LIQUID STATE

By
Dr. Jyoti Chandra
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
Email ID- jyotic09@[Link]
Code: CHE GE404

Patna Women’s College

Patna University
CLASSIFICATION OF STATE OF MATTER
Matter can be classified on the basis of two states:
1) Physical state
2) Chemical state

On the basis of Physical state, matter can be classified into three groups:
a) Solids
b) Liquids
c) Gases

On the basis of Chemical state, matter can be classified into three groups:
a) Elements
b) Compounds
c) Mixtures
CLASSIFICATION OF STATE OF MATTER
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID

 IN SOLIDS, the particles are closely packed. There is a strong force of attraction
between the particles of a solid so that particles cannot move freely but can only
vibrates. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume.
The particles of a solid have the minimum kinetic energy. due to this, solids have
the most orderly arrangement of particles. Solids can be transformed into liquids
by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also
change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can
likewise change directly into solids through deposition.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID

 IN LIQUID, the particles are close together, but they are not as close as in solids. In fact,
the particles are somewhat loosely packed in liquids. The inter particular space in liquids is
more than in solids but still very small. The force of attraction between the particles of a
liquid is strong. It can keep the particles together but the force is not strong enough to keep
the particles in fixed positions. The particles of a liquid can move from one position to
another within the liquid. the particles of a liquid have more kinetic energy than the
particles of a solid. due to this, the liquids have a more disorderly arrangement of particles
than solids.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES

 IN GASES, the particles are much farther apart from one another as compared to solids
and liquids. There are no force of attractions between the molecules due to the large
distance between the molecules. The particles of a gas move with high speeds in all
directions. The positions and spaces between the particles of a gas are not fixed. When
the fast moving gas particles hit the walls of the container, they exert pressure by a gas is
due to the collisions of the fast moving gas particles against the walls of the container.
When a gas is put in an empty container, it quickly spreads throughout container and fills it
completely. Ifa gas is heated, the particles of gas start moving faster and faster.
 LIQUID STATES
Liquids and Gases both are termed as fluids. But at the molecular level, a liquid is different
from a gas. From forces of attraction to the effects of physical properties, liquids show
different properties and behavior. Here we learn the microscopic and macroscopic
behavior of a liquid state.

 Volume & Shape: The particles in a liquid are attracted to each other. This keeps the
particles close together and take the shape of container in which they are kept. That
is why liquids have a definite volume.

 Compressibility: Liquids are largely incompressible. It is because there is very little

empty space between the molecules. In contrast, the gases are highly compressible
because of large empty spaces between their molecules.
 Diffusion: Diffusion is the process of spreading of a substance from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is more in liquid.

 Evaporation: Evaporation is the process by which a liquid changes into vapour. In a

liquid, at any temperature, a small fraction of the molecules is moving with relatively high
velocity. Such molecules have high kinetic energy. These can overcome the intermolecular
attractive forces and escape through the surface of the liquid

 Vapour pressure: When a liquid is filled in a container, its walls are occupied by the vapors
from that liquid. Liquids show the unique property of turning into vapors, as soon as the
temperature rises. Generally, vapors from the aqueous substance occupy the walls of the
unfilled part of the container and exert a pressure on the walls of that container, this pressure
is called the vapor pressure. Initially, the vapor pressure increases but after some time it
becomes constant. Gradually, an equilibrium between the liquid phase and the vapor phase is
established.
 The vapor pressure at the point of equilibrium is known as the equilibrium vapour pressure
or saturated vapour pressure. The whole phenomenon of vapour formation depends on
the temperature and hence tends to increase with the increasing temperature.
Vapour pressure ∞ temperature

Heat of vapourization: The quantity of heat which has to supplied to a liquid at its boiling
point so as to change it into vapour state at same temperature is heat of vapourization.

 Trouton’s Rule
This rule is used to estimate the Heat of vapourization of liquids whose boiling points are
known.
 Rule is given by the name of Frederick Thomas Trouton.
 The ratio of molar heat of vapourization of liquid and the normal boiling point of liquid is
Trouton’s rule.
 The molar heat of vapourization is expressed in Joules per mole (J/mol).
 The boiling point is expressed in Kelvin (K).
 Mathematically, it can be expressed as:- Hvap / Tb ~ 88 J/mol/K
 SURFACE TENSION: The intermolecular force between the molecules on the surface is
exerted perpendicularly downwards is surface tension of the liquid. The surface tension of
a liquid depends on the intermolecular forces directly, greater the force higher is the
surface tension.
Water has a higher surface tension (72.8 milli newtons per meter at 20 °C)
compared to that of most other liquids due to high attraction of water molecules for each
other through a web of hydrogen bonds.
 The molecules at the surface do not have any neighbor molecules (compared to interior
molecules) on all sides of them and therefore have higher energy and are pulled inward.
 The minimized number of boundary molecules results in a minimal surface area. As a
result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape.
 The molecules in the interior have many neighbor molecules and therefore have lower
energy.
 The energy supplied (or work done) for increasing the surface area of a liquid by a unit
amount is known as its surface energy.
 The unit for surface tension is joule per square metre (J m–2 or N m–1) and it is denoted
by γ.

Effect of Adding Solutes on Surface Tension

 The concentration of solutes is more on the surface of the liquid than in the bulk. Their
addition to a liquid lowers the surface tension.

Surface Tension ∞ 1/Solute

 Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension

 On heating, the liquids expand. This increases the intermolecular distances.

 On heating, the average kinetic energy of molecules and hence their chaotic motion
increases.
Due to both of these factors, the intermolecular forces become weak and the
surface tension decreases.
Surface Tension ∞ 1/temperature

Effects of Surface Tension on:

(i) Spherical Shape of liquid drops

• Due to the surface tension, liquids have a natural tendency to acquire the least surface
area and form spherical drops, when no external force acts on them.
• Droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive force of the
surface layer.
(ii) Capillary Action
 When one end of a capillary tube is dipped in water, it rises in the capillary (a). On the
other hand when one end of a capillary tube is dipped in mercury, its level falls in the
capillary (b). The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary is known as capillary
action.
 Capillary action occurs when the adhesion to the walls is stronger than the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules.
 The rise of water in the glass capillary (a) is due to more adhesive forces than cohesive
forces. Water tends to increase the area of contact with glass wall of the capillary by rising in
it. The fall of mercury in the glass capillary (b) is due to more cohesive forces than adhesive
forces . Mercury tends to minimise the area of contact by depressing inside the capillary.
(iii) Wetting and Non-wetting properties
 When a drop of liquid is placed on a solid surface, the force of gravity should cause it
to spread out and form a thin layer . Such a liquid is called a wetting liquid.
 When a drop of mercury is placed on the surface of glass, it does not spread out. Such
liquids are called non-wetting liquids.
 If adhesive forces are stronger than cohesive forces, the liquid would be wetting in nature
and when cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive forces it would be non-wetting in
nature on the surface of a particular solid. The intermolecular attractive forces between
molecules of a liquid are called cohesive force while those between the molecules of the
liquid and the solid (whose surface is in contact with the liquid) are called adhesive forces.

Fig: Wetting and non-wetting liquids on the surface of a solid.

 VISCOSITY:
 Every liquid has the ability to flow. It is due to the fact that molecules in a liquid move freely
within a limited space. Water flows down a hill under gravitational force or through pipes when
forced by a pump. Some external force is always required for a liquid to flow. Some liquids like
glycerol or honey flow slowly while others like water and alcohol flow rapidly. This difference is
due to the internal resistance of liquid to flow which is called viscosity.
 The liquids with higher viscosity flow slowly and are more viscous in nature like glycerol or
honey. Water and alcohol have lower viscosity and are less viscous in nature. They flow more
rapidly.
 The viscosity is related to the intermolecular forces. Stronger the intermolecular forces more
viscous are the liquids.

Let us understand this with the help of Figure. When a liquid flows steadily, it flows in
different layers with one layer sliding over the other. Such a flow is known as laminar flow.
Consider a liquid flowing steadily on a plane surface. The layer closest to it is almost
stationary due to adhesive forces. As the distance of the layer from the surface increases, is
velocity increases. Thus different layers move with different velocities. Due to
intermolecular forces (cohesive forces) each layer experiences a force of friction from its
adjacent layers. This force of friction, f between two layers depends upon:
(i) area of contact between them (A).
(ii) distance between the layers, dx.
(iii) difference in velocity between the layers, du.
These quantities are related as : f = η A. du/dx

Fig. : Flow of different layers of a liquid

Here η (Greek letter ‘eeta’) is called the coefficient of viscosity and du/dx is the velocity
gradient between the layers.
If A = 1 cm2, du = 1 cm s–1 and dx = 1 cm, then
f=η
Thus, coefficient of viscosity is the force of friction between two parallel layer of the
liquid which have 1cm2 area of contact, are separated by 1cm and have a velocity
difference of 1cm s–1. It may be noted that f is also equal to the external force which is
required to overcome the force of friction and maintain the steady flow between two
parallel layers having (A) area of contact, and which are (dx) distance apart and moving
with a velocity difference of du.

UNIT
CGS unit of viscosity is dyne cm–2 s. This unit is also known as poise (P). The SI unit of
viscosity is N m–2s or Pas. The two units are related as :
1 Pas = 10 P
 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

 On heating, viscosity of liquid decreases. This is due to decrease in intermolecular

forces (increases the intermolecular distances).
 Due to this factors, the intermolecular forces become weak and the viscosity of liquid
decreases.
viscosity ∞ 1/temperature

TEMPERATURE VARIATION OF VISCOSITY OF LIQUIDS AND COMPARISON

WITH THAT OF GASES.

In case of Liquid
As we know that liquid molecules are bonded with each other due to more cohesive forces
between the molecules. Increase of temperature breaks this cohesive forces. This implies that
the forces of attraction between the molecules get reduced. Thus viscosity of liquid decreases
with increase of temperature.
 viscosity ∞ 1/temperature

Fig.: Cohesive force bind the liquid molecules together

In case of Gas
With increase of temperature, average kinetic energy increases between the gaseous
molecules. As a result, they start colliding with each other. As the collision become more
frequent then the molecular momentum transfer increases. This implies that the forces of
attraction between the molecules get increased. Thus viscosity of gas increases with increase
of temperature.

viscosity ∞ temperature

Fig.: Arrangement of gaseous molecules

 CLEANSING ACTION OF DETERGENTS
Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water. The molecule of
detergent constitutes of a hydrophilic sulfonate head-group and a hydrophobic alkyl
benzene tail-group.
In the case of detergent, the alkyl benzene is hydrophobic which dissolves in oil and the
ionic sulfonate is hydrophilic which dissolves in water.

Thus the detergent molecules form structures called micelles. In micelles, one end i.e.
alkyl benzene is towards the oil droplet and the other end i.e. sulfonate which is the
ionic faces outside. Therefore, ionic part forms an emulsion in water and helps in
dissolving the dirt when we wash our clothes.
Micelle formation

In water, the detergent molecule is uniquely oriented which helps to keep the hydrocarbon
part outside the water. When the clusters of molecules are formed then hydrophobic tail
comes at the interior of the cluster and the ionic end comes at the surface of the cluster and
this formation is called a micelle. When the detergent is in the form of micelles then it has
the ability to clean the oily dirt which gets accumulated at the center. Therefore the dirt from
the cloth is easily washed away.