gal of water = 3785 liters and has mass roughly 3785 kg, so:

762454.90
Water flow rate= =201.44 thousand gallons per year
3785

The annual cost = 0.43 x 201.44 = RM85.64/year

TABLE 8. 5 Summary of cooling water consumption

Type of Utility Cooling Water

Cooling Consumption 762454.90kg/year

Water Flow Rate 201.44 thousand gal/year

Unit Price RM0.43/1000 gal

Total Cost RM85.64/year

527
c.) Heating Steam

Steam is used as the heating medium to heat up process streams. The steam for process
heating is usually generated in water tube boilers by using the most economical fuel available.
The heating consumption is obtained from CHAPTER 2 and the estimated unit cost for high
pressure steam is RM23.26/1000 lb and low-pressure steam is RM17.13/1000 lb. (Elsevier,
2013) The calculation of cooling water is stated below:

For High Pressure Steam:

kg lb 23.26 RM
Annual cost per kW = 519481.04 (year)x 2.205(kg )x ( )
1000 ib

= RM26643.30/year

For Low Pressure Steam:

kg lb 17.13 RM
Annual cost per kW = 2015299.12 (year)x 2.205(kg )x ( )
1000 ib

= RM76121.17/year

TABLE 8. 6 Summary of heating steam consumption

Type of Utility Steam (High P) Steam (Low P)

Heating Consumption 519481.04kg/year 2015299.12kg/year

Unit Price RM23.26/1000 lb RM17.13/1000 lb

Total Cost RM 26643.30/year RM76121.17/year

528
d.) Total Utility Consumption and Cost

The total utility consumption of the plant and its associated cost are shown below.

This includes electricity utilities, cooling water utilities and heating steam utilities.

TABLE 8. 7 Total utility consumption of the plant and its associated cost

Utilities Annual Consumption Unit Price Annual Utility Cost

(unit/year) (RM/unit) (RM/year)

Electricity 21693.43kWh/year RM0.36/kWh 7,809.66

Cooling water 762454.90kg/year RM0.43/1000 gal 85.64

Steam (High P) 519481.04kg/year RM23.26/1000 lb 26,643.30

Steam (Low P) 2015299.12kg/year RM17.13/1000 lb 76,121.17

Total Utilities Cost RM110,659.77

529
8.4.2 Indirect Manufacturing Expenses (Fixed)

The indirect expenses of the polyurethane foam production plant include the operating
labor, maintenance, supervision, tax, laboratory costs, insurance, plant overhead, license fees
and royalty payments. The calculation and estimation for some costs are shown in the following
section.

[Link] Maintenance of plant

The maintenance cost of the plant will include the cost of maintenance labour and the
equipment tools that needed for the maintenance of the plant. The maintenance cost is estimated
to be 6% of fixed capital. (Turton et al., 2013).

Maintenance cost = 0.06 × RM 90,400,719.90 = RM5,424,043

[Link] Operating labour

The operating labour involves all the manpower that is needed for this polyurethane
foam manufacturing plant which is directly involved with plant operation. The number of
workers required per shift, NOL can be estimated by where P is the number of processing steps

involving particulate solids and N np is the number of other processing steps (Turton et al.,

2013). For each of the NOL operators per 8-hour shift, approximately 4.5 operators must be
hired for a plant that runs 24 hours per day, to account for the 3 shifts per day and the 3 weeks
of leave typically taken by each operator per year (Turton et al., 2013). The total number of
workers required per shift is calculated by using the equation stated below:

NOL = (6.29 + 31.7P2 +0.23Nnp)0.5

530
NOL = [(6.29+31.7(3)2 + 0.23(12)] 0.5

= 17.16 ≈ 17

Total number of worker required = 17×4.5

=76.5 ≈ 77

The operating labour includes the calculation of annum salary of all the staffs and
workers within the offices and production line. The given salary is based on the salary range
market survey for general job positions that involve in the plant, the salary list in Malaysia is
tabulated and total annum salaries paid for each person is shown in the table below.

TABLE 8. 8 Operating labour cost

Job Position Annual Salary Number of Staffs Fixed Cost (RM)

(RM)

Manager 100,000 2 200,000

Supervisor 36,000 4 144,000

Technician 24,000 4 96,000

Engineers 50,000 4 200,000

Administration 30,000 3 90,000

Clerks

Safety and Health 45,000 2 90,000

Officer

531
 Workers 18,000 77 1,386,000

Total Operating Labour RM2,206,000

[Link] Plant overhead

Plant overheads include all the general costs that are associated with operating the plant
that do not include other headings as above such as, payroll, employee benefits, and janitorial
services. It is assumed to take as 70% of the operating labour cost and added to 4% of the fixed
capital costs (Turton et al., 2013).

Plant overheads = (0.70 × RM2,206,000) + (0.04× RM88,659,357.32) = RM5,090,574.29

[Link] Laboratory

The annual cost of the laboratory analyses required for process monitoring and quality
control is a significant item in most modern chemical plants. The laboratory costs are estimated
to be 20% of operating labour. (Saeed,W., 2020.)

Laboratory costs = 0.20 × RM2,206,000 = RM441,200.00

532
[Link] Insurances

This section covers the insurance where it is usually calculated based on the value of
the site and the plant insurance. The insurance is estimated to be 3 % of fixed capital. (Turton
et al., 2013).

Insurances = 0.03 × RM90,400,719.90 =RM2,712,021.60

[Link] Local taxes

This term covers local taxes, which are calculated on the value of the site. The local
taxes are estimated to be 3% of fixed capital cost. (Turton et al., 2013).

Local taxes = 0.03 × RM90,400,719.90 = RM2,712,021.60

[Link] Capital Charges

The investment required for the project is recovered as a charge on the project. The
capital charges are estimated to be 10 % of the fixed capital cost. (Saeed,W., 2020.)

Capital charges = 0.10× RM90,400,719.90 =RM9,040,072.00

533
8.4.3 General Manufacturing Cost

[Link] Annual Production Cost

The general manufacturing costs are the total amount of direct costs and indirect costs
that have been calculated from the previous section. The summary of production costs are listed
in Table 8.9.
TABLE 8. 9 Annual Production Cost

No. Items References Price (RM/year)

1 Raw materials Table 8.3 266,285,621.20

2 Miscellaneous 10% of maintenance cost 531,956.14

materials

3 Utilities Table 8.7 110,659.77

4 Maintenance of plant 6% of fixed capital cost 5,424,043.00

5 Operating labour Table 8.8 2,206,000.00

6 Laboratory 20 % of operating labour 441,200.00

534
 7 Plant overheads 70% of operating labour 5,090,574.29
and 4% of fixed capital
cost

8 Insurance 3% of fixed capital cost 2,712,021.60

9 Local taxes 3% of fixed capital cost 2,712,021.60

10 Capital charges 10% of fixed capital cost 9,040,072.00

Total Cost of Annual Production RM294,554,169.60

[Link] Revenue

The production rate of the polyurethane foam from the production plant is
approximately 50,981.04 tonne/year of polyurethane foam with a density with an estimated
density of 50 kg/m3 valued at RM341.40/m3(Alibaba Group, 2020). So, the total price of
polyurethane foam is RM6,828.00/tonne. The total revenue of the production facility is
calculated in Table 8.10.

TABLE 8. 10 Revenue from product

Product Price (RM/tonne) Production rate Product Revenue

Material (tonnes/year) (RM/year)

Polyurethane Foam 6,828.00 50,981.04 348,098,541.10

535
 Total Revenues RM348,098,541.10

[Link] Profits

There are several standards for calculating gross profits of the company. The annual
production costs is the sum of the direct and indirect manufacturing costs.

Gross Profit= Revenue – Annual production cost

= RM348,098,541.10 - RM294,554,169.60

= RM53,544,371.50

Finally, the net profit can be calculated by subtracting the income taxes that the plant
would be subject to depending on the tax code of the county the plant is located in. According
to Malaysia taxation, the standard charge for corporate is 24% of the gross profit.

Net Profits= Gross profit - Taxes

= RM53,544,371.50 - (RM53,544,371.50 x 0.24)

= RM53,544,371.50 - RM12,850,649.16

= RM40,693,722.34

536
8.5 CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

The purpose of the cash flow statement is to show where entities cash is being
generated (cash inflow), and where its cash is being spent (cash outflows), over a specific
period (usually quarterly or annually). It is important to analyze the liquidity and long-term
solvency of a company.

A cash flow statement is one of the most important financial statements for a project or
business. The statement can be as simple as a one-page analysis or may involve several
schedules that feed information into a central statement. A cash flow statement is a listing of
the flows of cash into and out of the business or project. Deposit are the cash inflow and
withdrawals (checks) are the cash outflows. A cash flow statement is not only concerned with
the amount of cash flow but also the timing of the flow. Many cash flows are constructed with
multiple time periods. For example, it may list monthly cash inflow and outflow over a year’s
time. It not only projects cash balance remaining at the end of the year but also the cash balance
of each month. In this report, a span of 15 years is used to analyze the company’s cash flow.
Table 8.11 shows the annual cash flows of the Biopolyol-composite rigid foam plant.

537
 TABLE 8. 11 Annual cash flow for Biopolyol-composite rigid foam plant

Working Cash Flow

Fixed Capital Production Net Cash Flow
Year Capital Revenue (RM) Gross Profit Tax (RM) After Tax
(RM) Cost (RM) (RM)
(RM) (RM)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 94,321,119.90 0 0 0 0 0 0 -94,321,119.90
2 0 4,520,036.00 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 49,024,335.50 11,765,840.52 37,258,494.98 -61,582,660.92
3 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 -20,888,938.58
4 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 19,804,783.76
5 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 60,498,506.10
6 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 101,192,228.44
7 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 141,885,950.78
8 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 182,579,673.12
9 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 223,273,395.46
10 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 263,967,117.80
11 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 304,660,840.14
12 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 345,354,562.48
13 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 386,048,284.82
14 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 426,742,007.16
15 0 0 294,554,169.60 348,098,541.10 53,544,371.50 12,850,649.16 40,693,722.34 467,435,729.50
Initial investment includes fixed capital and land price

Tax rate is 24% of gross profit (referring to Malaysian standard corporate tax rate)

538
8.5.1 Payback period

The simplest method to identify the point where a company or project can generate
clean profit from the respective production process is by conducting a break-even analysis.
This helps to locate the point of intersection of plot the vertical axis which represents the year,
indicating at that specific point, the clean profit obtain is equivalent to that of the cost
accumulated previously. Figure 8.2 indicates the break-even point for this project.

Graph of Cash Flow against Years for Payback Period

500000000

400000000

300000000
Cash flow (RM)

200000000

100000000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-1E+08

-2E+08
Years

FIGURE 8. 2 Graph for cash flow

Cash flow diagrams can be generated to illustrate cash transactions taking place
throughout the life of given project. Incoming and or outgoing transactions comprises of initial
investment, maintenance cost and profits etc from production activities, as well as value
salvaged at the end of the project life. Table 8.12 is tabulated to determine the payback period
of this project, by using break-even point or also known as intersection point at horizontal axis
where net cash flow is zero. This represents the time required for paying off all the capital
investments and generating clean profits. The number of years can be identified either by rough
estimation graphically or interpolated for more accurate results.

539
 TABLE 8. 12 Payback period by interpolation

Net Cash Flow

Year
(RM)
3 -20,888,938.58
X 0
4 19,804,783.76

When calculated by interpolating the data obtained, payback period required is found to be
3.51, rounding up to 4 years.

8.5.2 Net Present Value (NPV)

The net present value (NPV) can be calculated as below:

C1 C2 CT
NPV = −Co + + 2
+⋯+
1 + r (1 + r) (1 + r)T

Where,

−Co = initial investment

C = cash flow

R = discounted rate

T=time (year)

Net Present Value (NPV) is the value of all future cash flows over the entire life of an
investment discounted to the present. NPV analysis is a form of intrinsic valuation and is used
extensively across finance and accounting for determining the value of a project. NPV is the

540
difference between the present value of cash inflows and the present value of cash outflows
over a period of time.

Generally, an investment with a positive NPV will be profitable, and an investment

with a negative NPV will result in a net loss. A positive NPV indicates that the value of the
revenues is greater than the cost which means the investor makes profit whereby a negative
NPV indicates cost greater than revenue which is a loss for the investor.

8.5.3 Discounted Cash Flow

As for this production plant, six different interest rates which are 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
20% and 30% are chosen. The discounted cash flow profiles for various interest rates are
tabulated in Table 8.13. The cumulative discounted cash flow obtained is then used to plot a
graph to illustrate the different Discounted Break-Even Period (DBEP) and net present value
(NPV). Discounted break-even point is the time from the decision to proceed until discounted
cumulative cash flow becomes positive. Meanwhile, net present value is the final cumulative
discounted cash flow value at project conclusion.

541
 TABLE 8. 13 Discounted cash flow for different cumulative

Discounted Cash Flow for :

Year
0% Cumulative 5% Cumulative 10% Cumulative 15% Cumulative 20% Cumulative 30% Cumulative
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1 -94321119.90 -89829638.00 -85746472.64 -82018365.13 -78600933.25 -72554707.62
2 -61582660.92 -55857288.82 -50894761.09 -46565339.07 -42765736.75 -36439444.33
3 -20888938.58 -18044650.54 -15694168.73 -13734816.19 -12088506.12 -9507937.45
4 19804783.76 16293444.61 13526933.79 11323449.39 9550918.09 6934205.30
5 60498506.10 47402162.56 37564812.45 30078449.75 24312992.74 16294006.65
6 101192228.44 75511198.88 57120374.88 43748192.85 33889072.56 20964622.47
7 141885950.78 100835696.23 72809927.51 53340184.34 39597764.86 22611841.29
8 182579673.12 123577109.47 85174764.99 59685619.01 42462196.60 22382346.09
9 223273395.46 143924021.47 94689715.26 63468233.94 43271879.85 21054590.85
10 263967117.80 162052912.12 101770750.90 65248634.44 42632163.22 19147686.46
11 304660840.14 178128883.43 106781765.88 65484782.81 41003688.81 16999641.39
12 345354562.48 192306342.93 110040606.64 64549237.08 38733812.44 14823302.46
13 386048284.82 204729647.82 111824436.97 62743638.91 36081570.18 12746121.30
14 426742007.16 215533712.01 112374508.01 60310875.18 33237469.43 10838232.50
15 467435729.50 224844578.15 111900397.23 57445273.34 30339136.43 9132120.24

542
 Discounted break-even point (DBEP) is the time at which the decision to proceed until
discounted cumulative cash flow becomes positive and the net present value is the final
cumulative discounted cash flow value at project conclusion. The discounted break-even point
is also called as discounted cash flow rate of return when net present value is equivalent to 0.
This rate of return is equivalent to the maximum interest rate that is normally counter after
taxes. This is because money could be borrowed to finance the project under conditions where
the net cash flow to the project over its life would be sufficient to pay all principal and interest
accumulated on the outstanding principal. As mentioned above, a graph of cumulative
discounted annual cash flow for different rate of return against time is plotted and shown in
Figure 8.3.

FIGURE 8. 3 Cash flow diagram with various interest rates

543
 TABLE 8. 14 Summary of cash flow analysis for various interest rate, i
Rate of interest, i Discounted break-even Net Present Value (RM)
point

0% 4 years 19804783.76
5% 4 years 16293444.61
10% 4 years 13526933.79
15% 4 years 11323449.39
20% 4 years 9550918.09
30% 4 years 6934205.30

8.5.4 Return of Investment

As we can see from calculations done in payback period done earlier, this plant will
generate its profit as it approaches the beginning of the fourth year. Another crucial component
which should be highlighted for the planning of plant economics is the Return of investment
index, ROI. In short, this allows us to know how fast we can recover our initial investment to
start accumulating profits.

Project cumulative net cash flow

Return of Investment = × 100%
Project life × Investment
RM 467435729.50
= 𝑋 100%
15 × RM 98841155.90
= 31.53%

544
8.5.5 Salvage Value

Salvage value is the estimated amount that an asset is worth at the end of its useful life.
It is also known as scrap value or residual value, and is used to determine the annual
depreciation expense of an asset. Salvage value is estimated based on the formula below,

S = P(1 − i)y
Where,

S= Salvage value

P= Original Investment

i= Depreciation rate

y= Estimated operating life of the plant

Therefore, salvage value after 15 years is calculated by,

Initial capital investment cost = RM 98,841,155.90

Estimated operating life of the plant = 15 years

Estimated depreciation rate = 15%

S = 98841155.90(1 − 0.15)15 = RM 8,634,191.99

545
8.6 CONCLUSION

Total capital investment for this production plant is RM 98,841,155.90. Annual

product revenue is calculated to be RM 348,098,541.10 with production cost of biopolyol-
composite rigid foam at RM 294,554,169.60. Payback period is from 3.51 years after start up.
When different discount rates are considered, the discounted break-even point (DBEP) was
constant. With the period of 15 years, the rate of return is 31.53 % annually from the first year
of plant operation. Salvage value is calculated to be RM 8,634,191.99 for 15 years of plant
operation.

546
 CHAPTER IX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

9.1 CONCLUSION

The production of palm based composite rigid polyurethane (PU) foam using palm
olein was proposed in the relevance to the theme given. It is expected to produce about 50,000
tonnes per year of palm based composite rigid polyurethane foam annually by the raw material
of palm-based polyol. The raw materials used in the process are primarily palm olein, glycerol
and sodium hydroxide. Ethylene Diamine, Ethylene Glycol, Glycerol, Hydrochloric Acid,
Linolein-olein-olein triglyceride, Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, Sodium Bicarbonate,
Performic Acid, Sodium Chloride, Sodium Hydroxide, Toluene diisocyanate, water are the raw
materials while the product of the process is composite rigid polyurethane foam which has
purity at least 80%.

Extensive research on the availability of raw materials and market demand for
composite rigid polyurethane foam which forecasted to be strong for the upcoming years were
conducted to ensure the plant running in reality. Based on the market survey analysis, it is
decided that the production rate will be set to 50,000 tonnes per year of composite rigid
polyurethane foam with the purity at least 80%. The environmental impact, economics and
social concerns are taken into consideration in order to make the most suitable process selection
between the various methods and pathways. The site screening for running the plant is studied
according to some of the factors for instance raw materials availability, transportation
availability, energy and utilities, infrastructure, geographical profile price, labor static, market
demand, government influence and the climate. From all the evaluations made based on the
factors above, Gebeng Industrial Estate in Pahang is selected wisely as an ideal location to set
up the plant by comparing with Teluk Kalong and Tanjung Langsat. The most important criteria

547
to select Gebeng Industrial Estate are the safety facilities in surrounding such as hospital and
fire station, the availability of transportation and the cheapest site characterization.

A screening of alternative processes is conducted to select the most sustainable process

for all the three main reactions which is the transesterification reaction, epoxidation reaction
and ring-opening reaction. For the transesterification reaction, a screening between non-
catalytic transesterification, catalytic transesterification with acid base and alkali base were
analysed. Based on the comparison, the transesterification by alkali base is selected to be used
in the production of polyols from palm olein due to its lower operating condition with high
conversion and yield within a short time. For epoxidation reaction, chemoenzymatic
epoxidation and epoxidation with acid catalyst were compared. Epoxidation with acid catalyst
was selected and performic acid is the best epoxidation agent for the epoxidation process on
palm olein. The disinfecting action of performic acid is faster than that of the related
compounds peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. For the ring opening reaction, ring opening
by using ethylene glycol and K10 Montmorillonite catalyst were compared and analysed. Ring
opening using ethylene glycol is selected because it can produce high yield products with low
consumption of catalyst. Moreover, this process is safer and environmentally friendly.

Furthermore, an optimization of the plant is done by drawing a process flow diagram.

All necessary amendments and improvements are adjusted using the checklist method. The
material and energy balance are compared in both manual calculation and SuperPro Designer
auto generated values. Both methods are used for comparison in terms of error and verify the
manual calculation is valid. The heat integration system is designed and optimized in order to
improve the whole plant running by energy recovery and utility cost saving. From the finding
of the optimization of chemical plants in heat integration study, the total 59.068kW was saved
and 27.14% of the overall energy requirement was saved after heat integration. The waste that
was produced from the plant was treated before releasing to the surrounding due to the
environmental feasibility. For instance, the crude glycerol, a major by-product is treated and
processed to be recycled back to the production.

548
 Next, detailed equipment sizing and costing was done for five major equipment
involved in the design project. The five major equipment selected in order to do the sizing and
costing are the transesterification reactor, epoxidation reactor, ring-opening reactor, flash
column and heat exchanger. Assumptions, theoretical framework were well discussed and the
mechanical sizing and rough dimensions of equipment were obtained. The detailed designs of
each equipment including in calculation are analyzed by material selection, thickness, wind
loading, stress and skirt support. The sizing and costing of these equipment are listed in Chapter
5 and the sizing as well as the costing calculations are done in order to estimate the capital cost
of the project.

Process control design for each equipment in the plant was also performed in Chapter
6. The process control design must be performed in order to control the process parameters
such as temperature, flow, pH, composition and pressure to ensure good quality control,
minimize wastage and maintain high safety levels. Lastly, the piping and instruments diagram
is drawn in the completed process flow diagram according to the requirements and safety of
each unit operation.

HAZOP is a prediction of failures around all the equipment. Possible deviations, causes
and consequences were identified through HAZOP, simultaneously solutions for these failures
were identified based on the causes of each failure, the HAZOP tables for all equipment in the
composite rigid polyurethane foam production plant are listed and explained in Chapter 7. In
addition, the plant safety concerns and evaluation procedures are locked in accordance to
fundamental criteria for instance personal protective equipment (PPE), general personnel
safety, fire hazards, emergency response and prevention of leakage for all the chemicals used
in production. The evaluation is made carefully through HAZOP on each operation unit. This
may assist to cover the safety part in plant building by emphasizing HAZOP.

The product selling price is listed below in TABLE 9.1 which shows that the product
price is significantly higher than the raw material price, which indicated a high economic
potential for this production facility.

549
 TABLE 9. 1Price of Raw Material and Product

Material Price

Total Raw Material Cost RM266,285,621.20 / year

Polyurethane Foam
RM348,098,541.10 / year

For a chemical plant that can run in a long period, the profitability from the production
is important. The economic analysis is performed by using the economic study and estimation
of gross profit. The capital cost is estimated based on the costs of equipment and installation
of the plant equipment and land cost. The annual product revenue is calculated to be RM
348,098,541.10 with production of 50,000 tonnes per year with a selling price of RM6,828.00
per tonne. Additionally, the payback period of the project is 3.51, rounding up to 4 years after
start-up. When different discount rates are considered, the net present value (NPV) and
discounted break-even point (DBEP) varies. In this project, the discounted cash flow rate of
return is 30% when the NPV becomes zero. With the period of 15 years, the rate of return is
31.53% annually from the first year of the plant operation. Salvage value is calculated to be
RM 8,634,191.99 for 15 years of plant operation. In conclusion, the plant is determined to be
operated successfully with realistic proposals and methods in overall performance and
profitable production of useful products.

550
9.2 FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

Based on the plant design, outcomes and the conclusion of the study, there are several
recommendations to be suggested to improve the plant operation in a more efficient, economic,
and environmental-friendly way.

The noteworthy problems might have appeared due to insufficient information in the
design for example unexpected physical properties. So that the necessary team of engineers are
readily available to ensure the intent of design and to inspect the performance of the plant
against all the expectations is important in a plant. The operating procedures are recommended
to be rewritten in a more complete picture to show how the plant will perform safely in high
efficiency.

Besides, the designed plant requires a large amount of utilities such as water and
electricity. It is suggested that more effort can be made to further reduce the utilities
consumption through process integration and energy saving approaches. Research and study
can be carried out to investigate feasibility of other alternative utilities that are more
economical but able to achieve the similar duty.

Moreover, due to time constraint of this project, material requirements or “take offs”
(eg. tons of concrete, ft of cable, ft of piping. etc.), and man hours for installation were not
presented in this report. Modern 3D plant modelling software is database driven and produces
the necessary material take offs for the piping and civil engineering groups. It would be
recommended to produce a rough 3D model, complete with preliminary piping, at final design
stage. The design team will have to provide some convincingly accurate line sizes as input to
the piping model.

551
 Design engineers should also find ways to modify the plant in order to in-cooperate
different feedstock instead of palm-based materials only. This would come in handy when raw
material is out of stock. Alternative process as newer technology is developed and patented
almost every year, a means of comparing the available choices on the efficiency of the process
should be performed, leading to the sustainable development of the plant. Hence the process
can be used for all other processes as well to ensure the production of bio-polyol is able to meet
consumer demand.

552
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APPENDIX

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Appendix A : Turnitin Report

563
Appendix B : List of Comments and Amendments for PDP A Report

Examiner Remarks Actions taken

To improve the PFD diagram. Some errors found in the At pg.290 and 293, the number of heat exchange units is
Dr. Lee Kiat PFD diagram presented. For instance, the mixer is fixed at 5 which consists of 3 heat exchanger, 1 heater
Moon without tank, the number of heat exchangers is not tally and 1 cooler. The PFD diagram is constructed base on
with the P&ID diagram. the number of heat exchange unit.
To include important criteria such as accessibility of raw
Dr. Lee Kiat materials, terminal port (if to export) or suppliers for Accessiblity of the raw material, terminal port and name of the
Moon product selling, and other relevant information in site supplier have added for the site selection
selection.
Please identify and list the operating conditions for all
Dr. Lee Kiat the unit operations. Please check and verify the operating Vacuum dryer is eliminated. The operating conditions are listed
Moon conditions for vacuum dryer as it should not be in PFD
atmospheric pressure.
Dr. Lee Kiat To revise Chapter 4 Waste Management. It was poorly The whole chapter 4 was revised, all the sections were
Moon presented. ammended accordingly.
Dr. Lee Kiat Please be consistence in decimal points or significant
The numbering was fixed to 3 decimal places for whole report
Moon figures when reporting the numeric values.
Dr. Lee Kiat To revise the title. Besides, the production capacity
Latest title has been updated accordinglly.
Moon should specify the time frame.
Dr. Lee Kiat
Please be consistent in the citation style in report. Edited accordingly
Moon
Please check both manual and simulation calculation for All large deviations has been justified accordingly, 900%
Dr. Lee Kiat
material balances. As reported, the error was greater than deviation is due to error in calculation and is not updated.
Moon
900% for few streams. Please provide your justification. Calculations are done as justification in Chapter 2.6 at pg179.

564
 Please decide a suitable waste treatment. Chapter 4 not
solely summarize the theory of each waste treatment
method, but to propose a suitable treatment scheme for
Dr. Lee Kiat The whole chapter 4 was revised, all the sections were
the wastes generated in your plant. Please remove
Moon ammended accordingly.
irrelevant information in this chapter such as methanol
removal as the report did not mentioned that methanol
was used throughout the process line.
The title has been revised to 50,000 tons/year palm based
composite rigid polyurethane foam. The amount is selected to
promote usage of palm oil along with local initiative, as well as
Dr. Yeap Swee Justify why ‘8 tonne/year’ is being selected as the yield introducing a more environmental friendly alternative to
Pin of your company? existing petrochemical based PU foam. This amount will be
good to act as a starting point since we need to get a more
accurate market demand from our sales before proceeding to
larger scale production.
Dr. Yeap Swee State clearly all raw material used in this project.
At page 101, the list of raw materials is stated
Pin Including KOH, catalysts and etc.
Justify the meaning of CP10 (specification) and is the CP
value affecting your production? Will your production
Dr. Yeap Swee All specification and justification of the reason that choosing
become poorer if you were to use palm oil of CP8, CP7,
Pin palm olein CP10 is stated at page 80.
CP6? If no different, then why not your team choose the
specification with cheapest price?
Revise PFD (To include a tank for the agitator) Ensure
Dr. Yeap Swee PFD has been updated accordingly to advise given during
your PFD is tally to the diagram shown in superpro
Pin presentation. Chapter 2.1 at page 119
simulation.
Dr. Yeap Swee Ensure the operating temperature and pressure of all the
Vacuum dryer is eliminated
Pin vacuum dryers are known.
Dr. Yeap Swee Variance percentage calculation for mass balance and energy
Double check all variance % calculation.
Pin balance were recalculated and amended accordingly

565
 All large deviations has been justified accordingly,300%
Too high variance % for mass balance calculation (eg. deviation is due to error in variation in software calculation,
Dr. Yeap Swee For Ring-Opening reactor). Explain why there is such a superpro were unable to remain compounds as it is, unreacted
Pin huge variance in this reactor and find alternative to solve substances are broken down to pure species and hence creating
it. large variance. Calculations are done as justification in Chapter
2.6 at pg183.
Flash distillation (in simulation) might not be a right
device to represent your vacuum dryer (in manual
calculation). This is because the deviation is too high ~
Dr. Yeap Swee 94%. If not able to find another device in simulator, that 100% deviation is due to error in calculation and is not updated.
Pin I would suggest your team to remain with flash Calculations are done as justification in Chapter 2.6 at pg181
distillation. Meanwhile, change all your manual and pg182.
calculation to flash distillation also so that it is aligned
with your simulator.
There is no upper limit on a “percent error”. There is only the
necessary engineer's judgment on whether the data is refers to
can be useful or not. It is generally taken that the acceptable
percentage error differs based on the project or research sector.
Definitely the lower the percentage, the better the result but in
Dr. Yeap Swee Justify why 20 % error percentage is considered
many cases, it is considered that <10% is very good, 10%-20%
Pin acceptable. Shall there any
is good, 20%-30% is acceptable, and >30% is not acceptable.
As for this production project, we fixed the percentage error
should be lower than 20% but eventually higher percentage
error were obtained for some calculations due to undesirable
factors.
At page 329, the treatment process for HCL is shown before
Dr. Yeap Swee Revise wastewater treatment part (no need to recover releasing it to the environment. Whereas, at page 335, sodium
Pin HCL and sodium bicarbonate, just treat them will do) bicarbonate is treated under wastewater treatment. Both sodium
bicarbonate and HCL is not recovered.
Dr. Yeap Swee Chapter 4 is too poor. Need proper revision on it. In The whole Chapter 4 was amended. At page 326, the whole
Pin particular, it was generally written without properly waste stream of the production plant as well as the mass flow

566
 linked to the exact wastes that produced by your rate is stated. Then, at page 329 under section 4.3.2
company. Hydrochloric Acid, waste treatment process of HCL is stated.
Chapter [Link] (page 325) onwards are too general. It is
kind of general knowledge about waste treatment At page 332 under section 4.3.3 Glycerol, the waste
process. Your team shall properly link it to the types of management of glycerol and recycling of it is shown. Besides,
Dr. Yeap Swee wastes generated from your company. For example, in at page 333 under section 4.3.4 Boron Trifluoride Etherate
Pin page 326, your team mentioned about grit removal, Complex, the application of spent catalyst is shown. The rest of
grease removal, and etc. My concern is are these (ie. the waste streams are directed into wastewater treatment as
Grit, grease) the types of wastes that being generated by shown in page 335.
your company?
This section was amended and replaced with wastewater
Page 326, your team mentioned to use coagulation and
treatment by undergo primary and secondary process.
flocculation to remove dissolved organic matters and
Suspended solids such as sodium bicarbonate that generated
Dr. Yeap Swee colloidal substances. State out what are the dissolved
from the neutralization reaction are being removed. The
Pin organic matters and colloidal substances that being
wastewater that contained oil and salt which consist of organic
released from your company. At which reaction do these
toxic waste will be furthur treated before release to the
pollutants being generated?
environment.
Dr. Yeap Swee
Page 319, why there is biodiesel removal? The section on biodiesel removal was removed.
Pin
Dr. Yeap Swee Table 4.1 Provide the mass flow rate (kg/hr) of each type At page 326, the mass flow ratwe of the waste generated from
Pin of wastes released by your company. the production plant is stated.
Dr. Yeap Swee
Table 3.6, what is the unit for energy recovery? kW? At pg.289, the unit of energy recovery has been added.
Pin
Dr. Yeap Swee State how much of energy that successfully save upon
At pg. 291, the total energy saved was stated.
Pin the heat integration.
The figure shown is only for example and understanding for the
Figure 3.1, what is the purpose of having this figure in
Dr. Yeap Swee nature of the chemical process design by indicating it as a
your report? It was not discussed in your main text
Pin model which emphasies the sequential of the process flowsheet
either.
synthesis.
Dr. Yeap Swee Page 286, your team mentioned that “The existing
Resolved
Pin deviations in manual material balance calculation are

567
 brought forward to the energy balance manual
calculation”. In that case, extra effort shall be allocated
on mass balance calculation to avoid such a high
deviation.
The data used in manual calculation is more accurate since the
Page 286, your team mentioned that “The
data was taken from recent studies and sources. The database of
thermodynamic data used for the manual calculation
the simulator consist of general and common chemicals
might be different from the database of simulator”. Thus,
informations but for our production we had substances such as
Dr. Yeap Swee which one is more accurate? The data used for manual
tranesterified palm olien and epoxidized palm olein. Since the
Pin calculation or the data used for simulation? This
database of the similator lacks of data for unique substance and
discrepancy needs to be solved so that your simulation
it might used average values. But for manual calculation, each
and optimization outcome can be more representative to
of the information was carefully taken from journals and
your plant operation.
trustable sources.
Page 286, your team stated that “In manual energy
balance calculation, the process is assumed to be in ideal That factor is the one of the possibilities for the deviation. It
case. Some of minor changes in pressure and temperature may affect the calculation in minor changes. Higher posibilities
Dr. Yeap Swee are neglected. Thus, these may cause deviation between that caused high deviation could be the thermodynamic data
Pin manual calculation and SuperPro….”. However, I don’t used for the calculation. Besides, existing deviation was carried
think the minor changes will lead to such a high forward to following calcuation and that might also affect the
deviation (> 70%). If it is so, then all simulator no longer variance percentage.
serve its purpose.
Based on the discussion, as for energy balance, we have
Page 284, your team calculated the error by taking
decided that manual calculation is more accurate since the
simulated data as the reference value. Why the simulated
thermodynamic data used in the calculation is from the recent
Dr. Yeap Swee value being used as reference? Normally we use the
[Link], the reference value will be manual calcuated
Pin value which we agree is more near to the real case as the
value and the formula will be Percentage error = |Manual
reference value. Percentage error = |Manual
Calculation−Simulated Value|Manual Calculated Value 𝑋
Calculation−Simulated Value|Simulated Value 𝑋 100%
100%
Consistent all the calculation units, sometimes your team
Dr. Yeap Swee
reported the data in kg/hr, sometimes in kg/year. Try to Units are amended accordingly
Pin
synchronize everything if possible.

568
 At page 181, discussion on furnace is there as we compared
Chapter [Link] Furnace. Your team do discuss about electric heater, furnace, water tube boiler to select the most
Dr. Yeap Swee
furnace in page 164, however, where did this unit suitable heating element for our plant. Based on the
Pin
operation located in your pfd? comparison, water tube boiler is selected as the heating
equipment.
The propeller mixer contains a compartment called draft tubes
where inside it contains the blades of the mixer. Draft tubes are
employed to improve the mixing of large quantities of liquids
by directing the motion of the liquid. In such applications, a
high pumping capacity of the mixer is used, especially where
Chapter [Link] Propeller Mixer. Your team stated that
mixtures of low viscosity are concerned. The draft tube directs
Dr. Yeap Swee one of the advantages of this device is its great pumping
the flow to the regions of the vessel (or tank) that otherwise
Pin effect. Elaborate what is great pumping effect. Also, how
would not be agitated by the liquid stream. In the absence of
does this pumping effect helps in your production?
draft tubes and at high rotational velocities of the propeller,
baffles are generally located at various points in the vessel or
tank. Baffles minimize vortex formation and divide it into a
number of local eddies, increasing the total turbulence of the
tank or vessel which is unfavourable for this production.
Dr. Yeap Swee Chapter 2.2.3, shall it be “separation process” instead of
Amended accordingly
Pin “separation synthesis”?
Dr. Yeap Swee
The plant layout is good. Fig 1.37 Noted
Pin

569